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Class 11 Compiled Chintu Notes ..
Class 11 Compiled Chintu Notes ..
WHAT IS LIVING?
CHARACTERISTICS OF LIVING
Defining
Non - Defining Characteristics
Characteristics
Metabolism,
Growth Cellular organisation
Reproduction Consciousness
NOMENCLATURE
• Obviously, nomenclature or naming is only possible when the organism is described correctly. This is identification.
International Code for Botanical Nomenclature (ICBN). International Code for Viral Nomenclature (ICVN).
International Code of Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN). International Code for Nomenclature of Bacteria (ICNB).
BINOMIAL NOMENCLATURE
Two components
Generic name Specific epithet
• First word in a biological name represents the genus while the second component denotes the specific epithet.
• First word denoting the genus starts with a capital letter while the specific epithet starts with a small letter.
• Both words in a biological name, when handwritten, are separately underlined, or printed in italics to indicate their Latin origin.
• Name of the author appears after the specific epithet, i.e., at the end of the biological name and is written in an. abbreviated form, e.g., Mangifera
indica Linn. It indicates that this species was first described by Linnaeus.
Taxonomy
Kingdom
with their
Wheat Triticum aestivum Poaceae Poales Monocotyledonae Angiospermae Plantae
Dog Canis familiaris Canidae Carnivora Mammalia Chordata Animalia
Taxonomic Cat
Tiger
Felis catus
Panthera tigris
Felidae
Felidae
Carnivora
Carnivora
Mammalia
Mammalia
Chordata
Chordata
Animalia
Animalia
• Museums have collections of preserved plant and animal • These are the places where wild animals are kept in
specimens for study and reference. protected environments under human care and which
enable us to learn about their food habits and behaviour.
• Plant and animal specimens may also be preserved as dry
specimens. • All animals in a zoo are protected, as far as possible, the
conditions are similar to their natural habitats.
• Insects are preserved in insect boxes after collecting, killing and
pinning.
6. FLORA
• Larger animals are usually stuffed and preserved.
• Flora contains the actual account of habitat and distribution of
• Museums often have collections of animals skeletons. plants of a given area.
5. KEY 7. MANUALS
• Key is the taxonomical aid used for identification of plants • They are useful in providing information for identification of
names of species found in an area.
and animals based on the similarities and dissimilarities.
• The keys are based on the contrasting characters generally
in a pair called couplet. 8. MONOGRAPHS
Each statement in the key is called a lead.
• They contain information on any one specific taxon.
Keys are generally analytical in nature .
Chapter
BIOLOGICAL
02 CLASSIFICATION
Number of species
o
1. 7 -1.8 million
• Aristotle used simple morphological characters to classify plants into trees, shrubs and herbs.
• He divided animals into two groups, one which had red blood (Enaima) and those that did not (Anaima).
• Two kingdom classification : Linnaeus divided all organisms into two kingdoms, Plantae & Animalia. cellway
Cell way
aTHREE KINGDOM CLASSIFICATION SIX KINGDOM CLASSIFICATION
• Ernst Haeckel created a new kingdom Protista, having t
only unicellular eukaryotes.
• Carl Woese
eFOUR KINGDOM CLASSIFICATION • Three domains
1. Archaea: Archaebacteria
• Copeland (1956). 2. Bacteria: Eubacteria
• Copeland created a separate kingdom 'Monera' 3. Eukarya: Includes 4 eukaryotic kingdoms-
Plantae, Animalia, Protista and Fungi.
aFIVE KINGDOM CLASSIFICATION
• By R.H. Whittaker
1. Plantae, 2. Animalia, 3. Protista, 4. Monera and 5. Fungi
Q
Monera Protista Fungi Plantae Animalia
a
Cell type Prokaryotic
Noncellulosic
Eukaryotic
I Eukaryotic Eukaryotic Eukaryotic
peptidoglycan
Nuclear Membrane Absent Present
u Present v Present u v
Present
Multicellular/ loose Tissue/organ/ organ
Body organisation Cellular Cellular Tissue/organ
tissue system
m
I
Autotrophic
(chemosynthetic and
Autotrophic aHeterotrophic
photosynthetic) and Heterotrophic Autotrophic
I
Mode of nutrition (Photosynthetic) and (Holozoic/
Heterotrophic (Saprophytic/ Parasitic) (Photosynthetic)
Heterotrophic Saprophytic etc.)
(Saprophytic
/parasitic)
KINGDOM MONERA (I) BACTERIA
Coccus - Spherical
• Prokaryotes. Archaebacteria & Eubacteria
E Bacillus - Rod-shaped
o
1. ARCHAEBACTERIA Vibrium - Comma shaped D
• Live in some of the most harsh habitats. Cell membrane Spirillum - Spiral.
• Halophiles : Inhabit salty areas.
• Reproduce mainly by fission
• Thermoacidophiles : Inhabit hot springs/deep sea water.
• Methanogens : In marshy areas and gut of ruminants.
• Under favourable conditions, they produce spore
e
Archaebacteria differ from other bacteria in having a different cell
wall structure or different cell membrane structure e Mandiversity
NUTRITION IN BACTERIA
2. EUBACTERIA
Autotrophic Heterotrophic
• 'True bacteria' Includes bacteria, cyanobacteria (BGA), and
mycoplasma. 1. Photoautotropic 1. Saprophytic
2. Chemoautotropic 2. Parasitic
3. Symbiotic
Cholera Vibrio cholerae • Cyanobacteria of BGA = Blue green algae are unicellular,
colonial or filamentous.
Typhoid Salmonella typhi • Cyanobacteria have chlorophyll a similar to green plants.
• Nostoc & Anabaena are cyanobacteria that can fix atmospheric
Tetanus Clostridium tetani v nitrogen in specialised cells called heterocysts.
MYCOPLASMA :
Citrus canker Xanthomonas citri
e e • Mycoplasma are also called PPLO. Lack a cell wall, are the smallest
cells and can survive without oxygen. Triple
layer
Trembrane
KINGDOM PROTISTA
All single-celled eukaryotes. DINOFLAGELLATES
CHRYSOPHYTES
Includes diatoms & desmids (golden algae). • Cell wall has stiff cellulose plates. • Dinoflagellates
have 2 flagella : One lies longitudinally and the other
transversely rwpliu movement
• Red dinoflagellates (Gonyaulax) undergo such rapid
DIATOMS multiplication making the sea appear red (red tides).
• Toxins (SAXITOXIN) released by them may even kill
• Cell wall forms two thin overlapping shells that fit
other marine animals such as fishes.
together as in a soap box.
• Walls are embedded with silica
• Large amount of cell wall deposits is referred to as
Into
ngitgi.my
diatomaceous earth. EUGLENOIDS:
guilty e
Uses :
In polishing, Euglenoids possesses a protein rich layer called pellicle,
In filtration of oils & syrups. instead of cell wall fleibility
of
Diatoms are the chief 'producers' of oceans. They have two flagella, a short & a long one
Euglena acts as connecting link between plants and animals.
Autotrophic
Heterotrophic
Slime Moulds PROTOZOANS
Reproduction in Fungi
O
• With the exception of yeasts which are unicellular,
fungi are filamentous.
• Their bodies consist of long, slender thread-like Vegetative Asexual Reproduction Sexual Reproduction
structures called hyphae. Network of hyphae is known Means To
as mycelium.
Fragmentation Conidia zygol Oospores
O
• Some hyphae are continuous tubes filled with
multinucleated cytoplasm are called coenocytic hyphae. Fissio n Zoospore Ascospores
• Cell walls of fungi are composed of chitin. Aseptatyphae n
WII so Budding
from
Sporangiospore Basidiospores
dikaryotic stage (n + n, i.e., two nuclei per cell) occurs; such a condition spore agooosporesexual
• Examples : Mucor Rhizopus albugo
is called a dikaryon and the phase is called dikaryophase of fungus.
• The fungi form fruiting bodies in which reduction division occurs, • Rhizopus : White spots seen on mustard
leading to formation of haploid spores. leaves are due to a parasitic fungus (Albugo).
É
a
Penicillium unicellular, e.g., yeast (Saccharomyces).
• 'Mycelium is branched and septate
• Grow in soil, on logs and tree stumps and in living plant bodies as
Ei
parasites, e.g., rusts and smuts. The mycelium is branched and
O
• Asexual spores are conidia produced exogenously on the special septate.
mycelium called conidiophores. Conidia on germination produce
mycelium.
o
• Asexual spores are generally not found, vegetative
reproduction by fragmentation is common.
• Sexual spores are called ascospores are produced
f
• Sex organs are absent.
endogenously Asay Fruitingbody Ascocarp stages
• Basidiospores are exogenously produced on the basidium
• Examples : Aspergillus, Claviceps and Neurospora. Morels ,basidia are arranged in fruiting bodies called basidiocarps.
(Morchella) and truffles are edible Yeast (Saccharomyces, • Examples : Agaricus (mushroom), Ustilago (smut), Puccinia (rust
cerevisiae) called Baker's yeast and Brewer's yeast fungus).
CLASS 4 -DEUTEROMYCETES e
blankets
No virus contains both RNA and DNA.
Autotrophic Heterotrophic
(i) ssRNA : TMV, HIV (Retrovirus).
TMV has a coiled RNA strand.
(ii) ssDNA : Φ x 174 Bacteriophage. Prepare food Absorb mineral, nutrient, H2O
The genetic material is infectious. and provide shelter
PLANT KINGDOM
Chapter
03
INTRODUCTION
Algae, Bryophytes, Pteridophytes, Gymnosperms and Angiosperms
Numerical taxonomy
CYTOTAXONOMY
• It is based on all observable characteristics. Number and codes are • Based on cytological information like chromosome number,
assigned to all the characters and the data are then processed. structure and behaviour.
Karyotaxonomy Chemotaxonomy
• Based on nucleus and banding patterns of chromosomes. • Uses the chemical constituents of the plant.
ALGAE
Algae are chlorophyll-bearing, simple, thalloid, autotrophic organisms.
form and size of algae is highly variable. Ranges from unicellular forms like Chlamydomonas, to colonial forms like Volvox and to the filamentous forms like Ulothrix
and Spirogyra.
Class 1 - Chlorophyceae
Reproduction (R) in Algae
• Green algae may be unicellular, colonial or filamentous.
Usually green due to chlorophyll a and b.
Vegetative R. Asexual R. Sexual R.
• Chloroplasts may be discoid, plate-like, reticulate, cup-shaped, spiral or ribbon-
shaped in different species.
By fragmentation By Zoospores
• Have one or more storage bodies called pyrenoids- Pyrenoids contain protein
Isogamous Anisogamous Oogamous besides starch.
eg. Some species of eg. Volvox and • Vegetative reproduction usually takes place by fragmentation .
Chlamydomonas Fucus
• Sexual reproduction shows considerable variation and may be isogamous,
anisogamous or oogamous.
Flagellated gametes Non - flagellated
gemetes
• Commonly found green algae are : Chlamydomonas, Volvox, Ulothrix, Spirogyra
and Chara.
1. Brown algae show great variation in size and form range from simple 6. Plant body is usually attached to the substratum by a
branched filamentous forms (Ectocarpus) to profusely branched forms as holdfast, and has a stalk, the stipe and leaf like photosynthetic
represented by kelps. organ — the frond.
2. Possess chlorophyll a, c, carotenoids and xanthophylls. 7. Common forms are Ectocarpus, Macrocystis, Dictyota,
Laminaria (Kelp), Sargassum and Fucus (Rock weed)
3. Vary in colour from olive green to various shades of brown depending upon
the amount of the xanthophyll pigment, fucoxanthin present in them. 8. Alginic acid is obtained from brown algae like Fucus and
Laminaria.
4. Food is stored as complex carbohydrates, which may be in the form of
laminarin or mannitol.
