12/05/2023, 17:55 Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory of Motivation-Hygiene

Menu

Theories » Motivation

Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory Of Motivation-

Hygiene
By Charlotte Nickerson Updated on April 24, 2023
Reviewed by Saul Mcleod, PhD

Key Takeaways
The two-factor theory (also known as Herzberg’s motivation-hygiene theory) argues that job
satisfaction and dissatisfaction exist on two different continua, each with its own set of
factors. This runs contrary to the traditional view of job satisfaction, which posits that job
satisfaction and dissatisfaction are interdependent.

Herzberg and his collaborators investigated fourteen factors relating to job satisfaction in
their original study, classifying them as either hygienic or motivational factors. Motivation
factors increase job satisfaction while the presence of hygiene factors prevent job
dissatisfaction.

Although largely replaced by newer theories of motivation in academia, the two-factor

motivation theory still continues to influence popular management theory and the
methodology of studies in some areas of the world.

Table of Contents
1. What is Two-Factor Theory?
2. Herzberg’s Approach
3. Motivation Factors
4. Hygiene Factors
5. Examples
6. Critical Evaluation

What Is Two-Factor Theory?

The two-factor motivation theory, otherwise known as Herzberg’s motivation-hygiene theory or
dual-factor theory, argues that there are separate sets of mutually exclusive factors in the

https://www.simplypsychology.org/herzbergs-two-factor-theory.html 1/12
12/05/2023, 17:55 Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory of Motivation-Hygiene

workplace that either cause job satisfaction or dissatisfaction (Herzberg, 1966; 1982; 1991;
Herzberg, Mausner, & Snyderman, 1959).

Generally, these factors encouraging job satisfaction relate to self-growth and self-actualization.

The two-factor motivation theory has since become one of the most commonly used theoretical
frameworks in job satisfaction research (Dion, 2006).

To Herzberg, motivators ensured job satisfaction, while a lack of hygiene factors spawned job
dissatisfaction.

The major mid-twentieth century researchers in motivation — Maslow (1954), Herzberg,

Vroom (1964), Alderfer (1972), McCalland (1961), and Locke et al. (1981) — devised research
which Basset-Jones and Lloyd argue can be divided into content and process theories of
motivation.

Content theories, such as Herzberg et al.’s (1959), assume a complex interaction between
internal and external factors, and explore the circumstances under which people respond to
different internal and external stimuli.

Meanwhile, process theories, such as that of Vroom (1964), consider how factors internal to the
person lead to different behaviors.

Herzberg’s Approach

https://www.simplypsychology.org/herzbergs-two-factor-theory.html 2/12
12/05/2023, 17:55 Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory of Motivation-Hygiene

Frederick Herzberg and his two collaborators, Mausner and Snyderman developed the
motivation-hygiene theory in their book, Motivation to Work.

Influenced by Maslow’s hierarchy of needs (Jones, 2011), Herzberg concluded that satisfaction
and dissatisfaction could not be measured reliably on the same continuum and conducted a
series of studies where he attempted to determine what factors in work environments cause
satisfaction or dissatisfaction.

Herzberg and his colleagues explored the impact of fourteen factors on job satisfaction and
dissatisfaction in terms of their frequency and duration of impact (Bassett-Jones and Lloyd,
2005).

In the first of these studies, Heizberg asked 13 labourers, clerical workers, foreman, plant
engineers and accountants to describe, in detail, situations where they felt exceptionally good or
bad about their jobs (Robbins and Judge, 2013).

Generally, respondents, when describing situations where they felt good about their jobs, cited
factors intrinsic to their work while those describing situations where they felt bad about their
jobs cited extrinsic factors.

Herzberg (1959) considers two types of factors that can add to or detract from job satisfaction:
hygiene and motivation factors.

While hygiene factors are related to “the need to avoid unpleasantness,” motivation factors
more directly lead to job satisfaction because of “the need of the individual for self-growth and
self-actualization.”

The traditional view of job satisfaction entails that job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction exist
on the same continuum; employees who lack reasons to be satisfied with their jobs must be
dissatisfied (Robbins and Judge, 2013).

However, hygiene and motivational factors are distinct. To Herzberg, the opposite of job
satisfaction was not job dissatisfaction, but no job satisfaction. Conversely, the opposite of job
dissatisfaction is no job dissatisfaction (Kacel et al., 2005).

These two separate continua of job satisfaction and job satisfaction support the possibility that
someone can be content with certain aspects of their jobs but discontent with others.

