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Synthesizers A Brief Introduction
Synthesizers A Brief Introduction
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David Martinez-Zorrilla
Universitat Oberta de Catalunya
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Synthesizers: A Brief Introduction
TABLE OF CONTENTS
0. Introduction 5
1. Sound 7
2. What is a synthesizer? 9
3. Some kinds of synthesizers 11
4. Types of synthesis 15
4.1. Subtractive synthesis 15
4.1.1. Sophistications of the model 25
4.2. Additive synthesis 29
4.3. Frequency Modulation synthesis 30
4.4. Wavetable synthesis 33
4.5. Physical modelling synthesis 36
5. Some prominent models 39
5.1. The Minimoog (Moog Music, 1970) 39
5.2. The Prophet 5 (Sequential Circuits, 1978) 41
5.3. The DX-7 (Yamaha, 1983) 43
5.4. The D-50 (Roland, 1987) 46
5.5. The M1 (Korg, 1988) 48
5.6. The VL-1 (Yamaha, 1994) 50
5.7. The Fantom-X (Roland, 2004) 52
5.8. A special case: the SID (1981) 55
6. Bibliography 57
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Synthesizers: A Brief Introduction
0. INTRODUCTION
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Synthesizers: A Brief Introduction
1. SOUND
From the physical point of view, the sound is a vibration of the air
(there’s no sound in space or in vacuum) of a certain sort which makes
that, when in contact with our audition system, it can be perceived by
the brain as an audible signal (what we usually call “a sound” or “a
noise”). Not every air vibration gives rise to a sound perception, due to
limitations of the human ear, which make certain vibrations to be
inaudible (for instance, those that are beyond the limits of audible
frequencies, or those that are too weak to be perceived).
1) The frequency (or pitch) of the sound is, as its name suggests, the
time lapse between the cyclical vibrations of the sound waves. Those
vibrations are measured in cycles per second, which are technically
called hertz (Hz). A hertz corresponds to a single cycle (vibration) per
second. The frequency or speed of the vibrations is what allows us to
classify different sounds as higher or lower-pitched, according to higher
or lower frequencies: as the frequency raises, the sound becomes more
high-pitched, and vice versa. A person with normal audition capabilities
is able to perceive sounds which are between 20 Hz and 20 KHz
(20,000 Hz), more or less, although the upper limit tends to get lower as
we get old.
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(for a normal human ear), so all audible sounds have a positive value in
decibels. Theoretically, there’s no upper limit, but from 100 dB and up
the sound is perceived as unpleasant, and from 130 dB and up it hurts
and it even can cause injuries.
One aspect that can be quite curious for someone who’s not
familiarized with this, is that if we look at some synths, or at some sound
equipment in general (such as an amplifier), we’ll see that maximum
values are set around 0 dB (or low positive values, such as +3 dB or +6
dB), while the rest are negative values (for instance, -10 dB, -20 dB,
etc.). Those negative values are actually not absolute, but relative to the
original signal (attenuation). Therefore, a value of 0B in an amplifier
does not mean that the signal has an absolute amplitude of 0 dB so it’s
inaudible, but means that its amplitude has not been attenuated with
regard to its original value.
3) The length is the time lapse from the beginning to the end of the
sound. Despite seeming a very simple concept, in many cases it can be
quite problematic to determine the length, because sounds can vary
dynamically in their frequency, amplitude and timbre, hence raising the
doubt whether we’re talking about the same sound or two (or more)
different ones.
4) The timbre is what gives the sound its own unique character, and
allows us to recognize or identify it as, for example, a piano sound (and
not as a violin), or as John’s voice (and not Susan’s). Two or more
sounds can be identical in their frequency, amplitude and length, and
despite this, be clearly distinguishable due to their different timbre. The
timbre of the sound depends of its harmonics or partials. Every sound,
be it natural or artificially produced, and with the exception of a pure
sine wave (which totally lacks harmonics), has, in addition to its
fundamental frequency (for instance, 440.0 Hz in the case of a ‘A’ note),
other frequencies with lower amplitudes (the harmonics). Depending on
the amplitude and the frequencies of the harmonics, the timbre will vary.
