Scientific African 12 (2021) e00783

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Scientific African
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/sciaf

Impacts of trees species and functional traits on birds

visitation in a Nigerian montane forest: Implications for
conservation
Trees Functional Traits and Birds Visitation
Toma Buba∗, Ridwan Muhammad Jaafar
Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, Abubakar Tafawa Balewa University, P.M. B 0248, Bauchi, Nigeria

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Birds provide ecosystem services that play crucial role in maintaining forest ecosystems.
Received 18 September 2020 However, the knowledge of the relationship between different bird assemblages and dif-
Revised 15 April 2021
ferent forest types is still scanty. We analyzed the impacts of different tree species of
Accepted 2 May 2021
different functional traits on visitation preferences by birds in Ngel Nyaki Forest Reserve,
Nigeria (7°30 N, 11°30 E). We monitored visitation of different bird species to trees using
Edited by: Dr B. Gyampoh the point-count method. A total of 32 bird species were recorded. Must of bird species (28
species) were insectivores, while four species are frugivores. The rate of visitation of differ-
Keywords:
ent bird species differs significantly among the different tree species. Correlation analyses
Conservation
showed that the frequency of birds’ visits depend on abundance of individuals of a tree
Birds
Montane species. However, some of the tree species are more frequently visited by different species
Nigerian of birds, while other trees are peculiar in terms of visitation preferences by some of the
Traits bird species. More important tree species as the frequency of birds’ visitation is concern
Trees include M. lanceolata (205), P. fulva (134), and B. speciosa (113). Trees that were visited
by the highest number of species of birds include B. speciosa (28), M. lanceolata (20), and
T. aurentalis (19). There was also a positive effect of trees’ functional traits on the total
number of birds’ visits, but there was no correlation between the trees’ functional traits
with the abundance of individual bird species visitation. We hypothesized that small mor-
phological differences among trees will have no impact on bird’s visitation as found in this
study. These results and interpretations have implications for sustainable management and
conservation of montane forest and possibly elsewhere.
© 2021 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of African Institute of
Mathematical Sciences / Next Einstein Initiative.
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)

Introduction

Birds provide ecosystem services such as pollination, pest control, and dropping of seed and dispersal which in turn bring
about seedling recruitment and forest regeneration [6,24,30]. Thus, frugivore birds play a crucial role in natural tropical

∗
Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: tomabuba@gmail.com (T. Buba), ridwanjafar2@gmail.com (R.M. Jaafar).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sciaf.2021.e00783
2468-2276/© 2021 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of African Institute of Mathematical Sciences / Next Einstein Initiative. This is an
open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)
T. Buba and R.M. Jaafar Scientific African 12 (2021) e00783

forest restoration. It is estimated that 60–90% of tree species in tropical forests have fruits and seeds adapted for dispersal
by birds. Birds are responsible for the presence of forest seeds and seedlings below trees in regenerating grasslands [33,34].
The trees attract birds by providing food resources, and sites for roosting and nesting. The attractiveness of the different
tree species depends on their characteristics such as crown size, and branch density that are used as perching and nesting
sites by the birds. It has been shown that more canopy cover provides more insect prey, hence more bird density [31,32].
Different tree species host variable insect assemblages and fruits which are the sources of food for the birds; and preference
for visitation and the proportion of time spent in each tree species may be related to the availability of these food resources
[16,26]. According to optimal foraging theory, each bird species develops unique ecomorphological adaptations so that they
preferentially use the most energy-efficient foraging strategy in relation to foraging substrate (leaf and tree characteristics)
and duration of food searching [10,16]. The distribution and abundance of the bird species depend on foraging preferences
for the tree species, which is determined by morphological and behavioral adaptations of each bird species for food pro-
curement and differences in their prey abundance among the tree species [11]. Since different tree species provide different
food items, microhabitats, placement of nests, and shelter from predators, different assemblages of birds will thus be found
among different assemblages of trees [17,20,27].
Scientifically synthesized knowledge of birds-forests interactions is widely used for creating habitat indices to follow up
the quality of many vegetation types and to closely monitor the effects of their management, which are well applicable
for the conservation of forest biodiversity [11,13]. However, there is still inadequate knowledge of the relationship between
different bird assemblages and different forest types, especially concerning different geographical and climatic gradients in
some parts of the world. This hinders unified universal theories about the impact of forests’ structures and compositions on
birds’ assemblages and vice-versa. To fill in this gap, we analyzed trees’ visitation preferences by birds in Ingel Nyaki Forest
Reserve, Nigeria. The abundance, distribution, and comparison of woody species diversity in the study area were established
[21]. Also, a study on the preferred fruiting food plants of one of the bird species (turacos) was conducted in the Ngel Nyaki
montane forest [3]. In this study we went further to established the relationship between trees species and their variable
functional traits on the birds’ choice of trees for visitation, taking into account the whole birds’ assemblage in this forest.
We hypothesized that functional traits of trees such as height, crown width, and crown density will positively influence
birds’ choice of tree for visitation, which may depend on the bird species.