5. Vegetative cells have a cellulosic wall usually covered on outside by a
gelatinous coating of algin.
CLASS 3 - RHODOPHYCEAE
• Commonly called red algae because of predominance of the red • Reproduce asexually by non-motile spores sexually by non-
pigment, r-phycoerythrin in their body. motile gametes.
• Food is stored as floridean starch very similar to amylopectin, • Sexual reproduction is oogamous Polysiphonia, Porphyra,
and glycogen in structure. Gracilaria, Gelidium are examples.
• Red algae usually reproduce vegetatively by fragmentation. • Agar obtained from Gelidium & Gracilaria
BRYOPHYTES
• Non-vascular terrestrial plants • Sex organs in bryophytes are multicellular. Male sex organ called
• Require water for fertilisation. antheridium. They produce biflagellate antherozoids.
• Sphagnum, a moss, provide peat that have long been used as fuel.
• Lack true roots, stem or leaves.
Also has water holding capacity for trans-shipment of living
material.
• Main plant body of the bryophyte is haploid produces gametes, hence
is called a gametophyte.
• Bryophytes are divided into liverworts and mosses.
LIVERWORTS MOSSES
• Plant body of a liverwort is thalloid, e,g., Marchantia. • Predominant stage of the life cycle of a moss is the gametophyte
which consists of two stages. First stage is the protonema stage,
• Thallus is dorsi-ventral and closely appressed to the substrate. which develops direct(y from a spore. It is a creeping, green,
branched and frequently filamentous stage.
• Asexual reproduction takes place by fragmentation or by the formation
of specialised structures called gemmae.
• The second stage is the leafy stage.
• Gemmae are green, multi-cellular, asexual buds.
• Vegetative reproduction in mosses is by fragmentation and
• E.g.: Marchantia, Riccia.
budding in the secondary protonema.
1. Pteridophytes include horsetails and ferns. 5. In majority of the pteridophytes all the spores are of similar kinds;
such plants are called homosporous.
2. In pteridophytes, the main plant body is a sporophyte
6. Genera like Selaginella, Salvinia Marsilea and Azolla which produce
which is differentiated into true root, stem and leaves.
two kinds of spores, macro (large) and micro (small) spores, are known
as heterosporous.
3. Leaves in pteridophyta are small (microphylls) as in The pteridophytes are further classified into four classes:
Selaginella or large (macrophylls) as in ferns.
1. Psilopsida : e.g., Psilotum
4. Sporophytes bear sporangia In some cases sporophylls 2. Lycopsida : e.g., Selaginella and Lycopodium
may form distinct compact structures called strobili or 3. Sphenopsida : e.g., Equisetum (Horsetail)
cones (Selaginella, Equisetum) 4. Pteropsida : e.g., Pteris, Dryopteris and Adiantum.
GYMNOSPERMS ANGIOSPERMS
Differences • Gymnosperms are naked seeded plants Smallest angiosperm : Wolffia
between Bryophytes and Pteridophytes Double fertilisation occurs in these
• Giant redwood tree Sequoia is one of tallest plants.
tree species
Bryophytes Pteridophytes
• All gymnosperms are heterosporous; they
produce haploid microspores and megaspores.
1. Main plant body is gametophyte (haploid). 1. Main plant body is sporophyte (diploid). E.g.: (a) Cycas (b) Pinus (c) Ginkgo (d) Cedrus.
5. Instead of root, rhizoids occurs. 5. True roots are present. (a) Haplontic (b) Diplontic (c) Haplodiplontic
04 ANIMAL KINGDOM
I
BODY TEMPERATURE
BASIS OF CLASSIFICATION
• Poikilothermic or cold blooded eg. invertebrates, fishes,
amphibians (frog) and reptiles.
LEVELS OF ORGANISATION
• Homioithermic or warm blooded animals
e.g., Birds and mammals.
tingle
opening Mouths
Digestive system is incomplete. Coelentrates
and Platyhelminthes
Celluar Level Tissue level Organ level Organ system level Digestive tract has 2 opening mouth and anus,
eg.: Aschelminthes to chordates Complete
MuscularPharynx
Porifera Coelentrata Platyhelminthes Aschelminthes
Ctenophora Arthropoda aCIRCULATORY SYSTEM
Annelida
Mollusca • Open type: Arthropoda, Mollusca and hemichordate.
Echinodermata • Closed type: Eg.: Annelida & chordata
Hemichordata
Chordata
Io
E.g.: Porifer, coelenterates. An undifferentiated layer, mesoglea, is present
in between the ectoderm and the endoderm in Coelentrates.
ctenophore at
Coelentrates, Ctenophores and Platyhelminthes.
• Pseudocoelomate: the body cavity is not lined by mesoderm, instead,
the mesoderm is present as scattered pouches between the ectoderm
• Triploblastic: animals in which the developing embryo has a third germinal
layer, mesoderm, in between the ectoderm and endoderm, O
and endoderm. E.g. Aschelminthes.
(Platyhelminthes to Chordates).
COELOMATE
Ime
Asymmetrical Radial Symmetry Bilateral Symmetry
SEGMENTATION
CMILIE Arthropoda Mollusca Hemichordata
• Metamerism, eg. annelida, arthropoda and chordata.
entggestergal
Notochord
internal
3 parts 3 parts 3 parts
• Notochord is a mesodermally derived rod-like structure formed on the dorsal
I
1. Head 1. Head 1. Proboscis
side during embryonic development in some animals. 2. Thorax 2. Muscular foot 2. Collar
• Animals with notochord are called chordates and those animals which do not 3. Abdomen 3. Visceral hump 3. Trunk
form this structure are called non-chordates, e.g., Porifera to Echinoderms.
Levels of
Symmetry Coelom Phylum
Kingdom organisation
Cellular level Asymmetry Acoelomate
o
Porifera
I
Animalia
(Multicellular)
Tissue or
0
Organ or
Radial
0
Acoelomate
Acoelomate
Cnidaria
Ctenophora
Platyhelminthes
Organ system
Bilateral Pseudococlomates Aschelminthes
Level
Coelomates Annelida
Arthropoda
Mollusca
Echinodermata radial
Trip Hemichordata
Chorclata
f
exclusively marine.
• The body bears eight external rows of ciliated comb Lazy e
PHYLUM [4] PLATYHEIMINTHES
plates, which help in locomotion.
• Bioluminescence (the property of a living organism to emit light) is • Flatworms.
well-marked in ctenophores. • Flame cells or protonephridia help in osmoregulation and excretion.
• Reproduction takes place only by sexual means. • Sexes are not separate. Schistosoma
Fertilisation is external with indirect development. e.g., Pleurobrachia, • Fertilisation is internal and development is through many larval
Ctenoplana. stages.
Parasitize
• Planaria possess high regeneration capacity.
Eg.: Tapeworm (Taenia), Liver fluke (Fasciola), Planaria.
PHYLUM [5] ASCHELMINTHES dugesine
Pseudowelomatew
• Roundworms. sound
A
• Alimentary canal is complete with a well -developed muscular pharynx.
Asexually
• Sexes are separate (dioecious), Often females are longer than males.
of
• Fertilisation is internal and development may be direct e.g., Common Polyp
round worm (Ascaris), Filaria worm (Wuchereria), Hookworm
Medusa
(Ancylostoma).
Sexually
tie
• Nereis is dioecious whereas earthworms and leeches are monoecious.
Eg. Hydra, Adamsia Eg. Aurelia
Eg.: leech (Hirudinaria), Nereis and Earthworm.
Tete again
Parapodia xx
setae
limulus
Booggin
PHYLUM [7] ARTHROPODA Respiration
as Censtacean
Booklungs arachnids
trachea insect
• Largest phylum. Examples : Prawn, Scorpion, Spider
• Body of arthropods is covered by chitinous exoskeleton. Economically important insects :
• Body consists of head, thorax and abdomen. Apis (Honey bee), Bombyx (Silkworm), Laccifer (Lac insect).
Vectors : Anopheles, Culex and
me
• They have jointed appendages.
• Circulatory system is of open type. Aedes (Mosquitoes)
• Statocysts or balance organs are present. Gregarious pest : Locusta (Locust).
Living fossil : Limulus (king crab)
• Excretion takes place through malpighian tubules. insect O e
• Mostly dioecious, fertilization internal, development may be 3 direct
or indirect. crustacean
Antennaryglandlgrengland Aquatic
coxaegland Arachnids
Itt
PHYLUM {10} HEMICHORDATE onion
81andtail
cord
Nerve THREE SUBPHYLA: Post
man
• Excretory organ is proboscis gland. ceasamation enemy
• Urochordata , Cephalochordate and Vertebrata.
E.g.: Balanoglossus
Gongmitentralene • Urochordata and cephalochordate are often referred to as
Saccoglossus and notochord protochordates and are exclusively marine.
circulate
indirect Dorsatnoweard
open
• In Urochordata, notochord is present only in larval tail, while
in Cephalochordata, it extends from head to tail region and is
persistent throughout their life.
Chordata (phylum)
• Urochordata : Ascidia (Ascidians), Salpa, Doliolum
Subphylum
Cephalochordata : Branchiostoma (Amphioxus or Lancelet).
umigaF
4. Mammalia eg.: Petromyzon (Lamprey) and Myxine (Hagfish).
CLASS – 1 CHONDRICHTHYES OR
CARTILAGENOUS FISHES CLASS - 2 OSTEICHTHYES OR BONY FISHES
annex
• Torpedo or Rays and some possess poison sting (e.g.,
Trygon). Males pelvic fins bear claspers.
stingray
• Mostly oviparous and development is direct.
Eg. : Marine - Exocoetus (Flying fish), Hippocampus (Sea
horse)
• Internal fertilization and many of them are viviparous.
Fresh water: Labeo (Rohu),
Examples: Scoliodon (Dog fish) Pristis (Saw fish) Carcharodon Catla (Katla), Clarias (Magur)
(Great white shark) Trygon (Sting ray), Torpedo (Electric Aquarium : Betta (Fighting fish),
Pterophyllum (Angel fish).
ray)
Coldblooded tympanum
4chambered
CLASS AMPHIBIA lungegillsskintemp
III in wing
CLASS – AVES forelimbs meant
external n
• Body is divisible into head and trunk. tympanum
CLASS – REPTILIA
tympanum
3
scale
skin
dayconified
chamberedHeartCrocodile
I
6. Razor fish
7. Shell fish g
Solen Mollusca
Mollusca
a
Cold blooded
Eg.: Turtle (Chelone), Tortoise (Testudo), Tree lizard Insane o
8. Star fish
o
Asterias e Echinodermata
eCyclostomata
O
9. Hagfish Myxine
oviparous
(Chameleon), Garden lizard (Calotes), Crocodile (Crocodilus),
Alligator (Alligator). Wall lizard (Hemidactylus), Poisonous
snakes-Cobra (Naja). Krait (Bangarus), Viper (Vipera).
Snake
O
10. Whale fish Balaenoptera e Mammal
GET
Nonpoisonous Ryther skinCait
Ecdysis
Chapter
MORPHOLOGY OF
05 FLOWERING PLANTS
Smallest angiosperm is Wolffia.
THE ROOT
Tallest angiosperm is Eucalyptus ragnans Roots
REGIONS OF ROOT
MODIFICATIONS OF ROOT
MODIFICATIONS OF ROOT
Region of Region of Region of
meristematic elongation maturation
activity Storage Support Respiration
The leaf base may become swollen, which is called the pulvinus. E.g.:
Pea, legumes and Trifolium.
VENATION PHYLLOTAXY
Phyllotaxy
When the Veinlets form a network, the venation
E.g., Mango
is termed as reticulate
When the veins run parallel to each other within
E.g., Banana 1. Alternate 2. Opposite 3. Whorled
a lamina, the venation is termed as parallel.