Indeed, as it can be mathematically proved by means of Fourier
functions, every sound can be reduced to a combination of sine waves
of different frequency and amplitude (and that’s what is on the basis of
the synthesis process called “additive synthesis”).
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Synthesizers: A Brief Introduction
2. WHAT IS A SYNTHESIZER?
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Synthesizers: A Brief Introduction
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Synthesizers: A Brief Introduction
levels, and so on. The higher the resolution, the greater the fidelity with
regard to the original waveform (the squares of the grid are thinner), and
therefore, the loss is lower. The problem is that as we increase the
resolution, the amount of information to be processed also increases
exponentially, so the calculation power must be also increased to cope
with the signal.
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Synthesizers: A Brief Introduction
4. TYPES OF SYNTHESIS
The Oscillator
1. Sinus
2. Triangle
From the sonical point of view, it’s similar to the sinus wave, but it
has harmonics (although only a few and with low amplitudes), what
makes it a more interesting waveform for subtractive synthesis than the
sinus. Contrary to the latter, there are many models that do include the
triangle waveform.
3. Sawtooth
4. Square
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It’s also very common. The distance (width) between cycles is totally
exact (50-50). The harmonics are similar to the triangle wave, although
of greater amplitude. It makes a sound that resembles the reed
instruments.
5. Pulse
Pulse is similar to the square waveform (in fact, the square is a kind
of a pulse waveform), but with no totally equal cycles (50-50). The kind
of sound generated and its harmonics depend on the pulse width. Some
synthesizers have different fixed pulse widths (for instance, 10%, 25%,
etc.), whereas others have a variable pulse width that can be freely
adjusted by the user, what makes it possible to make PWM (pulse width
modulation), changing the timbre dynamically as the pulse width is
modified.
6. Noise
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Synthesizers: A Brief Introduction
The Filter
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Synthesizers: A Brief Introduction
Also, there are may other kinds of filters than just the low-pass
one, less common but also quite usual among synthesizers. Among the
more common ones, there’s the high-pass filter, which attenuates
frequencies below the cutoff frequency, leaving the higher ones intact;
the band-pass filter, which attenuates both higher and lower
frequencies, leaving only the ones close to the cutoff frequency; and the
notch filter, which attenuates only the frequencies close to the cutoff
frequency. Also, both the band-pass and the notch filter can be obtained
by means of a combination of a low-pass and a high-pass filter.
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The Amplifier
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Synthesizers: A Brief Introduction
The attack is the period between the instant a note is played (for
instance, by pressing a key on a keyboard) and the moment in which
the sound reaches its maximum amplitude. Decay is the period between
the end of the attack and the stabilisation of the amplitude level while
the note is being played (sustain). Sustain is the amplitude level of the
wave while the note lasts, once the attack and the decay periods have
passed. Finally, release is the period between the end of the note (for
example, when the key is released), and silence (zero amplitude).
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In the case of a snare drum, the dynamics would only have the
attack and release portions, very fast in both cases (especially the
attack):
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Although some synthesizer models would fit very well into what
we’ve called “the basic model of subtractive synthesis”, actually most
synths have more powerful or sophisticated synthesis schemes, leading
to greater possibilities and versatility in sound creation. This greater
sophistication responds to two possible (non-exclusory) strategies: a) a
greater number of elements in the synthesis scheme; and b) more
interaction possibilities among the different synthesis elements. We’ll
briefly refer to both aspects.
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Synthesizers: A Brief Introduction
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5) In the last decades, and always in a greater number, it’s usual to add,
as a final stage of the synthesis process, the manipulation of the result
of the synthesis through one or more effects units. Despite that, strictly
speaking, the use of effects is not a part of the synthesis process,
because they are applied after the sound has already been generated,
and just before the audio signal is routed from the synth to the external
amplifier and the speakers, they can greatly affect the final sound
character. Among the most common effects we can find the reverb (an
emulation of the reverberation of the sound waves in a certain space,
such as a room, a concert hall or a cathedral) and the chorus
(multiplication of the signal in slightly different frequencies to create the
illusion of an ensemble, instead of a single instrument). Other quite
common effects are echo or delay, the flanger effect (variable
application of small delays -20 milliseconds or less-, which create a
sensation of “motion”), overdrive, compression, distortion, etc.