Methodology

Study area

The Ngel Nyaki Forest Reserve is situated at latitude 7°30 N and longitude 11°30 E, between 1400 and 1600 m eleva-
tions above sea level on the western escarpment of the Mambilla Plateau, on the Nigerian-Cameroon border (Fig. 1). The
forest reserve is approximately 46 km2 in area, 7.2 km2 , which comprises one of the most floristically diverse submontane
– montane forests. It is rich in endangered, endemic, or near-endemic plant species that are rarely seen elsewhere. These
include Anthonotha nolddii, Apodytes dimidiate, Entandrophragma angolense, Lovoa trichilioides, Millettia conraui, Pouteria al-
tissima, and Pterygota mildbraedii [5,7,9,15]. The most dominant tree species are Poulteria altissima, Polyscias fulva, Carapa
grandiflora, and Entandrophragma angolense; while the floor is dominated by grass and herbs species such as Aspilia africana,
Panicum anaximum, and Imperata cylindrica [1,25]. The mean annual rainfall is approximately 1800 mm, most of which is
confined between mid-April and mid-October [12]. Ngel Nyaki forest is also a biodiversity hotspot and rich in diverse assem-
blages of mammals and avifauna which are very important seed dispersers. Despite the major threat to its flora and fauna
by human encroachments through cattle grazing, hunting, burning, and selective logging of trees for firewood and fence
posts, the forest reserve is described as an Important Bird and Biodiversity Area by Birdlife International. This is because of
its restricted range of bird species such as the Bannerman’s weaver (Ploceus bannermani) and the Yellow-breasted boubou
(Laniarius atroflavus) [19].

Data collection

Bird observation
This study was conducted towards the end of the rainy season, starting from the end of September to the middle of
November 2016. However, there is no information on the vegetation phenology, breeding/post-breeding seasons for birds in
this area. The point-count method was used to monitor bird activity [4] from 6:30 to 8:30 am. This period is the peak of
bird activity during the day because of little or no rain and minimal mist. We made observations from different randomly
selected points, at least 50 m apart. Ten minutes were spent at each point recording birds sighted within 25 m of the point.
Only the first sighting of each bird was recorded to avoid double counting. The number of individuals and species of birds,
tree height, crown width, and crown density were recorded for each sighting.
Birds not readily identified were verified using the Birds of Western Africa Field Guide [35]. Insectivorous and frugivorous
birds were also identified as reported by Greig-Smith [14].

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Fig. 1. Map of Ngel Nyaki forest reserve showing the study area in red.

Data analysis

Data collected from point-count observation were compiled and their frequency of visit was analyzed using Microsoft
Excel (2013). Cluster and correlation analyses on continuous data were carried out using MINIITAB® Inc., version 18. Cor-
relation analyses showed the relationship between the abundance of the individual trees and the abundance of individual
birds and the number of bird species. The Cluster analysis was used to partition the tree species into 4 groups based on the
frequency of different species of birds’ visitations. Non-Metric Multidimensional Scaling (NMDS) analysis was carried out
in XLSTAT 2015 to show relationships among the different tree species with regard to visitation by different bird species.
Analysis of variance (ANOVA) followed by Turkey multiple pairwise-comparisons was used to determine the differences in
means of an abundance of birds across different tree functional traits using R 3.3.2 [23].

Results

Composition of birds species in the Ngel Nyaki forest reserve

A total of 753 observations were made and 948 individuals belonging to 32 species visit to trees were recorded at the
study site during this study (Table 1). A greater number of the bird species were insectivores (28 species) making up of the
birds. Four species (12.5%) are frugivores.

