EXCAVATION OF SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS

 Excavation is the process of removing the soil until a firm solid ground is
reached.

 It is the requirement of the Kenya building code that foundation be taken

down to a firm base.

The depth to which the foundation is laid depends on the nature of the
building.

 Excavation to the required depth is carried out by hand (manual)on small

jobs and by machines for bigger jobs.

Factors Influencing the Methods of Excavations

 Methods of excavation to be used are governed by:

i. The size of the area

ii. Volume of soil to be excavated

iii. Type of soil on site

iv. Time factor

v. Availability of equipment

vi. Depth of excavation

Manual Excavation

 It is the removal of soil from excavation using hand tools such as:

i. Jembe

ii. Pick axe

iii. Mattock

iv. Panga

v. Spade/shovel
 vi. Wheelbarrow

vii. Claw hammer

viii. Sledgehammer

ix. Iron pans/metal karai’s

x. Crow bar

xi. Hand auger

Mechanical Excavation

 It is the removal of soil from trenches using machines.

 These machines includes:

i. Drag line

ii. Power shovel

iii. Back hoe/back –actor

iv. Clam shell

v. Front bucket

Timbering

 Timbering is a term used to refer to the temporary supports used to

support the sides of excavations from collapsing which may result in
accidents.

 It is sometimes called planking and strutting.

 The sides of excavations will need support to:

i. Protect the operatives (workers) while working in excavations.

ii. Keep the excavations open by acting as retaining walls of the sides of the
trench.

 Over a short period of time many soils may not require timbering.
Factors to Consider when Timbering

i. Depth of excavation

ii. Type of soil to be excavated

iii. Weather condition

iv. Duration the trench will remain open

v. The safety of the surrounding property and roads. Any collapse or ground
movement may affect the foundations of surrounding property, causing
settlement.

vi. The nature of the ground can also be determined whether supports are
required during excavation or whether the supports can be provided
after completion of the excavation.

vii. The method of excavation

 A machine bucket will not be affected by a trench collapse whereas a

man might be killed.

viii. The ease of removal of the support during the backfilling operation.

ix. The safety of the workmen working in the trench. The workmen are at
risk from:

a) The sides of the trench collapsing

b) Soil falling from the sides of the excavation.

c) Materials falling into the trench from above.

d) Other men falling into the trench.

e) The operating machinery in operation.

f) Vehicles being driven into the excavation.

Safety and Good Working Attitudes

 i. Traffic

 Movement of trucks, wagons and other mechanical equipment should not

be allowed to be close to the trench.

ii. Ladders

 Ladders should be provided with suitable steps along the trench so that
laborers may escape to safety in case of accidents.

iii. Safety helmets

 It is very likely that some timber may fall when timbering and may injure
a laborer.

iv. Supervisor

 There must be a supervisor to look after the welfare of the workers

working in the trench. A lone worker should not be allowed to enter the
excavation.

 After the end of the day’s work it should be assured that all the workers
have come out of trench.

v. Fencing and lighting

 Site of excavation trenches should be fenced with barbed wire and

permanent guards should be appointed to prevent any animal or person
falling into the trench.

 If possible red lights should provide light in the night in thre night to
prevent accidents

vi. Safety of adjacent structures

 If foundations of adjacent structures is unsafe because of this

excavation , it should be given proper temporary supports with the help
of shores.

vii. First aid box

  First aid boxes should be provided to treat injuries at site itself.

Methods of preventing trench collapse

a) By timbering.

b) By building retaining walls.

c) By battering the sides of trenches.

d) By use of shores (shoring).

Simple Side Supports

i. Timbering in hard soils

ii. Timbering in firm soils
iii. Timbering in loose dry soils
iv. Timbering in loose wet soils
FOUNDATIONS
It’s the base onto which a building rests. The function of any foundation is to
safely sustain and transmit to the ground on which it rests the combined dead,
imposed and wind loads in such a manner as not to cause any settlement or other
movement which would impair the stability or cause damage to any part of the
building.

