CHAPTER TWO : ELECTROSTATIC POTENTIAL AND CAPACITANCE

INTRODUCTION

A force is said to be conservative, if work done by the force between two points is independent of the
path followed between the two points.

All the forces which obey inverse square law are conservative in nature. Gravitational and
Elecrtrostatic forces are conservative forces.

Work done by a conservative force along a closed path is always zero.

Elecrtrostatic forces Gravitational force

Similarities
Conservative Conservative
Have inverse square dependence Have inverse square dependence
Difference
Proportionality constant K Proportionality constant G
𝐾𝑞 𝑞 𝐺𝑚 𝑚
𝐹 = 12 2 ( charge) 𝐹 = 𝑟12 2 (mass)
𝑟

Electrostatic potential

Q. Define electric potential at a point.

Electric potential at a point is defined as the work done to bring a unit positive charge from infinity
to that point.

𝑾
𝑽=
𝒒

It is a scalar quantity.

Electrostatic potential difference

The Electrostatic potential difference between two points in an electric field is defined as the work
done to bring a unit positive charge from one point to other (without acceleration) against the
electrostatic force due to the electric field.

Consider that a point charge +q is place at point O and points A and B are any two points in the
electric field of +q .

Let the distance from O to A is x and distance from O to B is r

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The potential at point A = 𝑣𝐴

The potential at point B = 𝑣𝐵

𝑊𝐴𝐵 is the work done in moving a unit test charge 𝑞0 from point A to B
𝑊𝐴𝐵
𝑉𝐵 − 𝑉𝐴 = 𝑞0

Unit of Electrostatic potential difference : The S I unit of of potential difference is Volt (V).
1 𝑗𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒
1 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡 = 1 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏

The electrostatic potential difference between two points is said to be 1 volt , if 1 joule of work is
done in moving a charge of 1 coulomb from one point to the other ( with out acceleration ) against the
electrostatic force due to E.F.

Electric potential due to a point charge

Q. Derive a mathematical expression for the electric potential due to a point charge.

DIAGRAM

or

Consider a point charge +q placed at point O. Suppose the unit +ve test charge 𝑞0 is placed at A. The
distance from O to A is ‘ x’ . The electric field E due to the charge q exerts a force 𝑞0 𝐸 on the unit
positive test charge 𝑞0 .The test charge can be moved against this force without acceleration by

2
applying an external force 𝐹 = −𝑞0 𝐸 on it. If the unit positive test charge 𝑞0 is moved through a
small distance ‘dx’ from A to B, then work done

𝑊𝐴𝐵 = F dx

where 𝐹 = −𝑞0 𝐸

for unit charge 𝑞0 = 1

F=-E

𝑊𝐴𝐵 = - E dx

Work done to bring the unit +ve charge from infinity to the point B
𝑟
𝑊 = − ∫ 𝐸 𝑑𝑥
∞

𝑘𝑞
Let 𝐸 =
𝑥2
𝑟 𝑘𝑞
𝑊 = − ∫∞ 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥

−1
𝑊 = −𝑘𝑞[ ] 𝑟∞
𝑥
1 1
𝑊 = 𝑘𝑞 [ 𝑟 -- ∞ ]

𝑘𝑞
𝑊=
𝑟
Potential is the work done to bring the unit +ve charge from infinity to the point P.
𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒
𝑃𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 = 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒

𝑘𝑞⁄
𝑟
V= where 𝑞0 = 1
𝑞0

𝑘𝑞 1
V= Where k =4𝜋𝜀
𝑟 0
This is called positive potential
𝑞
Or v= 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟

𝑘𝑞
V= − This is called negative potential .
𝑟

Unit of Electrostatic potential : The S I unit of of electric potential is Volt (V).

1 𝑗𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒
1 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡 = 1 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏

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The electrostatic potential at a point is said to be 1 volt , if 1 joule of work is done in moving a
charge of 1 coulomb from infinity to that point ( with out acceleration ) against the electrostatic force
due to E.F.

POTENTIAL DUE TO A SYSTEM OF CHARGES

Consider a system of charges q1, q2,…, qn with position vectors r1, r2,…, rn relative to some origin P

The potential V1 at P due to the charge q1 is

𝑘𝑞1
V1 = 𝑟1

𝑘𝑞2
V2 = 𝑟2

𝑘𝑞3
V3 = 𝑟3

𝑘𝑞𝑛
Vn = 𝑟𝑛

Electrostatic potential at a point P due to the group of n point charges

𝑣 = v1 + 𝑣2 + 𝑣3 + ……….+ 𝑣𝑛

𝑘𝑞1 𝑘𝑞2 𝑘𝑞3 𝑘𝑞𝑛

𝑣= + + + ……..+
𝑟1 𝑟2 𝑟3 𝑟𝑛

𝑞 𝑞2 𝑞3 𝑞𝑛
𝒗 = 𝒌 [𝑟1 + + + ……..+ ]
1 𝑟2 𝑟3 𝑟𝑛

𝒏
𝒒𝒊
𝒗 = 𝒌∑
𝒓𝒊
𝒊=𝟏

Or
𝒏
𝟏 𝒒𝒊
𝒗= ∑
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝒓𝒊
𝒊=𝟏

ELECTRIC POTENTIAL AT ANY POINT DUE TO AN ELECTRIC DIPOLE

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Consider a dipole consists of two charges +q and - q separated by a distance 2a . Let O be the centre
of the dipole and P be any point at a distance ‘r’ from O,where electric potential due to the dipole is to
be determined.