Moreover, every effect usually has some configurable settings, for even
more flexibility. In addition, in the case that there are more than one
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effect unit, it’s usual that the user can set the way they are connected
(serial connection, parallel connection, or a combination of both).
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obtain the same sound (although with the limitations of that technology
regarding sound quality, what implies a loss of fidelity when compared
to the original sound source). If, on the other hand, we replay the
recording at different speeds, we can control the pitch (the faster the
speed, the higher the pitch; the slower the speed, the lower the pitch).
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making the sound milder, whereas as intensity gets higher, also does
the cutoff frequency and the sound becomes brighter. Another
technique (not incompatible with the former) is velocity-switching. This
consists is obtaining different samples of the original sound source, at
different intensity (amplitude) levels (for instance, one taken when the
instrument is played piano and the other when it’s played forte), and
using one or the other depending on the intensity at which the synth is
being played: when the intensity is below a certain value, the piano
sample will be used, and for intensities over that value, the forte sample
will be used. The most basic form of velocity-switching is to use only two
different levels, but most current synthesizers can offer three or more
levels, what allows for a more subtle and smooth changes. If we also
add a filter, very smooth and gradual transitions can be achieved,
leading to a final result which is very close to the original acoustic
instrument. The evolution of the prices of memory and technology have
made that synthesizers gradually use more samples, which are also
longer and of better quality, what leads to very remarkable
improvements in realism and sound quality. To use an example, a
modern synth such as the Roland Fantom X (released in 2004) uses, for
the acoustic piano patch, individual simples of each one of the 88 piano
keys at four different levels (piano, mezzoforte, forte and fortissimo),
what makes a grand total of over 700 samples for this single patch.
This, combined with an advanced synthesis structure, makes it hard to
distinguish from the real thing, even for a musician.
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Synthesizers: A Brief Introduction
Fig. 25. The Moog Minimoog, model “D”. Image obtained from Wikipedia
(http://en.wikipedia.org)
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units, which was very relevant considering the age and the situation of
the synthesizer market at that time.
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Synthesizers: A Brief Introduction
The signal mix goes then through a resonant -24 dB/Octave low-
pass filter (VCF), and then to the amplifier (VCA). Both the filter and the
amplifier have their own envelope generators, which the peculiarity that
they are ADSD instead of ADSR, because the “decay” parameter also
controls the release value.
Other remarkable feature is that the third oscillator and the noise
generator can be directed to the oscillator and/or filter inputs. This
allows to use the third oscillator as an LFO, but as it can also produce
frequencies in the audible level (as also can the noise generator), the
Minimoog is able to do, up to some degree, FM synthesis. The
modulation’s amplitude made by the third oscillator or by the noise
generator is controlled by the modulation wheel and the left side of the
keyboard, next to the pitch bend wheel.
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Fig. 26. The Sequential Circuits Prophet 5. Image obtained from Wikipedia
(http://en.wikipedia.org)
Fig. 27. The Yamaha DX-7. Image obtained from Wikipedia (http://en.wikipedia.org)
The Yamaha DX-7 is, as all the other models included here, a
synthesizer that stands out for different reasons. Among them, we can
emphasize that it’s one on the first totally digital synths, that it has a
(then) ample polyphony of 16 voices, that it’s based on an advanced FM
synthesis model as its only sound source, that it was one of the first
models that implemented MIDI (the –then- new standard of
communication between electronic musical instruments, which is still
widely used), and, last but not least, its huge commercial success in the
synthesizer market. Its sound capabilities and the moderate price
(around US$ 2,000) made it an immediate success, and nearly all bands
and musicians who used synthesizers in the mid 80s had one. It’s
estimated that over 300,000 units were sold in total, an astounding
amount in the world of synthesizers. Despite the fact that Yamaha
launched lots of other models based on FM synthesis (among them, the
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rest of the DX series), and many of them were cheaper (as, for instance,
the DX-9, the DX-11, the DX-21, the DX-27 or the DX-100), all of them
were very far from the success of the DX-7, mainly because the more
economic models used a 4-operator FM synthesis scheme, whereas the
DX-7 used a 6-operator scheme, which made the latter a much more
powerful and flexible machine. Yamaha also released two higher
models, the DX-5 and the DX-1, but very few units were sold.
