A Comprehensive Review On Phase Change Materials and Applications in Buildings and Components

Kamal A. R.
Ismail1
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering,
Department of Energy,
State University of Campinas,
Mendeleiev Street, 200,
Cidade Universitaŕ ia “Zeferino Vaz”,
13083-860 Campinas, Brazil
e-mail: kamal@fem.unicamp.br
Fátima A. M. Lino
Downloaded from http://asmedigitalcollection.asme.org/openengineering/article-pdf/doi/10.1115/1.4055185/6930510/aoje_1_011049.pdf by guest on 28 June 2023

e-mail: fatimalino@fem.unicamp.br
A Comprehensive Review on
Mohamed Teggar Phase Change Materials and
Applications in Buildings and
Laboratory of Mechanics,
University Amar Telidji,
Laghouat 03000, Algeria
e-mail: m.teggar@lagh-univ.dz
Components
Mus̈ lum
̈ Arıcı
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Phase change materials (PCMs) have shown their big potential in many thermal applica-
Faculty of Engineering, tions with a tendency for further expansion. One of the application areas for which
Kocaeli University, PCMs provided significant thermal performance improvements is the building sector
41001 Kocaeli, Turkey which is considered a major consumer of energy and responsible for a good share of emis-
e-mail: muslumarici@kocaeli.edu.tr sions. In this work, it is intended to review numerical modeling, experimental studies,
prototype and full-scale testing, new applications, and other related developments of
Pedro L. O. Machado PCM-based products for the building sector. The review handles the basic elements
Department of Mechanical Engineering, where PCM is utilized or investigated for possible use such as mortars and bricks, concrete
Federal University of Technology—Parana and brick walls, wallboards, roofs, floors, Trombe walls, and windows and facades. New
(UTFPR), contributions and applications are highlighted and relevant research and developments
Rua Doutor Washington Subtil Chueire, 330, are analyzed and commented individually to ensure better understanding of the concepts
Jardim Carvalho, and the corresponding outcomes. At the end of each section the authors’ personal opinions
84.017-220 Ponta Grossa, PR, Brazil are presented including comments on possible opportunities for further research. The con-
e-mail: pedmac@alunos.utfpr.edu.br clusion section provides the most important contributions and developments. It indicates
future research and development areas to improve energy performance, decrease energy
Thiago A. Alves demands, and increase the useful lifetime of the PCM products. The review shows the
Department of Mechanical Engineering, wide penetration of PCM in the building sector supported by intense research and develop-
Federal University of Technology—Parana ment activities. As a result many certified PCM-based products are available in the market.
(UTFPR), It is hoped that this review can be of help to researchers, developing engineers, and archi-
Rua Doutor Washington Subtfil Chueire, tects working in the area. [DOI: 10.1115/1.4055185]
330, Jardim Carvalho,
84.017-220 Ponta Grossa, PR, Brazil Keywords: PCM, buildings envelops, PCM brick and concrete, PCM roofs and floors,
e-mail: antonini@utfpr.edu.br PCM windows and facades, energy saving, building, clean energy, energy storage,
energy systems
Ana C. O. De Paula
e-mail: ana@fem.unicamp.br
Amani Benhorma
Laboratory of Mechanics,
University Amar Telidji,
Laghouat 03000, Algeria
e-mail: amanibenhorma@gmail.com
1
Corresponding author.
Manuscript received February 22, 2022; final manuscript received July 30, 2022;
published online October 13, 2022. Assoc. Editor: Gerardo Diaz.
ASME Open Journal of Engineering 2022, Vol. 1 / 011049-1

Copyright © 2022 by ASME; reuse license CC-BY 4.0
1 Introduction give some more details and fair recognition. The reviewed articles
cover mainly the last 12 years but some relatively old articles
Energy consumption of the building sector is over 30% of the were also included because of their relevance, contribution, and
world´s final energy use with a high tendency of increase in the importance.
upcoming years because of the continuous growth of the world pop- The authors hope that this review can be of help to practicing
ulation and upgrading housing conditions. The thermal losses and engineers, architects, researchers, students, and whoever wants to
solar heat gains in buildings depend on the design, orientation, know about PCM and their continuously growing potential in the
material used for construction, wall areas, glazed areas, and roof building sector and their possible energy and environmental
area. Improvements of the thermal performance of buildings and impacts.
increase energy efficiency require improving the thermal design
of buildings, innovation of construction materials, and the introduc-
tion of new and proven concepts for windows, walls, roofs, and 2 Phase Change Material
floors. The processes of heat and mass transfer between the building
and external environment occur through the building envelop. Energy storage is turning to be a key component for efficient use
Hence, the thermal resistance of the walls can be increased by incor- of energy, a vital member of any integrated and conservation

porating insulating material, new construction bricks with low system. There are different means for energy storage depending
effective thermal conductivity, green walls, and/or the application on the form of energy such as mechanical, thermal, and so on.
of reflective coatings on the outer surface of the envelop [1–5]. For the present study, our interest is in thermal energy and hence
Thick walls offer more resistance for heat transfer and hence other forms of energy storage will not be discussed.
decrease the indoor temperature, decrease the indoor temperature Thermal energy can be stored basically in two forms, as sensible
swings, and enhance the time delay factor. Phase change materials heat in fluids and solids by rising of the temperature of the solid or
are investigated as substitutes for thick walls and thermal insulation fluid storage mass as in the case of domestic solar heating of water.
since phase change material (PCM) has high heat capacity and Also, thermal energy can be stored in the form of latent heat which
changes phase isothermally. PCM can provide a more adequate is utilized during the phase change process. In the charging process,
solution if inserted in the wall. During the day it absorbs heat and heat is used to melt the solid into liquid isothermally. When the
changes phase and during the night releases heat to the external stored energy is needed, heat is retrieved from the liquid mass
ambient maintaining the indoor environment at nearly constant tem- and solidification occurs. Latent heat storage has some advantages
perature [6]. over sensible heat storage including nearly constant temperature
The inclusion of PCMs in roofs, external walls, floors, windows, during the phase change process, higher heat capacity, smaller
sunshades, mortars, and finishing plasters in residential buildings volume and lower cost, along with other favorable thermal proper-
showed significant improvements in the thermal performance of ties. Because of these favorable properties latent heat materials are
these elements. The inclusion of PCM in the construction materials more preferred than sensible heat storage materials. In recent years,
such as mortars, concrete, and similar products needs great attention phase change materials have been widely used in many fields such
because of the possible degradation of the mechanical strength of as thermal storage, thermal shield, enhancement of thermal mass,
these products along with possible leakage and fire hazards. The control of thermal processes, and many other applications as in
integration of PCMs in building elements can be divided into the building industry which is the main focus of the present work.
three types: direct incorporation and immersion, macro- The incorporation of adequate PCM in the construction materials,
encapsulation, and micro-encapsulation. The encapsulation geome- building components, and envelops can produce significant reduc-
tries and their use depend on the element where they are to be incor- tion in energy consumption and emissions and makes the buildings
porated. Encapsulation material serves as a barrier between PCM more sustainable. In new constructions, there is no problem of
and the surrounding environment and provides long-term durability including new materials, components, etc. New buildings are only
and structural requirements. Micro-encapsulation of PCMs provides a small part of the already existent residential and commercial build-
faster charging and discharging. PCMs incorporated in construction ings. A significant impact can be achieved if building retrofitting
materials modify the thermal and physical properties, increase the and adaptation of existent buildings are financially facilitated and
thermal resistance, and enhance the thermal performance of bricks could incorporate these new concepts and PCM-based elements in
concrete, mortars, and components as well as plasterboards [7–9]. the building adaptation process by installing PCM wallboards, shut-
Two recent reviews [10,11] present new fields of applications of ters, windows, etc.
PCM for ice and thermal control of equipments and PV panels, in
the automotive, food, and textile industries.
PCM technology applied in the building industry is a real fact in 2.1 Classification of Phase Change Material. In most of the
recent commercial and residential constructions where energy man- thermal applications of PCM, the transformation from solid to
agement is a solid concern such as residential buildings and low liquid and vice versa is of primary interest due to some inherent
energy consuming residences. As will be seen in some applications advantages while changes from liquid to gas and the opposite are
there is a need for further development and research work while in not applicable because of some technical limitations. There is a
others the technology is already in the production process. big variety of phase change materials of different melt heat and
This review covers PCMs and their applications in different areas melt temperature. Numerous classification methods exist but the
of the building sector such as modeling of processes and compo- most common is the subdivision into organic, inorganic, and eutec-
nents with PCM, development of materials like mortars, concrete, tic as in Fig. 1 [2,3,12–14].
bricks, panels, windows, and wallboards. The review starts with a
brief survey of PCMs including classification, thermal and physical 2.1.1 Organic Phase Change Materials. Organic PCMs cover
properties, and products suitable for the construction industry avail- a wide range of materials but the most known in storage applica-
able in the market. Materials, elements, and components treated in tions are pure n-alkanes, esters, and fatty acids. The high heat capac-
the review are phase change materials, PCM mortars and ricks, ity, adequate range of phase change temperature, chemical stability,
PCM concrete and brick walls, PCM wallboards, PCM roofs, being noncorrosiveness, nonsubcooling, and inactiveness are the
PCM floors, PCM Trombe walls, PCM windows, and PCM facades. advantages of these PCMs for energy storage and building applica-
In the present review, the authors tried to comment on the tions. Organic PCMs are known to be poor conductors of heat, with
reviewed material in an individual form to make the analysis high changes in volume during phase change and they have the
clearer and more objective. To avoid repeated descriptions and defect of high flammability. Fatty acids can be useful for cooling
comments as well as to make the text less tedious to read, we applications because these acids have favorable properties such
used tables and included articles collectively (lumped) cited to as high heat of fusion, low super-cooling, no segregation, and
011049-2 / Vol. 1, 2022 Transactions of the ASME

Fig. 1 Diagram of PCM classification
various ranges of phase change temperatures, but they are expensive conductivity and subcooling of eutectic water–salt solutions are
in comparison to paraffin [2,14]. similar to those of water and exhibit volume change of 5–10%
Paraffin organic PCMs: The increase of the chain length of par- during phase change, are chemically very stable and safe but corro-
affin increases both the latent heat which is usually in the range from sive to metals. Besides, they are cheap, often costs less than 1 €/kg
128 kJ/kg to 198 kJ/kg and phase change temperature range from [14]. Table 1 shows some eutectic water–salt solutions used as
−12 °C to 71 °C. The thermal conductivity of paraffin varies PCM.
from 0.21 to 0.24 W/m K. These low values limit its widespread Salt hydrates are composed of salt and water, have their melting
application. temperature in the range of 5 °C and 130 °C, and have phase change
Nonparaffin organic PCMs: Nonparaffin PCMs include alcohols, temperature higher than that of water and thermal conductivity close
esters, glycols, and fatty acids and have different physical and to that of water. Salt hydrates suffer from both phase separation and
chemical characteristics. Fatty acids have many suitable character- subcooling and have a volume change during phase change of about
istics for building and other applications but are more expensive 10%. In general, they are chemically stable but incompatible with
and slightly corrosive [2,14]. metals. The price is about 1–3 €/kg. Table 2 shows some examples
of salt hydrates that are used for commercial PCM [14].
2.1.2 Inorganic Phase Change Materials. Advantages of inor- High melting temperature salts usually have high latent heat since
ganic PCMs include high latent heat, low cost, and flammability but the latent heat increases by the increase of the phase change temper-
they suffer from decomposition, super-cooling, phase segregation, ature. The salt is composed of two components hence phase separa-
and are considered thermally unstable and corrosive. Salt hydrates tion is a real concern. Salts usually are thermally conductive and
as part of the inorganic PCMs are more used in storage applica- have marginal subcooling and variation in volume change is
tions because of their high volumetric storage capacity of about about 10%. They are in general chemically stable and can be corro-
350 MJ/m3, high thermal conductivity of about 0.5 W/m K and sive to metals. The price varies according to the type of salt. Table 3
generally have a lower price in comparison with organic PCMs. shows some salts used as high-temperature PCM.
Inorganic materials cover a wide temperature range but have the To obtain phase change materials with different characteristics
disadvantage of compatibility with metals [2,14]. mixtures of inorganic materials can be prepared experimentally and
their properties can be measured to ensure achieving the required
2.1.3 Eutectics. Eutectic PCMs are formed by combining dif- parameters. NaCl and KCl when mixed with CaCl2 ⋅ 6H2O can
ferent phase change materials. During the solidification process, improve only the melting performance, while mixing Mg(NO3)2 ⋅
they produce a mixture of crystals with unlikely separation of com- 6H2O and MgCl2 ⋅ 6H2O reduces only the melting temperature.
ponents since they change phase without segregation. In the fusion This mixing process is usually conducted experimentally and may
process, all elements are converted to the liquid state simulta- require extensive experimental efforts. Table 4 shows some inor-
neously. Some of these eutectic PCMs can be used for passive ganic mixtures used as PCMs.
cooling systems of buildings [2,14]. Organic PCMs are adequate for the temperature range up to
200 °C but are not stable at higher temperatures and have a
2.1.4 General Comments on Phase Change Material density of less than 103 kg/m3. Hence, except for sugar alcohols,
Properties and Applications. Phase change temperature of eutectic organic PCMs have less latent heat of fusion in comparison with
water–salt solutions is below 0 °C and can be decreased further by inorganic materials. Fatty acids have latent heat similar to that of
adding salt to the mixture. Since these solutions are composed of at paraffin, are stable upon cycling, have no phase separation or
least water and salt phase separation may occur. To avoid phase subcooling and low thermal conductivity. Tables 5 and 6 show
separation, increase storage capacity and increase cycling stability some of the thermal properties of paraffin and fatty acids,
it is recommended to use eutectic compositions. The thermal respectively.
Table 1 Eutectic water–salt solutions used as PCM [14]
Melting Melting Thermal

