INTRODUCTION TO MATHEMATICAL LOGIC

OVERVIEW

Mathematical logic was the name given by Giuseppe Peano to what is also known as symbolic
logic. In its classical version, the basic aspects resemble the logic of Aristotle, but written using
symbolic notation rather than natural language. Attempts to treat the operations of formal logic
in a symbolic or algebraic way were made by some of the more philosophical mathematicians,
such as Leibniz and Lambert; but their labors remained little known and isolated.

It was George Boole and then Augustus De Morgan, in the middle of the nineteenth century,
who presented a systematic mathematical way of regarding logic. The traditional, Aristotelian
doctrine of logic was reformed and completed; and out of it developed an instrument for
investigating the fundamental concepts of mathematics.

LEARNING OUTCOMES: After the completion of this unit, the students are expected to:

1. Write down the history of the development of the mathematics logic.

2. Define and discuss simple and compound propositions.
3. Identify whether a statement is a proposition or not.
4. Translate propositional statements to propositional forms and vice versa.
5. Discuss the truth values of the different logical operators.
6. Construct the truth table of a particular propositional form.
7. Differentiate between converse, inverse and contrapositive of a given biconditional
statement.
8. Identify whether a given proposition is a tautology, contradiction or a contingency.
9. Identify propositions that are logically equivalent.
10. Define and construct a substitution instance for a given proposition

1.1. HISTORY OF MATH LOGIC

Logic is a branch of science that studies correct forms of reasoning. It plays a fundamental role
in such disciplines as philosophy, mathematics, and computer science. Like philosophy and
mathematics, logic has ancient roots. The earliest treatises on the nature of correct reasoning
were written over 2000 years ago. Some of the most prominent philosophers of ancient Greece
wrote of the nature of deduction more than 2300 years ago, and thinkers in ancient China wrote
of logical paradoxes around the same time. However, though its roots may be in the distant
past, logic continues to be a vibrant field of study to this day.

Modern logic originated in the work of the great Greek philosopher Aristotle (384–322 BCE), the
most famous student of Plato (c.427–c.347 BCE) and one of the most influential thinkers of all
time. Further advances were made by the Greek Stoic philosopher Chrysippus of Soli (c.278–
c.206 BCE), who developed the basics of what we now call propositional logic.

For many centuries the study of logic was mostly concentrated on different interpretations of the
works of Aristotle, and to a much lesser degree of those of Chrysippus, whose work was largely

ATIENZA/ALIGNAY/NUNEZ/OLLERES 1
forgotten. However, all the argument forms were written in words, and lacked formal machinery
that would create a logical calculus of deduction with which it would be easy to work.

The great German philosopher and mathematician Gottfried Leibniz (1646–1716) was among
the first to realize the need to formalize logical argument forms. It was Leibniz’s dream to create
a universal formal language of science that would reduce all philosophical disputes to a matter
of mere calculation by recasting the reasoning in such disputes in this language.

The first real steps in this direction were taken in the middle of the nineteenth century by the
English mathematician George Boole (1815–1864). In 1854 Boole published An Investigation of
the Laws of Thought, in which he developed an algebraic system for discussing logic. Boole’s
work ushered in a revolution in logic, which was advanced further by Augustus De
Morgan (1806–1871), Charles Sanders Peirce (1839–1914), Ernst Schröder (1841–1902),
and Giuseppe Peano (1858–1932).

The next key step in this revolution in logic was made by the great German mathematician and
philosopher GottlobFrege (1848–1925). Frege created a powerful and profoundly original
symbolic system of logic, as well as suggested that the whole of mathematics could be
developed on the basis of formal logic, which resulted in the well-known school of logicism.
By the early twentieth century, the stage was set for Bertrand Russell (1872–1970) and Alfred
North Whitehead (1861–1947) to give a modern account of logic and the foundations of
mathematics in their influential treatise Principia Mathematica. Published in three volumes
between 1910 and 1913, Principia was a culmination of work that had been done on logic and
the foundations of mathematics in the preceding century, and had a tremendous influence on
further development of the subject in the twentieth century.