Potential at P due to –q charge

𝑘(−𝑞)
𝑣𝐴 =
𝐴𝑃
Potential at P due to +q charge

𝑘(𝑞)
𝑣𝐵 =
𝐵𝑃
Total potential at P due to +q and –q

𝑉 = 𝑉𝐴 + 𝑣𝐵

𝐾(−𝑞) 𝐾(𝑞)
𝑣= 𝐴𝑃
+ 𝐵𝑃

To calculate AP and BP ,let 𝜃 is the angle with the dipole. Draw BN perpendicular to OP
and AM perpendicular to PO after producing it.

Let PA ≈ 𝑃𝑀, = OP +OM

OM =a cos𝜃 and OP = r

So PA = r + a cos𝜃

PB ≈ 𝑃𝑁, = 𝑂𝑃 − 𝑂𝑁

ON = OM= a cos𝜃 BP = r- a cos𝜃

Substituting for PA and PB in eq

𝐾(−𝑞) 𝐾(𝑞)
𝑉= 𝑟+a cos𝜃
+ 𝑟−a cos𝜃

5
 𝐾(𝑞) 𝐾(𝑞)
𝑉=
𝑟−a cos𝜃
−
𝑟+a cos𝜃

1 1
𝑉 = 𝐾𝑞[ 𝑟−a cos𝜃 − ]
𝑟+a cos𝜃

𝑟+𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃−(𝑟−𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)

𝑉 = 𝑘𝑞 [(𝑟+𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)(𝑟−𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃) ]

𝑟+𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃−𝑟+𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

𝑉 = 𝑘𝑞 { }
𝑟 2 −𝑎2 𝑐𝑜𝑠2 𝜃

2𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑉 = 𝑘𝑞 {𝑟 2−𝑎2𝑐𝑜𝑠2 𝜃 }

(2𝑎𝑞)𝐾 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑉 = 𝑟 2−𝑎2 𝑐𝑜𝑠2 𝜃

Where 2aq =P

𝒌𝑷 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽
𝑽=
𝒓𝟐 − 𝒂𝟐 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃
SPECIAL CASES

Case 1 If P lies on the axial line of the dipole then 𝜃=0 (Potential at a point on the axial line)

𝑘𝑃
𝑉𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 =
𝑟 2 − 𝑎2
If a ≪ r (small dipole)

𝑘𝑃
𝑉𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 =
𝑟2
Case ii

If point P is on the equatorial line of the dipole , 𝜃 = 90 (Potential at a point on the equatorial
line)

𝑉𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙 = 0

EQUIPOTENTIAL SURFACES

Any surface , which has same electrostatic potential at every point ,

is called an equipotential surface.

Properties of equipotential surface

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1, No work is done in moving a test charge over an equipotential surface.

Let A and B be two points on an equipotential surface.If a positive test charge 𝑞0 is moved from A to
B then work done in moving a test charge is related to potential difference (P.d) between the points.
𝑊𝐴𝐵
𝑉𝐵 − 𝑉 𝐴 = 𝑞0

𝑉𝐵 – 𝑉 𝐴 = 0 ( same potential at A and B)

𝑊𝐴𝐵 = 0

2, The electric field is always at right angles to the equipotential surface.

Equipotential surface is always perpendicular to the electric field because work done is moving a
charge along an equipotential surface is zero. This is possible only if the electric field is perpendicular
to the equipotential surface.

3, The equipotential surface help to distinguish regions of strong field.

−𝑑𝑉
𝐸= 𝑑𝑟
or

−𝑑𝑉
𝑑𝑟 = 𝐸

For same change in value of dV , dV = constant

1
𝑑𝑟 ∝ 𝐸

Therefore , the equipotential surfaces are closer together , then E.F is stronger and farther apart, the
field is weaker.

4, The equipotential surfaces tell the direction of the E.F

−𝑑𝑉
𝐸= 𝑑𝑟
The negative sign shows that E.F is directed in the direction of decrease of electric potential
with distance. Therefore the direction of E.F is from the equipotential surfaces which are closer to
each other to those which are more and more away from each other.