(code-CMS)
MODIFICATIONS OF LEAVES
SYMMETRY OF FLOWER
Modifications of Leaves
FLOWER
Flower
In some flowers like lily, the calyx and corolla are not
distinct and are termed as perianth.
TYPES OF FLOWER ON THE BASIS OF POSITION OF AESTIVATION
CALYX, COROLLA AND ANDROECIUM IN RESPECT OF
OVARY ON THALAMUS
Aestivation
Flower
ANDROECIUM
Polyandrous
GYNOECIUM
lmbricate Vexillary
Placentation
Marginal → Pea
Axile
→ Axile → Tomato, Lemon, China
rose
→ Parietal → Mustard, Argemone
Perietal
Free
central
Pericarp (fruit wall) Seed In mango and coconut, the fruit is known
as a drupe.
Dry (e.g- Groundunt & Fleshyb(e.g- Guava, mango Seed coat Embryo
mustard) & orange)
Outer layer Inner layer They develop from monocarpellary
superior ovaries and are one seeded.
Epicarp Mesocarp Endocarp Testa Tegmen
e.g. Wheat,
Maize
e.g. Gram, Pea
STRUCTURE OF A
MONOCOTYLEDONOUS SEED
Outermost covering of a seed is the seed coat. The embryo is small and situated in a groove at one
end of the endosperm. It consists of one large and
The outer layer is testa and the inner tegmen. shield shaped cotyledon known as scutellum and a
The hilum is a scar on the seed coat through which the short axis with a plumule and a radicle.
developing seeds were attached to the fruit..
In some seeds such as castor the endosperm The plumule and radicle are enclosed in sheaths which
formed as a result of double fertilisation. are called coleoptile and coleorhiza respectively.
DESCRIPTION OF SOME IMPORTANT FAMILIES
FABACEAE SOLANACEAE
Inflorescence : Racemose
Floral Formula : % K (5) C 1+2+(2) A (9)+1 G (1) Floral Formula : K (5) C (5) A (5) G (2)
• Trees, shrubs, herbs; root with root nodules • Plants mostly herbs, shrubs and rarely small trees
• Stem: Erect or climber • Stem: Herbaceous rarely woody, aerial; erect, cylindrical, branched,
• Leaves: Alternate, pinnately compound or simple; leaf base, solid or hollow, hairy or glabrous, underground stem in potato
pulvinate; stipulate; venation reticulate. (Solanum tuberosum)
• Leaves : Alternate, simple, rarely pinnately compound, exstipulate;
• Economic importance : Many plants belonging to the family venation reticulate.
are sources of pulses (gram, arhar, sem, moong, soyabean;
edible oil (soyabean, groundnut); dye (Indigofera); fibres • Economic Importance: Many plants belonging to this family are
(sunhemp); fodder (Sesbania, Trifolium), ornamentals (Lupin, source of food (tomato, brinjal, potato), spice (chilli); medicine
sweet pea); medicine (muliathi), Pisum sativum (pea) (belladonna, ashwagandha); fumigatory (tobacco); ornamentals
(Petunia). Solanum nigrum (makoi), Ashwagandha : Withania somnifera
LILIACEAE
Floral Formula : Br P A G
(3+3) 3+3 (3)
VEGETATIVE CHARACTERS
cambium
SCLERENCHYMA
Sclereids
D=dead; L=living
• Sclerenchyma consists of long, narrow cells with thick and lignified
cell walls having a few or numerous pits.Usually dead and without
protoplasts.
• May be either fibres or sclereids.
• Fibres are thick-walled, elongated and pointed cells.
• Sclereids are spherical, oval or cylindrical, highly thickened
dead cells with very narrow cavities.
MERISTEMATIC TISSUES • Commonly found in the fruit walls of nuts; pulp of fruits like
guava, pear and sapota; seed coats of legumes and leaves of
Two types of meristems : Primary & secondary. tea.
Primary Meristem
Two types : Apical meristem & intercalary meristem.
Apical Meristem
COMPLEX TISSUES
Occur at the tips of roots and shoots.
Xylem and phloem constitute the complex tissues in plants.
Intercalary Meristem
Xylem
• Occurs between mature tissues.
• They occur in grasses (monocot) and regenerate parts
removed by grazing herbivores. • Conducting tissue for water and minerals from roots to the stem
and leaves. It also provides mechanical strength to the plant parts.
Secondary/Lateral Meristems • Four different kinds of elements, namely, tracheids, vessels, xylem
• Fascicular vascular cambium, interfascicular cambium and cork fibers and xylem parenchyma.
cambium are examples of lateral meristems.
• Pteridophytes & Gymnosperms lack vessels in their xylem.
PERMANENT TISSUES
TRACHEIDS
• Parenchyma, collenchyma and sclerenchyma.
PARENCHYMA • Tracheids are elongated or tube like with thick and lignified walls
• Cells are generally isodiametric. and tapering ends.
• Their walls are thin and made up of cellulose.
• Performs various functions like photosynthesis, storage, secretion. • Dead and are without protoplasm.
VESSELS PHLOEM (BAST)
• Vessel is a long cylindrical tube-like structure made up of many cells • Phloem transports food materials, usually from leaves to other parts
called vessel members, each with lignified walls. of the plant.
• Vessel cells are also devoid of protoplasm. • Phloem in angiosperms is composed of sieve tube elements, companion cells,
• Vessel members are interconnected through perforations in their phloem parenchyma and phloem fibres.
common walls. • Gymnosperms have albuminous cells. They lack sieve tubes and companion
• Presence of vessels is a characteristic feature of angiosperms. cells.
• Highly thickened walls and obliterated central lumens. • Sieve tube elements are also long, tube-like structures, arranged
longitudinally and are associated with the companion cells.
• Cells are narrow and pointed at the ends and have bordered pits,
either septate or aseptate. • Their end walls are perforated in a sieve-like manner to form the
sieve plates.
• Xylem parcenchyma cells are living and thin-walled, are made up • Functions of sieve tubes are controlled by the nucleus of companion
of cellulose. cells.
• In stems, the protoxylem lies towards the centre and the metaxylem lies
towards the periphery. This type of primary xylem is called endarch.
PHLOEM PARENCHYMA
• In roots, the protoxylem lies towards periphery and metaxylem lies
towards the centre. Such arrangement of primary xylem is called • Phloem parenchyma is made up of elongated, tapering cylinclrical cells
exarch. which have dense cytoplasm and nucleus.
• Outside of the epidermis is often covered with a waxy thick layer called
the cuticle which prevents the loss of water.
2. STOMATA
• Stomata are structures present in the epidermis of leaves. • Sometimes, a few epidermal cells, in the vicinity of the guard cells
• Regulate the process of transpiration and gaseous exchange. become specialised in their shape and size and are known as
subsidiary cells.
• Composed of two bean shaped cells known as guard cell.
• Stomatal aperture, guard cells and the surrounding subsidiary
• In grasses, the guard cells are dumbbell shaped.
cells are together called stomatal apparatus.
• In dicotyledonous stems, cambium is present between phloem and xylem • In conjoint type of vascular bundles, the xylem and phloem are
and are called open vascular bundles. situated at the same radius of vascular bundles. Such vascular bundles
• In the monocotyledons, the vascular bundles have no cambium present in are common in stems and leaves.
them and are referred to as closed. • The conjoint vascular bundles usually have the phloem located
• When xylem and phloem within a vascular bundle are arranged in an only on the outer side of xylem.
alternate manner on different radii, the arrangement is called radial
such as in roots.
Dicotyledonous Root
• Vascular bundles are radial type of arranged in a ring.
• Usually two to four xylem and phloem patches.
• Pericycle, vascular bundles and pith constitute the stele.
Monocotyledonous Root
• It has epidermis, cortex, endodermis, pericycle, vascular bundles and
pith.
2 or 4 Vascular Tissue System (T.S.)
SECONDARY GROWTH
VASCULAR CAMBIUM
• Cambial ring becomes active and begins to cut off (to form) new cells,
both towards the inner and the outer sides.
DORSIVENTRAL (DICOTYLEDONOUS) LEAF • Cells cut off towards pith, mature into secondary xylem and towards
periphery mature into secondary phloem.
• Cambium is generally more active on the inner side than on the outer.
• Cork cambium cut off cells on both sides. Outer cells differentiate into Cork or
Phellem.
• Inner cells differentiate into secondary cortex or Phelloderm.
• Cork is impervious to water due to suberin deposition in the cell wall. Cells of
secondary cortex are parenchymatous.
tightlypacked interweeueerspaut
Ciliated epithelium Glandular
jEÉ
É
epithelium
Simple epithelium Compound epithelium
Time
Eg., Bronchioles,
Fallopian tubes
Squamous Eg. Wall of blood vessels,
Air sacs of lungs
É
epithelium
Unicellular Multicellular
to
Cuboidal Eg. Ducts of glands,
Tabular parts of nephron of kIdney secretion
epithelium
Isomtion
MEI a pet Eg., Goblet cells of Eg., Salivary gland
Columnar Eg. Lining of stomach and intestine
epithelium alimentary canal
Junction
transf Areolar Tissue Adipose Tissue
Tasterage
Cartilage Bone Blood
Hai
Adipose tissue is another type of loose connective tissue located mainly beneath
O
the skin and store fats.
To it
O
2. DENSE CONNECTIVE TISSUES
• Fibres and fibroblasts are compactly packed in the dense connective tissues.
• In the dense regular connective tissues, the collagen fibres are present in rows between many parallel bundles of fibres.
• Tendons, which attach skeletal muscles to bones and ligaments which attach one bone to another are examples of this tissue.
• Dense irregular connective tissue has fibroblasts and many fibres (mostly collagen) that are oriented differently.
• The body of the cockroach is segmented and divisible into three distinct
regions-head, thorax and abdomen.
Sense organs of cockroach
0
• The entire body is covered by a hard chitinous exoskeleton (brown in colour).
1. Antennae 3. Maxillary palps 5. Anal cerci
10Iegment
I dorsal
• In each segment, exoskeleton has hardened plates called sclerites (tergites
dorsally and sternites ventrally) that are joined to each other by a thin and
e flexible articular membrane (arthrodial membrane).
2. Eyes (Compound) 4. Labial palps
sooo henagondommatidia
Taterally purity
É
Incising region Hypopharynx
thread like antennae arise from membranous sockets lying in (tongue)
front of eyes. Maxilla Maxilla
o o
Labium (lower lip)
Antennae have sensory receptors that help in monitoring the
environment.
Thorax
Thorax consists of three parts : prothorax, mesothorax & metathorax. The head is connected with thorax by a short extension of the prothorax known
as the neck.
Each thoracic segment bears a pair of walking legs.
The first pair of wings arises from mesothorax and the second pair from metathorax.
Forewings (mesothoracic) called tegmina or elytra are opaque dark and leathery and cover the hind wings when at rest.
The hind wings are transparent, membranous and are used in flight.
Metathoran
ABDOMEN ANATOMY
The abdomen in both males and females consists of 10 segments.
Males bear a pair of short, thread like anal styles 9th sternum which are absent in DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
females. Alimentary Canal of cockroach
In both sexes, the 10th segment bears a pair of jointed filamentous structures called
anal cerci. Mouth
F Pharynx
BLOOD VASCULAR SYSTEM O
É d R Oesophagus
dorsaltube E
Ifta
Respiratory System
fairwaymuscles G
U Crop (for storing food)
T
Gizzard (for grinding)
Respiratory system consists of a network of trachea, that open through 10 pairs of
small holes called spiracles.
tdd exchanges
M Hepatic or gastric caeca (At the
qq.y.gg
junction of foregut and midgut)
Excretory System I
D
Excretion is performed by Malpighian tubules. G Malpighian tubules
U (At the junction of midgut and
I
mephridingbitelongnd
T
Nervous System hindgut)
E it
Three ganglia lie in the thorax, and six in the abdomen.