Perhaps more pessimistically, this also has the implication that simply eliminating
“dissatisfiers” would not necessarily lead to job satisfaction so much as placation (motivational
concepts).
https://www.simplypsychology.org/herzbergs-two-factor-theory.html 3/12
12/05/2023, 17:55 Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory of Motivation-Hygiene

These so-called “satisfiers” (motivational factors) and “dissatisfiers” (a lack of hygiene factors)
are dynamic, constantly interacting, highly subject to change, and relative to the employee
(Misener and Cox, 2001).

Certain satisfiers or dissatisfiers may be more important than others in a way that depends on
personal and professional contexts.

Whether or not dissatisfiers outweigh satisfiers predict, according to Herzberg, whether

employees find their job interesting and enjoyable as well as their likelihood of remaining at
their current jobs (Kacel et al., 2005).

https://www.simplypsychology.org/herzbergs-two-factor-theory.html 4/12
12/05/2023, 17:55 Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory of Motivation-Hygiene

Motivation Factors
Herzberg et. al. (1959) argues that motivation factors are necessary to improve job satisfaction.
These motivators, according to Herzberg, are intrinsic to the job and lead to job satisfaction
because they satisfy needs for growth and self-actualization (Herzberg, 1966).

In his original paper, Herzberg examines 14 motivational and hygiene factors, of which these
are notable examples:

Advancement
Herzberg defined advancement as the upward and positive status or position of someone in a
workplace. Meanwhile, a negative or neutral status at work represents negative advancement
(Alshmemri et al., 2017, 2017).

The work itself

The content of job tasks in itself can have positive or negative effects on employees. The job’s
difficulty and level of engagement can dramatically impact satisfaction or dissatisfaction in
the workplace (Alshmemri et al., 2017, 2017).

Possibility for growth

Possibilities for growth exist in the same vein as Maslow’s self actualization; they are
opportunities for a person to experience personal growth and promotion in the workplace.
Personal growth can result in professional growth, increased opportunities to develop new
skills and techniques, and gaining professional knowledge (Alshmemri et al., 2017, 2017).

Responsibility
Responsibility encompasses both the responsibilities held by the individual and the authority
granted to the individual in their role. People gain satisfaction from being given the
responsibility and authority to make decisions. Conversely, a mismatch between
responsibility and level of authority negatively affects job satisfaction (Alshmemri et al., 2017,
2017).

Recognition
When employees receive praise or rewards for reaching goals at their job or for producing
high-quality work, they receive recognition. Negative recognition involves criticisms or blame
for a poorly-done job (Alshmemri et al., 2017, 2017).

Achievement 
Positive achievement can involve, for example, completing a difficult task on time, solving a

https://www.simplypsychology.org/herzbergs-two-factor-theory.html 5/12
12/05/2023, 17:55 Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory of Motivation-Hygiene

job-related problem, or seeing positive results from one’s work. Negative achievement
includes failure to make progress at work or poor job-related decision making (Alshmemri et
al., 2017, 2017).

Hygiene Factors
Hygiene factors are those which decrease job dissatisfaction. Herzberg, Mausner and
Snyderman used the term hygiene in reference to “medical hygiene…[which] operates to
remove health hazards from the environment” (1959; Alshmemri et al., 2017).

Herzberg also states that hygiene factors are extrinsic to the job, and function in “the need to
avoid unpleasantness” (Herzberg, 1966).

Hygiene factors, rather than relating to the content of the job in itself, tend to relate to
contextual factors such as interpersonal relations, salary, company policies and administration,
relationship with supervisors and working conditions:

Interpersonal relations
Interpersonal relationships involve the personal and working relationships between an
employee and his supervisors, subordinates, and peers. This can manifest in, for example,
job-related interactions as well as social discussions in both the work environment and
during informal break times.

Salary
Salary includes wage or salary increases, and negatively, unfulfilled expectations of wage or
salary increases (Alshmemri et al., 2017).

Company policies and administration

Company policies and administration includes factors such as the extent to which company
organization and management policies and guidelines are clear or unclear. For example, a
lack of delegation of authority, vague policies and procedures and communication may lead
to job dissatisfaction (Alshmemri et al., 2017).

Supervision
Supervision involves an employee’s judgments of the competence or incompetence and
fairness or unfairness of the supervisor or supervisions. For example, this could include a
supervisor’s willingness to delegate responsibility or to feach, as well as their knowledge of
the job at hand. Poor leadership and management can decrease job dissatisfaction
(Alshmemri et al., 2017).

https://www.simplypsychology.org/herzbergs-two-factor-theory.html 6/12
12/05/2023, 17:55 Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory of Motivation-Hygiene

Working conditions
Finally, working conditions involve the physical surroundings of the job and whether or not
they are good or poor. Factors leading to a good or poor workspace could involve the amount
of work, space, ventilation, tools, temperature, and safety (Alshmemri et al., 2017).

