Nama : Hani Meirara Khairiyah

Kelas : XI Mipa 6

RINGKASAN MATERI BAHASA INGGRIS SEMESTER 2

Chapter 1 : Writing Personal Letter

What is Personal Letter? Personal letter is a type of letter that concerns

personal matter and is sent from one individual to another like your friends, cousin,
relative, etc. Usually the personal matters include personal experience, invitation,
apology, gratitude, congratulations, and sympathy and should be friendly, chatty,
and relaxed as we’re talking to the person.

1. Social Function of Personal Letters

Personal Letter not for inform something but also for aims to strengthen a
relationship. Most of the purposes of personal letters are to retell past activities, to
ask for information or favour, or to persuade someone to do something.

2. Structures of Personal Letters

a. Heading. It appears at the top of the letter. It contains the address of the
sender and the date.
1) Address. The sender's address is on the right side. The address of the receiver is
on the left side.
2) Date. It is the date when you write the letter. This date should be displayed on the
right side. It is beneath the address. Example, January 25, 2022; 25 January 2022; or
25th January 2022.
b. Salutation or greeting. A salutation greets the person whom you're writing.
It begins two lines below the address. Dear (name) is the most common
greeting. Remember to end it with a comma. A very casual letter or e-mail
can have more informal greeting.
c. Opening paragraph. The first paragraph can be used to ask about the
receiver's condition. Example, How are you?, How are you doing?, How
have you been?, I hope you've been having a wonderful holiday.
d. Body. The body includes your thoughts and ideas. Write also your purpose
why you write the letter. But remember, think of your relationship and
familiarity with the person with whom you are writing to. It is to determine
the level of formality you will use to write the letter.
 e. Closing (closure). Try to end the letter with positive feelings. For example,
Hope to hear from you soon; Please write back, Have a wonderful weekend.
f. Complimentary close. It is based on the relationship with the receiver.
Follow the signature
Examples:
Formal: Sincerely,; Warmly,; Best wishes,
Casual: Yours,; Take care,; Cheers,; Your friend,; Yours affectionally,
Intimate: Love,; Much love,; Thinking of you,; With love,
g. Signature. Signature is a person's name written in that person's handwriting.
h. Postscript (P.S.). It is often found at the end of friendly letters. A P.S. or
postscript is a way to add information. A postscript is a brief message
appended to the end of a letter or a short note at the bottom of a letter. For
example, P.S. Good luck for your exam!

3. Language Features of Personal Letters

a) Expressions used in personal letters.

Starting Commenting Telling Your Ending

Purpose
-How are you? - I'm sorry to - The reason I'm - Well, that's all
hear that... writing... for now.
- How are - It's great to - I'd like to tell you.... - Write back
things? hear.... soon.
- I hope you're - I'm glad to - I regret to inform - Looking
well. hear.... you forward
to hearing from
you again.
Thanks for -I'm so - I wonder if you.... - See you soon.
your letter. pleased to
hear....
- Guess what's - Take care.
happened.
- I've got some great
news
- There's something I
must tell
you....
- You won't believe
this....
b) Use of first and second person pronouns, such as I, we, and you.
 c) Use of declarative sentences.
d) Sometimes use informal language.
Example :

Formal Informal
- She is angry at me. - She's angry at me.
- The boy whom I met at the library - The boy I met at the library called me.
called me.
- I have lots of things to tell you. - Lots to tell you.
- I want to meet you. - I wanna meet you.
e) Use simple present tense and past tense

4. Characteristics of Personal Letters

a. Most personal letters are handwritten, but today people often type their
personal letters.
b. Personal letters are usually written using an upbeat, friendly
tone.
c. Personal letters add to the feeling of intimacy.
d. When we write a personal letter, it will finish not with "Yours sincerely" but
quite often will finish with "Love" or "Regards", even "Cheers", depending
on who we are writing to and how we have written the letter.
e. Sometimes, a joke, poem, or sketch might be added.

5. Differences between Formal Letters and Personal Letter

Difference Formal Letter Personal Letter

Tone More objective More colloquial
Writing In formal standard English In formal English with
a greater use of
abbrevation
Opening Focusing almost Asking about the
exclusively on the issue or recipient’s health and
the main topic that of his/her family
besides deadling with
the main topic
Chapter 2 : Cause and Effect

Cause and Effect is the relantionship between two things when one things
makes something else happen. Every cause has an effect and every effect becomes
the cause os something.

1. Social Function of Cause and Effect Essays

A cause-effect relantionship is a relantionship which one the event (the
cause) makes another event happen (the effect)

Cause Effect
- Why something happened. - What happend
- The reason or motive for an action. - result or conclusion of an action
- Happen first. - happen due to a cause

There are three criteria of cause and effect that we should know.
a. The cause has to precede the effect in time. The cause has to occur before the
effect.
b. There has to be an empirical relationship between the cause and effect.
Whenever the cause happens, the effect must also occur.
c. Cause and effect relationship cannot be explained by other factors.

