Types of defects in material

Dislocation
Causes: a variety of factors, including mechanical deformation,
thermal stresses, and defects in the crystal structure. They can
also be introduced during manufacturing or processing of the
material. Once a dislocation is present in the material, it can
affect its properties and behaviour under stress or strain

Effect: can create barriers to the movement of other

dislocations or defects in the material, which can increase its
strength and hardness, allow the material to deform plastically
without breaking, which is important for ductile materials that
need to bend or stretch without fracturing, Repeated
deformation of the material can cause dislocations to
accumulate and create strain hardening, which increases the
material's strength and hardness. fatigue failure in materials, as
repeated loading and unloading can create cracks and
fractures at the dislocation sites, creep deformation in
materials, as they can move and rearrange under stress at high
temperatures.
Significant: plastic deformation, strengthening ,work hardening,
creep, fatigue

Cracks
Causes: Excessive or prolonged stress on the material can
cause it to crack or fracture, especially if the stress exceeds the
material's strength or fatigue limit. Thermal stresses and
thermal cycling can cause materials to expand and contract,
which can create cracks if the material is not able to
accommodate the changes in size and shape. Exposure to
corrosive environments or substances can weaken the material
and create defects or cracks. Errors or flaws in the
manufacturing or processing of the material can create defects
or weak spots that can lead to cracking. Repeated loading and
unloading of the material can create microcracks that can
propagate and cause failure over time. High-velocity impacts or
collisions can cause sudden and catastrophic failure of the
material, including cracking.
Effect: Cracks can weaken the material by creating stress
concentrations and reducing the effective cross-sectional area
of the material. Cracks can also reduce the stiffness and rigidity
of the material, as they can allow the material to deform or
deflect more easily. Cracks can provide pathways for corrosive
substances to penetrate the material and attack its interior
surfaces, which can accelerate the rate of corrosion and reduce
the material's lifespan. Cracks can also create sites for fatigue
failure, as they can propagate and grow under repeated loading
and unloading of the material. Cracks can reduce the material's
ability to resist wear, abrasion, and other forms of damage, as
they can create sites for the accumulation of stress and
damage. Cracks can also affect the material's ability to perform
its intended function, especially if the cracks are located in
critical areas or components.

Significant: Safety, Reliability, cost and sustainability

 Disclinations
Causes: can be created when a material is subjected to stress
or strain, which causes the atoms or ions to move and
rearrange themselves in order to relieve the stress. This
process is known as plastic deformation, and it can result in the
formation of dislocations and other defects, created by thermal
energy, which can cause the atoms or ions in a material to
vibrate and move around. Over time, this movement can lead to
the formation of dislocations and other defects in the crystal
structure, caused by irradiation, which is the exposure of a
material to high-energy particles or radiation. This can cause
the atoms or ions in the material to be displaced from their
lattice positions, leading to the formation of dislocations and
other defects. Dislocations can also be caused by alloying,
which is the process of adding impurities or other elements to a
material in order to modify its properties. The presence of these
impurities can create stress and strain in the crystal structure,
leading to the formation of dislocations and other defects.

Effect: Dislocations can cause a material to undergo plastic

deformation, which is the permanent deformation of a material
under stress. This can result in changes in the shape, size, and
mechanical properties of the material. also cause a material to
become harder and stronger, as they can impede the
movement of other dislocations and prevent plastic
deformation. cause a material to undergo creep, which is the
gradual deformation of a material under constant stress over
time. This can result in changes in the shape and size of the
material, as well as changes in its mechanical properties.
Dislocations can also cause a material to undergo fatigue,
which is the failure of a material under cyclic loading over time.
This can result in cracks and other defects in the material,
which can lead to failure. Dislocations can affect the electrical
and thermal conductivity of a material, as they can cause
disruptions in the flow of electrons and heat through the
material.

Significant: Influence on crystal structure, Formation of grain

boundaries, Influence on deformation mechanisms and
Influence on defects and failure

Tilt Boundary
Causes: Tilt boundaries can form during the crystal growth of a
material, when adjacent grains grow at different orientations.
Tilt boundaries can also form during plastic deformation of a
material, when adjacent grains rotate and deform differently. Tilt
boundaries can form during thermal cycling of a material, when
temperature changes cause adjacent grains to expand and
contract differently. Tilt boundaries can also form due to grain
boundary migration, which is the movement of grain boundaries
due to changes in temperature, stress, or other factors.

Effects: Split boundaries can affect the deformation behavior of

materials by acting as barriers to dislocation motion, which can
affect the material's strength, ductility, and other mechanical
properties. Split boundaries can also affect the grain growth
behavior of materials, by acting as sites for heterogeneous
nucleation of new grains, which can affect the microstructure
and texture of the material. Split boundaries can also affect the
diffusion behavior of materials, by acting as barriers or
facilitators to the movement of atoms or molecules, which can
affect the material's chemical and physical properties. Split
boundaries can also affect the corrosion behavior of materials,
by acting as sites for preferential corrosion or by affecting the
transport of ions or electrons across the boundary.

Significants: Influence in corrosion behaviour and Influence on

electronic properties.

Twin Boundary
Causes: Twin boundaries can form due to crystallographic
deformation, which occurs when a crystal is subjected to stress
or strain that causes it to deform. This deformation can result in
the formation of twin boundaries that separate regions of the
crystal with different orientations. Twin boundaries can also
form due to thermal deformation, which occurs when a crystal
is subjected to changes in temperature that cause it to expand
or contract. This can result in the formation of twin boundaries
that separate regions of the crystal with different orientations.
Twin boundaries can also form due to phase transformations,
which occur when a crystal undergoes a change in its crystal
structure due to changes in temperature, pressure, or other
environmental factors. This can result in the formation of twin
boundaries that separate regions of the crystal with different
crystal structures. Twin boundaries can also form during
epitaxial growth, which is a process in which a crystal is grown
on a substrate with a similar crystal structure. During this
process, twin boundaries can form between the crystal and the
substrate due to differences in crystal orientation.

Effects: Twin boundaries can affect the mechanical properties

of materials by acting as barriers to dislocation motion, which
can increase the material's strength and hardness, but
decrease its ductility and toughness. Twin boundaries can also
affect the electrical and magnetic properties of materials, by
acting as sites for charge trapping or by affecting the transport
of electrons or magnetic domains across the boundary. Twin
boundaries can affect the grain growth behavior of materials, by
acting as sites for heterogeneous nucleation of new grains,
which can affect the microstructure and texture of the material.
Twin boundaries can also affect the corrosion behavior of
materials, by acting as sites for preferential corrosion or by
affecting the transport of ions or electrons across the boundary.
Twin boundaries can also affect the phase transformation
behavior of materials, by acting as sites for nucleation or by
affecting the growth or propagation of the transformed phase.

Significant: Increase in strength, control of microstructure

Control of properties and design of new materials.
Source: https://www.mae.ucla.edu/mechanics-and-physics-
of-material-defects/