1.2. PROPOSITIONS

Logic gives us rules in determining whether an argument is valid or not. The classical
AristotleanLogic gives these rules by means of principles and methods that are used to appraise
the correctness of reasoning. This was dealt with already by the mentioned mathematicians
expressing verbal arguments or statements in mathematical symbols known as symbolic logic.

The first thing that we should learn is how to symbolize statements. We should only deal with
statements that are either true or false. These statements should be declarative in form, and not
just expressions of command, inquiry or surprise. These statements are called propositions or
assertions. Thus the statement: “I studied for the test.” is a proposition whereas the command
“Study for the test.” is not. Note that propositions can be verified to be true or false, but the
command does not have any truth value.

Proposition – a statement which is either true or false but not both

Consider the following sentences and tell whether these are propositions or not:

1. Jamie was here.

ATIENZA/ALIGNAY/NUNEZ/OLLERES 2
 2. An isosceles triangle is a triangle with at least two equal sides.
3. 4+3=8
4. 2x = 10
5. Happy Birthday!
6. When pandemic is over.

Statements 1,2 and 3 are all propositions since they express a complete thought and you can
easily tell whether the statement is true or false. Statement 5 is just an expression of greetings
and 6 is incomplete. Both 5 and 6 are not propositionssince they are vague, don’t express a
complete thought, and you really cannot tell what they mean and so not sure whether they are
true or false. Statement 4 is likewise not a proposition since you need to specify first the
value of x to tell whether it is true or false. It can only be treated as a proposition whenever there
will be assumed value of x like in the example: If 2x =10, then x = 5, where the assumption that
x is a specific real number is either explicitly or implicitly stated.

Propositional Variable

A propositional variableor a statement variablerepresented by alowercase letter in the

English Alphabet denotes an arbitrary proposition with an unspecified truth value. The most
usual statement variables that are used in a particular discussion starts with p, q, r, s,t … An
assertion that contains at least one propositional variable is called a propositional form.
Usually a propositional form appears as a sequence of symbols containing propositional
variables and logical operators. These logical operators are used to combine propositions
constructing new ones.

A propositional constant or a statement constant, represented by an uppercase letter in the

English Alphabet denotes an actual proposition used in particular. It represents an actual given
statement. Note that the definitions of statement variables and statement constants follows just
the same concept as variables and constants in algebra.

The proposition “If Jena studies well on her exams, then she will have good grades” is
combining the propositions:“Jena studies well on her exams”, and “She have good grades”. It
shows that if-thenis a logical operator. In symbols, this maybe written as: “If J then G”, where J
stands for the first proposition and G for the second. J and G here are statement constants,
since they represent actual statements. Note that any letter is applicable; you can have it P and
Q if you choose but usually, they are represented by the first letter of the keyword of the
involved propositions. This new proposition appears to be a more complicated expression than
the simple proposition Jena studies well on her exams or she have good grades, hence it is
called a compound proposition.

By concept, compound propositions may be obtained from simpler propositions with the
use of logical operators most of which are connectives.

The following logical operators can be used to construct compound propositions:

Symbol Logical Operator / Connective Translation

Negation (~) not p, it is not the case that p, it is false

that p, it is not true that p, etc.

ATIENZA/ALIGNAY/NUNEZ/OLLERES 3
 Conjunction (  ) p and q, p moreover q, p although q, p still
q, p furthermore q, p nevertheless q, p
however q, p also q, p yet q, p but q, etc.

Disjunction (  ) p or q, p unless q, etc.

Material Implication ( → ) p implies q, If p then q, p is a sufficient

condition for q, p only if q, q is a
necessary condition for p, q if p, q follows
from p, q provided p, q whenever p, q is a
logical consequence of p.

Material Equivalence (  ) p if and only if q, p is equivalent to q, p is

necessary and sufficient condition for q.

Propositional statements can be converted to propositional forms using any chosen letter.
Likewise, propositional forms can also be translated using chosen propositional statements.

Illustration: The compound proposition form:

in terms of statement variables (since the symbols used are small letters) can be translated
as:“It is not true that I only get infected with the virus if only if I have a personal contact with the
infected person and I use his personal belongings”. This is one of the many possible
translations of the given proposition form, since statement variables can represent many
different statements / propositions.