In the head region, the brain is represented by supra-oesophageal ganglion which H
supplies nerves to antennae and compound eyes. I Ileum
N
D
Sense organs G Colon
U
Antennae, eyes, maxillary palps, labial palps, anal cerci, etc. T Rectumn Anus
The compound eyes are situated at the dorsal surface of the head.
Each eye consists of about 2000 hexagonal ommatidia. mosaicvision
Those that take up the gram stain are Gram Cell wall determines the shape of the cell and
provides a strong structural support to cell.
positive and the others that do not are called
Gram negative bacteria. Plasma membrane is selectively-permeable in
nature.
Glycocalyx Could be a loose sheath called the
slime layer in some, in others it may be thick and Mesosome formed by extensions of
tough, called the capsule. plasma membrane in the form of vesicles,
tubules and lamellae.
FLAGELLA
15 nm by 20 nm in size made of two subunits 50S and 30S Reserve material are stored in the cytoplasm in the
units which when present together form 70S. form of inclusion bodies.
Site of protein synthesis. Not bounded by any membrane system
Several ribosomes may attach to a single mRNA and form Gas vacuoles are found in blue green and purple and
a chain called polyribosome or polysome. green photosynthetic bacteria.
EUKARYOTIC CELLS
Extensive compartmentalisation, presence of
membrane bound organelles.
Organised nucleus with a nuclear envelope. Variety of
complex locomotory and cytoskeletal structures.
Plant and animal cell are different as the former CELL MEMBRANE
possess cell wall, plastids and a large central vacuole
which are absent in animal cells.
Lipids are arranged in a bilayer.
Polar head towards the outer sides hydrophobic tails
towards the inner part.
CELL WALL
The membrane of the erythrocyte has approximately 52 per
cent protein and
A non-living rigid structure forms an outer covering 40 per cent lipids.
for the plasma membrane.
Middle lamella is a layer mainly of calcium pectate Fluid nature of the membrane; cell growth formation of
which holds or glues the different neighbouring cells intercellular junctions, secretion, endocytosis, cell division
together. etc.
Cell wall and middle lamella may be traversed by Important functions of the plasma membrane is the
plasmodesmata to connect the cytoplasm of transport of the molecules across it.
neighbouring cells.
Movement of water by diffusion is called osmosis.
ENDOMEMBRANE SYSTEM
(i) Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) (III). LYSOSOMES
oil & fat protein Thylakoids are arranged in stacks like the piles of coins
called grana.
Granular structures first observed as dense particles by small, double-stranded circular DNA molecules and
George Palade (1953). ribosomes.
Composed of ribonucleic acid (RNA). Ribosomes of the chloroplasts are smaller (70S) than the
cytoplasmic ribosomes (80S).
Eukaryotic ribosomes are 80S prokaryotic ribosomes are
70S. Mitochondria and chloroplast are semi-autonomous
organelles because
'S' stands for the Svedberg unit or sedimentation
coefficient. Possess their own nucleic acid (DNA molecule).
Two subunits of 70S ribosome are 50S (larger subunit) Can form some of the required protein.
30S (smaller subunit).
Do not arise de novo.
Two subunits of 80S ribosome are 60S (larger subunit) & membrane similar to those of bacteria.
40S (smaller subunit).
10) MICROBODIES
Membrane bound minute vesicles called
microbodies.
11) NUCLEUS
09 BIOMOLECULES
organic compound
CHEMICAL ANALYSIS
t PRIMARY AND SECONDARY METABOLITES
o
E
me
o
a o
Joy o
I Is
Q
Micromolecules Macromolecules
ga ÉÉ Éw
pool pool
smasmic
Many types 4 types
eg. eg.
Glucose
Ribose
Protein
Nucleic acid a
Amino acids Polysaccharide
I
Nitrogen bases Lipid (exception)
Nucleosides phospholipid e
Nucleotides visits qggdaeton e
Caitlin
Guan
ane o
O
Glycogen : commonly called animal starch because its structure
similar to amylopectin.
ta These are hydrogen, carboxyl group, amino group and a variable
group.
a
In a polysaccharide chain (say glycogen}, the right end is called the
reducing end and the left end is called the non-reducing end. It has Based on the nature of R group there are many amino acids. However,
Inas
branches. those which occur in proteins are only of twenty types.
FI
The R group in these proteinaceous amino acids could be a hydrogen
Cellulose does not contain complex helices and cannot hold I₂
O
(the amino acid is called glycine), a methyl group (alanine), hydroxy
Chitin - Homopolymer of N Acetyl Glucosamine
Inulin - Polymer of Fructose
Eyeliner methyl (serine).
1. Acidic amino acids – Glutamic acid (glutamate), Aspartic acid
(aspartate).
LIPIDS 2. Basic amino acids – Histidine, Arginine and Lysine.
Water insoluble 3. Neutral amino acids – Valine, Isoleucine, Leucine, Alanine and Glycine.
They could be simple fatty acids. A fatty acid has a carboxyl group 4. Alcoholic amino acids – Threonine and Serine.
attached to a R group. 5. Aromatic amino acids – Tryptophan, Tyrosine and Phenylalanine.
The R group could be a methyl (–CH₃), or ethyl (–C₂H₅) or higher 6. Sulphur containing amino acid – Cysteine and Methionine.
number of –CH₂ groups (1 carbon to 19 carbons).
Palmitic acid has 16 carbons including carboxyl carbon.
Unsaturated fatty acids have one or more double bonds in their e ion
getchargeo
Zwitter
carbon chain.
Arachidonic acid has 20 carbon atoms including the carboxyl
carbon.
Simple lipid is glycerol which is trihydroxy propane. O O
Many lipids have both glycerol and fatty acids.
É
Fats and oils are differentiated on basis of melting point.
Here the fatty acids are found esterified with glycerol. They can be
then monoglycerides, diglycerides and triglycerides.
Phospholipids : They are found in cell membrane.
Lecithin
Pautz
H-BOND)
A protein is a heteropolymer e E Mishit
Proteins, only right handed helices are observed.
Other regions of the protein thread are folded into other forms in
STRUCTURE OF PROTEINS what is called the secondary structure.
onlypeptide
PRIMARY STRUCTURE linear
p C TERTIARY STRUCTURE
The first aminoacid is also called as N-terminal amino acid. enymeng
I
The last amino acid is called the C-terminal amino acid.
0
(Peptide + H Bond + Disulphide Bond)
Nobleman
PROTEIN FUNCTIONS
EQUARTERNARY STRUCTURE
Collagen Intercellular ground substances
Trypsin Enzymes
Insulin Hormone
Some proteins are an assembly of more than one polypeptide or
EE
Antibody Fights infectious agents subunits.
Receptor Sensory reception (smell, taste, hormone, etc.) Adult human haemoglobin consists of 4 subunits. Two of these are
GLUT-4 Enables glucose transport into cells. identical to each other. Hence, two subunits of α-type and two
subunits of β-type together constitute the human haemoglobin.
ENZYMES
o NATURE OF ENZYME
All enzymes are protein
ACTION
Some nucleic acids behave like enzymes. These
are called ribozymes.
o o
0 Of
a
In the tertiary structure the backbone of the
protein chain folds upon itself, the chain criss-
crosses itself and hence, many crevices or
autumn
Concept of activation energy
me transition he
pockets are made. One such pocket is ‘active
site’.
How do enzymes bring about such high rates of gym
chemical conversions? activation energy
lowering
FACTORS AFFECTING Id
CLASSIFICATION AND NOMENCLATURE OF ENZYMES
ENZYME ACTIVITY endigit between two
number
Oxidoreductases/dehydrogenases : Enzymes which catalyse oxidoreduction
substrates S and S’ or transfer of electron.
I
1. Temperature and pH
S reduced + S’ oxidized → S oxidized + S’ reduced.
afinorganiicatalyst Transferases : Enzymes catalysing a transfer of a group, G (other than hydrogen)
between pair of substrate S and S’ e.g.,
Eve
t empty
S – G + S’ → S + S’ – G
g
j
below
Hydrolases : Enzymes catalysing hydrolysis of ester, ether peptide, glycosidic, C-C, C-halide
or P-N bonds.
I
Lyases : Enzymes that catalyse removal of groups from substrates by mechanisms other
than hydrolysis leaving double bonds.
XÉ Xy
any
Effect of change in pH on Effect of change in temp. on
enzyme activity enzyme activity Isomerases : Includes all enzymes catalysing inter-conversion of optical, geometrical or
positional isomers.
Ligases : Enzymes catalysing the linking together of 2 compounds e.g., enzymes which
catalyse joining of C–O, C–S, C–N, P–O etc. bonds.
2. Concentration of Substrate
I
Km indicates the substrate concentration at
eCO-FACTORS
which reaction attains half of its maximum
velocity. e Ttpoeny factor Holo
The protein portion of the enzymes is called the apoenzyme. enzyme
Three kinds of cofactors may be identified : prosthetic groups, co-enzymes and metal ions.
Tontproten
PROSTHETIC GROUPS
on
9 Example, in peroxidase and catalase, which catalyze the breakdown of hydrogen peroxide
of water and oxygen, haem is the prosthetic group and it is a part of the active site of the
enzyme.
Michael'sMontomonstant
Effect of change in concentration of subtrate on
enzyme activity
CO-ENZYMES
3. Inhibitors
Co-enzymes are also organic compounds but their association with the apoenzyme is only
When the inhibitor closely resembles the substrate transient, coenzyme nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) and NADP contain the vitamin
in its molecular structure and inhibits the activity niacin.
of the enzyme, it is known as competitive inhibitor. Every co-enzyme is a cofactor but every cofactor is not a co-enzyme.
E.g. inhibition of succinic dehydrogenase by
malonate which closely resembles the substrate
succinate in structure. EMETAL IONS d 1
substrate activesitesidechain
Zinc is a cofactor for the proteolytic enzyme carboxypeptidase.
gym mom
my y agnate
Grb anhydrase
Chapter
CELL CYCLE AND CELL
10
DIVISION
M Phase represents the phase when the actual cell division or mitosis 3. G phase / pre mitotic gap phase
occurs interphase represents the phase between two successive M • Proteins are synthesised in preparation for mitosis while cell growth
phases. continues.
Interphase, resting phase, lasts for 95% of the duration of cell • Cells that do not divide further exit G phase to enter 1 an inactive
cycle. stage called quiescent stage (G ) of the cell cycle.
1. G phase / Post-mitotic gap phase • Cells in G stage remain metabolically active but no longer
metabolically active continuously grows, does not replicate its DNA. proliferate.
• In animals, mitotic cell division is only seen in the diploid somatic cells.
2. S phase
1
• Against this, the plants can show mitotic divisions in both haploid
DNA synthesis or replication takes place. Amount of DNA per cell
and diploid cells.
doubles but no increase in the chromosome number
2. Metaphase-I
v. Diakinesis
• Terminalisation of chiasmata.
• Chromosomes are fully condensed Bivalent chromosomes align on the equatorial plate. Spindle
• Nucleolus disappears and the nuclear envelope also breaks down. attach to the kinetochore of homologous chromosomes
3. Anaphase-I 4 . Telophase-I
Nuclear membrane and nucleolus reappear, cytokinesis follows
• Homologous chromosomes separate, sister chromatids remain
and this is called as dyad of cells.
associated at their centromeres.
Stage between the two meiotic divisions is called interkinesis and
is generally short lived.
(II) MEIOSIS-II 2. Metaphase-II
Meiosis II is the equational divison. • Chromosomes align at the equator.
• Spindle get attached to the kinetochores of sister chromatids.
1. Prophase-II
• Nuclear membrane disappears.
• Chromosomes again become compact.
4. Telophase-II
Two groups of chromosomes once again get enclosed by a nuclear envelope;
3. Anaphase-II cytokinesis follows result in the formation of tetrad of cells. i.e., four haploid
daughter cells.