Effects of different tree species on different birds species visitation preference

Birds were sighted on 28 different tree species (Table 2A), but the number of individual trees utilized by the birds
differed among the different tree species.

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Table 1
Number of bird species and their frequency of visit.

Bird species Scientific (Latin) name No. of individuals Percentage (%)

Speckled-mouse bird Colius striatus 123 12.13∗ ∗

Variable sunbird Cinnyris venustus 109 11.50∗
Common bulbul Pycnonotus barbatus 87 9.18∗ ∗
Red-eyed dove Streptopelia semitorquata 81 8.54∗ ∗
Village weaver Ploceus cucullatus 75 7.91
Viellot’s black weaver Ploceus nigerrimus 58 6.12
African stonechat Saxicola torquatus 50 5.38∗
Yellow white-eye Zosterops senegalensis 42 4.43∗ ∗
Yellow bishop Euplectes capensis 36 3.80
tropical boubou laniarius major 35 3.69∗
gray-backed camaroptera camaroptera brevicaudata 34 3.59
Bronze mannikin Lonchura cucullata 32 3.38
Baglafecht weaver Ploceus baglafecht 27 2.85
Black-crowned waxbill Estrilda nonnula 27 2.85
Cisticola Zitting cisticola 23 2.43
Lead-coloured flycatcher Myioparus plumbeus 23 2.43∗
African blue flycatcher Elminia longicauda 16 1.19∗
Yellow-throated Longclaw Macronyx croceus 13 1.37∗
Black bea-eater Merops gularis 11 1.16∗
green-headed sunbird Cyanomitra verticalis 11 1.16∗
Bannerman’s weaver Ploceus bannermani 6 0.63
African moustached warbler Acrocephalus melanopogon 5 0.53
Black-crowned tchagra Tchagra senegalus 5 0.53
Unkown 5 0.53
Nacked-faced barbet Gymnobucco calvus 3 0.32
Double-toothed barbet Lybius bidentatus 2 0.21
Dybowski’s twinspot Euschistospiza dybowskii 2 0.21
Senegal coucal Centropus senegalensis 2 0.21
Yellow-mantled widowbird Euplectes macroura 2 0.21
Collared sunbird Hedydipna collaris 1 0.11∗
Northern gray-headed sparrow Passer griseus 1 0.11
Yellow-rumped tinkerbird Pogoniulus bilineatus 1 0.11
Total 948 100

Bird species that are asterisked (∗ ∗ ) are primarily frugivores and those with (∗ ) are Insectivores.

Fig. 2. Correlation analyses for the abundance of the individual tree versus the abundance of individual birds and the number of species.

Trees that were visited by the highest number of species of birds include Bridelia speciosa (21), Maesa lanceolata (20),
and Trema aurentalis (19). Carapa oreophyla, Clausena annisata, Diospyros cameroonensis, and Eugenia gilgii were visited
by only one species of bird. Also, the abundance of individuals of a tree species correlates strongly with the number of
individual birds and species visitation (Fig. 2). However, there were some tree species with high number of individual but
were visited by fewer bird species. For example, Dombeya ledermannii tree with 22 individuals was visited by a total of
15 different bird species; while Polyscias fulva that has 107 individuals were visited by only 10 bird species. Additionally,
Harungana madagascariensis with only 16 individuals was visited by up to 9 bird species.
The result of Cluster Analysis of Variables shows that the tree species can be grouped into 4 distinct categories at a sim-
ilarity of less than 45. This is based on their similarities in the frequency of visitations by different species of birds (Fig. 3).
The number of tree species in each of the 4 groups; 3 (Entada abyssinica, Eucalyptus camendulensis, Eugenia gilgii,); 4 (Cypress