Material temperature (°C) enthalpy (kJ/kg) conductivity (W/m K)
Al(NO3)3 (30.5 wt%)/H2O −30.6 131 —

NaCl (22.4 wt%)/H2O −21.2 222 —
KCl (19.5 wt%)/H2O −10.7 283 —
H2O 0 333 0.6 (liquid, 20 °C)
2.2 (solid)

Table 2 Salt hydrates used as PCMs [14]
Material Melting temperature (°C) Melting enthalpy (kJ/kg) Thermal conductivity (W/m K)
LiClO3 ⋅ 3H2O 8 155 —

KF ⋅ 3H2O 18.5 231 —
CaCl2 ⋅ 6H2O 29.30 171.190 0.54 (liquid, 39 °C)
1.088 (solid, 23 °C)
LiNO3 ⋅ 3H2O 30 296 —
—
Na2SO4 ⋅ 10H2O 32 254 —
0.554
NaHPO4 ⋅ 12H2O 35–44 280 0.476 (liquid)
0.514 (solid)
Na2S2O3 ⋅ 5H2O 48–55 187.209 —
—
Na(CH3COO) ⋅ 3H2O —

58 226.264
—
Ba(OH)2 ⋅ 8H2O 78 265.280 0.653 (liquid, 86 °C)
1.255 (solid, 56 °C)
Mg(NO3)2 ⋅ 6H2O 89.90 149.163 0.490 (liquid, 95 °C)
0.669 (solid, 56 °C)
MgCl2 ⋅ 6H2O 117 165.169 0.570 (liquid, 120 °C)
0.704 (solid, 110 °C)
Polyethylen glycol, PEGs for buildings applications: Polyethyl- PCMs selected for incorporation into a building must have a
ene glycol (PEG), as well as paraffin and fatty acid, are organic melting temperature matching the operational temperature and
PCMs. PEG is a polyether compound with numerous uses, includ- high latent heat capacity and high specific heat to use less PCM
ing biochemistry, medicine, biology, and commercial uses. PEG and small container. The heat transfer to and from the phase
has high latent heat at phase change temperatures that can be change materials during the charging and discharging processes
adjusted. It has poor thermal conductivity and low heat transfer requires that the PCM has a high thermal conductivity which
behavior. These two parameters can be enhanced by using metallic could also be enhanced by metallic additives, fins, porous foams,
foams, fins, metallic meshes, dispersed metallic particles, and more or both depending on the application. Low vapor pressure and
recently by adding nanoparticles to form a nanofluid or a nanocom- small variation in volume during the phase change process are
posite. Table 7 shows the thermal properties of some polyethylene required design parameters. The thermal properties of some
glycols which can be used as PCM. PCMs are listed in Tables 8–10. A general comparison between
the different types of PCM is shown in Fig. 2.
2.2 Phase Change Material Thermal–Physical Properties
Suitable for Building. PCMs incorporated in buildings materials
and components should have the required economic and thermo- 2.3 Methods of Encapsulation of Phase Change Material.
physical properties which are hardly all met by a PCM. Usually, The main methods for the insertion of PCMs in the construction
phase change temperature, melting enthalpy, thermal conductivity, materials and buildings elements are direct incorporation and
volume change during phase change, and densities of the PCM encapsulation. The direct incorporation of PCM into the building
liquid and solid phases are the key factors. In a practical application, materials and structures such as concrete and slabs is not well
a technical compromise is usually made to include the other factors accepted in the building industry for practical difficulties such as
so that one can achieve the most adequate choice that satisfies leakage, diffusion of PCM into the material and thermal and
nearly most of the required features. mechanical gradual degradation of the element. Innovation of
new PCMs, extensive experimental research and developments
are required to solve these problems associated with the direct
incorporation of PCM in the construction materials.
Table 3 Salts used as PCMs [14] The encapsulation of PCM has several advantages one of which
is the increase of the surface area which increases the effective heat
Melting Melting enthalpy Thermal conductivity exchange rate and hence reduces the full charging and discharging
Material temperature (°C) (kJ/kg) (W/m K)
LiNO3 254 360 0.58 (liquid) Table 4 Inorganic mixtures used as PCMs [14]
1.37 (solid)
Na2NO3 307 172 0.51 Melting Melting Thermal
20.59 (solid) temperature enthalpy conductivity
KNO3 333 266 0.50 (liquid) Material (°C) (kJ/kg) (W/m K)
—
MgCl2 714 452 — 4.3% NaCl + 0.4% KCl + 27 188 —
— 48% CaCl2 + 47.3% H2O —
NaCl 800 276 — 58.7% Mg(NO3).6H2O + 58.59 132 0.510 (liquid,
— 41.3% MgCl2.6H2O 65 °C)
Na2CO3 854 276 — 0.678 (solid,
— 53 °C)
KF 857 452 — 67% KNO3 + 33% LiNO3 133 170 —
— —
K2CO3 897 236 — 54% KNO3 + 33% Na2NO3 222 100 —
— —

Table 5 Paraffin used as PCMs [14]
n-Tetradecane 6 230 —
C14H30 0.21 (solid)
n-Pentadecane 10 212 —
C15H32 —
n-Hexadecane 18 210.238 —
C16H34 0.21 (solid)
n-Heptadecane 19 240 —
C17H36 —
n-Octadecane 28 200.248 0.148 (liquid, 40 °C)
C18H38 0.358 (solid, 25 °C)
n-Eicosane 38 283 —
C20H42 —
— —

n-Triacontane 66
C30H62 —
n-Tetracontane 82 — —
C40H82 —
n-Pentacontane 95 — —
C50H102
Polyethylene 110–135 200 —
CnH2n+2 n up to 100,000 —
Table 6 Fatty acids used as PCMs [14]
Caprylic acid 16 149 0.149 (liquid, 38 °C)

CH3(CH2)6COOH —
Capric acid 32 153 0.149 (liquid, 40 °C)
CH3(CH2)8COOH —
Lauric acid 42–44 178 0.147 (liquid, 50 °C)
CH3(CH2)10COOH —
Myristic acid 58 186.204 —
CH3(CH2)12COOH 0.17 (solid)
Palmitic acid 61.64 185.203 —
CH3(CH2)14COOH —
Table 7 Thermal properties of some polyethylene glycols [7]
Diethylene glycol C4H10O3 −10 to −7 — —

Triethylene glycol C6H14O4 −7 — —
PEG400 8 100 0.19 (liquid 38 °C)
PEG600 17–22 127 0.19 (liquid 38 °C)
PEG1000 35–40 — —
PEG3000 52–56 — —
PEG6000 55–60, 66 190 —
PEG10000 55–60 — —
Table 8 Paraffin for building applications adapted from Ref. [15]
PCM Melting temperature (°C) Heat of fusion (kJ/kg) Thermal conductivity (W/m K)
n-Heptadecane 19 240 0.21

Paraffin C17 21.7 213
Paraffin C13-C24 22–24 189 0.21 (liquid)
Micronal DS 5001 26 245
Paraffin RT-27 28 179 0.2
Paraffin RT-28 15–19 134 0.2
Paraffin C18 28 244 0.148 (liquid)
n-Octadecane 28 179 0.2

Table 9 Fatty acids for building applications [15]
CA 30.2 142.7 0.2 (liquid), 0.12 (solid)

CADE 26.5 126.9 0.2 (liquid), 0.12 (solid)
CA-PA 26.2 177 2.2
CA 30 142.7
CADE 27 126.9
MeP + MeS 23–26.5 180
Butyl stearate-palmitate 17–20 137.8
Eutectic CA-MA 21.7 155
Eutectic CA-SA 24.7 179
CA-LA 19.2–20.3 144–150
Glycerin 17.9 198.7
LA-MA-SA/EG 29.05 137.1

CA-PA-SA 19.93 129.4
MA-PA-SA/EG 41.64 153.5
CA-MA-PA/EG 18.61 128.2
Table 10 Hydrated salts for building applications [15]
Hydrated salt 29 175 1.0

CaCl26H2O 29 187.49 0.54 (liquid)
1.09 (solid)
Mn(NO3)6H2O + MnCl2 + 4H2O 125.9 0.6
Hydrated salts 27
(water + CaCl2 + KCl + additives)
CaCl26H2O 29.9 187 0.53 (liquid)
1.09 (solid)
Hydrated salt 31.4 149.9
Hydrated salt 25–34 140
SP25A8 hydrated salt 26 180 0.6
Sodium sulfate decahydrate 32.5 180 0.6
Eutectic salt 32 216
Sodium thiosulfate pentahydrate 40–48 210
S27 27 190 0.48 (liquid)
0.79 (solid)
L30 30 270 1.02 (liquid)
0.56 (solid)
times. Also encapsulation can be regarded as a mechanical shield adding the micro-encapsulated PCM directly to concrete, mortars,
protecting the PCM from aggressive environmental factors which and gypsum without the risk of leakage. Although micro-
can degrade its thermal performance and deteriorate its composi- encapsulation permits the integration of PCM in the building mate-
tion. Encapsulation of PCM is classified as macro (diameters of rials, it reduces the effective storage capacity and may affect the
1 mm and more), micro (from 1 µm to 1 mm), and nano (less structural strength of the material.
than 1 µm).
Macro-encapsulation refers to PCMs encapsulated in containers
such as cylinders, spherical shells, and panels made in dimensions 2.4 Phase Change Material Commercial Products. PCMs
according to the applications. Figure 3 shows macro-encapsulation have demonstrated their abilities to enhance the thermal perfor-
in spherical shells and cylinders. mance of components and other materials to which they are
Because of the low thermal conductivity of some PCMs, macro- added, increase the thermal mass of buildings envelops, walls,
encapsulated PCMs tend to solidify or melt at the edges and near the roofs, etc., reduce indoor temperature fluctuations and increase
contact surface. This impairs the heat transfer process causing an the time lag factor of internal ambient. The conversion of the con-
increase in the charging and discharging times. Another relevant cepts and materials based on organic and nonorganic PCM to real
issue is the size of the macro-capsules which requires special atten- products and elements for the building industry was relatively
tion to avoid possible destruction or perforation of the containers. If quick and efficient. Commercial PCMs in macro-encapsulation
these aspects are considered and rigorously observed macro- form are available in spherical capsules, cylinders, and flat contain-
encapsulated PCM can be adequately incorporated with other con- ers, while micro-encapsulated PCMs are usually in liquid form or
struction materials permitting the use of the current construction dry powder to be mixed with other materials such as gypsum,
methods [13,14]. mortars, plasters, and concrete. The commercial products are
Micro-encapsulation presents significant advantages such as the usually certified against leakage, degradation, and fire hazards.
increase of the heat transfer area which enhances heat transfer and Tables containing description of PCM commercial products, manu-
reduces heat charging and discharging times. It also avoids facturers, and other relevant data can be found in Refs. [12–16].
leakage during the phase change process, reduces PCM reactivity
with surroundings, and controls the volume changes during phase
change. The general form of micro-encapsulated PCM can be 3 Phase Change Material in Mortars and Bricks
either a regular or an irregular shape. Micro-encapsulated PCMs Building envelops, floors, roofs, windows, and facades are weak
are available as a powder or dispersed in a liquid. This enables barriers against heat loss and gains from the external environment.