• Splitting of the centromere of each chromosome.
TOPIC 5. SIGNIFICANCE OF
MEIOSIS
11 TRANSPORT IN PLANTS
FDPDt.ro
o.p
EI
Xylem (water and minerals) distance
Unidirectional (from roots to stem)
Diffusion of water across a semi-permeable membrane.
Phloem (organic nutrients)
Depends on pressure gradient & concentration gradient.
Bi-directional/multidirectional
External pressure required to prevent water from diffusing is
Intrastate osmotic pressure
atque thistfunndemm.m
DIFFUSION
passive
PLASMOLYSIS
Ti
No ATP utilised
Substances move from higher concentration to lower
External solution balances osmotic pressure of cytoplasm →
concentration
Not dependent on a living system D
isotonic
External solution is more dilute → hypotonic
http
e hmmsummations
1g
Random
External solutions more concentrated → hypertonic
É
through membrane
Special carrier proteins help move substances 2. Isotonic solution Flaccid
Facilitated diffusion is very specific
Sensitive to inhibitors 3. Hypotonic solution Turgid
Saturation
Both molecules in the same direction ⇾ Symport
Both molecules in opposite direction ⇾ Antiport
Independent of other molecules ⇾ Uniport
IMBIBITION
ACTIVE TRANSPORT Special type of diffusion e.g., absorption of water by seeds & dry wood
oÉÉm
Water potential gradient between the absorbent & liquid imbibed is
Uses energy to pump molecules against a concentration gradient.
Tsugaru
essential
affinity ads
Tim
Uphill transport
These proteins are sensitive to inhibitors
LONG DISTANCE TRANSPORT
I
Diffusion is a slow process. It can account for only short distance
WATER – POTENTIAL movement
Mass flow is the movement of substances in bulk or en masse
Greater the concentration of water in a system greater is its
kinetic energy or water potential
ABSORPTION OF WATER BY
Water will move from higher water potential to low water
potential PLANTS
Water potential is expressed in pascals (Pa) enetodemmy
Is the function of root hairs
Water potential of pure water at standard temperature is eaten
Kid
Water is absorbed by diffusion Passively
Onion
zero.
Lowering in water potential due to solute is solute potential
Solute potential is always negative APOPLAST PATHWAY
At atmospheric pressure, water potential = solute potential.
Pressure exerted by the protoplasts due to entry of water is System of adjacent cell walls that is continuous except at the
pressure potential Casparian strips
Item
(Ψw= Ψs + Ψp) Movement occurs exclusively through intercellular spaces & walls
Endodermis is impervious to water because of Casparian strips.
checkpoint a
Casparia
acting
Is the system of interconnected protoplasts.
Neighbouring cells connected through plasmodesmata
cyloplasm of epidermal cells
WATER MOVEMENT UP A
PLANT
0 MECHANISM OF ABSORPTION OF
ELEMENTS
Push Apoplaific
ROOT PRESSURE
Ions from the soil are actively transported into roots
G
Initial rapid uptake of ions into apoplast is passive
Water follows & increases pressure inside the xylem Ions are taken in slowly into symplast which is active process
This root pressure is responsible for pushing up water to
small heights evaporation
d
Jehydathdel
Water loss in liquid phase is known as guttation.
Mobile oggag.mg
fIefE Younglevel
egg
cells by active transport.
and plant growth. Loading at the source produces a hypertonic condition in phloem.
Most of water is lost through stomata Water in the adjacent xylem moves into phloem by osmosis.
Flow begins & sap moves through the phloem. o
O
At sinks sucrose actively transported out of phloem (unloading),.
Girdling experiment shows that phloem is responsible for
TRANSPIRATION
A
IÉÉÉ
translocation of food. baroqueconivemmmore
vapour Earectionate
Evaporative loss of water by plants through the stomata
When turgidity increases thin outer walls of guard cells bulge out,
stomata open.
Guard cells become flaccid & stomata closes. Tramenimer 48
IT
m
Transpiration is affected by: temperature, light, humidity, wind
Iggf
Tramp pull
qq.FI
speed, number and distribution of stomata, water status of the
plant Photo
water requirement
Ascent of xylem sap depends on
Minerals
(i) Cohesion : Mutual attraction between water
Cio1504
molecules. Cooling effect
Calleshape a
(ii) Adhesion : Attraction of water molecules to
surface of tracheary elements.
(iii) Surface Tension : water molecules are more
attracted to each other in the liquid phase
These 3 properties give water :
(i) High Tensile strength and
fruit
(ii) High capillarity smalldiameter
gravity
12 MINERAL NUTRITION
Soillesscultivation
1
Sachs developed hydroponics in 1860 Potassium: (K⁺)
used for commercial production of tomato, D
Protein synthesis
anion cationbalance
lettuce and seedless cucumber
Opening & closing of stomata
Maintains the turgidity of cells
CRITERIA FOR ESSENTIALITY
accumulateinolderleave
É
Necessary for normal growth & reproduction
Requirement must be specific & not replaceable
I
Calcium : (Ca²⁺)
formation of mitotic spindle.
Directly involved in metabolism of plant
Imiddle
Synthesis of cell wall
Functioning of cell membrane
lamella
I Ftrets
micronutrients
Constituent of ferredoxin & cytochromes
1. Components of biomolecules: C, H, O, N
Activates catalase enzyme.
OP in ATP o
Manganese: (Mn²⁺)
3. Alter the osmotic activates enzymes of photosynthesis, respiration &
Potential of a cell : K plays an important role N₂ metabolism
in opening & closing of stomata
Water splitting reaction
RuBisCo
4. Zinc: (Zn⁺²) activates carboxylases
Enzyme
activators o
Mg
PEPcase
Synthesis of Auxin
o
Zn Alcohol dehydrogenase
E
Caboxypeptidase
Copper: (Cu²⁺) essential for overall metabolism
Carbonic anhydrase
Nitrogenase
OMo
Boron : (BO₃3– or B₄O₇²⁻) a cat uptake
tf
Nitrate reductase
Pollen germination
O
Fe Catalase
Cell elongation & cell differentiation
Immolated
Nitrogen: absorbed as NO₃– (nitrate)
Required by plants in greatest amount. Constituent of all
proteins, nucleic acids, vitamins & hormones Molybdenum : (MoO₂²⁺) component of nitrogenase &
nitrate reductase
Phosphorus : Absorbed as H₂PO₄– or HPO₄²⁻
Constituent of cell membrane, certain proteins,
anion cation balance
nucleic acids & nucleotides D
Chlorine : (Cl–)
watersplittingaxe
Required for phosphorylation (ATP formation)
DEFICIENCY SYMPTOMS BIOLOGICAL N₂ - FIXATION
I
the young tissues e.g., Ca
Deficiency symptoms
mama's
eg. Azotobacter-
Beijernickia I
eg. Nostoc-Anabaena eg. Frankia
3
tissue)
Delay
Mo, S, N
Bacteria invade root hair, reach cortex and initiate nodule formation
O
00
Nitrogenase catalyses conversion atmospheric N₂ to NH₃
8
Flowering
Nodule contains O₂ scavenger called leg-haemoglobin
I
Inhibition of
7
Mo, S, N, K N₂ + 8e + 8H⁺ + 16 ATP → 2NH₃ + H₂ + 16ADP + 16Pi.
002
Cell division NH₃ is protonated to form NH₄⁺ (ammonium) ion
Two ways in which NH₄⁺ ion is used-
at
TOXICITY OF MICRONUTRIENTS
vein y1. Reductive Amination:
ochlorotic
Moderate increase concentration causes toxicity.
Excess of Mn induces deficiency of Fe, Mg, & Ca shstelocation
O
ya o
α-Ketoglutaric acid + NH₄⁺ + NADPH
Glutamate
dehydrogenase o
Glutamate + H₂O +
NADP
NITROGEN CYCLE
N₂O) IE
Conversion of N₂ (nitrogen) to NH₃ (ammonia) is N₂ fixation.
Lightning & UV radiation convert N₂ to nitrogen oxides (NO, NO₂,
o
Nitrite → Nitrate : 2NO₂– + O₂ → 2NO₃ (Nitrobacter)
chimoantotrophe retain
I
This is call nitrification.
and
Nitrate is absorbed by plants
In leaves nitrate is reduced to NH₃ that forms the amine group
(–NH₂) of amino acids. Amides are transported via xylem vessels.O
Hydroxyl part of the acid replaced by NH₂⁻ radicle.
Nitrate is also reduced to N₂ by denitrification.(Pseudomonas & Nodules of some plants export fixed nitrogen as ureides.
Thiobacillus)
I and'ÉÉ
Enzyme Nitrogenase is present in prokaryotes
Chapter
PHOTOSYNTHESIS IN
13 HIGHER PLANTS
Moll'sHalfleaf enperiment
importance
ofCo2
EARLY EXPERIMENTS
LIGHT REACTION
Joseph priestley (1770) Belljar
growth of green plants
o discovery III
o
performed experiments that showed the essential role of air in the
1 Light absorption
Jan Ingenhousz
2 Water splitting e
o
Showed that sunlight is essential for photosynthesis
He split light using a prism & then illuminated a green alga 2 different photochemical light harvesting complexes.
(Cladophora) in suspension of aerobic bacteria LHC are made up of hundreds of pigment molecules
EE
Bacteria accumulated in the region of blue & red light
single Chl-a molecule forms the reaction centre.
First action spectrum of photosynthesis resembled absorption
spectra of Chlorophyll a & b In PSI reaction centre has absorption peak at 700 nm
CO₂ + H₂O → [CH₂]O + O₂ In PSII absorption peak is at 680 nm
Van Niel
Experiment with purple & green – sulphur bacteria demonstrated 1. Electron Transport
that Hydrogen from a suitable oxidisable compound reduces CO₂ to
carbohydrate In PSII reaction centre (P680) Chl-a absorbs 680 nm wavelength
2H₂A + CO₂ → 2A + CH₂O + H₂O Causing electron to becomes excited
O₂ evolved by the green plants comes form H₂O not from CO₂ These are passed to an electron transport system
6CO₂ + 12H₂O → C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6H₂O + 6O₂ Passed on to the pigments of PSI.
Electrons in the reaction centre of PSI are also excited
SITE OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Moved downhill to a molecule of energy rich NADP⁺
t
Ie
NADP⁺ → NADPH + H⁺
Mesophyll cells in the leaves have chloroplasts.
Chloroplast has a membranous system & fluid stroma
o
Scheme of transfer of electrons is called Z-scheme,
When 2 photosystems work; PSII & then PSI; non-cyclic photo-
Membrane system traps light energy & synthesises ATP & NADPH
a
phosphorylation occurs
(Dark reaction) Both ATP & NADH⁺ H⁺ are synthesised
Chromatography chromatogram
PIGMENTS AND SPECTRUM 2. Splitting of water
1 www.y.nyg
2
Chlorophyll a (bright or
blue green)
Chl - b (yellow green)
water.
O
Electrons of PSII replaced by electrons available due to splitting of
3 D
Xanthophylls (yellow)
4 O
Carotenoides (yellow to
yellow orange).
CYCLIC PHOSPHORYLATION
my.mn
CHEMIOSMOTIC HYPOTHESIS PHOTORESPIRATION
Itched
Peter Cycle
ATP synthesis is linked to development of proton gradient across RuBisCO has a much greater affinity for CO₂ than for O₂.
I
membranes of thylakoid
D
In C₃ plants some O₂ does bind to RuBisCO.
one
Protons accumulate in the lumen
Breakdown of this gradient leads to release of energy.game RuBP instead of being converted to PGA forms phosphoglycerate &
phosphoglycolate in a pathway called photorespiration.