5. No two equipotential surfaces can intersect each other, In case of two equipotential surfaces
intersect each other ,then at their point of intersection ,there will be two values of electric potential.
As it is not possible then two equipotential surfaces cannot intersect each other

7
To draw equipotential surfaces

1, For a uniform electric field

In a uniform electric field , the strength and direction of the field is same at every point inside it. A
uniform E.F is represented by a set of parallel arrows.

𝑑𝑉
is constant for uniform E. F
𝑑𝑟

➢ In a uniform electric field , equipotential surfaces will be a set of parallel planes.

➢ Electric field is the direction of decreasing potential 𝑣1 > 𝑣 2 > 𝑣3.
➢ In a uniform electric field, potential difference between the equipotential surfaces will be the
same, 𝑣1 − 𝑣2 is equal to 𝑣2 − 𝑣3
➢ In a uniform electric field ,equipotential surfaces will be equidistant from each other

2.For isolated point charge.

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 ➢ The electric field due to an isolated point charge is radial in nature and varies inversely as the
square of the distance from the charge.
➢ For a point charge ,equipotential surfaces will be a series of concentric shells with the charge
at the centre.
➢ The equipotential surfaces are closer together , then E.F is stronger and farther apart, the field
is weaker
➢ The separation dr between the equipotential surfaces will go on increasing with decrease of
1
E.F. (dr ∝ 𝐸 .)

The separation dr between the equipotential surfaces will go on increasing with decrease of E.F.

(The separation between surfaces 2 and 3 is more than that between 1 and 2,it follows that E.F is
stronger at points near the charge and weaker at points away from it.The electric field lines are
perpendicular to equipotential surfaces and point radially outwards.)

3.For a system of two point charges

Equipotential surfaces for a dipole

ELECTRIC FIELD AS GRADIENT OF POTENTIAL

(Relation between electric field and potential)

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Let P be a point on the surface B and a point charge q0 placed at point P .

The electrostatic potential at point A ,

𝑉𝐴 = 𝑉

The electrostatic potential at points B,

𝑉𝐵 = 𝑉 − 𝑑𝑉

where dV is the change in V in the direction of the electric field E

Let dr is the distance between A and B. When a unit positive test charge q0 moved from B to
A against the E.F(force = -qE) , the workdone is,

𝑊𝐵𝐴 = 𝐹𝑑𝑟

𝑊𝐵𝐴 = −q0 Edr where q0 = 1

𝑊𝐵𝐴 = −E dr

This work done is equal to the potential difference 𝑉𝐴 − 𝑉𝐵

𝑊𝐵𝐴 = 𝑉𝐴 − 𝑉𝐵

-E dr = V – (V -dV)

- E dr = dV

−𝒅 𝑽
𝑬=
𝒅𝒓

E = ( -- potential gradient)

(potential gradient :the rate of change of electric potential with respect to the distance )

Electric field at a point is equal to the negative gradient of potential at that point. The
negative sign indicates that the direction of electric field is always in the direction of
decrease of electric potential .

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Potential gradient is a vector quantity.

SI unit of potential gradient is Volt / metre (V /m).

POTENTIAL ENERGY OF A SYSTEM OF CHARGES

The electrostatic potential energy of a system of point charge is defined as the work required
to be done to bring the charges constituting the system to their respective locations from
infinity.

POTENTIAL ENERGY OF A SYSTEM OF TWO CHARGES(in the absence of external

E.F)

Consider two point charges 𝑞1 𝑞2 lying at points P1

and P2,whose locations r1, r2 respectively.

Consider charges 𝑞1 , 𝑞2 are initially at infinity. First of all , bring the

charge 𝑞1 from infinity to position P1 .For this no work is required because when charge
𝑞1 is moved ,no electrostatic force due to any other charge to opposes it.

𝑊1 = 0

Move charge 𝑞2 to its original positions P2 from infinity. When charge 𝑞2 is moved, the E.F
due to the charge 𝑞1 lying at point P1, opposes it. Hence work has to be done.

Work done = (electric potential due to charge 𝑞1 at P2) 𝑞2

𝐾𝑞1
𝑊12 = ( ) 𝑞2
𝑟12

𝐾𝑞1 𝑞2
𝑊12 = 𝑟12

Total work done = Total potential energy

𝑘𝑞1 𝑞2
potential energy, U = 𝑟12

POTENTIAL ENERGY OF A SYSTEM OF THREE CHARGES

11
 Consider charges 𝑞1 , 𝑞2 and 𝑞3 are initially at infinity. First of all , bring the charge
𝑞1 from infinity to position P1.. For this , no work has to be done .