Fig. 2 General comparisons between the different types of PCM
The high thermal resistance and high thermal capacity of con- and presented a detailed list of PCMs appropriate for passive
struction materials are important parameters that help to reduce comfort in buildings.
consumed energy and improve thermal comfort. A recent compre- Some interesting reviews were directed to evaluate numerical
hensive review presented various studies on evaluating micro- methods used for the simulation of phase change materials within
encapsulated PCM capacity to improve the thermal properties of building elements. Such numerical techniques include the enthalpy-
construction materials like mortar, bricks, cement, plasterboard, based methods, CFD methods, immobilization techniques, and
and gypsum [17]. Other studies were destined to the development others [5,6].
of new materials, increasing the mechanical and thermal efficiency Some investigations were directed to modeling the complex
of building materials, and reducing the temperature variations. Rel- structure of mortar and bricks with PCM impregnated or incorpo-
evant technical details on manufacturing processes, thermal and rated in micro-capsules as in Mankel et al. [21] who investigated
mechanical tests as well as tests of performance on PCM mortars the modeling of cement-based PCM mortars by using the enthalpy-
and concrete can be found in Ref. [18]. based approach and an apparent calorific capacity method. In
PCM can be incorporated into the construction materials by two another study, Younsi and Naji [22] addressed the thermal perfor-
methods direct and indirect. The indirect methods are widely mance enhancement of PCM brick walls by using a numerical
investigated and they showed significant potential for application approach based on one-dimensional transient model. The predic-
in buildings. The direct method although easy to be applied tions were validated with experimental results. Using simulations,
suffers serious operational and performance problems which Sharma and Rai [23] assessed the potential of PCM-envelops for
limited its use. Figure 4 shows construction bricks with macro- reducing the cooling requirements of the residential sector and
encapsulated PCM. Drissi et al. [19] reviewed PCM micro- studied the influence of PCM design parameters such as the layer
encapsulation and composites in cement-based materials and high- thickness and its location and the PCM physical parameters. Gao
lighted gaps for future studies. In another study, Rao et al. [20] et al. [24] analyzed the thermal behavior of hollow bricks filled
reviewed the literature involving PCM mortars and their thermal with PCM and observed an attenuation rate from 13.07% to
and mechanical properties. Song et al. [16] reviewed building 0.92–1.93% as well as an increase in the delay time from 3.83 h
energy performance improvement using phase change materials. to 8.83–9.83 h. Lucas and Aguiar [25] studied experimentally the
Akeiber et al. [13] and Kalnæs and Jelle [12] presented a review use of cement, lime, and gypsum as possible binders for PCM
on the applications of PCMs for passive thermal control mortars. The laboratory tests showed that the addition of PCM is

Fig. 3 Examples of macro-encapsulation in cylinder and spherical shell adapted from
Ref. [12]
viable and the experiments demonstrated that the inclusion of PCM The inclusion of phase change materials in plastering mortars is
in mortars helps to absorb heat, lowers the energy demands of build- shown to be effective in reducing energy consumption in buildings.
ings, reduces the peak temperature, and increases the time delay. Kheradmand et al. [32] and Lucas et al. [33] proposed the demon-
Other investigations were directed to experimental treatment to stration of the effectiveness of the inclusion of PCM in construction
identify adequate binders, loss of mechanical properties or mortars, compared their performance with and without PCM, and
thermal properties, leakage of PCM and possible chemical reactions addressed the effect of micro- and nanomaterials in the mortars
with binders. The experimental investigations were done to assess matrix. Xu et al. [34] developed a cement-PCM composite, while
the effects of binders and the determination of cement mortars of Lecompte et al. [35] studied the thermal and mechanical character-
adequate thermal and mechanical characteristics. The results istics of PCM concretes and mortars and their possible adequacy for
proved that nonencapsulated PCM mortars are adequate for applica- use in the construction of buildings.
tion [26,27]. The thermal performance of a building is highly dependent on the
The problems associated with encapsulation and impregnation of PCM and where it is inserted in the construction elements such as
PCM in the mortar, bricks, and concrete are of extreme importance envelops and roofs. Izquierdo-Barrientos et al. [36] investigated
since they affect both the thermal and mechanical properties. numerically the external PCM walls and reported that PCM
Figueiredo et al. [28] and Haurie et al. [29] investigated the PCM reduced the wall heat gain and increased the maximum temperature
concrete and analyzed its thermal and mechanical properties, delay. Lee et al. [37] and Vaz Sá et al. [38] investigated numerically
effects of the PCM fractions in mortars and their impact on the and experimentally PCM plastering mortars and thin layers of PCM
comfort and energy savings of the building. Cunha et al. [30] inves- on increasing the time delay factor and reducing the heat gain.
tigated the PCM fresh and hardened mortars and commented on the Vicente and Silva [39] conducted an experimental study of brick
workability, microstructure, mechanical and thermal properties, and masonry walls with PCM macro-capsules. They evaluated the influ-
adhesion. Cui et al. [31] prepared a graphite-modified PCM and ence of the PCM on the attenuation of temperature fluctuations and
incorporated into the cement mortar. The results revealed the reduc- time constant. Silva et al. [5] investigated the addition of macro-
tion of temperature swings and the internal ambient temperature. encapsulated paraffin in brick wall and the results revealed that
PCM reduces the internal temperature and increases the time
delay. In other two studies, Zhang et al. [40] assessed numerically
and Castell et al. [4] investigated the performance of PCM brick
walls and found that the insertion of PCM increased the capacity
and improved the thermal performance. Alawadhi [41] investigated
numerically the effects of holes filled with PCM in normal construc-
tion bricks on their thermal performance and reported a reduction of
heat gain of about 17.55%. Ming and Ming [42] inserted PCM in
insulating bricks and found a temperature reduction of 4.9 °C in
comparison with bricks without PCM.
3.1 Authors’ Comments. As can be seen from the literature

review intensive studies were dedicated to find solutions for incor-
porating PCM in mortars without reducing their mechanical proper-
ties which is essential as a construction element. It seems that only
indirect incorporation shows well-accepted potential for practical
use. Bricks with indirect insertion using micro-encapsulation
appear to be acceptable. Direct insertion is still under development
and several problems still exist as limited amounts of incorporated
PCM, leakage, reduction of mechanical properties, and variation of
binder’s properties with cycling and temperature variation are still
to be solved.
4 Phase Change Material in Concrete and Brick Walls

The use of PCM with the construction materials proved to be ade-
quate to enhance the storage capacity of building envelops and
Fig. 4 Construction bricks with macro-encapsulated PCM [5] improves the energy efficiency. Arıcı et al. [43] and Al-Absi et al.

[44] in an attempt to optimize the use and application of PCM in Akeiber et al. [53] reviewed the development of PCM models in
walls conducted investigations to assess the influence of the PCM buildings and concluded that thermal benefits of the inclusion of
and its properties, its location and thickness on the thermal charac- PCM in building materials and elements are dependent on the
teristics of the wall. Lakhdari and Chikh [45] modeled the problem PCMs and their thermal, physical, and chemical characteristics,
of phase change in a wall composed of a mixture of mortar and the construction element and its operational conditions. Pomia-
micro-capsules of binary PCM and found that the increase of the nowski et al. [54] focused their review on PCM and the correspond-
PCM fraction (<20%) in the wall panel decreases in the effective ing technologies adapted to facilitate using PCM and PCM-based
thermal conductivity and increases the stored energy. Cui et al. products in the building sector. In another interesting review,
[15], Bland et al. [46], and Akeiber et al. [13] presented reviews Soares et al. [7] examined previous studies related to the use of
on phase change material application in building and discussed PCM for thermal comfort, efficient energy management, and
types of PCM, thermal–physical properties of PCM. The position improvement in building performance. Figure 6 shows a micro-
of the PCM layer within the concrete wall produces significant encapsulated PCM within the internal plaster of a lightweight wall.
effects on the thermal performance and time delay factor. A con- Incorporation of PCM in concrete showed some good benefits
crete wall with PCM located at different positions is shown in such as high storage capacity and thermal insulation effects but
Fig. 5. Mavrigiannaki and Ampatzi [48] and Cuia et al. [49] deteriorated the mechanical resistance properties of concrete. The

reviewed the potential of insertion of phase change materials in reduction of the mechanical resistance properties can be alleviated
building elements. The reviews indicated the necessity of more by choosing adequate PCM and an adequate method of incorpora-
research, development, and tests on buildings in real use for more tion in the concrete. Types of PCMs adequate for building applica-
credibility. Memon [50] reviewed the different modes of incorporat- tions, methods of integration of PCM in the concrete and possible
ing PCM into constructive elements. Macro-encapsulation of PCM impacts on the mechanical and thermal properties in the fresh and
in concrete walls was investigated numerically to assess its impact hardened states were reviewed in Ref. [55].
on thermal comfort and it was found that the numerical models are Incorporation of PCM in concrete was shown to be useful in
efficient and adequate for correct predictions [47,51]. Another study increasing the heat capacity of the concrete but degraded the
focused on applying PCM on the external envelop surface indicated mechanical properties of the concrete. This degradation of the
that the fusion temperature is an important parameter [52]. mechanical properties can be alleviated by using adequate inclusion
Fig. 5 Position of PCM layer within a room wall (a) external, (b) in the middle, and (c) internal [47]

installations and involved time. Phase change materials can also
be used as insulation layers in buildings for energy saving. The
results of investigations showed that utilizing PCMs integrated
insulation layers could reduce the heat loads. Also, the application
of PCM wallboards on the exterior side can decrease the solar heat
gain and maintain thermal comfort [60–62].
A fair number of numerical studies were dedicated to numerical
simulation of PCM walls and PCM wallboards to assess the influence
of phase change materials on controlling the building solar heat, min-
imizing indoor temperature oscillations the internal temperature
oscillations and maintain thermal comfort. Within this context, Li
et al. [63], Cascone et al. [64], and Saffari et al. [65] applied multi-
objective optimization analysis and conducted numerical simula-
tions on PCM external walls and indicated significant improvements
in thermal efficiency of the building and reduction of energy

demands besides the reduction and attenuation of temperature oscil-
lations. Wang et al. [66] simulated a PCM wall with the objective of
decreasing the building heat load and found a reduction of the heat
flow by 34.9%. In another work, Sharifi et al. [67] incorporated
PCM in gypsum boards, evaluated the thermal improvements, and
reported significant effects such as reducing temperature oscillations
and delaying maximum temperature occurrence.
Fig. 6 Micro-encapsulated PCM within the internal plaster of a Other relevant numerical and simulation studies to evaluate the
lightweight wall [7] insulation effects of lightweight PCM insulation layers can be
found in Refs. [68,69]. They reported a reduction of 15% in heat
transfer rate with a delay of about 2 h. In another study, Zhou
methods for manufacturing PCM concrete. Ling and Poon [55] pre- et al. [70] investigated numerically the interior and exterior PCM
sented a review on PCM, methods of inclusion in concrete and the walls including the PCM thermal characteristics and validated the
effects of the PCM properties of concrete at the fresh and hardened model by experiments. Lightweight buildings usually have low
stages. Entrop et al. [56] presented a study utilizing PCM in con- thermal mass and hence suffer from overheating in summer. The
crete floor. The floor temperature was reduced by 2% while the thermal mass can be increased by incorporating PCM wallboards
minimum temperature was increased by 3%. Cabeza et al. [57] in the opaque wall and in the ceiling to increase the effective
investigated a high quality PCM concrete to achieve high energy thermal mass, reduce temperature swings, and improve indoor tem-
savings in buildings and found substantial improvements in the perature [71]. Kong et al. [72] developed two new PCM systems
storage capacity and the internal temperature of the building. and presented the corresponding mathematical model and the
Evola et al. [58] presented a technique to assess the positive numerical solution and validated the numerical model and predic-
impacts of PCMs on the thermal comfort. Ismail and Castro [59] tions. Table 11 shows some references focused on investigating
presented the results of a numerical and experimental study on the effects of wallboards on energy loss and attenuation of indoor
PCM in walls and roofs. They compared the numerical predictions temperature oscillations.
with their experimental results and reported good agreement, reduc- A comprehensive review was presented by Whiffen and Riffat
tion of indoor temperature and heat gains. [73] on PCM technology. Paraffin is most used in these applications
irrespective of its low thermal conductivity and flammability risks.
4.1 Authors’ Comments. The use of PCM in building exter- The low thermal conductivity was improved by incorporating of
nal walls increases the thermal mass and thermal resistance and conductivity enhancers, while flammability risks were minimized
reduces temperature fluctuations and consumed energy. There are by doping with fire retardants.
many ways to incorporate PCM in the construction materials and PCM incorporation into building walls can create problems such
elements adequate choice is important to ensure efficiency, safety, as leakage of liquid PCM, risk of fire and deterioration of thermal
and durability. Numerous numerical models to handle problems and physical properties. The incorporation of PCM via micro- or
of PCM walls, predictions of performance, internal temperature macro-encapsulation can prevent most of the mentioned problems.
attenuation, and increase of temperature delay factor are available It was concluded that the location of PCMs within the wall plays
in the literature. Also, massive experimental results on laboratory an important role in reducing heat losses and undesirable solar
scale are available in comparison to model predictions. All these gains [74]. It was found that the phase change layer should be 20%
are apparently not enough to accelerate the entry of these concepts distant from the surface, reduction of maximum heat gain by 41%,
in the building sector which we believe is waiting for tests and and a time delay of 2 h. Zwanzig et al. [75] reported based on the
results in real buildings under real working conditions to prove reli- simulation results that there is an optimal position of PCM within
ability and ensure safety and durability. To achieve these targets building envelop and PCM wallboards can reduce energy consump-
there is a need for development and research focused on these tion. Hasse et al. [76] conducted a numerical study on honeycomb
aspects to illustrate the validity and viability of these concepts. panels for short-term heat storage and the numerical simulation
agreed well with the experiments. Numerical and simulation
models developed by Borreguero et al. [77] and Chen et al. [78] indi-
cated that higher fractions of PCM increase the thermal capacity of
5 Phase Change Material Wallboards the wallboard and reduce wall surface temperature oscillations.
The incorporation of phase change materials in building mater- Koo et al. [79] investigated numerically the effects of the thermal
ials and construction elements proved to be an efficient means to characteristics of PCMs and the wallboard thickness and found
reduce energy demands and maintain thermal comfort. PCM wall- that the melting temperature must be close to the internal ambient
boards are interesting elements because they can be inserted in temperature. Zhou et al. [80,81] conducted numerical simulations
new and also in existing buildings. Numerical modeling and on PCM wallboard and compared with traditional building materials
simulations were used as investigation tools in walls, two- and and showed that the decrement factor is strongly affected by the inter-
three-dimensional modeling of wall panels, and building envelops nal convection coefficient. Mathieu-Potvin and Gosselin [82] inves-
and wallboards because of cost, availability of experimental tigated numerically the thermal protection of an external PCM wall.