Gradient is broken down due to the movement of protons through the
transmembrane channel of F₀ of the ATPase enzyme No synthesis of ATP or NADPH. at imagine
ATPase enzyme consists of Photorespiration is a wasteful process.
(i) F₀: carries out facilitated diffusion of protons across the
C₄ plants have a special type of leaf anatomy (kranz), tolerate higher
membrane.
temperatures, show a response to high light intensities, lack
(ii) F₁: protrudes on the outer surface of the thylakoid
membrane, change in the F₁ particle makes the enzyme O
7
synthesise ATP. a
photorespiration and have greater productivity.
É
(biosynthetic phase) Blackman's law of limiting factors: Rate will be determined by the factor
Melvin Calvin used radioactive C¹⁴ to show first CO₂ fixation product was which is nearest to its minimal value.
3-carbon organic acid. Genetic
First product → 3-PGA (3-phosphoglyceric acid). Internal Predisposition
First product of CO₂ fixation C₃ acid (PGA) → C₃ pathway A. LIGHT
I
First product is C₄ acid (OAA) → C₄ pathway gntwth
É
At low light intensities there is a linear relationship
between incident light & CO₂ fixation rate.
CALVIN CYCLE (C₃ PATHWAY) Light is rarely a limiting factor
Q
Regeneration requires 1 ATP for phosphorylation to form RUBP. C₃ plants show saturation beyond 450 μ1L⁻¹ (0.045%)
a
pygmy
Occurs in the plants that are adapted to dry tropical regions. have a much lower temperature optimum.
OAA is the first CO₂ fixation product To E
Calvin cycle as the main biosynthetic pathway.
First CO₂ acceptor is a 3-C molecule PEP (phosphoenol pyruvate)
D. WATER
The enzyme responsible for the fixation is PEPcase (PEP carboxylase)
Water stress causes the stomata to close and makes leaves wilt.
C₄ acid (OAA) is formed in mesophyll cells
Metabolism
Io
Forms other 4-C compounds like malic acid or aspartic acid which are
transported to the bundle sheath cells.
In the bundle sheath cells these C₄ broken down to release CO₂ & a 3-C
molecule.
3-C molecule is transported back to mesophyll and converted to PEP e
again
CO₂ released in the bundle sheath cells enters the C₃ or Calvin pathway
O
RESPIRATION IN
Chapter
INTRODUCTION
I mannnn
within cells leading to release of energy is called respiration .
JE Egg
C₆H₁₂O₆ +6O₂ 6CO₂ + 6H₂O + Energy
GLYCOLYSIS common
pathway I
Universalpathway
0
Enzymatic machinery to partially oxidise glucose to from 2 molecules of
7
pyruvic acid without the help of O₂ is called glycolysis.
Of
Sucrose is converted into glucose & fructose by the enzyme invertase. Under anaerobic conditions in many prokaryotes, unicellular eukaryotes,
OE
reaches about 13%
or or too
o
AEROBIC RESPIRATION
f
Pyruvate after entering the mitochondrial matrix undergoes oxidative
Tink
decarboxylation by pyruvate dehydrogenase.
an
game coenzyme A. o
Requires the participation of several coenzymes, including NAD+ &
Mg+
PA + CoA + NAD Acetyl CoA + CO 2 + NADH + H+
pyruvate dehydrogenase
+
KREB'S CYCLE OR TCA CYCLE OR
e
TRICARBOXYLIC ACID CYCLE
Cine Auzenne x2
O3 points in the cycle where NAD + is reduced to NADH + H
x2
1 point in the cycle where FAD + is reduced FADH 2
+ + Mitochondrial
0000
+ ++ FADH + ATP
Q
PA + 4NAD + FAD + 2H2O+ ADP + Pi 3C02+ 4NADH + 4H 2
Matrix
O
ELECTRON TRANSPORT SYSTEM
ÉÉ gig
(ETS)
08
⚫ The energy stored in NADH + H+ & FADH2 is released & utilized.
E si
⚫
constrain yid
aim Taasampten
Va t carrier
Gf
aid
Complen
Complen II
egg
y
Imm
COMPARISON B/W FERMENTATION AND
OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION
AEROBIC RESPIRATION
⚫
⚫
This process is called oxidative phosphorylation.
I
Fermentation accounts for only a partial breakdown of glucose
whereas in aerobic respiration it is completely degraded to CO2and H2O.
Ritichondrial
⚫ F0 is an integral membrane protein complex. conditions.
channel
F1 headpiece is a peripheral membrane protein complex. +
NADH is oxidised to NAD rather slowly in fermentation, however the
QE
⚫
⚫
⚫ For each ATP produced 2H + passes through F 0 reaction is very vigorous in case of aerobic respiration. a
I
⚫ Proteins degraded by proteases & individual amino acid enter the
pathway at some stage within the kreb cycle or even as PA or
acetyl CoA.
o
For tripalmitin, RQ = 0.7
For proteins RQ is 0. 9
Fats WH
9
If fatty acids were to be respired they would first be degraded
to acetyl CoA & Enter the pathway.
For carbohydrate RQ is 1,
C6H12O 6 + 6O 2 6CO 2+ 6H2O + Energy,
g
Glycerol would enter the pathway after being converted to PGAL
(triose-phosphate).
RQ = 6CO2 /6O2= 1.
I
length, area, volume and cell number. e = base of natural logarithms
É
absolute growth rate.
EEE
17,500 new cells per hour. Callnumber
f
Cells in a watermelon increase in size by upto 3,50,000 times. Growth per unit time expressed per unit initial parameter is
É
called relative growth rate
o
Growth is divided into three phases-
Cells derived from meristems mature to perform, specific
Meristematic phase: Constantly dividing cells functions. This is differentiation.
FIcambia
Zone of maturation: Cells attain their maximal
(dedifferentiation) e.g., formation of interfascicular
www.ngy
size.
cambium
•Only one daughter cell continues to divide after mitosis. Development includes all changes from germination of seed to
senescence Birth death
•Linear curve is obtained.
cell TanelongataqquatMeaty
Lₜ = L₀ + rt
LE
Lₜ = length at time ‘t’
L₀ = length at time ‘zero’
r = growth rate/elongation per unit time. Oy sarge
I
0
PGRs are molecules of diverse chemical composition.
Auxin
I
Ikinin a
I e
I I g
AUXIN
DISCOVERY OF PGRS
Auxins first isolated from human urine
Produced by the growing apices of the stem and roots.
Charles Darwin and Francis Darwin observed the coleoptiles
of canary grass. Natural auxins- IAA and indole butyric acid (IBA) Synthetic
Concluded that transmittable influence caused the bending auxins- NAA (naphthalene acetic acid) and 2, 4-D (2, 4
of coleoptile. dichlorophenoxyacetic)
Auxin was isolated by F.W. Went from oat seedlings. e
Initiate rooting in stem cuttings rootinghormone
Bakane' (foolish seeding) disease of rice seedlings, was
Promote followering e.g., in pineapples. Delays p'm
caused by fungus Gibberella fujikuroi.
The active substances were identified as gibberellic acid. Induce parthenocarpy, e.g., in tomatoes. Apiddominane
F. SkoogCytokine
f
and his co-workers observed that callus from
tobacco stems required extracts of vascular tissues, yeast
2,4-D, widely used to kill dicotyledonous weeds.
Adami
IIntation
I Ennio
extract, coconut milk or DNA to proliferate.
During mid-1960s three independent researchers reported
Controls xylem differrentation.
decapitations
I
bananas. This substance was identified as ethylene. Causes increase in length of axis, used to increase the
length of grapes stalks.
Taerminatity
Discovered as kinetin (modified from of adenine)
Zeatin from corn-kernels and coconut milk.
Helps produce new leaves, chloroplasts in leaves, Increases length of sugarcane stem
lateral shoot growth and adventitious shoot Promotes bolting {internode elongation} in beet, cabbages.
formation.
Help overcome apical dominance. Leetehabit
Promote nutrient mobilisation
IFchmondlay
Delay of leaf senescence.
effect e
ETHYLENE
MEssIion
Synthesised in tissues undergoing senescence and ripening Root growth and root hair formation
fruits. climactic
D www Initiate flowering in pineapples, mango femaleflower
Imber
Horizontal growth of seedlings, swelling of axis, apical hook
Widely used compound as source of ethylene is ethephone.
formation in dicot seedlings.
mF
Accelerates abscission in flowers and fruits (thinning of
Promotes rapid internode/petiole elongation cotton, cherry, walnut).
as
ABSCISIC ACID APHOTOPERIODISM
VERNALISATION
sectormany
Flowering dependent on exposure to low temperature Platffnard impermeable
embryoimmature
Some food plants, wheat, barley, rye have winter man in
and spring varieties.
TOPIC 2. HISTOLOGY OF
ALIMENTARY CANAL
Serosa outermost layer
Muscularis; smooth muscles; In the stomach an oblique muscle layer is found
inner to the circular muscle layer
Submucosal Iayer
Mucosa.
Irregular folds (rugae) in the stomach and small finger-like foldings
(transverse folds) called villi in the small intestine. Villi are absent in stomach.
TOPIC 2. HISTOLOGY OF
ALIMENTARY CANAL The wall of alimentary canal (outer to inner)
1. SALIVARY GLANDS
Three pairs of salivary glands, the parotids, the sub-maxillary /sub -
Largest gland of the body; two lobes.
mandibular (lower jaw); sublingual (below the tongue).
Lobule is covered by a thin connective tissue sheath called the Glisson's
capsule.
3. PANCREAS The bile is stored and concentrated in a thin muscular sac called the
gall bladder.
(both exocrine and endocrine) Situated between the limbs of the
Cystic duct along with the hepatic duct forms the common bile duct.
'C' shaped duodenum.
Bile duct and the pancreatic duct open together into the duodenum as
Exocrine portion secretes an alkaline pancreatic juice endocrine
the common hepato-pancreatic duct; guarded by the sphincter of Oddi.
portion secretes hormones, insulin and glucagon.
1. Saliva
Saliva (Physiological barrier) contains
30 per cent of starch is hydrolysed here by salivary amylase (optimum pH 6.
8) into a disaccharide -maltose
Sallvary Amylase
Starch Maltose
Lysozyme acts as an antibacterial agent Na+, K+, Cl–, HCO3– Salivary amylase Lysozyme
2. Gastric juice
Stores the food for 4- 5 hours.
Gastric glands; Food mixes by the churning movements of its muscular wall and is called
(i) Mucus neck cells which secrete mucus the chyme.
(ii) Peptic or chief cells (zymogen cells) which secrete the proenzymes pH (pH 1 .8) optimal for pepsins.
pepsinogen & prorennin. Rennin of infants helps in the digestion of milk proteins casein
(iii) Parietal or oxyntic cells which secret HCI and intrinsic factor Small amounts of lipases are also secreted by gastric glands.
(factor essential for absorption of vitamin B 12 )
3. DIGESTION IN SMALL BILE JUICE
INTESTINE
No enzymes
movements by the muscular is layer, help in a thorough mixing up of the helps in emulsification of fats, breaking down of the
food and facilitate digestion. fats into very small micelles
bile, pancreatic juice and the intestinal juice are released into the
small intestine.
INTESTINAL JUICE
PANCREATIC JUICE The intestinal mucosal epithelium has goblet cells which
secrete mucus
Pancreatic juice contains secretions of the brush border cells of the mucosa along with
the secretions of the goblet cells constitute the intestinal
juice .
(pH 7.8) for enzymatic activities. Sub-mucosal glands
Trypsionogen Amylases Procarboxy peptidase {Brunner's glands) also help in this.
simple substances thus are absorbed in the jejunum and Ileum
Chymotrypsinogen Lipases Nucleases
Enterokinase
Trypsinogen Intestinal Juice Trypsin
Trypsin
Chymotrypsinogen Chymotrypsin
Trypsin
THE FUNCTIONS OF LARGE
Procarboxypeptidase Carboxypeptidase
INTESTINE ARE
Proteins Trypsin / Chymotrypsin (i) Absorption of some water, minerals and certain drugs,
Peptones Dipeptides (ii) Secretion of mucus which helps in adhering the waste
Proteoses (undigested) particles together and lubricating it for an
easy passage.