Using statement constants, we can represent I for the simple statement “I only get infected with
the virus”, P for “I have a personal contact with the infected person”, and U for “I use his
personal belongings”. Translating it in terms of the connectives involved for each keyword, we
have:

Test Your Understanding:

A. Tell whether each of the following statements is a proposition or not.

1. I love the sunset!

2. Lance is eating ice cream.
3. Live by faith and not by sight.
4. They are doing their best.
5.
6. 3 + 5 = 10
7. Math is fun.
8. Great love and great achievements both include great risks.

ATIENZA/ALIGNAY/NUNEZ/OLLERES 4
 9. She doesn’t love you.
10. If you had my love, would you come to me?

B. Convert the following propositional forms into propositional statements by representing

each statement variable by any statement that you wish.

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

1.3. TRANSLATIONS AND PUNCTUATIONS

Notice that one of the important tasks in symbolic logic is the translation of statements to
propositional forms. This is the initial step in proving the validity or invalidity of arguments. We
can easily verify the truth value of the propositions when they have been transcribed into
symbols accurately.

Aside from the keywords listed in the previous table and their corresponding logical operators,
one should also be mindful on terms that may correspond to grouping symbols. Grouping marks
have to be used especially in symbolizing lengthy propositions. These include parentheses,
braces, or brackets. We saw these already in some statements discussed previously. The
following are the guidelines for the proper use of these grouping symbols:

1. The parenthesis is used whenever the word “both” goes with “and” and “either” goes with
“or”. The translations of the following phrases are:
a. Both p or q and r
b. p or both q and r
c. Either p and q or r
d. p and either q or r

2. Since “neither p norq” is the same as ”not either p or q”, then it is denoted by .
This is also expressed by the phrase “both p or q are not”

3. The order of the words “both” and “not” should also be taken into consideration. Thus the
translations of the following phrases are:
a. p and q are not both
b. p and q are both not

4. The parenthesis, brackets and braces are used in symbolic logic in the same manner as
in mathematical expressions. As an example, the proposition “It is impossible that if he is
sick and you are there, then he will instantly get well or he will at least feel secure”
should be symbolized as follows in terms of statement constants:

ATIENZA/ALIGNAY/NUNEZ/OLLERES 5
Test Your Understanding: Using the concepts from 1.2 and 1.3, convert the following
propositions into propositional forms.

1. If students understand mathematics, then they will be interested to learn more.

2. Carrots and squash are both nutritious vegetables.

3. Feathers protect the bird against the weather; moreover, feathers insulate the bird
against loss of heat.

4. It is not true that the number of covid cases decreases in the Philippines.

5. If the cake gets hot then the icing melts and if the icing melts then the cake cannot be
used at the wedding reception.
6. Either he is here and she is there, or it is not true that either he is not here or she is
there.

7. The school principal already gave a warning call, moreover, his father and mother are
both not happy about it.

8. What Paolo can do is both concentrate on his studies or find a tutor, and stop seeing his
friends on schooldays.

1.4. TRUTH TABLES OF LOGICAL CONNECTIVES

As discussed, compound statements or propositions are made by combining simpler

propositions using logical operators or connectives. This section discusses in detail each logical
operator and the rules that apply to them by means of truth tables.

A. Negation( )

The proposition not p represented by is called negation of p. For instance, the negation of
the statement, A vaccine is already available is“It is not true that a vaccine is already available”
or “The vaccine is not yet available”, and in symbol: .

The rule for negation is given by the following truth table (T stands for TRUE and F stands for
FALSE):

T F

F T

The table shows that if the proposition P is true then its negation is false and if P is false then its
negation is true.

ATIENZA/ALIGNAY/NUNEZ/OLLERES 6
B. Conjunction ( )

Proposition p and q denoted by is called conjuction of p and q. The proposition p and the
proposition q are called conjuncts. Other words that can be used in place of “and” are
moreover, although, still, furthermore, also, nevertheless, however, yet, but, etc. A comma or a
semicolon between two statements may also stand for “and”.