Work done for moving the charge 𝑞2 from infinity to location r2 , When charge 𝑞1 present
at r1
𝑘𝑞1 𝑞2
𝑊12 = 𝑟12

Moving the charge 𝑞3 from infinity to location r3 , when charge 𝑞1 present at r1 and the
charge 𝑞2 present at r2 . The work 𝑊13 has to be done for moving charge 𝑞3 in the E.F of
charge 𝑞1 and work 𝑊23 has to be done for moving it in the E.F of charge 𝑞2 .
𝑘𝑞1 𝑞3
𝑊13 =
𝑟13

𝑘𝑞2 𝑞3
𝑊23 = 𝑟23

Total work done to move all the three charges from infinity to their original location

Total work done = Total potential energy

U = W + 𝑊12 +𝑊13 + 𝑊23

𝑘𝑞1 𝑞2 𝑘𝑞1 𝑞3 𝑘𝑞2 𝑞3
U=0+ + +
𝑟12 𝑟13 𝑟23

𝑞1 𝑞2 𝑞1 𝑞3 𝑞2 𝑞3
U= k( + + )
𝑟12 𝑟13 𝑟23

Potential energy of a electric dipole ,when placed in uniform electric field.

An electric dipole consists of two charges q and –

q separated by a (small) distance 2a. Its total
charge is zero. Consider an electric dipole having
dipole moment P is placed along an angle 𝜃 with
the direction of an external uniform electric field.

Then torque acting on the dipole is, 𝜏 = 𝑝𝐸 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

If the dipole is rotated through an infinitesimally small angle d𝜃 against the torque acting on
it, then small work done

dW = 𝜏 d𝜃 = 𝑝𝐸 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 d𝜃

Therefore ,work done in rotating the dipole from its orientation making an angle 𝜃1 with the
direction of E.F to 𝜃2 is ,

12
 𝜃
W = ∫𝜃 2 𝑝𝐸 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 d𝜃
1

𝜃
W = pE [−𝐶𝑂𝑆𝜃 ]𝜃21

W = pE (cos 𝜃1 - cos 𝜃2 )

Work done = total potential energy

U = pE (cos 𝜃1 - cos 𝜃2 )

Assume that the angle 𝜃1 = 900 and 𝜃2 =𝜃

U = pE( cos 90 - cos 𝜃)

U = -- pE 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽

⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗. 𝑬
U = -- ⃗𝒑

Case 1

When electric dipole is parallel to the E, then potential energy is minimum.

𝜃 = 00 U = -- ⃗𝒑 ⃗⃗ most stable
⃗⃗. 𝑬

Case 2

When electric dipole is antiparallel to the E.F ,then potential energy is maximum.

𝜃 = 180,,

⃗⃗. ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
U = ⃗𝒑 𝑬 then U maximum --unstable

POTENTIAL ENERGY OF CHARGES IN AN EXTERNAL FIELD

a. Potential energy of a single charge in an external electric field.

Consider a single charge 𝑞1 . Let P be a point in an external field .Work done in
bringing the charge 𝑞1 from infinity to point P in the external field is 𝑞1 V(𝑟1).
where
V(𝑟1). is external potential at P of position vector 𝑟1

𝑊1 = 𝑞1 V(𝑟1). This work done is stored in the charged particle in the form of its potential
energy.

Work done = Potential energy of 𝑞1

U = 𝑞1 V(𝑟1).

Potential energy of a system of two charges in an external field

13
Consider a system of two charges 𝑞1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑞2 are located at r1 and r2 respectively in an
external electric field. The charges 𝑞1 , 𝑞2 are initially at infinity. First of all , bring the charge
𝑞1 from infinity to position P1 .

Work done in bringing the charge 𝑞1 from infinity to r1

𝑊1 = q1V(𝑟1).

Work done in bringing the charge 𝑞2 to r2

W2= 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑜𝑛 𝑞2 𝑎𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝐸. 𝐹

+ 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑜𝑛 𝑞2 𝑎𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐸. 𝐹 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑞1

Kq1 q2
W2= q2 V(𝑟2 ) + . Where r12 is the distance between 𝑞1 and 𝑞2
r12

Total work done W= 𝑊1 + 𝑊2 .

Kq1 q2
Total work done W= q1V(𝑟1 ). +q 2 V(𝑟2 ) + .
r12

Total work done = Total P.E

kq1 q2
U = q1 V(𝑟1 ) + q 2 V(𝑟2 ) + .
r12
NOTE

q = e = 1.6×10–19

unit of energy is defined as 1 electron volt or 1eV, i.e., 1 eV=1.6 × 10–19J.

The units based on eV are most commonly used in atomic, nuclear and particle physics,

1 KeV = 103eV = 1.6 × 10–16J,

1 MeV = 106eV = 1.6 × 10–13J,

ELECTROSTATICS OF CONDUCTORS (Behaviour of a conductor in electrostatic

field )

1, Inside the conductor , the electric field is zero.

14
When a conductor is placed in an external electric field, the free charges present inside
the conductor redistribute themselves in such a manner that the face of the conductor
towards the positive plate becomes negative ,while that towards the negative plate becomes
positive . Therefore the electric field due to induced charges opposes the external field
within the conductor. This happens until a static situation is achieved, i.e. when the two
fields cancel each other and the net electrostatic field in the conductor becomes zero.