Table 11 References on PCM wallboards
Reference number,
authors, and year Theme Highlights
[60] Klimeš et al. (2019) Wall panels with PCM Micro-encapsulated PCM was tested with a thermally activated wall panel. The presence of
PCM increased the surface temperature of the wall in early stages of the heating operation
[61] Fateh et al. (2018) Wall panels with PCM Integration of PCM insulation layers provides major reduction of heat load and saves up to
75% of energy
[62] Xie et al. (2018) Wall panels with PCM PCM wallboards change performance according to the season
[63] Li et al. (2018) Building systems with PCM PCM building walls reduced peaks and variations of temperature. PCM melting temperature
is a crucial parameter for energy efficiency
[64] Cascone et al. (2018) Building systems with PCM Incorporating PCM panels on the internal side of the external walls showed the best energy
performance. Lower peak melting temperature is preferred for both cooling and
heating-dominated climates
[65] Saffari et al. (2017) Building systems with PCM PCM gypsum technology integrated into building envelops produced significant energy

enhancement savings. To reduce annual energy consumption the PCM must have a phase change
temperature close to 26 °C for cooling and close to 20 °C for heating
[66] Wang et al. (2018) PCM walls The authors conducted a parametric study to reduce the heating loads of the buildings due to
strong solar radiation and found that the PCM wall can reduce the heat flow by 34.9%
[67] Sharifi et al. (2017) PCM gypsum boards The authors conducted a study to evaluate the thermal efficiency of PCM gypsum boards.
PCM delayed and reduced the indoor peak temperature and decreased the cost and energy
required
[68] Fateh et al. (2017) PCM building insulation The authors developed a detailed dynamic model to calculate the effects of PCMs in
insulation of walls and found that the insulation layer increased the maximum temperature
delay by about 2 h
[69] Soares et al. (2017) PCM wallboards The authors evaluated the effect of incorporating PCM wallboards in low-rise residential
buildings. The results showed annual energy savings of 4–5%, reduced cooling demand by 5–
7% during summer months
[70] Zhou et al. (2014) PCM wallboards The authors conducted a parametric analysis of influencing factors in PCM wallboards and
developed an effective heat capacity model to investigate the effects of the PCM and working
parameters
[71] Evola and Marletta PCM wallboards The authors presented a study about the effectiveness of PCM wallboards for improving
(2014) thermal comfort
[72] Kong et al. (2014) PCM building wall and roof The authors developed a thermal model and used it for the simulations of walls and roofs with
different PCM and found that the numerical predictions agreed well with the experimental
data. They reported significant energy savings and a reduction of peak temperature
[73] Whiffen and Riffat A review of PCM in the built The authors presented an extensive review of PCM technology with specific attention to
(2012) environment applications within the built environment
[74] Jin et al. (2013) PCMs in building walls This research confirmed the dependence of wall thermal performance on PCM location within
the wall. The optimal location is at a distance of 0.2 of the cavity thickness. The PCM layer
caused a heat flux reduction and load delay of 41% and 2 h, respectively
[75] Zwanzig et al. Composite wallboard for The authors investigated numerically the potential of PCM wallboards for application in
(2013) building envelop buildings envelops. They found that there is an optimum position for placing the PCM
wallboard and confirmed the energy reduction all year round and shift of peak load
[76] Hasse et al. (2011) PCM honeycomb wallboards The authors conducted an experimental and numerical study on PCM honeycomb wallboards
for heat storage. They confirmed experimentally the significant increase in the thermal inertia
[77] Borreguero et al. PCM gypsum wallboards The numerical investigation was based on one-dimensional heat conduction equation and the
(2011) numerical solutions were compared with their own experiments. Results indicated that high
PCM contents increase the thermal inertia, storage capacity, thermal insulation and reduce the
gypsum thickness
[78] Chen et al. (2008) PCM wallboard The one-dimensional heat transfer model is used together with the effective heat capacity
method to formulate the thermal model of the PCM wallboard. The results indicated
significant enhancement of thermal comfort and energy savings
[79] Koo et al. (2011) PCM wallboard design Simulations validated with experiments were done. The results indicated that the phase
parameters change temperature should be close to the indoor temperature, the range should be small and
time shift of peak load and temperature reductions were confirmed
[80] Zhou et al. (2011) Shape-stabilized PCM The authors conducted numerical simulations and compared the results with traditional
wallboard materials. The proposed wallboard has larger time lag and lower temperature decrement factor
[81] Zhou et al. (2010) Shape-stabilized PCM The authors found that the phase change temperature affects the decrement factor, above
wallboard critical values of latent heat and wallboard thickness the decrement factor is marginally
affected and the thermal conductivity of PCM and inner surface convective coefficient affect
significantly the decrement factor
[82] Potvin and Gosselin PCM thermal shielding The authors developed a numerical model to determine the shielding effect of external wall
(2009) with layers of PCM and used it to determine the optimum position of the PCM layers
The model allowed assessing the influence of both the position and PCM incorporation into building walls is a serious design chal-
melting temperature of the PCM layer. lenge where the integration method and the location of PCMs
Table 11 highlights some details in the cited references on PCM within the walls need to be determined beforehand. This requires
wallboards. more research and perhaps creation of new dimensionless parame-
ters to permit some independence of the specific application.
The literature review showed many investigations focused on for-
5.1 Authors’ Comments. PCMs incorporated or encapsulated mulating numerical models to represent PCM wallboards along with
into wallboard or concrete mixtures enhance the heat capacity of the simulations and optimization studies to meliorate its thermal mass
element and improve the thermal performance and thermal comfort. and insulation characteristics. In a way, the building market is still

waiting for full-scale and long-duration testing of buildings and com- conduction and convection heat gains from neighboring compo-
ponents in real working conditions to accelerate and intensify the nents and structures. These varying factors are not correctly taken
incorporation of these recent technologies in the building industry. into consideration when evaluating the roof thermal performance.
Perhaps if they can be grouped into smaller number of influencing
dimensionless factors they can be easily introduced in performance
6 Phase Change Material Roofs codes making the evaluation task less tedious [91].
Li Dong and collaborators [92,93] studied experimentally the effect
The roof is one of the buildinǵ s weak barriers against heat flow to
of PCM incorporated into a glazed roof system. The results indicated
the interior of the building since it is subject to direct solar radiation
that heat gain was significantly reduced with possible energy economy
and continuous climatic variation. There are various means to
of about 47.5%. Liu et al. [94] reviewed studies on phase change
improve roof thermal resistance including shading, reflecting solar
encapsulation for building applications and included the thermal and
radiation, or incorporating PCM in the roof. The effectiveness of
physical PCM properties, location of the PCM layer, heat reduction,
PCM roofing depends on the thermal and physical characteristics
and PCM improvement. Kharbouch et al. [95] conducted a numerical
of the PCM especially phase temperature range and latent heat,
investigation on PCM integrated in a building envelop and roof. The
method of application, position with the roof slab, thickness of
results showed significant thermal improvements. Hasan et al. [96]

the PCM layer, and climatic conditions. Because of the difficulties
conducted an experimental study for using PCM as thermal insulation
in conducting experiments including cost and time, most of the
material by incorporating it with layers of the walls and the ceiling.
work done was basically numerical simulations using in-house
Results obtained from the experimental study showed a reduction in
built codes or available software. Bhamare et al. [83] conducted a
indoor temperature and the reduction in cooling load.
numerical study on a PCM roof to assess the effects of phase
A fair amount of numerical studies were directed to improve the
change material on reducing the internal heat gain. The numerical
roof thermal performance and reduce heat gain through the roof
predictions showed that the PCM roof maintained a nearly constant
structure. Qin et al. [97] theoretically modeled the daily accumula-
internal temperature and reduced the internal heat gain. Yu et al.
tive heat gain from building roof and correlated the penetrating heat
[84] investigated a building with a PCM roof and reported that
with the roof thickness and solar radiation. They found that to
the decrement factor was reduced by over 85% while the tempera-
decrease the heat penetrating into the building through the roof,
ture of the ceiling surface decreased by 3.7 °C. In another study, Liu
the roof thickness can be increased or thermal insulation can be
et al. [85] optimized a PCM panel at the micro-level and macro-
employed. Reddy et al. [98] investigated the thermal performance
level simultaneously. The results showed a good performance for
of PCM roofs including the number and thickness of PCM layers
heat storage and release processes. Velasco-Carrasco et al. [86]
and the thermal properties of the PCM. The results of their assess-
experimentally investigated a new PCM panel to use for ceiling,
ment showed that a single layer of PCM decreased the heat gain by
and significant enhancements in the performance as well as
17–26% while two layers achieved a reduction of 25–36% in com-
energy control were observed. Figure 7 shows one possible PCM
parison with the case without PCM. Liu et al. [99] investigated the
roof and how the PCM is incorporated into the roof system.
case of a PCM-glazed roof to verify the effects of PCM thickness on
The incorporation of PCM in the construction material and build-
heat gain and found that opaqueness increases the time delay factor
ing elements is a proven means for temperature control and energy
and decreases solar heat gain.
saving. Al-Yasiri and Szabo [88] focused their study on investigating
Roofs received a good share of attention because they are weak
different PCMs, and specification of PCM properties for use in PCM
barriers for penetration of solar heat. Several techniques were
walls and roofs. Wu et al. [89] prepared a novel form-stable and ther-
tested to verify their effectiveness in attenuating solar heat gain
mally flexible composite PCM (paraffin), with expanded graphite as
and maintaining nearly constant indoor temperature independent
the additive for thermal conductivity enhancement. The results indi-
of the hour of the day. Green and PCM roofs are among these tech-
cated that the PCM composite is practical for application in
niques [87,97,100].
buildings.
Residential roofs usually receive a large amount of incident solar
Li et al. [90] conducted a numerical study to assess the effects of
energy. If this energy is left accumulating under the attics it will
phase change material on the thermal behavior of walls. The find-
eventually penetrate to the internal ambient and increase the
ings showed that the effectiveness of the layer of phase change
cooling load. Different means to cope with this problem were pre-
material depends on its location within the wall and that the
sented and discussed in Ref. [101].
thermal properties have a strong effect on the heat gain of the wall.
The thermal characteristics of concrete roofs can be improved by
Generally, the roof is subjected to dynamic conditions of solar
integrating PCM in layer form or by inserting PCM in cylindrical
radiation and radiation reflections from other surfaces besides
holes in the roof structure. In both cases, the reported results indi-
cated a significant reduction of the penetrating heat rate [102,103].
Incorporation of PCM to the roof or in the form of internal finish-
ing gypsum panels showed to be effective in reducing the heat gain,
reducing temperature oscillations as well as indoor peak tempera-
ture [104,105]. Table 12 highlights some details of the cited refer-
ences in the text.
6.1 Authors’ Comments. From the reviewed articles, the

building sector contributes much to energy consumption and also
to total emissions. To make the building sector more sustain-
able in the near future, it is necessary to make major changes in
the conceptions, construction materials, and general architectural
design of buildings and principally reduction in costs and increase
in safety. New technologies incorporating PCM for building mate-
rials such as concrete, bricks, windows, walls, finishing panels, and
wallboards as well as external walls and facades are crucial to
improve thermal performance, reduce heat gain or loss, and
reduce temperature swings within the buildinǵ s internal ambient.
Thermally, the roof is one of the weak parts of a building envelop
Fig. 7 Composition of a roof with PCM adapted from Ref. [87] and is always subject to variable solar and climatic conditions.