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Fig. 3. Result of Cluster Analysis of Variables showing the final partitioning of the tree species into 4 groups based on the frequency of different species
of birds’ visitations. These groups are indicated by different colors in the figure. Group 1: the orange, blue, and the purple (Carapa oreophyla, Clausena
annisata, Harungana madagascariensis, Newtonia butchananii, Nuxia congesta, Vitex doniana); group 2: brown (Polyscias fulva, Cypress sp., Tarminelia ivorensis,
Trema aurentalis); group 3: green (Albizia gummifera, Anthonotha noldeae, Bridelia speciosa, Canthium vulgare, Croton macrostachy, Diospyros cameroonensis,
Dombeya ledermannii, Eugenia gilgii, Ficus sp., Leea guinensis, Macaranga sp., Maesa lanceolata, Pesi Americana, Polyscias fulva, Prunus Africana, Psorospermum
aurentiacum, Syzygium sp,); and group 4: black (Entada abyssinica, Eucalyptus camendulensis, Eugenia gilgii).

sp., Polyscias fulva,Trema aurentalis, Tarminelia ivorensis,); 6 (Carapa oreophyla, Clausena annisata, Harungana madagascariensis,
Newtonia butchananii, Nuxia congesta, Vitex doniana) and 15, which is made up of the rest of the tree species. Parts of this
distribution as a representation of relationships among the different tree species about visitation by different bird species
are shown in the plot of Non-Metric Multidimensional Scaling (NMDS) analysis using Similarity/Dissimilarity matrices by
Euclidean distance (Fig. 4).

Effect of tree functional characteristics on bird species visit

Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) showed that tree height positively affects the number of individual bird visits (Fig. 5) at a
95% confidence level.
There was also a marginal but significant relationship between tree crown widths and the number of birds visit at a 95%
degree of significance (Fig. 6). The result also revealed a positive significant relationship between crown densities with the
number of birds’ visitation, which demonstrates a strong effect of crown densities in attracting bird species (Fig. 7).
The effects of tree functional traits on birds’ species diversity were also determined. The species diversity indicates but
the species richness (number) and the vitiation frequency of individual bird species. There was a non-significant relation-
ship between the trees’ functional traits (that is, height, crown width and leave density) and the bird diversity at a 95%
confidence level (Fig. 8).
However, correlation analysis on tree height, crown width, and crown density against the abundance of the individual
bird using the raw continuous data, instead of categorized data, showed that there is no correlation between the tree height
and crown width against the abundance of individual birds (Table 3; Fig. 9).

Discussion

The Ngel Nyaki Forest Reserve is inhabited by a wide range of bird species, which were mostly insectivores and fru-
givores. This finding was not unexpected, because it has been widely documented that forests provide a wide range of
suitable habitats for birds, which they use for perching and resting sites; and for foraging ground and escape from predators
[17,26,29].

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Fig. 4. Non-Metric Multidimensional Scaling (NMDS) analysis using Dissimilarity matrices by Euclidean distance. Representation of relationships among
the different tree species about visitation by different bird species.

Fig. 5. Mean number of bird species sighted by tree height.

Effects of different tree species on different birds species visitation preference

The rate of visitation by birds (based on the number of individuals and different species) greatly differs among different
tree species. More important tree species as the frequency of birds’ visitation are concern include B. speciosa, M. lanceo-
lata, and P. fulva. Trees that were visited by the highest number of species of birds include B. speciosa, M. lanceolata, and
T. aurentalis. However, the abundance of individual trees, in terms of number, generally and strongly correlates with the

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Fig. 6. Mean number of Birds species sighted by crown width.

Fig. 7. Mean number of birds sighted by crown density.

Fig. 8. Difference in Mean diversity of bird species by tree height, crown width, and crown density.

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Table 2A
Number of individual birds and species sighted on different species of trees.

Tree Species Common (English) No. Of Average No. Of Bird species involved∗∗ No. of birds No. Of
names Individual Tree Height individual species Frugivores
Trees (m) Birds