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As already pointed out, the DX-7 was also one of the first
synthesizer models to implement the MIDI interface (although the very
first one was the Sequential Circuits Prophet 600, also from 1983).
‘MIDI’ stands for Musical Instrument Digital Interface, and since its
creation has become the communications standard among electronic
musical instruments. MIDI allows connecting two (or more) instruments
and using one to control the other (for instance, using the keyboard of
the first synth to play the sound of the second synth). It also makes
possible, for example, to use a sequencer or a personal computer
equipped with a MIDI interface to control one or more musical
instruments, determining what notes of what instrument to play and
when to do it (among lots of other parameters). Thanks to MIDI, there
have been lots of synthesizers in rack module format (with no
keyboard), designed mainly to be used in studios and not for live
performances, and that are controlled by other keyboards or by a
computer. But MIDI has gone much further than the realm of
professional synthesizers and nowadays is a common element not only
in home keyboards, but also in some electric guitars and electronic wind
instruments. Nevertheless, the MIDI implementation of the DX-7 is quite
limited, because the synth was released before MIDI specification
standards were completed, and many functions weren’t included (for
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Despite its limitations, the years that have passed and the
evolution of technology, the DX-7 is still quite popular, and it’s a quite
valued model because even today it’s able to produce sounds which are
hard to obtain with other models, and nearly everybody agrees in
considering it as one of the best synthesizers of all time.
In mid 80s, the reign of the Yamaha DX-7 was nearly absolute,
and the rest of manufacturers had to resign with trying to keep a certain
market share. The also Japanese company Roland had obtain a quite
relevant market niche at late 70s, but it wasn’t until 1987 when they
could put an end to the absolute hegemony of the DX-7. The
synthesizer model was the D-50, which began a whole line of synths
(the D series, with other models such as the D-5, D-10, D-20 or MT-32),
based on a kind of synthesis called by Roland as L/A (Linear Arithmetic
Synthesis), which, as we’ll see, combines digital subtractive synthesis
with the (then) new wavetable synthesis. Other remarkable novelty
incorporated by the D-50 was the inclusion of an effects unit which
allowed adding some effects to the synthesized sound such as
reverberation, chorus or equalization, hence creating a more “refined”
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Synthesizers: A Brief Introduction
At that time, the price of memory was very high, what made that,
in order to keep prices at a reasonable level, there were only a small
number of samples, which, in general, were not very long or of a very
high quality (more sampling quality means more memory use). The D-
50 had only 256 kilobytes of sample memory, a very modest amount for
today’s standards, when we’re used to talk of hundreds of megabytes or
even gigabytes. In its memory, 100 different samples were stored, most
of them quite short and not very high-quality. However, the final results
were quite good, and the emulations quite convincing. To achieve that,
Roland engineers used an imaginative strategy. Studies in
psychoacoustics showed that, in our sound perception, the first parts of
a sound (the attack, and sometimes the decay) are the most relevant in
the recognition of a certain timbrical texture (our ability to recognize a
sound as a piano or as a guitar, for example). With that principle in
mind, most sampled sounds contained only the attack portion (or they
are percussive sounds, with short length), and the rest of the sound was
produced through the subtractive synthesis of simple waveforms.