FUNCTIONS OF A FOUNDATION.

a) Distribute the loads evenly

b) Reduce load intensity
c) Provide a level surface onto which other structural members can be built
on.
d) Lateral stability
e) Safety against undermining or burrowing.
f) Protection against soil movement

FUNCTIONAL REQUIREMENTS:
i. The foundations should be strong enough to sustain the dead and
live loads imposed onto it and transmit it to the subsoil safely
without impairing the stability of the building.
ii. They should be sufficiently deep to safeguard the structure
against damage caused by swelling or shrinkage of the subsoil.
iii. It should be located in such a way that its performance won’t be
affected by any future influence.
iv. It should be constructed with durable materials so as to last long.

TERMINOLOGIES:

 Topsoil: are soils below the surface being 300 mm deep

 Subsoil: are soils located immediately below the base of foundation.
 Backfill: materials excavated from site and if suitable used to fill in the
trench around the wall and foundation.
 Made ground: this is the excavated rocks or soils deposited for the
purpose of filling in depression or raising the site above natural level.
 Bearing pressure: pressure induced/produced on the ground by the load
 Bearing capacity: this is safe load per unit area which the soil can safely
carry.

METHODS OF IMPROVING SOIL BEARING CAPACITY:

1) Increasing the depth of the foundation: this is due to confining weight of

the overlying materials to the granular soil.
 2) Compaction of soil: compaction increases the bearing capacity of soil and
reduces settlement.
3) Drainage of soil: water decreases the bearing capacity of soil. Draining it
results in decreased void ratio and improves the bearing capacity.
4) Confining the soil: reducing settlement due to lateral movement of loose
granular soil. Confining the soil increases the bearing capacity
5) Grouting: this method is used for loose gravels and fissured rocky strata
where cement grout or other chemicals are used to hold together the
granules.

CLASSIFICATION OF FOUNDATIONS:

THERE ARE TWO CLASSES OF FOUNDATIONS:

1) Natural foundations: this is the base onto which the artificial foundation
rests.
2) Artificial foundations: these are the constructed foundations on the
natural foundations. They include; strip foundations, raft foundations,
pad foundation, pile foundation, pier foundations, caissons,e.t.c

STRIP FOUNDATION:

these are shallow foundation that are used to provide a continuous, level (or

sometimes stepped) strip of support to a linear structure such as a wall or
closely-spaced rows of columns built centrally above them.
It can also be described as a spread footing for a continuous wall.

Types of strip foundations:

A. Wide strip foundation

Wide strip foundations may be required where the soil is soft or of a

low bearing capacity, so as to spread the load over a larger area. Wide strip
foundations will typically require reinforcement.

B. Deep strip foundation:

Deep strip foundations may be necessary where soil with a suitable bearing

capacity is deeper. Deep strip foundation are usually dug out with mechanical
excavators which cuts a narrow trench that is backfilled with concrete up to
ground level. It reduces the cost of masonry wall and may remove the need for
timber supports for the trench.

C. Stepped foundation:

Where the natural surface of the ground is sloped, the most economical

solution may be a stepped foundation. In this case, the foundation takes the
 form of a series of concrete horizontal steps following the slope of
the ground.

This helps to minimize the amount of excavation and below-ground wall

construction that would otherwise be required. Stepped foundations can also be
used to transition from deep foundations to shallow foundations, and at corners
and intersections.

Regularly stepping foundations also avoids abrupt and excessive changes in level

that could cause a weakness resulting in movement. Similarly, abrupt and
excessive changes in foundation depths should be avoided at corners and
intersections by the introduction of stepping.

Requirements for Stepped Foundations

i. The steps are arranged in short length at regular heights, usually a

multiple of the building unit courses.

ii. The overlap of the higher level to the lower level should not be less than
the thickness of the foundation and in no case less than 300mm.
DESIGN OF A SIMPLE STRIP FOUNDATION.

Since the settlement of the structure occurs during its working life, the design
loading to be considered when calculating the size of the base should be taken
as the for the serviceability limit.