Maesa lanceolata False assegai 146 3.2 205 1,2,3,4,5,8,10,12,16,17,18,20, 20 74

22,23,24,25,26,27,28,29,
Polyscias fulva parasol tree 107 3.4 134 2,4,8,10,12,17,20,27,28,29 10 69
Bridelia speciosa 90 3.5 113 1,2,4,5,7,8,9,12,14,15,17,20, 21 28
21,22,23,25,26,27,28,29,32
Entada abyssinica Splinter bean 85 3.7 105 1,3,7,10,11,12,14,16,17,20, 17 31
22,23,25,26,27,28,32
Trema aurentalis Indian charcoal-tree 47 3.6 92 1,2,3,4,9,10,12,15,16,17,20, 19 11
23,24,25,26,27,28,29,32
Psorospermum 36 2.3 46 3,5,7,9,10,12,15,22,24,27,28,29 12 26
aurentiacum
Canthium vulgare narrow-leaved 28 3.4 42 12,17,22,23,24,25,26,29 8 7
canthium
Syzygium sp 25 3.4 35 1,4,12,13,16,17,20,22,23, 13 16
25,26,27,28
Nuxia congesta Brittlewood 15 3.6 33 3,4,9,19,22,25,27,28,29 9 6
Dombeya ledermannii 22 3.6 30 1,3,8,12,15,16,17,20,22,23, 15 9
25,26,28,29,30
Croton macrostachyus Candleflower 17 3.8 23 12,16,20,22,23,25,27,29 8 15
Cypress sp. 16 3.9 23 8,9,12,15,20,21,23,26,27 9 12
Harungana orange-milk tree 16 3.6 22 3,4,6,12,15,20,26,27,28 9 4
madagascariensis
Anthonotha noldeae 14 2.3 20 1,15,16,17,20,25,29 7 11
Albizia gummifera Peacock flower 5 3.5 12 8,16,22 3 2
Eucalyptus river red gum 9 3.6 11 3,7,10,12,22,25 6 5
camendulensis
Ficus sp. 8 3.7 10 3,13,20,24 4 1
Vitex doniana black plum 7 2.7 9 4,8,9,12,27 5 2
Diospyros 4 4 8 22 1 8
cameroonensis
Pesi americana 6 3.6 7 7,15,16,22,25,27 6 2
Newtonia butchananii Forest newtonia 5 4.0 6 6,31 2 00
Tarminelia ivorensis Ivory Coast almond 3 3.3 6 12,20,29 3 6
Leea guinensis Bandicoot Berry 3 2 3 22,26 2 2
Macaranga sp. 3 3.5 3 12,22 2 3
Prunus africana African cherry 2 3.5 3 22,25 2 2
Carapa oreophyla crabwood 1 1 1 1 1 00
Clausena annisata Horsewood 1 3 1 7 1 00
Eugenia gilgii 1 1 1 12 1 00
∗∗
1=African blue flycatcher, 2=African moustached warbler, 3=African stonechat, 4=Baglafecht weaver, 5=Bannerman’s weaver, 6=Black bee-
eater, 7=Black-crowned tchagra, 8=Black-crowned waxbill, 9=Bronze manikin, 10=Cisticola, 11=Collared sunbird, 12=Common bulbul, 13=Double-
toothed barbet, 14=Dybowski’s twinspot, 15=green-headed sunbird, 16=gray-backed camaroptera, 17=Lead-coloured flycatcher, 18=Nacked-faced barbet,
19=Northern gray-headed sparrow, 20=Red-eyed dove, 21=Senegal coucal, 22=Speckled-mouse bird, 23=Tropical boubou, 24=Unkown, 25=Variable sun-
bird, 26=Viellot’s black weaver, 27=Village weaver, 28=Yellow bishop, 29=Yellow white-eye, 30=Yellow-mantled widowbird, 31=Yellow-rumped tinkerbird,
32=Yellow-throated Longclaw.

number of individual birds and species visitation. These suggest that the higher the number of individual trees the higher
the number of individual birds and the number of different species visitation. Also, in some of the tree species, the case
is different from the number of bird species visitation. For example, Dombeya ledermannii with 22 individuals was visited
by a total of 15 different bird species; while Polyscias fulva that has 107 was visited by only 10 bird species. Harungana
madagascariensis with only 16 individuals was visited by up to 9 bird species. Cluster analysis and Non-Metric Multidimen-
sional Scaling (NMDS) analysis also revealed that some of the tree species are peculiar in terms of visitation preferences by
some of the bird species. However, most of these tree species are similar to the frequency of visitations by different bird
species. According to the result of the cluster analysis based on the frequency of visitations by different species of birds,
the tree species are grouped as follows: group 1: Carapa oreophyla, Clausena annisata, Harungana madagascariensis, Newtonia
butchananii, Nuxia congesta, Vitex doniana; group 2: Polyscias fulva, Cypress sp., Tarminelia ivorensis, Trema aurentalis; group
3: Albizia gummifera, Anthonotha noldeae, Bridelia speciosa, Canthium vulgare, Croton macrostachy, Diospyros cameroonensis,
Dombeya ledermannii, Eugenia gilgii, Ficus sp., Leea guinensis, Macaranga sp., Maesa lanceolata, Pesi Americana, Polyscias fulva,
Prunus Africana, Psorospermum aurentiacum, Syzygium sp.; and group 4: Entada abyssinica, Eucalyptus camendulensis, Eugenia
gilgii.
It has long been suggested that tree species influence the behavior of birds [10]. Many experimental studies usually found
strong preferences of bird species visit for particular tree species. These preferences are believed to be driven intrinsically,

