Research methodologies

Distinguish between technique,

method and methodology
Technique- tool/device to collect data
Formal or informal
Eg) questionnaire, interview, oralhistories, life histories etc

Method - broader than technique ; Refers to way of

conducting
and implementing research
Eg ) comparative method, historical method

Methodology – Philosophy and science behind

research Provides Logic and relevance of
Methods/ techniques in research
Distant study, Primary or secondary source study etc
Technique

Method

Methodology
Genealogy method

Difficulties- 1.Taboo against revealing ancestor

names
2. cross checking not possible
Def- use of Pedigree showing ramifications 3. Subjectivity
of kinship linkages/usages/ terms . Significance and conclusion -
Origin – 1st used by George Grey – study of It helps to study demography, social structure
tribes inW.Australia Now Considered an essential method in
Used by Morgan – kinship system – sociological investigation
Iroquois
Rivers – developed this method on scientific
lines
Technique involved – Choosing Ego
 preparing a pedigree chart
connecting ego with ancestors, relatives
 OBSERVATION
1. Uncontrolled Observation
Uncontrolled observation is a form of observation which is made in the natural
environment without being influenced by outside control or external factors.
Most of the knowledge about the social phenomena is generally derived
through uncontrolled observation. There are two types of uncontrolled
observations, participant observation and non-participant observation.

a) Participant Observation: When the researcher actively participates in the

activities of the group under investigation, it is known as participant
observation. In the extreme level of participant observation, the researcher
might conceal one’s identity. It can be called total participant observation.
Such kind of observation is resorted to when the researcher intends to keep the
natural setting intact, without any kind of disturbance. In situations in which
one’s role is confined to that of a researcher and it is openly declared, is known
as quasi-participant observation.
The observer -
• Takes part in the social events which she or
he is observing.
•Assumes a role or undertakes a job that is
acceptable in the given social context.
•Ensures that the observer’s presence in the
group does not disturb the normal life of the
group.
•Generally lives, shares and participates in the everyday life of
the group.
•Associates with the group not as a researcher but as a full-
fledged member of the group.

• Observe the behaviour of the members of the community.

• Discerns the inter-action and relationship between them.

Engages in conversation with them to find out their responses,

•
meanings and explanations of the events that occur.