Trypsin, chymotrypsin & carboxypeptidase are proteolytic enzymes.
The undigested, unabsorbed substances called faeces
temporarily stored in the rectum till defaecation.
Amylase
Polysaccharides (starch) Disaccharides.
Nucleases
Nucleic acids Nucleotides Nucleosides
Lipases
Fats Diglycerides Monoglycerides
Intestinal Juice cotains
Dipeptidases
Dipeptides Aminoacids
Maltase
Maltose Lactose Glucose + Glucose Glucose + Nucleosidases
Lactase Disaccharidases
Sucrose Galactose Glucose + Fructose
Sucrase Lipases Dipeptidases Maltase Lactase
Enterokinase Sucrase
Nucleotidases Nucleosidases
Nucleotides Nucleosides Sugar + Bases
ABSORPTION OF DIGESTED PRODUCTS
TOPIC 5. REGULATION OF
DIGESTION
passive, active or facilitated transport mechanisms.
electrolytes like chloride ions are generally absorbed by simple diffusion.
Transport of water depends upon the osmotic gradient.
Neural and hormonal control
amino acids, monosaccharides like glucose, electrolytes like Na+ are
muscular activities - moderated by neural mechanisms,
absorbed into the blood by active transport.
Hormonal control - by the local hormones produced by
Fatty acids and glycerol incorporated into small droplets called micelles
the gastric and intestinal mucosa.
which move into the intestinal mucosa re-formed into very small protein
gastrin, secretin, cholecystokinin (CCK) and gastric
coated fat globules called the chylomicrons (triglycerides); Transported
inhibitory peptide (GJP).
into the lymph vessels (lacteals) in the villi.
Gastrin - secreted from duodenum - stimulates stomach lymph vessels release the absorbed substances into the blood stream.
for secretion of hydrochloric acid and pepsinogen. Absorption of substances takes place in alimentary canal mouth,
CCK - secreted from duodenum - causes contraction of
stomach, small intestine
gall Bladder, secretion of pancreatic enzymes; bile juice
maximum absorption occurs in the small intestine
GIP - inhibits gastric secretion and motility.
Most of the water is absorbed in large intestine.
The absorbed substances finally reach the tissues which utilise them for
their activities. This process is called assimilation.
The egestion of faeces to the outside through the anal opening
(defaecation) carried out by a mass peristaltic movement.
Mouth : Certain drugs coming in contact with the mucosa of Small intestine : Principal organ for absorption of nutrients. The digestion is
mouth and lower side of the tongue are absorbed into the completed here and the final products of digestion such as glucose, fructose, fatty
blood capillaries lining them. acids, glycerol and amino acids are absorbed through the mucosa into the blood
stream and lymph.
Stomach : Absorption of water, simple sugars, and alcohol
etc. takes place. Large intestine : Absorption of water, some minerals and drugs takes place.
MARASMUS KWASHIORKAR
protein deficiency (Q 2009) unaccompanied by calorie
deficiency of proteins and calories deficiency.
infants less than a year in age, more than one year in age
happens if the mother has second pregnancy or childbirth when the older wasting of muscles, thinning of limbs, failure of growth and
infant is still too young brain development
impairs growth; replacement of tissue proteins; skin becomes dry some fat is still left under the skin; extensive oedema and
growth and development of brain and mental faculties are impaired . swelling of body parts are seen
Chapter
BREATHING AND
17 EXCHANGE OF GASES
TOPIC 2
Topic 1. RESPIRATORY ORGANS HUMAN RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
External Nostrils
Lower invertebrates like sponges, coelenterates, flatworms, etc.,
exchange O₂ with CO₂ by simple diffusion over their entire body Nasal passage
surface.
Earthworms use their moist cuticle and insects have a network of Nasal chamber
tubes (tracheal tubes).
Nasopharynx
Among vertebrates, fishes use gills while reptiles, birds and
mammals respire through lungs. Larynx (through glottis)
Amphibians like frogs can respire through moist skin
Larynx is a cartilaginuous box which helps in sound production and Trachea
hence called the sound box. 1° Bronchi (left and right bronchi)
Human have two lungs which are covered by a double layered
pleura, with pleural fluid between them. 2° Bronchi
The part starting with the external nostrils upto the terminal 3° Bronchi
bronchioles constitute the conducting part whereas the alveoli and
their ducts form the respiratory or exchange part of respiratory Initial bronchioles
system. Terminal bronchioles
The lungs are situated in the thoracic chamber
Duct of Alveoli
The thoracic chamber is formed by the vertebral column, the
sternum, the ribs and the dome-shaped diaphragm. Alveoli
INSPIRATION EXPIRATION
Alveolar air rich in carbon dioxide expelled out from
Atmospheric air rich in oxygen drawn into lungs
the lungs
Increase in volume of the thoracic chamber in the anterio- Inter costal muscles, the diaphragm and sternum
posterior axis return to their normal position
Contraction of external inter-costal muscles and lifting up of Reduction in the volume of thoracic chamber and
the ribs and sternum overall pulmonary volume
Increase in the volume of the thoracic chamber in the dorso- Increase in intra pulmonary pressure to more than
ventral axis the atmospheric pressure
Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV) Extra volume of air one exhales by forced expiration 1000-1100 ml
Residual Volume (RV) Volume of air remaining in lungs after forced exhalation 1100-1200 ml
It prevents collapsing of the lungs
RESPIRATORY CAPACITIES (SHOWS THE CAPACITY
DEFINITION VOLUME OF AIR
OF THE LUNGS)
Inspiratory Capacity (IC) Total volume of air one inhales after normal exhalation 3000-3500 ml
It is the sum of tidal volume and inspiratory reserve volume (TV+IRV)
Total volume of air one exhales after normal inhalation
Expiratory Capacity (EC) It is the sum of tidal volume and 1500-1600 ml
expiratory reserve volume (TV+ERV)
Maximum volume of air one can inhale after forceful exhalation or maximum volume of air one can exhale
Vital Capacity (VC) (AIPMT 2009) after forceful inhalation 3500-4500 ml
It is the sum of expiratory reserve volume, tidal volume and inspiratory reserve volume (ERV+TV+IRV)
Volume of air present in the respiratory tract (nostrils to terminal bronchi) not involved in the gaseous
Dead air volume exchange. It is called dead space 150 ml
Basement membrane
TOPIC 7. REGULATION OF
RESPIRATION
Short lived
A A Anti-B A, O
B B Anti-A B, O
AB A, B nil AB, A, B, O
O Nil Anti-A, B O
COAGULATION OF BLOOD
'O' group individuals are 'universal donors'.
Prevent excessive loss of blood.
'AB' individuals are 'universal recipients'.
Calcium ions play important role.
Rh grouping
TISSUE FLUID
Fluid released out from capillaries is called interstitial
fluid or tissue fluid.
Same mineral distribution as plasma. NODAL TISSUE
lymphatic system drains it back to veins.
Lymph: colourless fluid containing specialised lymphocytes. Specialised musculature distributed in heart.
Sino-atrial node (SAN): Right upper corner of the right
atrium
HUMAN CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
Atrio - ventricular node (AVN): lower left corner of the
Heart (mesodermally derived). right atrium
Protected by double walled pericardium. Bundle of nodal fibres continues, passes through atrio -
Two small upper chambers (atria) ventricular septa, divides into a right and left bundle.
two larger lower chambers (ventricles). Give rise to minute fibres throughout ventricular
Tricuspid valve: between right atrium and right musculature (Purkinje fibres).
ventricle These fibres with right and left bundles bundle of His
Bicuspid or mitral valve: between left atrium left Nodal musculature is autoexcitable.
ventricle. SAN generates maximum number of action
–1
Semilunar valves: openings of right and left potentials, i.e., 70-75 min,
–1
ventricles into pulmonary artery and aorta It is called the pacemaker (average 72 beats min.
Valves prevent backward flow.
CARDIAC CYCLE
ELECTTROCARDIOGRAPH (ECG)
CIRCULATORY PATHWAYS
Systemic circulation: left ventricle pumps blood into the
aorta
Fishes have 2-chambered heart. Oxygenated blood entering the aorta is carried by capillaries
Amphibians reptiles (except crocodiles) 3-chambered to tissues from where the deoxygenated blood emptied into
heart. the right atrium.
Birds and mammals 4-chambered heart.
Hepatic portal system: Unique vascular connection between
the digestive tract and liver
DOUBLE CIRCULATION Special coronary system of blood vessels for circulation to
cardiac musculature.
Oxygenated and deoxygenated blood received by the left Neural centre in the medulla oblangata can moderate the
and right atria respectively passed to two separate cardiac function through autonomic nervous system (ANS).
circulatory pathways Sympathetic nerves increase heart beat, ventricular
Pulmonary circulation: Blood pumped by the right ventricle contraction and cardiac output.
enters the pulmonary artery Passed on to the lungs from Parasympathetic neural signals decrease the heart beat,
where the oxygenated blood is carried by the pulmonary conduction of action potential and cardiac output.
veins into the left atrium
DISORDERS OF CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
Angina pectoris: acute chest pain when not enough oxygen is reaching the heart muscle.
1. AMMONOTELISM
1. Excreting ammonia
2. Bony fishes, aquatic amphibians and aquatic insects
3. Excreted by diffusion or through gill surfaces
4. Kidneys do not play any significant role
2. UREOTELISM 3. URICOTELISM
1. Mammals, many terrestrial amphibians and marine fishes
2. Ammonia produced by metabolism is converted into urea in • Reptiles, birds, land snails and insects excrete nitrogenous wastes as uric acid in the
the liver & eliminated by kidney. form of pellet or paste with minimum loss of water.
• In invertebrates, structures are simple tubular forms while vertebrates have complex tubular organs called kidneys.
• Protonephridia or flame cells in Platyhelminthes (Flatworms), rotifers, some annelids and the cephalochordate - Amphioxus.
• Nephridia : earthworms and other annelids.
• Malpighian tubules: insects including cockroaches.
• Antennal glands or green glands: crustaceans like prawn
• One pair of metanephric kidneys, one pair of ureters, a urinary bladder and a urethra.
• Kidneys are reddish brown, bean shaped structures close to the dorsal inner wall of the
abdominal cavity.
• 10-12 cm in length, 5-7 cm in width, 2-3 cm thickness average weight of 120-170 g.
• Towards centre of the inner concave surface of
the kidney is a notch called hilum through which ureter, blood vessels and nerves enter.
• Inner to the hilum is a funnel shaped space called the renal pelvis with projections called calyces.
• Two zones, outer cortex and an inner medulla.
• 70-80 percent of electrolytes and water are reabsorbed by this 4. Collecting Duct
segment.
• Secretion of hydrogen ions, ammonia and potassium ions into the Extends from the cortex of the kidney to the inner parts of the medulla.
filterate.
Large amounts of water could be reabsorbed under the influence of ADH
2. Henle's Loop to produce a concentrated urine.
• Reabsorption is minimum in its ascending limb. Allows passage of small amounts of urea into the medullary interstitium
+ +
• Plays a significant role in the maintenance of high osmolarity of medullary Maintenance of pH and ionic balance selective secretion of H and K ions.
interstitial fluid.
• The descending limb of loop of Henle is permeable to water but impermeable to
electrolytes.
• The ascending limb is impermeable to water but allows transport of
electrolytes actively or passively.
TOPIC 8. MECHANISM OF CONCENTRATION OF THE FILTRATE
Maintain a concentration gradient in the medullary interstitium. Helps in an easy passage of water from the collecting tubule
thereby concentrating the filtrate (urine).