In conclusion, we can find cause and effect relationship in academic texts. An

academic text is also called a cause-and-effect essay. It is a form of argumentative
essay that details the effect relationships between two subjects. The purpose of
using cause and effect relationship in the essays or papers is to show how one
person, thing, idea, or event directly influences another person, thing, idea, or event.

2. Structure of Cause and Effect

Cause and effect is a common way to organize information in a text. A text
structured as cause and effect explains reasons why something happened.
One cause can make many effect, one cause and one effect will rotate and
influence each other, and one cause can make many layered of effect. Fisrt cause
chain with first effect too.

Example :
a. The park is very dirty, so no one wants to go there
Cause signal effect
b. I am so sleepy because I played game until late at night
Effect signal Cause
 3. Language Features of Cause-Effect Relantionship

Causes Effect
- Because (of) - As a result
- Due to - Therefore
- Owing to - Consequently
- Since - Finally
- The reason for - Hence
- On account of - For this reason
- Bring about - Then
- Give rise to - So
- Created by - As a consequense of
- Contrivuted by - Thus

The use of Because of, Due to and Thanks to

1. The Use of Because of

Because of is a two-word preposition meaning "as a result of".
Because of and because are different. Because of is preposition, and because is a
conjunction.
Structure :
Because of + noun
Because + sentence
Examples:
Because of the rain, the flag ceremony was canceled.
Noun
b. The flag ceremony was canceled because it rained hard.
Sentence

2. The Use of Due to

Due to is very similar to because of. It gives a reason for why something is
true. Due to can be used with phrases and single words, but you can't use due to
with a clause.
Because of v.s. Due to
The word pairs because of and due to are not interchangeable. Because of grew up
as an adverb. Due to grew up as an adjective.
a. The cancelation was due to hard rain.
b. The meeting was canceled because of the hard rain.
 3. The Use of Thanks to
Thanks to is used in positive situation. In other words, we use thanks to to talk
about the cause of something good.
Examples:
a. I can go home safely thanks to the GPS.
b. We can renovate this park thanks to your help and donation.
Sometimes, thanks to can also be used ironically in a negative way. In other words,
we can use thanks to to talk about the cause of something bad.
Examples:
a. We missed the class thanks to the traffic.
b. The children were scared thanks to your shouting.
Chapter 3 : Motivation Through Songs

A song is defined as a short musical composition of words and music. Lyrics

are words that make up a song. We can use songs to practice lots of different
language skills.

1. Structure of Songs
The complete structure of a song consists of "Intro-Verse-Chorus-Verse-
Chorus - Bridge -Chorus".
a. Intro or introduction. Intro is an opening section of a piece of song.
Intro opens a movement.
b. Verse. Verse is the main part of a song. It is the part of the song that tells
a story. It functions to give listeners more insight leading to the main
message of the song and it moves the story.
c. Chorus. Chorus is a part of the song that is repeated after a verse. It is the
part of a song that often sticks to the mind of a listener because it
contrasts with the verse.
d. Bridge. Bridge is a secondary verse which is different from the primary
one. It usually appears once or twice in a song. It should offer a reason
why the final chorus needs to be repeated.

2. Social Function
a. To inspire the listeners.
b. To express feeling of the songwriters.
c. To share feeling with others.
d. To teach a lesson to the listeners.
e. To criticize environment or a condition.
f. To amuse or entertain the listeners.

3. How to Understand a Song

Song must have meaning. To understand a song, we should know the
meaning.
a. Listen to the song while reading the lyrics.
b. Read the lyrics on their own to interpret their meaning. You will find the
speaker, the word I, you, or we refer to.
c. Focus on concrete imagery and sense. Lyrics describe a sense of feeling
with images, not just vague ideas or phrases.
d. Unpack or expose unusual or poetic phrases one at time, for example the
use of figurative language. They are when the words don't literally mean
what they say.
 Language Features of Songs

1. Rhyme
Rhyme is identity in sound of some part, especially the end of words, or lines
of verse. In other words, rhyme is a repetition of similar sounds.
Examples:
I saw two shooting stars last night
I wished on them but they were only satelites

2. Informal Language
Most lyrics use contractions. A contraction is a word made by shortening and
combining two words. Nonstandard words or colloquial words can also be found
in the lyrics, such as gonna, aint gotta, and wanna
Examples:
Ain't about how fast I get there
Ain't about what's waitin' on the other side
It's the climb

3. Mood
A mood is a literary element that evokes certain feelings or vibes in readers
through words and descriptions. Usually songs have a mood such as happy, sad,
calm, energetic, anxious, and depressing.

1) Sounds. Songs and poems sometimes use alliteration (similar initial sounds)
or assonance (similar vocal sounds).
2) Meter. The meter of a poem is the rhythm or pattern of speech with which
you read it, and it doesn't happen by accident. To find a meter of a song, you
can tap your foot along with the song to find the steady beat.
3) Figures of speech. Figures of speech or figurative language are ways of
describing or explaining things in a non-literal or non-traditional way.