2.At the surface of a charged conductor, electrostatic field must be normal to the
surface at every point.

3. When a conductor is charged ,the acquired charge resides only on the surface of the
conductor

An uncharged conductor has equal amounts of positive and negative charges. When a
conductor is charged ,this excess charge resides only on the surface of the conductor
.According to Gauss theorem charge inside the Gaussian surface must be zero.(in Gaussian
surface ,there is no E.F inside the conductor ,electric flux through the Gaussian surface
should be zero).Hence there is no charge in the interior of the conductor.

4. Electrostatic potential is constant throughout the volume of the conductor and has
the same value (as inside) on its surface

E.F inside a conductor is always zero therefore ,no work is done

in moving a test charge between two points with in the conductor .E.F cannot have tangential
component, so no work is done in moving a test charge between two points on the surface of
the conductor .This is possible ,when the potential inside the conductor is constant and has
the same value on its surface.
𝝈
5. The electric field at the surface of a charged conductor is 𝑬 = where 𝝈 is surface
𝜺𝟎
charge density of the 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓

15
 Consider a conductor having charge density
𝜎 . There is no charge inside it.

To calculate the E.F at the point P near the surface of

the conductor .To do so ,construct a small cylinder of
area of cross section ds with plane faces through the
point P,its one face is outside the conductor and
other face is inside it.this cylinder surface is the Gaussian surface for the charged conductor.

As the point P is very close to the charged conductor,electric field at the point P will be the
same as that on the surface of the cylinder .As the E.F inside the conductor is zero ,the
electric flux crosses through the Gaussian surface only through its face at the point P.

d∅ = Eds ----1
𝑑𝑞
according to Gauss’ theorem 𝑑∅ = ( dq – small amount of charge)
𝜀0

𝑑𝑞
where 𝜎 = , 𝑑𝑞 = 𝜎ds
𝑑𝑠

𝜎𝑑𝑠
𝑑∅ = ……..2
𝜀0

From eq 1
𝜎𝑑𝑠
𝐸𝑑𝑠 = 𝜀0

𝜎
𝐸= 𝜀0

NOTE :

The charged conductor lies in a medium of dielectric constant K

𝜎
𝐸=
𝑘𝜀0

Electrostatic shielding :Electrostatic shielding ( A general form of the proof E.F inside a
charged spherical shell is zero)

16
Electrostatic shielding or screening is the phenomenon of protecting a certain region of space
from external electric field. The effect can be made use of in protecting sensitive instruments
from outside electrical influence

Electric field inside a conductor is zero. Therefore, to protect dielectric instruments from
external electric fields ,we enclose them in hollow conductors. Such hollow conductors are
called Faraday cages. They need not be earthed.

Electrostatic shielding applications

During the lightning thunderstorm, it is advised to stay inside the car and not under trees or in
the open ground because the outer metallic body of the car acts as an electromagnetic shield
from the lightning.

In coaxial cable, the central conductor is protected by electrostatic shield by connecting the
outer conductor to the ground.

NOTE

Faraday Cage:

A Faraday cage or Faraday shield is an enclosure made of a conducting material. The fields
within a conductor cancel out with any external fields, so the electric field within the
enclosure is zero. These Faraday cages act as big hollow conductors you can put things in to
shield them from electrical fields. Any electrical shocks the cage receives, pass harmlessly
around the outside of the cage

DIELECTRICS

Dielectrics are basically insulators and contain no free electron. Dielectrics can
be easily polarized when an electric field is applied to it.

17
BQ. Explain, using suitable diagram, the difference in the behaviour of a
(a) conductor and
(b) dielectric in the presence of external electric field.

(a) When a conductor is placed in an external electric field, the free charges present
inside the conductor redistribute themselves in such a manner that the electric
field due to induced charges opposes the external field within the conductor. This
happens until a static situation is achieved, i.e. when the two fields cancel each
other and the net electrostatic field in the conductor becomes zero.

(b)

BQ; Define the terms polarisation of a dielectric and write its relation with susceptibility.

Polarisation (P) of dielectric

The stretching of dielectric atoms due to the displacement of charges in the atoms
under the action of the applied electric field .The alignment of the dipole moments of the
permanent or induced dipoles in the direction of applied E.F is called electric
polarisation.