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The D-50 had a considerable success and began to trace out the
route of the majority trend of synthesizers up to today, which is the
integration of subtractive and wavetable synthesis. Strictly speaking,
there’s no true integration of both schemes in the D-50, but more of a
juxtaposition of them, but soon after that integration happened. In later
models, instead of having sample waveform oscillators, what he have is
a memory bank with hundreds or even thousands different waveforms,
which include both simples of “real” sounds and instruments and the
classic simple waveforms, which are then processed following the
subtractive synthesis scheme, using filters, envelopes, LFOs and so on.
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Synthesizers: A Brief Introduction
(with no resonance), and then by the amplifier. Each one of these basic
blocks (wave, filter and amplifier) has its own envelope generator.
Nevertheless, there are no LFOs, and oscillators cannot be ring-
modulated. Finally, the signal is processed by up to two effects units,
which can operate in serial connection (the second unit processes the
signal already processed by the first unit), or in parallel (both units
simultaneously process the original signal).
Fig. 31. The Yamaha VL-1. Image obtained from http:// www.zikinf.com
There are several parallelisms between this model and the DX-7:
in both cases, the used technology was based on a research developed
at the Stanford University (from which Yamaha acquired the exclusive
license of the patents), and both represented a very significant leap
compared with the synthesis schemes of previous synthesizer models.
The main difference, nevertheless, was the market’s response: contrary
to the DX-7, the VL-1 wasn’t very commercially successful, partly due to
its high price (when it was released it was nearly US$ 10,000).
This model was the irruption in the synth market of a new, though
longly awaited (because, until then, costs and processing power were
too high to be commercially exploited), synthesis model: the physical
modelling synthesis. As seen before, this kind of synthesis is based on
mathematical models that simulate the behaviour of the sound waves
depending on the different aspects of an instrument, such as the shape,
dimensions, materials, playing pressure or strength, etc. A computer
processes all those variables and generates the waveform in real time.
The result is a very realistic and expressive sound, which exceeds
whatever other, even the most sophisticated, wavetable synthesis
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means that, when fully expanded, the synthesizer can store up to 928
Mb (1,040 Mb in the Fantom XR) of samples.
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Finally, there are also effects units to process the sound, once
it’s been synthesized. There are a total of 7 units, each one with several
effect types and possible configurations: reverb, chorus/delay, three
multieffects units (78 types each), mastering (compressor) and one
effects unit for the incoming signal of the sampler (an effect is applied to
the incoming signal).
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Fig. 34. The MOS Technology 6581, usually known as SID (Sound Interface Device).
Image obtained from Wikipedia (http://en.wikipedia.org).
The SID (which stands for Sound Interface Device) is the familiar
name of MOS Technology’s (semiconductor company which was owned
by the Commodore Business Machines group) 6581 chip. It’s basically a
synthesizer on a chip conceived to be used in personal computers and
videogame consoles, but for different reasons it has earned a relevant
place in the history of both computers and synthesizers.
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The specs of the SID are quite amazing, considering the time,
the circumstances of its creation and the fact of being a low cost chip
targeted to home computing appliances. It has three different oscillators
with independent frequency and amplitude, which can operate in
monophonic or polyphonic modes (as three different voices), with four
different waveforms: triangle, sawtooth, variable width pulse and noise,
which can produce frequencies in the range of 8 different octaves. It has
-12 dB/octave resonant low-pass, high-pass and band-pass filters, ring
modulation, oscillator syncing, four independent LFOs (with triangle,
sawtooth, ramp, square, random and flan waveforms), and three ADSR
envelopes (one for each independent amplifier). Moreover, it has a
signal input line which allows using the filters to process the incoming
signal.
Still today, the SID still benefits from some popularity both in the
computer and the synthesizer worlds, and quite relevant amounts of
money are paid for the chips themselves and for the musical devices
which use them, given that production ceased long ago and no
substitutes or equivalent versions have been created. Besides the fact
that the “cult” to the SID is nowadays, in a great amount, a matter of
fashion and of “freaky” ambient, it has to be acknowledged that it was
clearly some steps forward when compared to other computer sound
chips of its time and that it marked the path for forthcoming products.
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6. BIBLIOGRAPHY
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