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Fig. 9. Scatter plot of correlation analysis on tree height and crown width against the abundance of the individual bird using raw continuous data.

i.e., they are either innate, genetically determined; or a consequence of learning and imprinting [16]. Tree species also
affect the preferences of bird species visitation as they determine the types and availability of food resources; foraging
and nesting sites; protection from predators and extreme environmental factors. The need for these services also differs
among different bird species [2,28]. The visitation by the different bird species depends on foraging preferences for the
tree species, which is determined by morphological and behavioral adaptations of each bird species for procuring food and
differences in prey abundance among the different tree species [11]. Optimal foraging theory suggests that each bird species
develop unique ecomorphological adaptations so that they preferentially use the most energy-efficient foraging strategy
about foraging substrate (leaf and tree characteristics), search, and handling time [10,16]. However, it is observed in this
study that a higher frequency of birds’ visitation on a particular tree species may simply mean that such tree species also
have a higher number of individuals. Hence, a higher frequency of birds’ visitation is based on probability rather than birds’
adaption to that particular tree species because of their peculiar morphological features.

Effect of tree functional characteristics on bird species visit

Analysis of variance on categorized data revealed that tree height, crown densities, and crown width positively affect
the number of birds visit and species diversity. Greater birds’ visitation and species diversity was found to be higher on
individual trees with greater height, crown densities, and crown width as also suggested by other researchers: Wydhayagarn
et al., [31] and Mag and Ódor, [18]. Paradoxically, correlation analysis on raw continuous data, instead of categorized, showed
that there was no correlation between the tree height, crown width, and crown density with the abundance of individual
birds’ visitation. The possible interpretation here is that the trees in the study area (a regenerating open land) were all
at their early stages of growth. Although there were some differences in their height and crown width, such differences
were too narrow for the birds to regard them as big or small. That is, the trees were possibly seen as equal by the birds,
while the categorized data erroneously amplified their morphological differences in the analysis of variance. It is widely
reported that tree physiognomy has been considered to a more important predictor of avian community parameters than
tree species composition of vegetation [2,28]. The attractiveness of the different tree species depends on their functional
traits such as crown size, and branch density that are used for perching and nesting sites by birds. Also, it has been sown
that more canopy cover provides more insect prey, hence more bird density [31,32]. Some studies found contrary results
where higher bird densities were concentrated in smaller trees and shrubs [13]. However, it should be noted that this
study was conducted only within two months at the end of the wet season; and the choice of trees by visiting birds may

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Table 2B
The number of individual birds and species sighted on different tree species.

Variable Mean Min. Max. SE Mean StDev

Total number of birds sighted per tree species collectively 35.86 1 205 9.34 49.42
Total number of birds’ species per tree species collectively 7.93 1 21 1.19 6.20
Total number of frugivores sighted per tree species collectively 12.57 0 74 3.53 18.70
Number of individual trees 25.79 1 146 6.94 36.73
Average height of different tree species 3.204 1 4 0.150 0.796

Table 3
Descriptive statistics of the raw continuous data used for correlation analysis on tree
height and crown width against the abundance of individual bird (N).

Variable N Mean SE Mean StDev Minimum Maximum

Tree height 722 3.4127 0.0321 0.8614 1.0000 4.0000

Crown width 722 3.5720 0.0314 0.8450 1.0000 4.0000
Crown Density 722 3.3047 0.0388 1.0434 0.0000 4.0000

vary between seasons. Also, since birds’ visits to individual tree species may be affected by the availability of fruit, the
availability of the fruits greatly varies between seasons [8]. Additionally, based on the results of this study, we hypothesized
that, although tree morphological (height and crown width) differences can have a significant impact on birds’ visitation,
smaller morphological differences will have no impact on birds’ visitation.