The calculations for the strip foundation depend on the load bearing capacity of
the soil and the pressure of the load to be supported.
Area of foundation = Load (KN)/ bearing capacity (kn/m 2)

The thickness of the foundation must be at least 150mm.

Example:

Design the size of a strip foundation using the following information; bearing
capacity of the ground= 72KN/M2.

Wall thickness = 215 mm

Load of foundation=25kn/m

Solution: area=load/b. c

For 1m length, width=25/72

=0.347m

= approx. 350 mm

Foundation projection/spread = (foundation-wall thickness)/2

= (350-215)/2

=67.5 mm

Foundation depth =projection, and depth must be at least 150mm. hence adopt
150 mm (at least)

Final size = 350mm x150mm

Assignment:

Design a strip foundation to carry a 275 mm wide cavity wall, if the total is
60KN/M run of wall and the ground is stiff sandy clay with a bearing capacity of
102 KN/M2.

PAD/ISOLATED FOUNDATION

Pad foundations are used to support an individual point load such as a structural
column. They may be circular, square or rectangular

This is a foundation used to support and transmit loads from piers and columns.
The most economical plan is a square but if the columns are close to the site
boundary it may be necessary to use a rectangular plan shape of equivalent area.
The isolated concrete pad foundation are spread in the base of an excavation on
which piers/column of bricks or concrete are raised to ground level to support
reinforced concrete ground beams off which the walls are raised.

RAFT FOUNDATION/MAT FOUNDATION:

These consists of a raft of a reinforced concrete under the whole of the

building designed to transmit the load of the building to the subsoil beneath the
raft. This foundation covers the entire area beneath a structure and supports
all walls and columns.

Raft foundation is actually a thick concrete slab resting on a large area of soil
reinforced with steel, supporting columns or walls and transfer loads from the
structure to the soil. Usually, mat foundation is spread over the entire area of
the structure it is supporting.

Raft foundation is generally used to support structures like residential or

commercial buildings where soil condition is poor, storage tanks, silos,
foundations for heavy industrial equipment etc.

Raft foundation is preferred when-

 The soil has a low bearing capacity.

 Load of the structure has to be distributed over a large area.
 Individual or any other foundation area would approximately cover 50% of
the total ground area beneath the structure.
 The columns or walls are placed so closely that the individual footings
would overlap.
 Stress on soil needs to be reduced.
 There is a possibility of differential settlement in case individual footing
is used.
 When soil strata are unpredictable and contain pockets of compressible
soil.
 Basement is to be constructed.
 Any other type of footing cannot be used advantageously.

Types of Raft Foundation;

1. Flate plate mat

2. Plate thickened under the column
 3. Two-way beam and slab Raft
4. Plate raft with pedestals
5. Plied raft
6. Rigid Frame Mat or Cellular Raft Foundation

DEEP FOUNDATIONS: these foundations include pile foundation, pier

foundations, caissons foundation or well foundation. Pile is the most used among
them.

PILE FOUNDATION:

This type of foundation is used when:

 The load of the superstructure is heavy and its distribution is uneven.

 The top soil has poor bearing capacity.
 The subsoil water level is high so that pumping of water from open
trenches for the shallow foundation is difficult and uneconomical.
 There is a large fluctuation in subsoil water level.
 When the site is on the sea shore or a river bed. The top soil is of
expansive nature.
 Canal or deep drainage lines exist near foundations.
 There is danger of scouring action of water.

CLASSIFICATIONS OF PILE FOUNDATION.

 Classification based on function or use of a pile. I.e. end bearing pile,

friction pile, compaction pile, anchor pile, sheet pile etc.
 Classification based on materials and composition i.e. concrete pile,
timber pile, steel pile, composite pile etc.

TYPES OF PILES:

 Bored or replacement piles: this concrete correctly poured into holes in

the ground at measured intervals.
 Driven or displacement piles: these are tree trunks that are hammered
into soft ground at spaced intervals.