The dipole moment per unit volume is called polarisation and is denoted by P

18
For linear isotropic dielectrics
𝑷 = 𝛘𝒆 E
Where χ𝑒 is a constant characteristic of the dielectric and is known as the electric
susceptibility of the dielectric medium.
The SI unit of polarisation is coulomb per square metre (C/m2).
VIM:
NON POLAR DIELECTRIC
MOLECULE
Non polar molecule is one which the
center of the positive charges (protons)
coincide with the center of the negative
charges(electrons)
Non polar molecule do not have a
permanent dipole moment.
Polarisation of non polar dielectric
In an external electric field, the positive
and negative charges of a nonpolar
molecule are displaced in opposite
directions. The non-polar molecule thus
develops an induced dipole moment. The
dielectric is said to be polarised by the
external field. The induced dipole
moment is in the direction of the field and
is proportional to the field strength.
Eg : O2,N2,H2
Differences between conductors and dielectics
Dielectrics
Non- conducting
No free movement charges
External field induces dipole moment by re-
orienting molecules of the dielectric. The
collective effect of all the molecular dipole
POLAR DIELECTRIC
Polar molecule is one in which the center of
the positive charge is separated from the
center of the negative charges by a small
distance.
Polar molecules have permanent dipole
moment.
Polarisation of polar dielectric
In the absence of any external field, the
dipole moment of polar molecules orient
themselves in random directions. Hence no
dipole moment is observed in the polar
dielectric.
When an electric field is applied , the dipole
orient themselves in the direction of E.F .
Hence a net dipole moment is produced.
H2O, HCl, NH3
Conductors
Conducting
free movement of charges
The electric field due to induced charges
opposes the external field
19
 moments is net charges on the surface of the
dielectric which produce a field that
opposes the external field.
Opposing field reduces the external field Opposing field cancels the external field
Eg. mica, glass plastics, dry air used in
capacitors

Dielectric constant/ relative permittivity or specific inductive capacity of the dielectric

medium.

The ratio of the strength of the applied electric field to the strength of the reduced value of the
electric field on placing the dielectric between the plates of the capacitor
𝐸0
K= The value of K is > 1
𝐸

CAPACITOR; It is a system of two conductors separated by a an insulator which is

used to store large quantity of electrical energy in the form of electric charge.

Fixed capacitor , variable capacitance is

Electrical capacitance

It is the ability to store large quantity of electric charge

A capacitor with large capacitance can hold large amount of charge Q at a relatively small V

If charge is given to the conductor so that its potential increases by an amount V, then

q ∝ 𝑉 or q = C V

The proportionality constant C is called CAPACITANCE

𝑞
𝐶=
𝑉
Capacitance is the ratio of electric charge on it to its electric potential due to that charge.

The value of capacitance C depends on

1 )shape of the conductor
2)dimensions of the conductor
3)nature of the medium
it doesn't depend on the voltage of the charging source or on the charges at
the plates at some given instant.

20
If V = 1 unit then C = q. So the capacitance of conductor is numerically equal to the electric
charge required to raise its electric potential through one unit.

Unit of capacitance is ‘farad’

1 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏
1 farad = 1𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡

1𝐶
1 𝑓𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑑, 𝐹 =
1𝑉
One Farad: A conductor is said to have a capacitance of one farad if one coulomb of charge
raises its electric potential through one volt

1 micro farad ,1 µF = 10–6 F,

1 nano farad, 1 nF = 10–9 F,

1pico farad (micro micro farad),1 pF = 10–12 F,

NOTES….A conductor can store small amount of charge and hence it possesses a small
capacitance.To store large amount of charge ,two or more conductors are arranged to form a
capacitor and hence it possesses a large capacitance to store charge and that too in a small
space.

PRINCIPLE OF A CAPACITOR

A capacitor is an arrangement for storing large amounts of electric charge and hence electric
energy in a small space.

➢ Consider an insulated metal plate A. Let some positive charge be given to this plate
,till its potential becomes maximum.
➢ Consider another insulated metal plate B held near A . By induction ,a negative
charge is produced on the nearer face of B and an equal +ve charge develops on
farther face of B.
➢ There will be more attractive force than repulsive force.So the potential of plate A
gets lowered.To increase potential ,deposite more charge to the plate A.

21
 ➢ It indicates that the capacitance of a conductor increases by a small
amount(without increasing size or radius),when another uncharged conductor is
placed near it.

➢ Now connect the plate B to earth (second plate is grounded) .So the electrons from
the ground will neutralise the positive charge. Due to the negative charge on
B,potential of A is greatly reduced. Then we can add more and more positive charge
to A to raise the maximum potential.

The capacitance of a charged insulated conductor is increased by bringing near it an

uncharged earthed conductor .This is the principle of the capacitor.

An arrangement of two conductors separated by a dielectric medium is said to form a

capacitor

• The insulating material between the two plates is called dielectric.

• If the insulating medium is air,it is called air capacitor.
• If dielectric has dielectric constant K, then capacitance of the capacitor becomes K
times its capacitance as air capacitor.𝐶𝑚𝑒𝑑 = 𝐾𝐶𝑣𝑎𝑐

CAPACITANCE OF AN ISOLATED SPHERE

Consider a sphere having radius r and have a total charge +q

22
 𝑞
𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝐶 =
𝑉

𝐾𝑞 1 𝑞
Let 𝑣 = 𝑜𝑟
𝑟 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟

𝑞
𝐶=
1 𝑞
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟

C = 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟

C ∝ 𝑟 , ie larger the radius of the sphere , greater is its capacitance.(a capacitor is

normally made of two conductors.Here ,to calculate the capacity of a single spherical
conductor,assuming the other conductor to be at infinity)

DIELECTRIC STRENGTH

The dielectric strength of a dielectric is defined as the maximum value of electric field or
potential gradient applied to the dielectric without its electric break down

Unit of dielectric strength volt /metre

Capacitance of THE PARALLEL PLATE CAPACITOR

THE PARALLEL PLATE CAPACITOR • A parallel plate capacitor consists of two large plane parallel
conducting plates separated by a small distance.