Implication for restoration and biodiversity conservation

The results and interpretations of this study contribute not only to understanding the roles of different tree species com-
position and physiognomy in the organization of birds’ community but also have implications for montane forest restoration;
their sustainable management and conservation. All the tree species and the abundance of their individuals observed in this
study play a role as habitat for different bird species and that some of the tree preferences are often species-specific as
noted by other researchers [16]. This is useful in predicting the organization of the avian community and provide a guide
for their conservation and management strategies; and should be incorporated in future restoration projects to provide a
framework for tree species planting [10,28].
This study also revealed that some of the tree species were more frequently visited by different species of birds (although
it may be due to their abundance), while some of the trees are peculiar in terms of visitation preferences by some of the
bird species. Any kind of forestry practices in this forest reserve that may favor certain tree species at the expense of
these will likely have serious consequences on bird species that regard these tree species as their more specific habitat
requirements. By removing these preferred tree species, the specialist bird species would lose their microhabitats and this
could significantly impoverish their composition and abundance. Korňan and Adamík [16] stress that tree preferences must
be put into consideration when assessing bird–habitat interactions for sustainable forest management. Unless tree species
that are important as microhabitats for selective bird species are well established, forests restored by the planting of only
exotic species may be doomed to fail in the restoration of a diverse birds’ assemblage [11].
Identifying tree-species preferences for bird visitation may enable land managers involved in conservation and habitat
restoration projects to accurately predict bird species abundance and distributions, which is of great significance in providing
high-quality habitat for the avian community [11,13].
Moreover, the result of this study showed that small differences in sizes of tree physiognomy did not affect the frequency
of birds visit and species diversity contrary to the reports my most researchers. This is because the trees in the study
area are all in their early stages of growth and their differences were small. This confirmed that the structural diversity of
forest is a potentially important attribute for consideration in other to ensure diversity of forest birds’ community at the
landscape-level. Therefore, preserving larger native tree species in management practices is essential for maintaining bird
species richness; their abundance, and ecosystem functionality [18,22].

Conclusion

The results of this study show that the Ngel Nyaki Forest Reserve habited a wide range of bird species of great abundance.
The rate of visitation of different bird species differs among different tree species. Some of these birds were frugivores.
Some of the tree species are more frequently visited by different species of birds, while other trees are peculiar in terms
of visitation preferences by some of the bird species. Tree height, crown densities, and crown width positively affect the
number of birds’ visit and species diversity but only by the analyses of categorized data. The checklist of different bird
species and their relative abundance in the Ngel Nyaki Forest Reserve is documented for the first time or at least updated, as
far as our knowledge is concern. Also, the relative importance of different tree species with regard to visitation by different
bird species in the Ngel Nyaki Forest Reserve is also documented for the first time. This will arm conservationists and

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T. Buba and R.M. Jaafar Scientific African 12 (2021) e00783

wildlife park managers with a better knowledge for choosing suitable tree species to be used in afforestation programs that
will aimed at conserving birds.

Author’s declaration

This manuscript has not been previously published and is not under consideration in the same or substantially similar
form in any other peer-reviewed media. All authors have seen and approved the manuscript as submitted and there is no
conflict of interest to declare.
Table 2B

Declaration of Competing Interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have
appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

CRediT authorship contribution statement

Toma Buba: Visualization, Formal analysis, Writing – original draft. Ridwan Muhammad Jaafar: Data curtion, Formal
analysis.

Acknowledgement

We would like to express our sincere gratitude to Professor Hazel M. Chapman for allowing us to carry out this research
work at Ngel Nyaki forest reserve, and for her unwavering support and immense contribution to the research design. We
must also sincerely thank and appreciate Shedrach Kongvong, his unwavering assistance, and help throughout our stay at
Ngel Nyaki for fieldwork as well as during statistical analysis. We must also thank Biplang Yadok and Iveren Abiem for
their helpful suggestions during this research proposal. Also, we thank Misa Zubairu for providing and making available
everything we needed throughout my fieldwork. To all Nigerian Montane Forest Project Field Assistants, we say a very big
thanks to you all.

Funding

This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

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