Examples

Nursing

Empirical studies of job satisfaction in nurses, such as those of Kacel et al. (2005) and Jones
(2011) support Herzberg’s motivation-hygiene theory by asserting that hygiene factors are less
important to job satisfaction, while motivational factors lead to job satisfaction (Alshmemri et
al., 2017).

In one such study, Kacel et al. (2005) used Herzberg’s theory as a framework for studying job
satisfaction among 147 nurse practitioners in the Midwest of the United States qualitatively.

Kacel et al. noticed a Koelbel, Fuller, and Misener (1991) study that suggested that nurses often
become nurse practitioners because of dissatisfaction with their staff nursing position, and a
desire to use their abilities to their fullest potential — to fulfill what Herzberg would call
motivation factors.

In particular, nurses become nurse practitioners, according to Kacel, because of the challenge
and autonomy the role provides (2005).

The researchers devised the Misener Nurse Practitioner Job Satisfaction Scale (Misner and Cox,
2001), which is a 44-item questionnaire that focuses on six of Herzberg’s motivational and
hygiene factors: collegiality; autonomy professional, social and community interaction;
professional growth; time; and benefits and compensation (Kace et al., 2005).

The study attempted to describe which of these factors were the most strongly associated with
satisfaction and dissatisfaction and found that salary and administrative policies in particular
influence nurses’ job dissatisfaction (Kacel et al., 2005).

Mid-Level Manager Job Satisfaction in India

Although heavily critiqued, Herzberg’s motivation-hygiene theory still greatly influences

current methodology, particularly in a number of modern Asian workplace studies (Robbins
and Judge, 2013).

https://www.simplypsychology.org/herzbergs-two-factor-theory.html 7/12
12/05/2023, 17:55 Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory of Motivation-Hygiene

Vijayakumar and Saxena (2015) conducted once such study in India.

Attempting to address the controversy over whether monetary compensation is a motivating
poor hygiene factor, the researchers used a questionnaire to ask 144 mid-level managers about
what factors influenced their job satisfaction most.

Ultimately, the researchers concluded that job satisfaction was actually determined most by job
content, organizational context, and rewards and working conditions, with monetary
compensation as a separate factor altogether (Vijayakumar and Saxena, 2015).

PLAY Heuristics and Herzberg’s Theory Applied to Video Games

Straat and Warpefelt (2015) attempted to apply Herzberg’s theory to Desurvire and Wiberg’s
(2009) PLAY heuristics by attempting to view hygiene factors as those ensuring a functional
and enjoyable play experience.

In general, Straat found that video games determined to be of low quality — with a low average
rating on a popular review website — tended to have more usability design issues; however,
users tended to express more opinions about game aesthetics, narrative or storyline than
usability issues in their reviews (Straat and Verhageen, 2014).

The PLAY heuristic, as developed by Desurvire and Wiberg (2009), listed a number of factors in
categories such as gameplay, emotional immersion, and usability and game mechanics.

This heuristic includes factors such as “Players feel in control,” “The game goals are clear,” and
“there is an emotional connection between the player and the game world,” which parallel
Herzberg’s workplace factors.

The researchers then categorized each item in this heuristic as either a hygienic or motivational
factor according to participant responses (Straat and Warpefelt, 2015).

Critical Evaluation
The two-factor theory has not been well supported by research. Generally, criticisms of the
theory focus on Herzberg’s methodology and assumptions.

Critics have also noted that if hygiene and motivational factors are equally important to a
person, then both should be capable of motivating employees (Robbins and Judge, 2013).

Herzberg conducted his formative motivation theory research at a time when organizations
tended to be rigid and bureaucratic. As organizations shifted away from focusing on mass-

https://www.simplypsychology.org/herzbergs-two-factor-theory.html 8/12
12/05/2023, 17:55 Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory of Motivation-Hygiene

production and toward innovation, new theories of motivation, such as those based in
behaviorism, evolved (Bassett-Jones and Lloyd, 2005).

A large number of replication studies emerged following Herzberg’s results. Those using
Herzberg’s methodology — the critical incident framework — were consistent with his original
results, while research that used methods such as surveys supported the traditional idea that
job satisfaction and dissatisfaction exist on the same continuum (Bassett-Jones and Lloyd,
2005).

Soon after Motivation at Work’s publication, Vroom (1964) offered a notable critique of this
phenomena: people would naturally be inclined toward protecting their egos when asked to
recall good and bad work moments, thus attributing good moments to their personal
achievement and capability and bad moments to work (Basset-Jones and Lloyd, 2005).

Thus, in Herzberg’s original qualitative study involving about 200 participants, participants
may have been biased when thinking about times in the past where they felt good or bad about
their jobs.