Table 12 References on PCM roofs
Reference number, authors, and

year Theme Highlights
[83] Bhamare et al. (2020) PCM roof A thermal model was developed to assess the PCM roof thermal performance. It is
found that the PCM roof reduced the peak and daily heat gain and maintained
optimum ceiling temperature
[84] Yu et al. (2020) PCM building roof The CFD was used to analyze the thermal performance of building roof with
shape-stabilized PCM. The decrement factor was significantly reduced while the
peak temperature was reduced by about 3.7 °C
[85] Liu et al. (2020) PCM panel in building envelop The authors optimized a PCM on the micro- and macro-levels. It was found that the
optimized PCM panel improved the thermal performance, increased the heat stored,
reduced the indoor temperature and maintained the thermal comfort
[86] Carrasco et al. (2020) PCM panels for buildings Experimentally the authors analyzed blister PCM panel containing particles of steel
and aluminum wool for ceiling tiles. The results indicated the ability of these tiles

for thermal control and energy saving
[88] Al-Yasiri and Szabo PCM building envelop The authors focused their study on the application of PCM in roofs and external
(2021) walls and methods used for calculation and simulations. They also evaluated
impacts on load reductions, saved energy, thermal comfort and indicated gaps for
future research
[89] Wu et al. (2019) Form-stable PCM A novel form-stable and thermally induced flexible composite PCM was prepared.
The results indicated that the composite PCM is adequate for energy storage and
thermal control processes
[90] Li et al. (2019) PCM building walls The authors investigated the walls of a building by incorporating 13 different PCM
and found that the thermal performance of the PCM wall was significantly affected
by the thermal properties of the PCM
[91] Saikia et al. (2018) PCM building roofs It is essential to develop one single parameter that accounts for the different climatic
parameters affecting the PCM roof performance. The authors developed this
parameter together with a mathematical method to determine the thermal
performance of PCM in a particular climate
[92] Li Dong et al. (2018) PCM-glazed roof The authors investigated the effects of PCM-glazed roof on its thermal performance
and mass. The results showed that the energy saving is substantial with a payback
period of about 3.3 years
[93] Li Dong et al. (2015) PCM roof The authors investigated traditional and PCM roofs and the influencing parameters
such as solar radiation, properties of PCM and roof slope. The results indicated a
significant effect on the temperature delay and maximum indoor temperature
[94] Liu et al. (2018) Macro-encapsulated PCM The authors presented a review of macro-encapsulated PCM and its integration into
building envelops covering material selection, common macro-encapsulation
forms, the optimal locations in building envelops, and future studies
[95] Kharbouch et al. (2018) PCM wall/roof The authors investigated the thermal performance of a PCM integrated external
wall and roof. The inclusion of PCM enhanced their thermal performance
[96] Hasan et al. (2018) PCM for insulation The authors conducted an experimental study on using PCM as insulating materials
for walls and ceilings. The results confirmed the reduction of indoor temperature,
reduction of the cooling load and the enhancement energy savings
[97] Qin et al. (2017) Cool roofs Cool roof is gaining popularity as a passive building cooling technique. The authors
developed a model for cool roof and used it as a tool to evaluate energy savings in
buildings with cool roofs
[98] Reddy et al. (2017) Rooftops and ceilings with PCM Layers of PCM layers can maintain a constant comfortable indoor temperature and
reduce the thermal gain
[99] Liu et al. (2016) Rooftops and ceilings with PCM The double glazing roof thickness affects the roof thermal performance. If the
thickness increases, the temperature time lag also increases
[100] Song and Qu (2014) Thermal modeling of building Cool roofs are most cost-effective roof technology. Reflective properties are the key
rooftops and ceilings parameters
[87] Tokuç et al. (2015) Flat roof with PCM The study reports the results a study of a PCM flat roof in Istanbul. The authors
found that a PCM thickness of 2 cm was suitable for the flat roofs
[101] Kosny et al. (2014) Attics with PCM t Blends of PCMs with insulation reduce the attic thermal load. Thin assemblies
reduced the heat flowrate by 30%
[102] Alqallaf and Alawadhi Rooftops and ceilings with PCM Vertical cylindrical holes filled with PCM incorporated into concrete roof reduced
(2013) significantly the heat gain
[103] Alawadhi and Algallaf Rooftops and ceilings with PCM Vertical cone frustum holes filled with n-Eicosane PCM incorporated into concrete
(2011) slab showed good thermal performance
[104] Yahay and Ahmad (2011) Rooftops and ceilings with PCM The application of PCM ceiling panels effectively reduced the energy consumption,
the indoor air temperature and temperature oscillations
[105] Pasupathy et al. (2008) Rooftops and ceilings with PCM PCM material thickness of 2.5 cm was sufficient to keep the ceiling temperature at
constant level during months
There are several passive measures available that can help to represent the different parameters and facilitate the computational
enhance thermal performance of roofs such as shading and PCM task.
integrated roofs among others. There are several research gaps that should be addressed to make
The roof, specifically PCM roof, performance is sensitive to solar the design task for the architect less tedious and more precise.
radiation and other climatic parameters which make estimation of These fronts include full-scale testing, long-duration tests, choice
the PCM roof performance a difficult task. Hence, some research of PCM, and determination of optimal locations prior to PCM
has to be done to establish dimensionless groups which can incorporation.

7 Phase Change Material Floors
Heating floor is essential for cold countries to help achieving
thermal comfort. Normally, electric heating and hot water heating
are mostly used for this purpose by using heating coils and coiled
water tubes. Because of the actual restrictions on admissible emis-
sions, increased prices and shortage of conventional fuels, other
changes and improvements were investigated to substitute electricity
for heating floors and water with alternative sources. One promising
solution is the PCM floor which is a combination of PCM placed in
the holes of a concrete block as shown in Fig. 8. During the day, the
slab receives incident solar radiation which is stored in the concrete
slab as sensible heat and in the enclosed PCM as latent heat. At night-
time, the hot concrete slab and hot PCM radiate their heat to the inter-
nal ambient making the indoor temperature more comfortable.

Another version is the use of PCM with cheap off-peak electric
power. The simulations of PCM floor electric heating system
showed results close to experimental results [107]. Figure 9 shows
PCM incorporated in flat containers where it can be placed under
the floor to store and release latent heat.
Lightweight structures are widely used in recently constructed
buildings and the incorporation of phase change materials in the
building and components can help to enhance the thermal perfor- Fig. 9 Flat container to be installed under floor [12]
mance but the risk of leakage of liquid PCM and its low thermal
conductivity can limit its use. Gandhi et al. [108] reviewed the
potential shape-stabilized PCMs to avoid possible leakage of change material in the enclosures of the floor panel to increase the
PCM and found a significant reduction in temperature oscillations thermal inertia. The PCM was a polymer composite of 85% of par-
and heat gains. Cunha et al. [109] investigated the PCM character- affin with a melting temperature of about 27 °C. Mazo et al. [115]
istics and their possible use in envelop and its components as well as presented the results of a study on PCM radiant floor systems
floors and glazed areas. working with low-temperature sources and observed that it can be
Park and Kim [110] and Drissi et al. [19] conducted investiga- beneficial to use available residual heat and hence improve the
tions on PCM floor heating systems and the possible improvements energy efficiency of the system. Additionally, the incorporation of
of the floor heat capacity and its thermal performance. Devaux and PCM provides an extra energy storage capacity.
Farid [111] demonstrated the possible thermal gains if PCM is inte- Entrop et al. [56] investigated PCM concrete floor heated by inci-
grated into walls, ceilings, and under-floor heating systems. The dent solar energy. They reported that the thermal performance of the
simulations results were validated with the experimental data. Mav- floor was improved as demonstrated by the reduction of maximum
rigiannaki and Ampatzi [48] concluded that PCM incorporation in temperature and increase of the minimum temperature of the floor.
building elements enhances the thermal mass and reduces the In another study, Cerón et al. [116] proposed PCM tiles on the floor
thermal load and indoor temperature oscillations. subjected to solar radiation. The proposed design with the PCM tiles
Lecompte et al. [35] investigated the inclusion of micro- is restricted to the floor area receiving solar radiation. Song et al.
encapsulated phase change materials in concretes and mortars and [117] and Lim et al. [118] proposed a cooling system based on
they compared the results with conventional materials. They con- radiant floor. To evaluate the behavior of the radiant floor cooling
cluded that PCMs included in a mineral matrix improve the wall coupled with dehumidified ventilation, they used both physical
thermal performance. Barzin et al. [112] conducted experiments experiments and TRNSYS simulation and found that the proposed
on PCM wallboards and PCM floors and reported relevant reduc- system prevented condensation and maintained thermal comfort.
tions in consumed energy. Cheng et al. [113] utilized a Table 13 highlights some details of the cited references on PCM
shape-stabilized PCM in a floor heating system to improve the floors.
thermal characteristics and enhance the performance of the
system. Zhou and He [114] conducted an experimental study to
investigate incorporating PCM in radiant floor heating system and 7.1 Authors’ Comments. Nearly 50% of newly constructed
found that sand helped keeping uniform temperature distribution houses in Europe use radiant heating–cooling techniques where
inside the room. energy supplied by hot water comes from district heating
Karim et al. [106] proposed the improvement of the thermal per- systems, solar energy heated water, and residual energy whenever
formance of hollow concrete floor panels by the insertion of a phase available. Hence, these systems can produce substantial energy
savings for heating. The incorporation of PCM in floors and floor
tiles is a fact although additional work is needed to avoid risks of
leakage and possible fire hazards. PCM has a poor thermal conduc-
tivity and this impairs its thermal performance. The literature shows
enormous efforts have been made to improve the thermal conduc-
tivity of PCM.
8 Phase Change Material Trombe Walls

Heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning consume a big part of
the total primary energy of buildings with severe impacts on oper-
ational cost, energy requirement, and emissions. Trombe walls have
potential for addressing the environmental and energy requirements
in residential and commercial buildings. Recent configurations of
Fig. 8 Diagram of the concrete hollow floor slab adapted from Trombe walls can provide adequate solutions for passive thermal
Ref. [106] comfort, energy demand, and emissions reductions in buildings,

Table 13 Cited references on PCM floors
Reference number, authors,

and year Theme Highlights
[107] Farid and Kong (2001) Floors with PCM The surface of the PCM concrete floor showed attenuated temperature oscillations and lower
enhancement floor temperature for lower PCM phase change temperature
[108] Gandhi et al. (2020) PCM in buildings Shape-stabilized PCM concrete can reduce the temperature by 8.5 °C and time lag to 1 h
including floor
[109] Cunha and Aguiar PCM in buildings PCM incorporation reduced peak temperatures and attenuated temperature fluctuations, resulting
(2020) including floor in energy savings
[110] Park and Kim (2019) Floors with PCM PCM-based radiant floor heating system can maintain surface temperature slightly higher than
enhancement floor without PCM. It is found that PCM with melting temperature in the range of 35–45 °C is
adequate
[19] Drissi et al. (2019) PCM in buildings PCM has shown potential to reduce the annual cooling and heating loads by up to 50% but has a
Including floor negative effect on the mechanical properties of cement-based materials

[111] Devaux and Fari PCM in buildings PCM of high phase change temperature allowed significant peak load shifting while low phase
(2017) including floor change temperature PCM in the walls and ceiling provided thermal comfort in the building and a
cost saving of 42%
[48] Mavrigiannaki and A review on building The authors provided a review of latent heat storage in building elements to reveal key design
Ampatzi (2016) elements factors for implementation in specific applications and indicated possible future research
[35] Lecompte et al. (2015) PCM concretes and The authors investigated the insertion of micro-encapsulated PCM in concretes and mortars. The
mortars results showed that the inclusion of PCM (below 29%) can improve the thermal quality of the
concrete without impairing its mechanical resistance
[112] Barzin et al. (2015) PCM under-floor The authors conducted an investigation on the application of PCM in under-floor heating in
heating combination with PCM wallboards. Results showed electricity savings and cost reduction of
35% and 44.4%, respectively
[113] Cheng et al. (2015) PCM for under-floor They reported the results of a study using a heat conduction-enhanced shape-stabilized PCM in
heating the under-floor heating system and analyzed the effects of PCM on energy savings and economic
gains
[114] Zhou and He (2015) Radiant floor heating The authors investigated the performance of a low-temperature radiant floor heating system. The
system results indicated the viability of the proposed system
[106] Karim et al. (2014) New PCM components The authors proposed improving the thermal performance of hollow concrete floor panel by the
insertion of PCM. The results showed the enhancement of the inertia of the PCM floor panel
[115] Mazo et al. (2012) Radiant floor system The authors described and applied successfully a model to simulate a radiant floor system with
PCM where the PCM floor heating system was charged during nighttime
[56] Entrop et al. (2011) PCM concrete floors The authors conducted a study on PCM concrete floor. The results showed a reduction of the
maximum floor temperature by 16 ± 2% and an increase of the minimum temperature by 7 ± 3%
[116] Cerón et al. (2011) PCM tiles The authors presented the design and development of the PCM tile including the methodology of
the tests and possible future investigations
[117] Song et al., 2008 Control of radiant floor Proposed a coupled radiant floor cooling—dehumidified ventilation system to cool and
dehumidify the entering outdoor air and found improvement in response to load changes
[118] Lim et al., 2006 Control of radiant floor Investigated the control methods of the radiant floor cooling system to control the floor surface
condensation and comfort. The results showed that the floor surface temperature remained above
21 °C and achieved the comfort standards
making them more sustainable. Figure 10 shows a Trombe wall [121] investigated the potential of Trombe walls for cold climates
with a PCM concrete storage wall for heating indoor ambient. and indicated possible directions for future studies.
The combination of Trombe wall and solar photovoltaic panels is The thermal performance of Trombe walls is well recognized and
a viable combination to generate electricity and supply heat simul- the thermal properties of PCM are also known. The thermal effects
taneously. Ahmed et al. [120] reviewed available literature on on the building’s internal temperature, comfort, and energy reduc-
PV-Trombe wall systems via influencing parameters and how tions of combining the two elements are not very clear and also
they affect the performance of PV-Trombe walls. Sergei et al. not very well investigated yet. Omara and Abuelnuor [122] pre-
sented a review addressing the possible comfort and energy gains
as well as the increase of the internal heat capacity and consequently
they observed a significant reduction of the temperature oscillations
within the indoor ambient. Mohamad et al. [123] proposed a novel
design of a Trombe wall incorporating hot storage tank and water
supply for heating and ventilation as well as cooling in summer.
In another study, Zhang and Shu [124] elaborated a method to esti-
mate the thermo-economic performance as well as the environmen-
tal impact of Trombe walls with and without ventilation. They
found that the solar radiation parameters affect significantly the per-
formance of Trombe walls. Dong et al. [125] improved experimen-
tally the Trombe wall design and its heating performance and
commented the impacts of the improvements on the thermal
performance.
Buildings are considered as substantial contributors to global
energy consumption. Free cooling has recently gained much atten-
tion to replace totally or partially conventional cooling and heating
Fig. 10 Trombe wall with PCM concrete storage wall for heating systems as indicated by Zeinelabdein et al. [126]. They reviewed the
indoor ambient adapted from Ref. [119] free cooling technologies focusing on PCM incorporation in the