The following are some figures of speech.

a. Metaphor (describing something by likening it to something else).
Example: He is the black sheep of the family.

b. Hyperbole (a frequently humorous exaggeration that hints at a larger

truth)
Example: She is starving. (very hungry)
 c. Simile (a comparison between two different things, designed to create an
unusual, interesting emotional, or other effect often using like or as... .as).
Example: He is as brave as a lion.

4. Imagery. Imagery is something concrete, like a sight, smell, or taste. It

describes what the writer sees, hears, or otherwise senses. Imagery creates a
picture that the reader or listener can see in his mind.

5. Punctuation and format. The punctuation and format of the poem deal with
how it is arranged on the page and how the author intends for you to read it.
Most of song's format or structure have verse, chorus, and bridge. As a
general rule, lyrics will be written with little punctuation.
Chapter 4 : It Can Be Explained

A genre used to explain how something works or the processes involved in

actions, events, or behaviors is called explanation genre. In other words, an
explanation text is a kind of text which tells or explains processes relating to
forming of natural or social phenomena or how something works.

1. Social Function
a. To tell why and how of the forming of the phenomena.
b. To explain why things are as they are and how they are formed or made.
c. To explain the processes involved in the evolution of natural and social
phenomenon or how something works.
d. To explain how something works or the process involved in actions, events,
or behavior.

2. Types of Explanation Text

a. Sequential Explanation (How something works/occurs.)
b. Cause and Effect Explanation (Why something occurs.)

3. General Structure of Explanation Text

a. General statement (introduction)
It is to introduce the topic. The process being explained may be
highlighted in a little or in the first sentence or stage.
b. A sequenced explanation of the stage
It consists of sequenced explanation of why or how something occurs, or a series of
chronological steps which explain how or why something happen

4. Language Features of Explanation Text

a. Focus on generic, non-human participants, or things, for example,
earthquakes.
b. Use of abstract nouns, for example, movement.
c. Use of simple present tense. For example: This sudden release of energy
cause the seismic waves that make the ground shake.
d. Use of temporal and causal conjunctions, for example, after a while.
e. Use of passive voice. For example: Earthquakes are usually caused when
rock underground suddenly breaks along a fault.
f. Use of action verbs to explain cause, for example, slide, push, rub.
g. Use of noun phrases, for example; the ground, the sudden breaking, the
earth's rocky outermost crust.
 h. Use of complex sentences. For example: When two blocks of rock or two
plates are rubbing against each other, they stick a little.
i. Use of technical terms or words chains about a subject, for example, tectonic
plates.

Passive Voice
We use passive voice in the following situations when:
1. we don't know the doer or the actor
2. we think that the doer or the actor is not important
3. we want to hide the doer or the actor. Its purpose is to make the sentence
more polite.
4. we talk about the general truth or fact
5. we are writing in a scientific genre or academic writing.

Active Voice Passive Voice

The sudden release of energy causes the The seimic waves are caused by the
seismic waves sudden release of energy

Passive voice is usually used when focud is on action.

Be + Verb 3

Tense Active voice Passive Voice Example of

No passive voice
1 Simple V1/V1 + s/es Am/is/are +V3 Natural gas is
present tense formed by the
decay of organic
matter
2 Present am/is/are+V-ing am/is/are + being A rock concert is
continuous + V3 being held in an
open field.
3 Present have/has+V3 have/has been + Change in the
perfect V3 intensity of
agricultural land-
use have been
examined in a
mountain
environment.
4 Past simple V2 was/were + V3 The artefact was
found in a small
village.
 5 Past was/were + V-ing was/were + being The villagers were
continuous + V3 being attacked by
a lot of
mosquitoes.
6 Past perfect had + V3 had + been + V3 Some dry trunks
had been burnt by
the villagers.
7 Modals must/can/may/+ V must/can/may+be+ Coastal flooding
(inf.) V3 can be caused by
strong winds.
8 Future will+V (inf.) will+be+ V3 The road will be
simple used to transport
woods.

Rules of Passive Voice

1. The finite form of the verb is changed (be + past participle).
2. The object of the active sentence becomes the subject of the passive
sentence.
3. The subject of the active voice becomes the object of the passive voice or it
is omitted. Therefore, there is no preposition "by".

Preposition "by"
In passive sentences, preposition "by" is used to indicate the person that does
something. When we want to mention the doer, we use the preposition "by".
Normally in explanation text, we are not interested in the doer of an action in a
passive voice. When we use preposition "by", the whole phrase is called by-agent.

Examples:
a. The rubbish was thrown by the villagers into the river. (With preposition
"by" to mention the doer)
b. The rubbish was thrown in the river. (Not mention the doer)

Writing skill
Editing is involves checking the content of the text to ensure that the ideas are
expressed clearly and logically, and form a coherent and meaningful whole.

Proofreading, is the final stage of the editing process, focusing on surface errors
such as misspellings and mistakes in grammar and punctuation.

END