Nonetheless, critics struggled to grapple with how Herzberg’s methodology produced results
with such consistency. Nonetheless, critics continued to attribute Herzberg’s results to factors
such as social desirability bias (Wall, 1973) and personality (Evans and McKee, 1970).

References
Alderfer, C. P. (1972). Existence, relatedness, and growth: Human needs in organizational
settings.

Alshmemri, M., Shahwan-Akl, L., & Maude, P. (2017). Herzberg’s two-factor theory. Life
Science Journal, 14(5), 12-16.

Bassett‐Jones, N., & Lloyd, G. C. (2005). Does Herzberg’s motivation theory have staying
power? Journal of management development.

Desurvire, H., & Wiberg, C. (2009). Game usability heuristics (PLAY) for evaluating and
designing better games: The next iteration. Paper presented at the International conference on
online communities and social computing.

Dion, M. J. (2006). The impact of workplace incivility and occupational stress on the job
satisfaction and turnover intention of acute care nurses: University of Connecticut.

https://www.simplypsychology.org/herzbergs-two-factor-theory.html 9/12
12/05/2023, 17:55 Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory of Motivation-Hygiene

Evans, M., & McKee, D. (1970). Some effects of internal versus external orientations upon the
relationship between various aspects of job satisfaction. J Appl Psychol, 2(1), 17-24.

Herzberg, F. I. (1966). Work and the Nature of Man.

Herzberg, F. I. (1970). Avoiding pain in the organization. Industry Week. Dec, 7.

Herzberg, F. I . (1971a). More on avoiding pain in the organization. Industry Week. Jan. 18.

Herzberg, F. I. (1974). The wise old Turk. Harvard Business Review, 54(5), 70-80.

Herzberg, F. I. (1982). The managerial choice: To be efficient and to be human (2nd ed., Rev.).
Salt Lake City, UT: Olympus.

Herzberg, F. I. (1991). Happiness and unhappiness: A brief autobiography of Frederick I.

Herzberg. Unpublished manuscript, University of Utah, Salt Lake City.

Herzberg. F. I., & Hamlin, R. M. (1961). A motivation-hygiene concept of mental health. Mental
Hygiene, 45, 394-401.

Herzberg, F. I., Mausner, R., Peterson, R., & Capwell, D. (1957). Job attitudes: Review of
research and opinion. Pittsburgh, PA: Psychological Services of Pittsburgh.

Herzberg, F. I., Mausner, B., & Snyderman, B. (1959). The motivation to work (2nd ed.). New
York:
John Wiley.

Jones, T. L. (2011). Effects of motivating and hygiene factors on job satisfaction among school
nurses. Walden University.

Kacel, B., Miller, M., & Norris, D. (2005). Measurement of nurse practitioner job satisfaction in
a Midwestern state. Journal of the American Academy of Nurse Practitioners, 17(1), 27-32.

Koelbel, P. W., Fuller, S. G., & Misener, T. R. (1991). Job satisfaction of nurse practitioners: an
analysis using Herzberg’s theory. The Nurse Practitioner, 16(4), 43, 46-52, 55.

Locke, E. A., Shaw, K. N., Saari, L. M., & Latham, G. P. (1981). Goal setting and task
performance: 1969–1980. Psychological Bulletin, 90(1), 125.

Further Reading
Resurrecting the MotivationHygiene Theory: Herzberg and the Positive Psychology Movement
https://www.simplypsychology.org/herzbergs-two-factor-theory.html 10/12
12/05/2023, 17:55 Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory of Motivation-Hygiene

Behling, O., Labovitz, G., & Kosmo, R. (1968). The Herzberg controversy: A critical reappraisal.
Academy of Management Journal, 11(1), 99-108.

Reviewer Author

Saul Mcleod, PhD

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester
Educator, Researcher

Saul Mcleod, Ph.D., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years experience of working
in further and higher education.

CONTACT

We are committed to engaging with you and taking action based on your suggestions,
complaints, and other feedback.

Simply Scholar Ltd. 20-22 Wenlock Road, London N1 7GU

contact@simplypsychology.org

CATEGORIES

Theories & Famous Studies

Self-Care

https://www.simplypsychology.org/herzbergs-two-factor-theory.html 11/12
12/05/2023, 17:55 Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory of Motivation-Hygiene

Research Methodology

Student Resources

OUR STAFF

Saul Mcleod

Florence-Yeung

Ioanna Stavraki

Olivia Guy-Evans

Julia Simkus

Anna Drescher

SUBSCRIBE NEWSLETTER LINKEDIN TWITTER EDITORIAL POLICY

CONTACT US ABOUT US PRIVACY POLICY

© 2023 Simply Scholar, Ltd. — All rights reserved

https://www.simplypsychology.org/herzbergs-two-factor-theory.html 12/12