Produce urine nearly four times concentrated than the initial
filtrate formed.
2 Control by JGA
1. Control by ADH
• Osmoreceptors in the body are activated by changes in blood volume, body
fluid volume and ionic concentration.
3. CONTROL BY ANF
Lungs, liver and skin also help in the elimination of excretory wastes. Sweat is a watery fluid containing NaCl, small amounts of urea,
lactic acid, etc.
Lungs remove large amounts of CO₂ (200 mL/minute) Sebaceous glands eliminate substances like sterols,
hydrocarbons and waxes through sebum. This secretion provides
Liver secretes bile-containing substances like bilirubin, biliverdin, oily covering for the skin.
cholesterol, degraded steroid hormones, vitamins and drugs.
Small amounts of nitrogenous wastes could be eliminated through
Sweat and sebaceous glands can eliminate certain substances through saliva too.
their secretions.
Haemodialysis
1.Renal/Kidney failure
2 . Renal calculi
• Insoluble mass of crystallised salts (oxalates, etc.)
formed within the kidney.
3. Glomerulonephritis
• Inflammation of glomeruli of kidney.
Chapter
LOCOMOTION AND
20
MOVEMENT
INTRODUCTION MUSCLE
Animals and plants exhibit a wide range of
movements. Mesodermal origin.
Movements result in a change of place or location. Such 40-50 percent of the body weight have special
voluntary movements are called locomotion. properties like excitability, contractility, extensibility
and elasticity.
TYPES OF MUSCLES
SKELETAL MUSCLE
Cardiac muscles
Muscle Fibre
Lined by the plasma membrane Syncitium
called sarcolemma.
Presence of a large number of
Sarcoplasmic reticulum is parallelly arranged filaments
the store house of calcium in the sarcoplasm called
ions. myofilaments or myofibrils.
The portion of the myofibril between two successive 'Z' lines is considered
sarcomere.
MECHANISM OF MUSCLE
CONTRACTION
Sliding filament theory which states that contraction of a
muscle fibre takes place by the sliding of the thin filaments
over the thick filaments
SKELETAL SYSTEM
In human beings , this system is
made up of 206 bones and a few
cartilages.
12 pairs of ribs . Each rib is a thin flat bone connected Appendicular skeleton (126 bones) 1. Humerus - 1
dorsally to the vertebral column and ventrally to the 2. Radius - 1
sternum. 1. Fore limb - 60 (30 × 2) 3. Ulna - 1
Bicephalic 2. Hind limb - 60 (30 × 2) 4. Carpals - 8
3. Pectoral girdle - 04 (2 × 2) (wrist bones)
First seven pairs of ribs are called true ribs.
4. Pelvic girdle - 02 5. Metacarpals - 5
Dorsally, attached to the thoracic Vertebrae ventrally 126 (palm bones)
connected to the sternum with the help of hyaline 6. Phalanges
cartilage..
(digits) - 14
30
Hind limb (30 bones)
The 8th , 9th and 10th pairs of ribs do not articulate
directly with the sternum but join the seventh rib with the 1. Femur (thigh bone) - 1
help of hyaline cartilage. These are called vertebrochondral 2. Tibia - 1
(false) ribs. 3. Fibula - 1
4. Tarsals (ankle bones) - 7
Last 2 pairs (11th and 12th) of ribs are not connected 5. Metatarsals - 5
ventrally and are therefore, called floating ribs. 6. Phalanges (digits). - 14
7. Patella (cup-shaped) - 1
30
PECTORAL GIRDLE/
SHOULDER GIRDLE
Below the acromion is a depression called the glenoid cavity which
articulates with the head of the humerus to form the shoulder joint.
Consists of a clavicle and a scapula.
Clavicle is a long slender bone with two curvatures. This bone is
Scapula is present in dorsal part of thorax between the
commonly called the collar bone.
second an d the seventh ribs.
PELVIC GIRDLE
DISORDERS OF MUSCULAR
AND SKELETAL SYSTEM
NEURON
Three major parts - Cell body, dendrites and axon. Axon is a long fibre, the distal end of which is branched.
Cell body cytoplasm with typical cell organelles and certain Each branch terminates as a bulb-like structure called
granular bodies called Nissl's granules. synaptic knob which possess synaptic vesicles containing
chemicals called neurotransmitters.
Short fibres which branch repeatedly and project out of the
cell body also contain Nissl's granules are called dendrites. It transmit nerve impulses away from the cell body to a
They transmit impulses towards the cell body. synapse or to a neuro-muscular junction.
TYPE OF AXONS
Myelinated nerve fibres have Schwann cells, which form a Unmyelinated nerve fibre enclosed by a Schwann cell that does
myelin sheath around the axon. not form a myelin sheath around the axon and are found in
autonomous and the somatic neural systems
Gaps between two adjacent myelin sheaths are called nodes
of Ranvier which are found in spinal and cranial nerves.
The electrical potential difference across the resting plasma Electrical synapses allows quick transmission,
membrane is called as the resting potential (–70mV). both membranes are in close contact. They are
rare in our body.
+
Two types of photoreceptor cells, namely, rods and cones. Photoreceptor cells are not present in region medial to and slightly
above the posterior pole of the eye ball from where optic nerves
Contain the light-sensitive proteins called the photopigments. leave the eye and the retinal blood vessels enter It is called the blind
spot.
Daylight vision/colour vision is function of cones and the twilight
(scotopic) vision is the function of the rods. At the posterior pole of the eye lateral to the blind spot, there is a
yellowish pigmented spot called macula lutea with a central pit called
The rods contain a purplish-red protein called the rhodopsin or the fovea, where only the cones are densely packed, and the visual
visual purple, which contains a derivative of Vitamin A. acuity (resolution) is the greatest.
There are three types of cones which respond to red, green and The space between the cornea and the lens is called the aqueous
blue lights. chamber and contains a thin watery fluid called aqueous humor.
The space between the lens and the retina is called the vitreous
When these cones are stimulated equally, a sensation of white
chamber and is filled with a transparent gel called vitreous humor.
light is produced.
MECHANISM OF VISION EYE DEFECTS
Light reflected from an object ---- enters the eye through 1. Myopia- (Short sightedness)
cornea & lens ---- focus on retina ---- dissociation of retinal
from opsin ---- changes in membrane permeability ---- Person can not clearly see the distant objects.
generates potential differences (impulse) in photoreceptor
cells (rods & cones) ---- generates action potentials in Correction is by concave lens.
ganglion cells through bipolar cells ---- impulses are
transmitted by optic nerves to brain (visual cortex) ---- 2. Hypermetropia (Far-sightedness)
impulses are analyzed and the image is recognized based on
earlier memory and experience ---- vision. Person can not see near object clearly.
(Statoacoustic organ.)
Coiled portion of labyrinth
The hair cells are present in rows on the internal side of the
organ of corti, which have stercocilia on apex, above which
tectorial membrane is present.
Membranous labyrinth is divided into 3 parts: (i) Cochlea, (ii) Otolith organs
(Saccule & Utricle), (iii) Semicircular canals(3)
MECHANISM OF HEARING
Pinna collects sound waves ---- waves pass through ear---- relayed to the tympanic membrane ---- tympanic
membrane vibrates ---- vibrations transmit to ear ossicles & oval window ---- perilymph in the vestibular canal
vibrates ---- vibrations reach the scala tympani and force the basilar membrane to vibrate ---- hair endings
of sensory hair cells press against tectorial membrane ---- sensory hair cells are excited ---- auditory nerve
carries impulses to auditory centre of the brain ---- hearing.
RECEPTORS
Made up of olfactory epithelium. The chemical senses of gustation (taste) and olfactory
(smell) are functionally similar and interrelated.
The neurons of the olfactory epithelium extend from
the outside environment directly into a pair of broad
bean-sized organs, called olfactory bulb. Tongue detect taste through taste buds, containing
gustatory receptors.
Chapter
CHEMICAL COORDINATION &
22 INTEGRATION
The neural system and the endocrine system jointly coordinate
and regulate the physiological functions in the body. HUMAN ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
ENDOCRINE GLANDS AND Pituitary, pineal, thyroid , adrenal , pancreas, parathyroid, thymus and
gonads (testis in males and ovary in females)
HORMONES GIT, kidney, heart also produce hormones.
Ductless glands secretions are called hormones.
Hormones are non-nutrient chemicals, intercellular messengers,
and are produced in trace amounts. PITUITARY GLAND
1. HYPOTHALAMUS
Adenophypophysis Neurohypophysis
Adrenal gland
Catecholamines
Outer zona Middle Zona fasciculata Inner Zona reticularls
glomerulosa (Glucocorticoid) (Sex corticoid)
(Mineralo- Adrenaline or Noradrenaline or
corticoid) epinephrine norepinephrine
ADRENAL CORTEX
Androgenic steroids play a role in the growth of axial hair, pubic
Aldosterone acts mainly at the renal tubules and stimulates the hair and facial hair during puberty. Hyposecretion of adrenal
reabsorption of Na⁺ and water and excretion of K⁺ and phosphate ions. cortex hormone alters carbohydrate metabolism causing acute
Maintenance of electrolytes, body fluid volume, osmotic pressure and weakness, fatigue leading to a disease called Addison's disease.
blood pressure. Hypersecretion: Cushing syndrome.
Cortisol is the main glucocorticoid. Stimulate, gluconeogenesis, lipolysis
and proteolysis. Maintaining the cardio-vascular system as well kidney
functions. Produces anti inflammatory reactions and suppresses the
immune response.
8. PANCREAS 9. TESTIS
Hyposecretion of Insulin - causes hyperglycemia leads to a complex Primary male sex organ as well as an endocrine gland.
disorder called diabetes mellitus. Loss of glucose through urine and The Leydig cells or interstitial cells, which are present in the
formation of harmful compounds known as ketone bodies. intertubular spaces produce a group of hormones called
androgens mainly testosterone.
Main male hormone or androgen is testosterone.
Pancreas
Responsible for the puberty in male.
Regulate the development, maturation and functions of the
male accessory sex organs like epididymis, vas deferens,
Exocrine part (98- Endocrine part (1-
99%) 2%)
seminal vesicles, prostate gland, urethra etc.
Stimulate muscular growth, growth of facial and axillary
Islets of Langerhans hair, aggressiveness, low pitch of voice etc.
Regulates the process of spermatogenesis
Influence the male sexual behaviour (libido).
alpha-cells beta-cells Anabolic (synthetic) effects on protein and carbohydrate
Hepatocytes metabolism.
Glucagon Hepatocytes Insulin
Adipocytes
Hyperglycemic Hypoglycemic
11. HORMONES OF HEART AND
KIDNEY.
10. OVARY Atrial natriuretic factor (ANF), which decreases blood
pressure. vasodilation)
The juxtaglomerular cells of kidney produce a peptide hormone
Primary female sex organ called erythropoietin which stimulates erythropoiesis (formation
Estrogen is synthesised and secreted mainly by the growing ovarian of RBC).
follicles.
After ovulation, the ruptured follicle is converted to a structure
called corpus luteum, which secretes mainly progesterone. NATURE OF HORMONE
Estrogens stimulates the growth and activities of female secondary
sex organs, development of growing ovarian follicles, appearance of
female secondary sex characters e.g., mammary gland development. Peptide, polypeptide, protein hormones (e.g., insulin, glucagon,
Regulate female sexual behaviour. pituitary hormones, hypothalamic hormones, etc.), TCT, PTH,
Progesterone supports pregnancy. Thymosines.
Progesterone also acts on the mammary glands and stimulates the Steroids (eg., cortisol, testosterone, estradiol and progesterone)
formation of alveoli (sac-like structures which store milk) and milk Iodothyronines (thyroid hormones)
secretion. Amino-acid derivatives (eg., epinephrine)