Parallel plate capacitor consists of two thin conducting plates 1 and 2 each of area A
separated by distance d. The plates are separated by a insulating medium like air, paper,
glass, mica etc. Plate 1 is insulated and plate 2 is earth connected.

---d ---

When a charge +q is given to the plate 1,then a charge –q induced on the nearer face of
plate 2 and +q is induced on the farther face of plate 2.As plate 2 is earthed the charge +q
being free, flows to earth.
𝑑𝑉
𝐸= (magnitude)
𝑑𝑟

𝑑𝑉 𝑉 𝑉
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 = 𝑜𝑟 =
𝑑𝑟 𝑟 𝑑

23
 𝑉
E=
𝑑

V = Ed
𝜎
From Gauss theorem 𝐸 = 𝜀0

𝜎
:. V = 𝜀 𝑑
0

𝑞
Capacitance C = 𝑉

𝑞
C= 𝜎
𝑑
𝜀0

𝑞
Where 𝑞 = 𝜎 𝐴 ( 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝜎 = 𝐴

𝜎𝐴
C= 𝜎
𝑑
𝜀0

ε0A
C= plates in air or vacuum
d
EFFECT OF DIELECTRIC: Suppose the space between the two plates of the capacitor
is filled with a dielectric medium of dielectric constant k
𝜎
𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑, 𝐸 =
𝐾 𝜀0

𝑞/𝐴
Or 𝐸 = 𝜀0 𝐾

𝑞
𝐸=
𝜀0 𝑘𝐴

Let 𝑉 = 𝐸𝑑 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑉 𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 , 𝑑 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠.

𝑞𝑑
𝑉=
𝜀0 𝑘𝐴
𝑞
𝐶= 𝑉

q
C=
qd
ε0 kA
𝛆𝟎 𝐤𝐀
𝐂= gives the capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor, when the space between
𝐝
its plates is filled with a dielectric medium of dielectric constant K.

24
The product ε0K is called the permittivity of the medium and is denoted by ε

ε = ε0 k

For vacuum k = 1 and ε = ε0; ε0 is called the permittivity of the vacuum. The
dimensionless ratio
𝜀
𝑘= is called the dielectric constant of the substance. k is greater than 1.
𝜀0

𝐶
𝑘= or C = k𝐶𝑣 Thus, the dielectric constant of a substance is the factor (>1) by
𝐶𝑣
which the capacitance increases from its vacuum value, when the dielectric is inserted
fully between the plates of a capacitor.

COMBINATION OF CAPACITORS(Grouping of capacitors)

When the capacitors are connected in series , the net capacitance decreases, while on
connecting them in parallel ,the net capacitance increases.

Capacitors in series

Consider three
capacitors of capacitance C1 ,C2, C3 in series.

Let +q units of charge be given be given to the left plate of C1 .By electrostatic induction
,a charge –q appears on inner side of right plate of C1 and +q appears on outer side of this
plate. The +q units of charge flow to left plate of C2 and so on.

• Each capacitor receives the same charge of magnitude q

• Potential difference across the three capacitors are different
𝑞 𝑞 𝑞
• 𝑉1 = , 𝑉2 = , 𝑉3 =
𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶3
Total potential difference V across the series combination
𝑉 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 + 𝑉3

𝑞 𝑞 𝑞
• 𝑉=𝐶 +𝐶 +
1 2 𝐶3

1 1 1
𝑉 = 𝑞 (𝐶 + 𝐶 + )
1 2 𝐶3

25
 If C is the total capacitance of the combination ,when a potential difference V is applied
across the capacitor
𝑞
𝑉=
𝐶
q 1 1 1
= q (C + C + )
C 1 2 C3

1 1 1 1
= + +
C C1 C2 C3

The reciprocal of the resultant capacitance of the series combination of a number

of capacitors is equal to the sum of the reciprocals of the capacitances of
individual capacitors.
In series combination:
• The equivalent capacitance is less than the capacitance of the smallest capacitor
• The charge on each capacitor is same
• Potential difference across each capacitor is inversely proportional to its
1
capacitance V ∝ 𝐶

Capacitors in parallel

Three capacitors of capacitance C1 ,C2, C3 are connected in parallel. Let V be the

potential difference applied across the combination.