Shot bored piled foundation: these are used for small houses and light weight
framed buildings constructed on soils that expand and contract with changes in
the moisture content e.g. clay and black cotton. These kind of foundations aren’t
suitable for use on rock, flint, or sites with many roots because the hole must
be straight and consistent in diameter
 TRENCH EXCAVATION

Excavation is the process of removing earth to form a cavity in the ground.

A trench is an excavation in which the length greatly exceeds the depth.
Shallow trenches are usually considered to be less than 6 m deep, and deep
trenches greater than 6 m.

Trench, or footing, excavation is typically used to form strip foundations,

buried services, and so on. The choice of technique and plant for excavating,
supporting and backfilling the trench depends on factors such as;

 the purpose of the trench,

 the ground conditions, the trench location,

 the number of obstructions, e.t.c

The common techniques that are used include:

 Full depth, full length: Suitable for long narrow trenches of shallow depth,
such as pipelines and sewers.
 Full depth, successive stages: Suitable for deep trenches
where works can progress in sequence, reducing the risk of collapse.
 Stage depth, successive stages: Suitable for very deep trenches in
confined areas, deep foundations and underpinning.

Trench excavation is done using the following methods:

1. HAND EXCAVATIONS:
This is the use of human energy to form cavities on the ground by use of
simple tools which include:

Trenching shovel
 A trenching shovel makes light work of narrow trenches as
it only removes soil wide enough for pipe work.
The square mouth of the shovel helps keep a flat bed for the pipe to lie in. The
handle (made either of plastic or wood) should be light and strong and
preferably long handled to ease the strain on the back.

Turf Cutter

These are small motor driven machines that have a V

shaped blade attachment for cutting into the turf. This allows for the removal
for the turf soil whilst creating the trench at the same time. They are hand-
operated machines.

Spade

Spades can be used to cut trenches in existing lawn, as they have a sharp blade.
They are inexpensive and available from most hardware stores.

Shovels

There are generally two types of shovels used in industry:

the wide mouth shovel and the pointed mouth shovel.
The wide mouth shovel is useful for picking up sand and other materials from
hard surfaces and the pointed mouth shovel is used for excavation when large
amounts of sand need to be removed.
Pick axe

Pick axes are another useful tool to have around when you need to excavate
trenches. They can be used to cut through existing roots or hard ground to
create trenches.
Useful for penetrating hard ground and breaking it up so that the trench can
then be prepared with a trenching shovel.

Rake

Rakes are inexpensive and are often used to clear rocky or

uneven ground prior to excavation
Rakes can be used to tidy up sites after trenches have been excavated and they
are also used to refill trenches after pipes have been laid.

Hand trowel

Hand trowels are useful tools for clearing trenches after the
pipe is laid. They are also good for small excavations.

Mattock

Mattocks are useful for cleaning out trenches in sand or breaking soil when
digging is hard.
varies depending on size and is usually expensive.

1. MACHINE EXCAVATION:

This is the use of mechanical means to create trenches. There are various
machines used which include:
Chain Trencher

A chain trencher is a machine that drives a chain to

dig trenches. Its action is similar to a chain saw and the chain moves around a
blade to excavate the soil. They are used for large commercial irrigation
projects where digging into hard soil is a problem. The width of the trench
needs to be kept to a minimum where a deep trench is required. Cost to hire
varies depending on size and is usually expensive.

Excavators

An excavator is a track driven machine, which operates by

scooping the soil and depositing it beside the trench. They are used for large
commercial jobs.

Disc or blade trencher

These are small motor driven machines designed

specifically for digging small trenches usually 80mm x 200mm. They are
inexpensive to purchase, are fast and make light work of digging. They are easy
to transport.
Skid steer machines

These are machines with buckets that are used to move

soil and are useful for levelling and general earth works. skid steer machines are
not generally used to dig trenches, as this may require adapting the machine for
the purpose.

TRENCH BOTTOMING AND TREATMENT

FOUNDATION MATERIALS