system. The review paper by Ranđelović et al. [127] discussed the impairing indoor thermal comfort. These problems need to be
construction details of the Trombe wall to reduce both the thermal addressed carefully to give the required insurance for architects
oscillations and energy demands. Effects of climatic factors, the and designers.
materials’ heat capacity, the thickness and color of the thermal
mass, thermal insulation, glazing and other relevant parameters
were considered. Based on the outcomes of the study, they elabo-
rated some relevant conclusions and general guidelines to help 9 Phase Change Material Windows
Trombe wall designers in their projects. Windows are essential elements in the building allowing visual
Ventilation, heating, and air-conditioning are responsible for a contact between the occupants and the outdoor environment,
big share of consumed energy in a building. In this scenario, enabling natural illumination and ventilation. Unfortunately, they
Trombe wall appears as a potential candidate to address the build- are thermally weak barriers against heat penetration or escape
ings’ environmental and energy issues. Hu et al. [128] reviewed from the building and can upset thermal comfort of the occupants.
Trombe walls divided into heating- and cooling-based types and Mitigation of emissions and the use of renewable energy sources
established design parameters of the Trombe wall. In another gained globally more attention in promoting, developing, and
study, Hu et al. [129] designed, constructed, and tested a novel urging for innovative solutions to cope with the global problems.

PV blind-integrated Trombe wall module. The results showed These energy and emission issues have similar effects on the ten-
better thermal performance with a rate of more than 14.5%. dencies in the building sector. Hence, much attention was dedicated
Several numerical and experimental studies were conducted on to developing windows that allows natural illumination, less heat
Trombe walls to assess their thermal performance, investigate, and loss/gain while maintaining adequate aesthetic appearance. This
analyze the heat transfer processes and how they affect the tempera- resulted in many window proposals some of which were success-
tures on the back and absorber sides, and the resulting heat gain and fully implemented while some others are still under investigation
delay time of the system. Also, in some other investigations, the and development [143,144]. These innovative technologies
nano-Al2O3 was mixed with paraffin to improve the thermal conduc- combine several methods, such as the use of low conductivity
tivity of the nano-PCM and its thermal parameters [119,130–135]. gases, low emissivity films, and filling air layers with aerogel
The thermal properties of walls, envelops, windows, and roofs [145]. Gao et al. [146] tested a double glass window with aerogel
are determinant factors for the efficient thermal performance and and compared the thermal performance results with those of the ref-
sustainability of the buildings. Passive thermal walls are receiving erence case and concluded that aerogel reduced energy consump-
much attention from researchers. The main targets include enhanc- tion by 21% with a payback time of about 4.4 years. In addition,
ing the thermal performance, improving the thermal qualities of there are some advanced glazing technologies available on the
materials, developing efficient simulation methods to predict the market or in development; some examples are vacuum glazing,
performance and evaluate the effects of the geometrical and opera- intelligent or dynamic active (electrochromic, gasochromic, ther-
tional parameters as well as developing testing stands for motropic), photovoltaic glazing [147,148]. Sun et al. [149]
small-scale prototypes. Various configurations of thermal walls reviewed key types of transparent insulation materials and their
such as Trombe walls with and without PCM, ventilated concrete thermal and optical behaviors as well as the benefits of their appli-
walls, double skin walls with and without thermal fillings, green cation to buildings. Lago et al. [150] and Ismail et al. [151] con-
walls, PCM shutters, PCM building blocks, PCM floor heating, ducted numerical investigations on a doubled-glazed window
ceiling boards with and without PCM, and other novel concepts with solar reflective film and compared the predictions with avail-
for optimizing energy efficiency in building envelops were able experimental results and own experiments. The results indi-
explored. Hence, many reviews were presented over the years to cated that the window spacing must be more than 0.025 m and
cover the continuous progress in the area such as Refs. [136–140]. that solar heat gain was reduced by 64.7% due to the solar film.
Koyunbaba et al. [141] compared the numerical predictions with Li et al. [152] assessed the effects of PCM incorporated in
experimental results from BIPV Trombe wall and reported that the windows on thermal performance and energy reduction. Good
electric and thermal efficiencies were about 4.52% and 27.2%, agreement with experiments was found. They reported a reduction
respectively. In another study, Koyunbaba and Yilmaz [142] com- in both indoor temperature and solar thermal gain. Ismail and Hen-
pared the performance of three types of glass fitted to Trombe wall riquez [153] conducted a study on PCM windows and showed that
façade and reported close agreement with the experimental incorporating PCM in the double glass window can decrease the
measurements. heat gains and reduce the indoor temperature. In another study
Table 14 highlights some details of the cited references on [154], they determined experimentally the optical and thermal coef-
Trombe walls and applications. ficients of composite glass systems and showed their effects on
reducing the heat gains and indoor temperature. Later, they devel-
oped a simplified thermal model for a window under forced venti-
8.1 Authors’ Comments. The thermal performance of lation conditions [155]. The results showed the favorable effects on
Trombe wall depends basically on its mass since it stores sensible decreasing the heat load and indoor temperature.
heat. More mass means more capacity to store solar energy and Other configurations of double glass windows are reported in the
less temperature fluctuations but it may increase the building’s literature such as PCM window [156], window with natural induced
dead load and cause structural problems. Phase change materials airflow [157], window filled with absorbing gases [158,159], and
can provide appropriate solution for the massive mass problem. window with water flow [160].
Many variations of the Trombe wall were introduced over the Figure 11 shows an illustration of a PCM-filled window (left) and
years to reduce its weight, improve its thermal performance, a commercialized PCM window where the PCM is in the liquid
extend its range of application, and integrate it with other systems state (right) [12].
to generate electricity such as PV and PCM. These variations Figure 12 shows a double glass window with induced air flow
were investigated to extend its use to lightweight buildings. Irre- heated by the incident solar radiation. The airflow induced in the
spective of the volume of research reported in the literature there channel absorbs part of the heat transmitted through the first glass
are still gaps, technical and thermal problems and the future sheets, heats the flowing air mass, reduces the temperature of the
trends and studies of the Trombe wall are needed to be addressed. second glass, and consequently transmits less heat to the indoor
Some studies indicated the viability of coupling PCM with the ambient. Heated air can be expelled to the outdoor during hot
Trombe wall to achieve good thermal performance with reduced days or directed to the indoor ambient when heating is needed
weight. Life cycle analysis can be a useful tool to evaluate the envi- [150].
ronmental impacts while handling the solar energy gains. The inter- Numerous studies are reported concerning the potential of using
nal humidity is another factor which should be controlled to avoid PCM in windows, curtains, and shutters to reduce solar heat gains

Table 14 Cited references on Trombe walls
Reference number, authors, and

year Theme Highlights
[120] Ahmed et al. (2020) Review of PV-Trombe wall The authors presented a review covering different designs of a PV-Trombe wall system
including the effects of the glass cover, air gap, thermal insulation, PV cell cooling, and
tilt angle of solar cell on the performance of PV Trombe wall
[121] Sergei et al. (2020) Review of potential of The authors revised the current potential of the Trombe wall for cold climates. The results
Trombe wall indicated the problems associated with using Trombe wall in cold climates and the main
gaps for future studies
[122] Omara et al. (2019) PCM Trombe wall The authors presented a review on the advantages of including PCMs in Trombe walls
systems. The incorporation of PCM showed improvement of indoor circulation, decrease
of temperature oscillations, protection from overheating and improvement in energy
management and savings
[123] Mohamad et al. (2019) Trombe Wall Utilization The authors proposed a passive system for heating rooms using solar energy in winter and

for reducing the cooling load in summer. They developed a thermal model for the
modified Trombe wall and evaluated the effects of various design parameters
[124] Zhang and Shu (2019) Performance of Trombe wall The authors proposed a method to estimate the energy, economic and environmental
performance of ventilated and nonventilated Trombe walls. The results showed that both
heating degree days and solar radiation affect significantly energy savings and thermal
comfort
[125] Dong et al. (2019) Novel Trombe wall To overcome some inherent problems with traditional Trombe wall the authors proposed
improvements. The results indicated significant enhancement in the heating performance
[126] Zeinelabdein et al. (2018) Review on PCM free The review provided recent development on free cooling technologies incorporating PCM
cooling and indicated the parameters affecting the thermal performance
[127] Ranđelovic et al. (2018) Impact of Trombe wall The authors provided a review on the constructive characteristic of Trombe wall to
improve temperature stability, reduce energy consumption and improve thermal comfort
[128] Hu et al. (2017) A review of Trombe walls in The authors reviewed studies on Trombe walls addressing heating and cooling-based
buildings types and used as merit indicators energy, environment and economy
[129] Hu et al. (2017) PV blind-integrated Trombe The authors constructed a PV blind-integrated Trombe wall and conducted experiments to
wall assess the impact of airflow velocities and PV blind angles on generated electricity and
heat gains. They found that the adequate values of the two parameters are 0.45 m/s and
50 deg, respectively
[130] Briga-Sá et al. (2017) Trombe wall A numerical and experimental study was conducted to evaluate the thermal performance
of Trombe wall. The experiments determined the temperature swings, heat flow, heat
delay and total heat gains
[131] Rabani et al. (2017) Trombe wall The role of conduction transfer was more sensible than that of convection in the early and
late hours. Convection dominated at the midday. Radiative heat transfer rate was
maximum in the early and late hours
[132] Duan et al. (2016) Trombe wall Two types of Trombe wall were tested: one with the absorber plate placed on the thermal
storage wall (Type I) and one with the absorber plate placed between the glass cover and
the thermal storage wall (Type II). The second Trombe wall type had a better thermal
performance
[119] Shen et al. (2007) Review on PV-Trombe wall They developed and validated models for a classical and a composite Trombe–Michel
wall. The results showed that the composite wall has better performance than the classical
wall in cold weather
[133] Chaichan et al. (2016) Trombe wall with PCM A hybrid Trombe wall utilizing paraffin wax and water was studied and, although the
enhancement paraffin wax had a lower mass than water, it contributed significantly to the heat stored
during the phase change period and in heating the air in discharge time
[134] Bellos et al. (2016) Trombe wall An extra window in the massive wall of the Trombe wall resulted in a warmer indoor
profile, especially in the hours between noon and afternoon
[135] Rajesh et al. (2016) Wall panels with PCM Introducing PCM in rectangular holes considerably improved the thermal inertia of the
enhancement building and reduced temperature swings.
[136] Omrany et al. (2016) Thermal modeling of Trombe walls have been recognized as a wall system capable of significantly reducing
building walls building energy consumption. The incorporation of a green wall system influenced indoor
air temperature
[137] Xu and Su (2013) Trombe wall A building integrated photovoltaic Trombe wall (BiPV-Trombe) was numerically
simulated. The channel height enhanced the stack effect and induced more ventilation
[138] Saadatian et al. (2013) Thermal modeling of In average, 30–40 cm mass concrete solar walls performed extremely well in most
building walls geographical locations using dark color energy absorber. Proper insulation enhanced the
efficiency of the solar system by 56% and reduced the size of the mass wall
[139] Saadatian et al. (2012) Trombe wall Nine types of Trombe walls were reviewed. Fans improved the efficiency of the vented
Trombe wall by 8%. Proper insulation of the interior side of the mass wall was
recommended to avoid reverse heat flow
[140] Tyagi and Buddhi (2007) PCM in buildings Various methods for heating and cooling buildings were reviewed, including PCM
Trombe walls, PCM wallboards, PCM shutters and PCM building blocks. PCM
temperature for human comfort ranged between 20 and 32 °C
[141] Koyunbaba et al. (2013) Trombe wall The performance of a building integrated photovoltaic (BIPV) Trombe wall system was
evaluated. The experimental daily average electrical and thermal efficiencies of the
system reached 4.52% and 27.2%, respectively
[142] Koyunbaba et al. (2012) Trombe wall Models of Trombe wall with photovoltaic panel, single glass and double glass modules
were simulated. Double glass showed higher insulation during nighttime while single
glass provided higher solar radiation during the daytime