•Studies the life of a community or social unit as a whole

(holistic study).
1.Content of observation: The observer must decide what is to be observed, how to
observe, who the participants are and in what way they are related to each other.
2.Recording of observation: It is essential that what is observed should be
immediately recorded because memory is likely to fail at any time. When it is not
possible to record on the spot, it should be done as early as possible.
3.Relationship between the observer and the members of society: The observer
should establish and maintain a good rapport with the members of the group. A good
rapport means friendly relationship and understanding with the members of the society.
This will help the observer to acquire their co-operation in all activities. Most
participant observations normally fall under the category of quasi-participant
observation.
4.Precautions to be taken in Participant Observation: The observers are expected to
take certain precautions while undertaking an ethnographic research. The observer is
expected to
• Be highly sensitive to the situations and social contexts of the research
• Behave in a responsible manner; otherwise the task becomes more
complicated.
• Claim no superiority over the group.
•Seek no special status, lest it destroys the very purpose of the
study.
•Maintain objectivity, irrespective of developing a high level of
proximity through a successful rapport establishment with the
group in the course of one’s research
Non-participant observation: conducted an observation without
actively participating in the activities of the group.
• Did you get involved in their activities?
• Did the group members know your identity?
•How do the lack of rapport and the presence of the outsider in
the group affect the behaviour of the group members?
• How reliable do you think the data is?
When the observer does not actively participate in the activities of the group
and simply observes them as a total outsider, it is known as non-participant
observation. This can be conducted by the researcher either by keeping
away from the group, without revealing the identity to the subjects or by
being present in the group, but without involving in their activities.
Sometimes, it is impossible for a non-participant observer to be totally
passive and therefore might try to associate with the group. In such an event,
a Non-participant observer would be moving from a total non-participation
to become a Quasi-participant observer.
Demerits of Non-participant observation:
• The dangers of subjectivity are more pronounced.
•As the group might feel uncomfortable in the presence of a third
person, it might lead to an artificial alteration of the group’s bahaviour.
•Nobody would like to open their true feelings, actions, attitude and
opinion before a stranger, with whom they hardly have any kind of
rapport.
•Due to conscious effort to keep a detachment, the non-participant
observer may even be looked with suspicion, which is again a serious
limitation. Thus, the non- participant observer may not gain real insight
into the phenomena.
2. Controlled Observation
In this type, an attempt is made to exercise control over the phenomena or
observation. This is done according to a particular plan. Thus, it is possible
to make an objective study and keep the observation free from biases and
prejudices. As it is difficult to impose control on the phenomena in
Anthropological observation, generally controls are imposed on the observer.
Such controls increase precision, ensure reliability and increase objectivity.
The devices used for making control over the observer are given below.
Could you complete the list?
• Detailed observation plan
• Use of schedules and check-lists
• Use of socio-metric scales
• Use of hypothesis
• Mechanical instruments
Case Study method
Case Study means intensive study of a case. Case is a
social unit with a deviant bahaviour. It is a method of
qualitative analysis. It is extensively used in
psychology, education, sociology, anthropology,
economics and political science. It aims at obtaining a
complete and detailed account of a social phenomenon
or a social unit, which may be a person, family,
community, institution or an event.
Essential characteristics of Case Study are:
•It is an intensive, comprehensive and detailed study of a social
unit
•It helps to understand the personal as well as the hidden
dimensions of human life The Case study method helps retaining
the holistic and meaningful characteristics of real life events –
such as individual life cycles, small group behaviuor, etc.
•It is like a case history of a patient. As a patient goes to the
doctor with some serious disease, the doctor records the case
history. Analysis of case history helps in the diagnosis of the
patient’s illness. Anthropologists study the case history of a
group.
Case history may be obtained, using a combination of different methods
and techniques such as interview, participant observation etc. However,
questionnaire and schedule are highly ineffective in the Case Study.
Sources of Data for Case Study: In Case Study, information may be
collected from various sources. The important sources include
• Life histories
• Personal documents, letters and records
• Biographies
• Information obtained through interviews
• Observation
1.Advantages of Case Study: The following are some of the advantages
of Case Study. Enhance the list, by adding your own understanding.
1.A Case Study helps to probe the in depth analysis of a social unit.
2.It is suitable for collecting data pertaining to sensitive areas of a
social phenomenon.
3.It helps to collect details regarding the diverse habits, traits and
qualities of the unit under investigation.
4.The data obtained through Case Study is useful for formulation of
hypothesis and also to provide clues for further research.
•Limitations of Case Study
• Case history records could be open to errors due to faulty selection
of case and inaccurate observation.
• It is very difficult to draw generalisations on the basis of a few
cases.
• No uniform and standardised system has been developed for
recording case history.
• The investigator’s bias might distort the quality of the Case Study.
• Case Study is time-consuming and costly in certain cases
1.Select a case/ problem for investigation-consider the time constraint while
selecting a case.
2.Determine the status of the unit/phenomena under study.
3.Formulate a hypothesis on the individual case.
4.Collect data using appropriate methods and techniques such as
observation, interview etc.
5.Analyse the data by comparing, and reviewing the same with past
experiences.
6. Arrive at conclusions
The Case Study Method in Anthropology is used in many different research
projects from ethnography of urban poverty, through studies of charismatic
Christianmovements,Cultural Property and in visualmethods.
•Professor Caroline Moser - Caroline Moser, Professor of Urban Development and
Director of GURCusesvariations of the casestudy in her usesof the participatory
urban appraisal methods to conduct research into peace processes, urban
violence, aswell asclimatechange.
•Dr Andrew Irving - Andrew Irving has used variations of the casestudy associal
drama when examining life-events of his informants, aswayto accesstheir
thoughts about immanence of death (which he calls interior knowledge).
•Professor KarenSykes- KarenSykesoriginally experimented with the use of case
study method in order to understand how people cameto seecultural property
rights asalegal device to protect their cultural life from exploitation. Her book
“Culture and Cultural Property in the NewGuinea Islands Region: Seven Case
Studies” wasco-authored with J.Simet and S.Kameneand features the work of
five female students at the University of Papua NewGuinea.
 ORAL HISTORIES

Oral history is a method of conducting historical research through

recorded interviews between a narrator with personal experience of historically
significant events and a well-informed interviewer, with the goal of adding to
the historical record.
They may be individual or group stories
Named universities recognising them as source for desertations
India china war 1962--- personal confirmation
oral history might be understood as a self-conscious, disciplined conversation between two
people about some aspect of the past considered by them to be of historical significance and
intentionally recorded for the record.
Oral history is a primary source material obtained by recording the spoken word of persons
thought to have previously unavailable information that is worth preserving. Oral history is
only now being integrated within the discipline of archaeology.
The following information is offered as a guide to archaeologists, anthropologists or
historians who wish to expand their project’s research methodology to include the
collection of information through oral interviews .
The most important step in the incorporation of any oral history data is the reason for its
inclusion.There are both Folklore and Historical approaches to conducting oral history.
Historians understand that oral history is not a perfect means to capture history due to the
foibles of the human mind
Shruti and smriti in Indian historical studies
Folktales
Native artforms
UN Mission on migrant women populations in Africa and elsewhere.
 Life histories
Life-history is a method of qualitative research, frequently, but not exclusively, used in
anthropology and in the health sciences today. It provides an alternative to empirical methods for
identifying and documenting health patterns of individuals and groups.
Life-history allows the researcher to explore a person’s micro-historical (individual) experiences
within a macro-historical (history of the time) framework. Life-history information challenges
the researcher to understand an individual’s current attitudes and behaviors and how they may
have been influenced by initial decisions made at another time and in another place. Life-history
as qualitative researchmethodwas first used when interviewing indigenous peoples of the Americas,
the subjects being native American leaders.
 Demerits of life history
Given byWilliam McKinley Runyan
Biased
Non ethnocentric
Neglect of ethnographer’s relation with the subject
Observer to be passive
May or may not confirm to history
Fails to sustain a theoretical argument
If language, rhetoric, humor, allegory etc of the subject are neglect, it becomes difficult to bring a
true story.
Crapanzano- life history is a text.When anthropologist analyses it
he does not analyse the social process there. He studies and
analyses a text that is already subject several complex social
processes.