As potential difference is same ,charges on them will be different. Ie q1, q2. q3

𝒒𝟏 = 𝑪𝟏 𝑽, 𝒒𝟐 = 𝑪 𝟐 V, 𝒒𝟑 = 𝑪𝟑 𝑽

q = 𝒒𝟏 + 𝒒𝟐 + 𝒒𝟑

where q is the total charge on the parallel combination. C is the equivalent capacitance in
parallel under the same potential difference V

26
q=CV

C V = 𝑪𝟏 𝑽 + 𝑪 𝟐 𝑽 + 𝑪 𝟑 𝑽

C = 𝑪𝟏 + 𝑪 𝟐 + 𝑪𝟑

The resultant or equivalent capacitance of any number of capacitors connected in parallel is

equal to the the sum of the individual capacitances.

• The equivalent capacitances is greater than the capacitance of the largest capacitor.
• Potential difference across each capacitor is same.
• Charge on a capacitor is proportional to its capacitance. q ∝ 𝐶

ENERGY STORED IN A CAPACITOR

The work done in charging a capacitor is stored in the form of electric potential
energy in the capacitor.
Let q be the charge on the capacitor and C is the capacitance of the capacitor to a
potential V
𝑞
𝑞 = 𝐶 𝑉 𝑜𝑟 𝑉 =
𝐶
Small amount of work done in giving an additional charge dq to the capacitor is dw
d W = V dq
𝑞
𝑑𝑤 = 𝑑𝑞
𝐶
1 𝑞
Total work done W = 𝐶 ∫0 𝑞𝑑𝑞
𝑞
1
𝑊= ∫ 𝑞𝑑𝑞
𝐶
0
1 𝑞2
𝑊= [ ]
𝐶 2
𝟏 𝐪𝟐
𝐖=
𝟐 𝐂
This work done is stored as potential energy

𝟏 𝐪𝟐
𝐔=
𝟐 𝐂
Let q = C V, then 𝐪𝟐 = 𝐂 𝟐 𝐕 𝟐

𝟏 𝐂𝟐 𝐕 𝟐
𝐔=
𝟐 𝐂

27
 𝟏
Potential energy , U = 𝐂 𝐕 𝟐
𝟐

Energy density in a parallel plate capacitor

It is defined as the total energy stored per unit volume of the capacitor.
Total energy
Energy density =
volume
Where volume =A d ( area x length or distance)
𝛆𝟎 𝐀
For parallel plate capacitor 𝐂 = and potential difference V =E d
𝐝

𝟏
𝐂 𝐕𝟐
Energy density = 𝟐
Ad
(ε0 A/d)(E2 d2 )
Energy density =
2Ad
ε0 AE 2 d2
Energy density, u =
2Ad2
1
Energy density, u = ε E2
2 0

Q. Find an expression for the capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor when a dielectric slab
𝑑
of dielectric constant K and thickness 𝑡 = but of same area on the plate is inserted between
2
the capacitor plate .( d = separation between the plates).

Consider a parallel plate capacitor , area of each being A, the separation between the plates
being d. Let a dielectric slab of dielectric constant K and thickness t < d be placed between
the plates. The thickness of air between the plates is ( d - t ) . If charges on plates are +Q and
–Q ,then surface charge density

𝑄
𝜎= 𝐴

𝜎 𝑄
The E.F between the plates in air , 𝐸1 = =
𝜀0 𝜀0 𝐴

28
 𝜎 𝑄
The E.F between the plates in slab , 𝐸2 = =
𝐾𝜀0 𝐾𝜀0 𝐴

Let 𝑉 = 𝐸𝑑

∴ The potential difference between the plates,= 𝑉𝐴𝐵 = 𝑉𝑎𝑖𝑟 + 𝑉𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐

𝑉𝐴𝐵 = 𝐸1 (𝑑 − 𝑡) + 𝐸2 𝑡

𝑄 𝑄
𝑉𝐴𝐵 = (𝑑 − 𝑡) + 𝑡
𝜀0 𝐴 𝐾𝜀0 𝐴

𝑄 𝑡
𝑉𝐴𝐵 = [(𝑑 − 𝑡) + ]
𝜀0 𝐴 𝐾
𝑄 𝑄
Capacitance of capacitor C = 𝑉 = 𝑄 𝑡
𝐴𝐵 [(𝑑−𝑡)+ ]
𝜀0 𝐴 𝐾

𝜺𝟎 𝑨
C= 𝒕
𝒅−𝒕+ 𝑲

, here t= d/2
𝜺𝟎 𝑨
C= 𝒅 𝒅
𝒅− +
𝟐 𝟐𝑲

𝜺 𝑨
C = 𝟐𝒅−𝒅𝟎 𝒅
+
𝟐 𝟐𝑲

𝜺𝟎 𝑨
C=𝒅 𝒅
+
𝟐 𝟐𝑲

𝜺𝟎 𝑨
C=𝒅 𝟏
[ 𝟏+ ]
𝟐 𝑲

29
30