The rule for conjunction is given by:

p q

T T T

T F F

F T F

F F F

It is important to note that the conjunction of p and q is TRUE ifboth p and q are TRUE,
otherwise it is FALSE.

C. Disjunction( )

The proposition p or q denoted by is called disjunction of p and q. The proposition p and

the proposition q are called disjuncts. p or q can be replaced by p unless q. The rule for
disjunction is given by:

p q

T T T

T F T

F T T

F F F

Notice that the proposition is TRUE when at least one of the propositions p or q is
TRUE. It is FALSE when both p and q are FALSE.

D. Material Implication( )

The proposition p implies q denoted by is called an implication or a conditional

statement. p is called the antecedent, premise or hypothesis whereas q is called the
conclusion or consequent. Other ways of expressing “p implies q” are: If p then q, p is a

ATIENZA/ALIGNAY/NUNEZ/OLLERES 7
sufficient condition for q, p only if q, q is a necessary condition for p, q if p, q follows from p, q
provided p, q whenever p, q is a logical consequence of p. The rule for implication is given by:

p q

T T T

T F F

F T T

F F T

Observe that is FALSE only when the consequent is FALSE, and it is TRUE for the rest.
Let us verify this rule by considering the promise “If you graduated with honors, then I will give
you expensive jewelries”, the possible situations out of this promise are:

a. You graduated with honors and then I give you expensive jewelries.
b. You graduated with honors but then I didn’t give you expensive jewelries
c. You didn’t graduate with honors but then I give you expensive jewelries just the same.
d. You didn’t graduate with honors and then I didn’t give you expensive jewelries.

From which of the situation is the promise broken?

The promise is broken in situation b where the premise is satisfied but the conclusion of the
statement is not fulfilled. Hence, It is a verification of the truth table since only when the
conclusion is false when the premise is true, will the implication become false too.

E. Material Equivalence( )

The proposition p if and only if q or sometimes written as “piffq” denoted by is called the
material equivalence or biconditional of two propositions p and q. This canalso be
expressed as p is equivalent to q, p is necessary and sufficient condition for q. Note that the
biconditional statement puts together the implications and in one statement .
Thus the material equivalence can also be written in propositionalform

If we restate the example given earlier into: “I give you expensive jewelries if and only if you
graduate with honors”, given again four possible situations a,b,c d, this time under biconditional
statement, when is the promise broken?
Your answer should be consistent with the truth table of material equivalence or biconditional
given:
p q

T T T

T F F

F T T

ATIENZA/ALIGNAY/NUNEZ/OLLERES 8
 F F F

The material equivalence or biconditional of two propositions is TRUE when these two
propositions are TRUE or both FALSE.

The truth value of a propositional form can be shown through a truth table. If a propositional
form has n propositional variables as components, then its corresponding truth has 2 n number of
rows. This is true since one propositional variable has only two possible truth values. Thus n
propositional variables has 2 (2)(2)(2)… = 2n possible combinations of truth values.

Example 1: Generate the truth table of the proposition:

Since 2 variables are involved we should construct 2n = 22 = 4 rows:

Start with listing the possible combinations of TRUE and FALSE for Q and R then
identify the truth values of the logical operators involved starting with what’s in the
parenthesis

Q R

T T T F

T F T F

F T T F

F F F T

Example 2: Generate the truth table of the proposition:

Since 3 variables are involved we should construct 2n = 23 = 8 rows:

P Q R

T T T T T F

T T F F F T

T F T F F T

T F F F F T

F T T T T F

F T F F T F

ATIENZA/ALIGNAY/NUNEZ/OLLERES 9
 F F T F T F

F F F F T F

Notice that the rules of conjunction, implication and negation are observed here.

Test Your Understanding:

A. Generate the truth table of the following:

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

B. Convert the following statements to proposition forms then generate the truth table:

1. We will go get ice cream if and only if you clean your room and pack your things at the
same time.
2. The pond is not frozen over, yet, the fish are not jumping.
3. Either he studies in his coming exams or he will both fail and get scolded by his parents.

ATIENZA/ALIGNAY/NUNEZ/OLLERES 10