Goia and collaborators published a series of articles on
PCM-filled windows covering different aspects of this type of
window including the optical properties characterization necessary
to design an efficient window system. They also proposed a simple
prototype of a PCM glazing system, analyzed and compared its
energy performance with that of a conventional window system.
The experimental results indicated that PCM-glazed window
stores incident solar heat, smoothens and delays peak values of
the heat flux [164–167].
Vigna et al. [168] presented a review to identify PCM
transparent/translucent components of building envelop show-
ing the positive, negative, and possible limitations of these technol-
ogies. PCM transparent envelops included simple double glass
windows, windows with more cavities incorporating aerogel,
solar reflectors, and PCM curtains. Dong Li and collaborators

[169] developed a model to evaluate the performance of
nano-PCM window units. The influence of the type of nanoparticles
and their quantity and size on the window thermal behavior were
evaluated numerically and compared with the results of pure
Fig. 11 Illustration of a PCM-filled window (left) and commer- PCM. They reported significant improvements in the optical and
cialized PCM window in its liquid state (right) [12] thermal performance. In another work [170], they numerically eval-
uated the performance of a doubled-glazed PCM window using dif-
ferent PCMs. They reported the strong effect of the optical
properties on the performance of the double-glazed window.
Uribe et al. [171] developed a model of a double-glazed PCM
window to be integrated with the software ENERGY PLUS for
general evaluation of windows.
In an innovative study, Giovannini et al. [172] investigated the
effects of double-glazed PCM window on the visual comfort of
occupants. As a result, they managed to define and assess the
impact of PCM incorporated in windows and facades on luminosity
and visual comfort.
Because of the thermal capacity of PCM windows, when it is
incorporated into double-glazed windows it attenuates transmitted
solar radiation and reduces the thermal load of the environment.
Kolácek et al. [173] conducted an experimental/numerical investi-
gation on a window with incorporated PCM and reported that the
investigated window system reduced the indoor temperature and
enhanced the effective thermal mass of the building. In another
study, a solar shading device to control solar heat gain and daylight-
ing as well as the thermal mass of the transparent envelop was
developed by Bianco et al. [174]. They reported a reduction of
40% of the cooling load and increased the delay time by three hours.
In other studies, the impacts of PCM properties on the thermal
performance of PCM double-glazed windows were addressed
numerically and experimentally with good impact on temperature
lag time and decrement factor [175–177].
Current PCM technologies and applications in the building sector
more specifically in transparent envelops and elements such as
windows, shutters, and other shading devices were reviewed by
many researchers along the time to cover the increased number of
studies directed to enhance the thermal performance, visual and
thermal comforts as well as reducing energy demands and reduction
of emissions as in Silva et al. [178], Kasaeian et al. [179], Fokaides
Fig. 12 The physical model of the ventilated double glass et al. [180], and Madessa et al. [181]. Table 15 explores the contents
window [150] of cited articles on PCM windows and comments in more detail the
principal findings.
A manufacturer of PCM windows and some products are given in
and improve thermal comfort while keeping natural daylight and Table 16. Other manufacturers can be found in Ref. [12].
high indoor quality [161].
The PCM incorporated in glazed windows can reduce the con-
sumed energy in the building. Experimental thermal and optical 9.1 Authors’ Comments. Windows are essential building ele-
investigations on PCM windows were conducted to characterize ments that allow visual contact between internal and external
the PCM performance and optical benefits which can impact its ambient as well as imposing a pleasant aesthetic building appear-
use in windows and facades. Also, a great deal of studies was ded- ance. Because of their small thermal mass and physical properties
icated to the development of numerical and thermal models for they are considered as the weak barrier against heat loss and heat
PCM windows [99,162]. Liu et al. [163] conducted a numerical gains of the building. The review showed a significant amount of
modeling study on PCM window with different PCMs of different research and development work dedicated to resolve the window
thicknesses and reported a decrease in the total heat gain by about thermal problem without affecting too much its major function of
109.1%. visible contact and its pleasant aesthetic visual appearance.

Table 15 References on PCM windows

[143] Moretti et al. (2018) Systems with granular The authors investigated experimentally three advanced polycarbonate panels with
aerogel translucent granular aerogel. The results showed that the aerogel-filled PC systems can
improve the thermal performance and light control of the building envelop
[144] Kaushika and Sumathy Solar transparent insulation The authors presented a review on solar transparent insulation materials covering their
(2003) materials physical and optical properties, classifications, applications, fabrication procedures,
availability and cost trends
[145] Schultz and Jensen Evacuated aerogel glazings The study describes the properties of silica aerogel and applications and shows its energy
(2008) gains
[146] Gao et al. (2016) Aerogel glazings in buildings The authors investigated aerogel glazings in energy efficient buildings, evaluated their
energy efficiency, process economics, environmental impact and showed that they can
contribute to energy reduction in cooling, heating and lighting

[147] Rezaei et al. (2017) Glazing technologies The authors reviewed glazing systems including conventional, advanced and smart,
highlighted their features and discussed their utilization for hot, cool, and temperate
climates
[148] Casini (2018) Active dynamic Windows The author provided a thorough review of active dynamic glazing technologies such as
electrochromics, gasochromics, and further emerging technologies. He also presented the
performance, building applications potential, and impacts on energy consumption and
comfort
[149] Sun et al. (2018) Transparent Insulation Transparent insulation materials can reduce heat loss, transmit solar energy and contribute
Material to the luminous environment. The review provides information on the thermal and optical
behaviors as well as the benefits of their application
[150] Lago et al. (2019) Ventilated window with The authors developed a thermal model to describe the behavior of a ventilated double
reflective film glass window with a solar reflective film. The results showed that the proposed window
reduces penetrating solar energy and maintain thermal comfort
[151] Ismail et al. (2021) Ventilated window with Experimental tests were conducted on ventilated windows with and without solar
reflective film reflective films. The results were used for the validation of the numerical models and for
the development of correlations for these windows
[152] Li et al. (2014) PCM-filled glass window The authors conducted numerical and experimental study on PCM-filled double glass
window and reported a reduction of 10.2 °C of the window internal surface temperature, a
decrease of the heat gain of about 39.5% and annual energy reduction of 40.6%
[153] Ismail and Henriquez PCM glazing systems The study involved optical and thermal investigations of conventional and PCM-filled
(1997) windows. The results indicated big reductions in the energy transmitted while maintaining
a good visibility
[154] Ismail and Henriquez Composite glass systems The authors developed one-dimensional thermal model for the composite PCM window.
(1998) The transmittance and reflectivity tests indicated large reductions in the infrared and
ultraviolet radiations while maintaining the good visibility
[155] Ismail and Henriquez Ventilated glass window The authors proposed a model based upon global energy balance over the glass sheets and
(2006) the flowing fluid. The results showed that the increase of the mass flowrate reduces the
mean solar heat gain and the shading coefficients while the increase of the fluid entry
temperature deteriorates the window thermal performance
[156] Ismail and Henríquez Windows with PCM PCM-filled glass window showed a reduction of the transmittance especially near the
(2002) infrared range
[157] Ismail et al. (2009) Modeling of windows The use of absorbing gases in a double glass window increased its thermal efficiency
[158] Ismail and Salinas Modeling of windows Infrared absorbing gases are used to improve window thermal performance. Highly
(2006) absorbing gas mixtures and highly absorbing glass sheets increase the window gap
temperature
[159] Ismail et al. (2008) PCM glass windows The authors compared the thermal efficiency of two glass windows one filled with
absorbing gas and the other with a PCM
[160] Chow et al. (2011) Modeling of windows for Water-flow double glass window is suitable for applications in warm climate regions. The
thermal comfort water flowrate affected the window thermal performance for very low flow velocity
[99] Liu et al. (2016) PCM double-glazed roof PCM applied in the glazing roof has a big effect on the thermal performance, temperature
time lag, total transmitted energy and transmitted solar energy
[162] Gowreesunker et al. Properties of PCM-glazed The paper reports on the thermal and optical characterization of PCM RT27. Favorable
(2013) unit properties are found except the change in appearance as the PCM changes phase may be a
limiting factor in PCM-glazed units
[163] Liu et al. (2017) double glazing units PCM applied in the glazing units decreases the building energy consumption and improves
the utilization efficiency of solar energy. The results showed that the interior surface
temperature increased by 158.7%, the total transmitted energy decreased by 109.1% and
the transmitted solar energy decreased by 86.1% when PCM thickness increased from
4 mm to 50 mm
[164] Goia et al. (2012) Optical properties of a PCM The glazing system is based on the incorporation of a paraffin-based PCM into a
glazing transparent component, made of two extra-clear glass panes. The optical characteristics of
an advanced glazing system are reported
[165] Goia et al. (2014) PCM glazing prototype They innovative glazing systems that utilize PCM to achieve dynamic and responsive
behavior. The experimental results highlighted a good ability of the PCM glazing to store
solar energy and to smooth and delay peak values of the total heat flux. The results have
pointed out the promising performance of PCM glazing
[166] Goia et al. (2013) Performance of PCM glazing The prototype of a simple PCM glazing system is proposed and its behavior is compared
system with that of a conventional unit. The results demonstrated the promising performance of
the PCM glazing system and how it can contribute to achieve better indoor thermal
performance

Table 15 Continued

[167] Goia et al. (2012) Modeling of PCM glazing A numerical model to describe the behavior of a PCM layer in transparent materials is
system developed to analyze various PCM glazing systems. The results showed good agreement
with the experimental data
[168] Vigna et al. (2018) Transparent building The authors presented a review on PCMs in transparent building envelops and indicated
envelops possible strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats. They also identified necessary
future research and developments
[169] Dong Li et al. (2018) Window with nano-PCM The authors conducted a numerical investigation on thermal and optical performance of
nano-PCM window and reported significant improvements compared to the window with
pure paraffin
[170] Dong LI et al. (2016) PCM-filled glazing unit The authors investigated the thermal performance of a PCM-filled double glazing unit with
different optical properties. The results showed a significant effect of the PCM and its

optical properties
[171] Uribe et al. (2018) Double-glazed window with The authors conducted a study to develop a numerical thermal model of double glazing
PCM windows with PCM. The model is used to calculate the inner surface temperature of the
window
[172] Giovannini et al. (2016) PCM in glazing They investigated the implications of PCM on light distribution and visual comfort,
presented a new method for numerical simulation and proposed a new metric
[173] Kolácek et al. (2017) PCM window panel The authors conducted experiments and simulations of a PCM window system and
reported a reduction of the peak temperature and decrease of the indoor air temperature
[174] Bianco et al. (2017) PCMs-based solar shading The authors presented a new dynamic solar shading device to modulate solar heat gains
and daylighting. The results showed the potential of the technology to reduce the daily
cooling load and to improve the thermal inertia of the window
[175] Li et al. (2016) Glazing systems with PCM PCM density, latent heat and melting temperature effectively enhance the thermal
performance of double glass windows
[176] Li et al. (2016) Windows with PCM The thermal performance of double glass window filled with Na2SO4.10H2O and
CaCl2.6H2O was satisfactory on sunny days of summer
[177] Ahmadi and Windows with PCM PCM incorporated in double glass windows absorbs incident solar radiation and it was
Shahcheraghian (2015) able to absorb 86% of the heat flux
[178] Silva et al. (2016) Glazing systems with PCM PCM technologies for translucent and transparent building envelops like windows,
shutters, etc. were reviewed. Direct incorporation is the most used strategy
[179] Kasaeian et al. (2017) PCM in buildings Applications of PCMs in buildings for cooling, heating, and air-conditioning were
reviewed. Passive and active methods are reviewed and commented
[180] Paris et al. (2015) Glazing systems with PCM Technologies of transparent PCMs are reviewed. PCM glazing systems provided better
indoor thermal conditions than conventional systems
[181] Madessa (2014) Windows with PCM Potential applications of PCMs in buildings in cold climate were reviewed. The utilization
of PCMs for passive thermal houses reduces energy consumption
The review showed the big advancement in vacuum glazing, intel- application in buildings [183,184]. There are some worries about
ligent or dynamic active (electrochromic, gas chromic, thermo the impact of new glazed elements with PCM, other materials,
tropic) and photovoltaic glazing. Other achievements were found and high technology coatings satisfying the lighting design recom-
in double glass windows with natural and forced ventilation, with mendations especially in offices and classrooms [185]. They con-
water flow, reflective solar films, and windows with sealed absorb- ducted investigations to evaluate possible impacts of circadian
ing gases, windows with PCM or aerogel. The review also showed lighting design recommendations and indicated the need for
the results of investigations of the optical and thermal performance further investigations to understand better the relation between
of PCM-glazed windows and indicated future development trends, light and human physiology.
priorities, and challenges. Table 16 presents a manufacturer of PCM Some review studies [45,168,186–188] investigated the available
windows and some of the available products. It is hoped that this technologies to enhance the thermal performance of existing non-
part of the review can be of big help for developing engineers residential buildings, the possible integration of PCM in opaque
and beginners on research on PCM widows. ventilated façades and in transparent/translucent building envelop
components as well as the integration of PCM technology with dif-
ferent cooling techniques such as free and evaporative cooling.
Some of the findings of these reviews indicated the advantages
10 Phase Change Material Facades and disadvantages of PCM incorporation in transparent envelop
Highly glazed facades and envelops in commercial and multifloor components, opportunities for new developments and future
residential buildings are increasing due to the recent architectural ten- research trends and building applications. Other studies
dency of using highly glazed buildings because of their possible fash- [12,189,190] assessed possible applications and integration of
ionable appearance. The use of glazed ventilated facades has rapidly PCM technologies with free cooling and heating of buildings
increased causing severe energy and comfort impacts demanding using passive and active methods. Besides, Barbosa and Ip [191]
adequate solutions. Li et al. [182] presented an excellent review of conducted a literature review about double-skin facade technologies
investigations on the optical and thermal properties and performance for application in naturally ventilated buildings. They highlighted
parameters of PCM-glazed elements. They also indicated possible the potential of these technologies and their impacts on improving
challenges and future tendencies and developments. the indoor thermal conditions. Garcia et al. [192] reviewed
New approaches and methods to assess the suitability of PCM for models used for facades simulations and highlighted their benefits
thermal comfort applications in buildings and its potential to allevi- and limitations. Soares et al. [7] reviewed PCM passive construc-
ate energy demands and emissions by developing building envelops tion solutions and their potential for alleviating heating and
with PCM and smart glazing were reviewed as well as the thermal cooling demands and to increasing indoor thermal comfort, while
and physical properties of materials and methods of preparation and Cabeza et al. [193,194] reviewed the use of PCM in buildings

Table 16 Manufacturers of PCM windows [12]
Manufacturer Product Phase change temperature (°C) Heat storage capacity (W h/m2) Tvis solid/liquid (%) Material Type
GLASSX GLASSX Crystal 26–30 1185 0–28/4–45 Salt hydrates Inorganic

GLASSX Comfort 26–30 1185 0–38/4–55 Salt hydrates Inorganic
GLASSX Slim 26–30 1185 0–38/4–45 Salt hydrates Inorganic
GLASSX Store 26–30 1185 0–38/4–55 Salt hydrates Inorganic
materials and indicated problems associated with their use and sug- 10.1 Authors’ Comments. Highly glazed facades and envel-
gested possible solutions. ops in commercial and multifloor residential buildings have a ten-
Some interesting investigations treated the thermal performance dency to increase due to the architectural tendency of using
and potential of double skin facades with PCM to handle the highly glazed buildings for a fashionable and pleasant appearance.
thermal comfort in the interior of a building as in Garcia et al. However, this causes severe energy and comfort problems. Satisfy-

[193], Diarce et al. [195], Mei et al. [196], Seferis et al. [197], Corg- ing the lighting design recommendations especially in offices and
nati et al. [198], and Weilander et al. [199]. classrooms is a recent preoccupying issue from the health and
Table 17 highlights references on ventilated and nonventilated comfort viewpoints. From the technological viewpoint, there are
facades to help understanding other additional details. few real operational data, performance tests in big installations
Table 17 References on ventilated and nonventilated facades

[182] Dong Li et al. (2020) Review on glazed units The authors reviewed investigations on the optical and thermal performance of PCM
glazing units and indicated the future challenges research
[183] Ling Xu et al. (2020) Building envelops They published a review including the selection of buildings materials, applications of
opaque and transparent materials and indicated possible future research
[184] Zsembinszki et al. PCM for buildings The authors treated the selection of the appropriate PCM for two Innovative compact
(2020) energy storage systems and presented the methodology used for the assessment of the
PCM
[185] Safranek et al. (2020) Lighting recommendations for Investigation to evaluate potential energy impacts of circadian lighting design
office and classroom recommendations for offices and classrooms. Lighting energy may increase between
10% and 100% to meet circadian lighting design recommendations
[186] Vaqas et al. (2018) A review on cooling systems of the Potential of PCM storage coupled with several cooling techniques to reduce energy
buildings consumption and shifting peak cooling loads was addressed and some current
problems that need further research were presented
[187] Ibañez-Puy et al. Review on opaque ventilated The use of opaque ventilated facades increased in recent years as an envelope solution
(2017) façades for a variety of design configurations. The review includes data which address the
thermal and energy performance of these façades
[188] Panopoulos and Smart façades for buildings They assessed the literature for facade building technology to investigate possible
Papadopoulos (2017) retrofits to achieve “Zero-Energy Building” and concluded that it was not achievable
solely through façade retrofits
[189] Iten et al. (2016) Review on air-PCM-TES Review on the application of air-PCM-TES technologies for the free cooling and
applications heating of buildings. Active methods are adopted for extreme climates to meet the
energy and comfort demands
[190] Thambidurai et al. Review on PCM free cooling of This review updates work carried out in recent years on free cooling technology using
(2015) buildings PCMs
[191] Barbosa and Ip (2014) Double skin facades The review covered the perspectives of double skin facades for naturally ventilated
buildings, identification of the parameters affecting the thermal performance of
buildings and recommended future studies
[192] De Gracia et al. (2013) Ventilated facades Presented a review on modeling of ventilated facades, described the different methods
of numerical modeling and highlighted their benefits and limitations
[7] Soares et al. (2013) Building energy efficiency The review showed that passive PCM construction solutions can reduce energy
consumption and increase indoor thermal comfort
[194] Cabeza et al. (2011) PCM in buildings Presented a review on PCM used for thermal energy storage in buildings including
classification, available material, problems and possible solutions
[193]Gracia et al. (2013) Facades with PCM enhancement Ventilated double skin facades with PCM significantly improves the thermal behavior
of the building
[195] Diarce et al. (2013) Facades with PCM enhancement Ventilated active façade with PCM in the outer layer reduced the overheating of the
façade
[196] Mei et al. (2003) Facades with PCM enhancement The ventilated PV façade did not contribute much to the conventional building for the
cold climate areas and PV exhibited a larger heat loss coefficient in comparison with
conventional brick wall
[197] Seferis et al. (2011) Facades for thermal comfort The circulating air in the façade acts as a flexible insulation layer while the addition of
a radiant barrier layer kept the temperature higher during the nighttime
[198], Corgnati et al. (2007) Facades for thermal comfort Active transparent façade was analyzed. During the cooling periods, even large air
flowrates resulted in the overheating of the façade. The aluminum frame of the façade
provoked dynamic insulation efficiency to be reduced by about 10–15%
[199] Weinlader et al. (2005) Facades with PCM enhancement Façade panels with PCM provided homogeneous illumination and thermal
performance with low heat loss. Leakage was a problem that still needs adequate
engineering solution

and long-duration tests. The present review results indicated the many conventional and/or renewable-based installations employ
advantages and disadvantages of PCM transparent elements such PCM to increase the thermal mass and reduce temperature swings
as transparent and semi-transparent facades, development opportu- which cause undesirable discomfort. More investigations and
nities, and trends in future research and building applications. product developments are required to provide the market with a
ready for-use product.
Trombe wall: Classical Trombe walls are passive and massive
solar heating systems and because of their weight they are not rec-
11 Final Conclusions and Future Perspectives ommended for multistory and lightweight buildings due to possible
This review on the PCM utilization in the building sector reveals structural problems. The incorporation of PCM in Trombe walls can
the potential of PCM insertion in construction materials, envelops, solve the weight problem and allow PCM application in these new
facades, walls, roofs, floors, and components such as windows and areas. The application of PCM in Trombe walls is relatively incip-
shading equipment to reduce the thermal effects, energy consump- ient and needs further research. Numerical modeling and long-
tion, and the building sector emissions share. The review showed an period simulations are essential for building designers to gain con-
immense amount of numerical and experimental results as well as fidence and experience.
modeling and simulations on small-scale and experimental installa- PCM windows: Windows are essential elements for a building

tions. The main findings of the present review can be useful for pro- since they allow visual contact of the occupants of the building
viding information on potential improvements and future research with the external ambient and give the building a pleasant aesthetic
and development trends in the field of energy storage materials appearance. Many numerical and experimental studies on
and possible new applications in the building sector. small-scale and laboratory models reported the use of PCM in
PCM in mortars and bricks: The results of PCM applications in double glass windows and the effectiveness of these windows in
external and internal finishing mortars indicate that insertion of reducing heat gains, however, a reduced natural visibility was
PCM reduces the mechanical strength of the mortar and a safe lim- also reported. There is a need for more research to solve the
iting fraction is about 29%. Long duration and cycling tests are problem of visibility. Window incorporation with other elements
needed to ensure durability. No results are available on energy such as aerogel and reflective films may enhance their thermal qual-
savings due to the application of PCM mortars while risks of ities and make them more acceptable. The review demonstrates the
leakage and inflammability exist. Irrespective of the extensive technical challenges, future developments, and priorities in investi-
research work on binders and additives to reduce risks of fire and gations on PCM-glazed windows, the necessity of dedicated
leakage, long duration and cycling tests are essential to certify the research programs, testing, simulations, and full-scale testing to
effectiveness of using these mortars. provide acceptable products.
With reference to bricks, the review results indicate that using PCM facades: Highly glazed facades and envelops in commer-
micro-encapsulation reduces mechanical qualities of the bricks, cial and multifloor residential buildings are the current architecture
leakage is imminent and more work is necessary to introduce effec- tendencies. The review indicates that there is much to learn about
tively bricks of moderate cost, long working life, and proven effi- the relation between the light and human physiology. From the
ciency. Macro-encapsulation of PCM in bricks with voids seems technological viewpoint, there are few real operational data, perfor-
to be more acceptable with fewer risks of leakage but needs addi- mance tests in big installation, and long duration tests. The review
tional research and development, real-scale performance tests, demonstrated the advantages and disadvantages of PCM transparent
cycling tests, and reduction of costs. elements such as transparent and semi-transparent facades, develop-
PCM in concrete, brick walls, and wallboards: ment and trends in future research and building applications.
The insertion of PCM into external walls and building envelops
proved to be an efficient measure to increase the thermal inertia of
the walls and improve energy consumption as well as temperature Acknowledgment
swings. The reviewed works and developments indicate the neces-
The first author wishes to thank the Conselho Nacional de Desen-
sity of more development and investigations on real buildings in
volvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq) for the PQ Research
real operation to gain confidence and validate the results of
Grant (Grant No. 304372/2016-1).
current investigations as well as further work on encapsulation tech-
niques, stabilization, and fire hazards. PCM wallboards have been
widely studied but the reviewed literature indicates the necessity
of additional research and development to improve the thermal per-
Conflict of Interest
formance and fire risks along with full-scale and long-duration tests. There are no conflicts of interest. This article does not include
PCM roofs: Roofs are normally subject to varying solar radiation research in which human participants were involved. Informed
and climatic conditions which make the prediction of their thermal consent not applicable. This article does not include any research
performance a really difficult and tedious job. To avoid excessive in which animal participants were involved.
heat gains (or loss) from the building they need to be protected
against these external thermally disturbing sources. Available
passive measures that may help to thermally protect the building Data Availability Statement
include shading, reflective paints, green roofs, and PCM integrated The datasets generated and supporting the findings of this article
roofs. The thermal performance of PCM roofs was evaluated both are obtainable from the corresponding author upon reasonable
numerically and experimentally in laboratory and small-scale request.
outdoor testing equipment. The results showed the good potential
of PCM roofs to reduce energy gain (or loss) and reduce emissions.
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A Comprehensive Review On Phase Change Materials and Applications in Buildings and Components

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A Comprehensive Review On Phase Change Materials and Applications in Buildings and Components

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Kamal A. R.

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Table 1 Eutectic water–salt solutions used as PCM [14]

Melting Melting Thermal

Al(NO3)3 (30.5 wt%)/H2O −30.6 131 —

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LiClO3 ⋅ 3H2O 8 155 —

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Table 6 Fatty acids used as PCMs [14]

Caprylic acid 16 149 0.149 (liquid, 38 °C)

Table 7 Thermal properties of some polyethylene glycols [7]

Diethylene glycol C4H10O3 −10 to −7 — —

Table 8 Parafﬁn for building applications adapted from Ref. [15]

n-Heptadecane 19 240 0.21

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CA 30.2 142.7 0.2 (liquid), 0.12 (solid)

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Table 10 Hydrated salts for building applications [15]

Hydrated salt 29 175 1.0

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3.1 Authors’ Comments. As can be seen from the literature

4 Phase Change Material in Concrete and Brick Walls

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6.1 Authors’ Comments. From the reviewed articles, the

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Reference number, authors, and

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8 Phase Change Material Trombe Walls

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Reference number, authors,

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Reference number, authors, and

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Reference number, authors,

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Reference number, authors,

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GLASSX GLASSX Crystal 26–30 1185 0–28/4–45 Salt hydrates Inorganic

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Table 17 References on ventilated and nonventilated facades