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NOTES STILL PHOTOGRAPHY

BA(JMC)106

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TECHNICAL TERMS IN PHOTOGRAPHY:

Shutter Speed: One of the two most important things to consider when taking a photograph.
The shutter is what lets light into the camera to make the photo. The shutter speed is how long
the shutter will stay open for. For example, on a cloudy day you might compose your photo and
see that the shutter speed is 1/125 second. That’s one one hundred and twenty fifth of a
second that the shutter stays open for. Not long is it! On a bright sunny day that could be 1/500
or even 1/1000 of a second. By comparison, some of those lovely night shots that you see
couple have the shutter open for 30 seconds or in some cases even minutes!

Aperture.: Also known as the f-stop, this term simply describes how big the hole in the lens is.
The bigger the hole, the more light will get in and the less time the shutter will need to be open
to correctly expose the shot. [1. Most point-and-shoot cameras will automatically set the
shutter speed and f-stop to what they think is the best setting for the shot. The camera isn't
infallible and will occasionally get it wrong. Even shooting with a digital SLR (dSLR) will not
always get a perfect exposure and will nearly always need a little tweaking in an image
manipulation program.] Aperture also affects depth-of-field (below). The aperture is normally

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written as f5 or f11 (as examples). Try and remember it like this: The higher the number, the
smaller the hole. The smaller the hole, obviously, the less light can get in.

Aperture:
The aperture is the hole inside the lens that allows light through. Apertures measured in f
numbers - a ratio of the diameter of the hole and the focal length of the lens. The size of this
hole can be adjusted. Larger hole allows more light in, a smaller hole less. An important effect
of this is the depth of field.

Depth-of-Field. This describes how much of the photo is in focus. We’ve all seen that photo
where part of the main subject is very sharp in focus but an object behind is out of focus? The
photographer (if he hasn’t manipulated the photo in post-processing) will have changed the
aperture to affect the d-o-f. You can remember depth of field by remembering the smaller the
f-stop, the less d-o-f.

Composition. As we get further through I will talk more about the composition of an image and
the basic guidelines you can follow for what is guaranteed to make your photo ordinary or
stand out. This includes the simple things like checking for blinking people, cutting off heads
and/or feet right through to putting a particular point of interest on a “third”*2. This is known
as the rule of thirds and deserves a tutorial post in its own right!].

Depth of field

Depth of field is a measure of how much of a scene (from the front to the back of the image)
will be in focus. Although not strictly digital photography terminology, the affect still applies to
digital cameras.

In landscape photography it is a common to want everything in focus, from the rocks in the
foreground to the hills in the distance ("deep" depth of field). For portrait photography usually
best to have a shallow depth of field (i.e. keep only part of the image in focus). This allows the
subject to be in clear focus, but makes the background blurred. (see also aperture)

Diffuser

A piece of opaque plastic that sits over the top of a flashgun. It's job is to soften the light from
the flashgun, and therefore reduces harsh shadows caused by a 'bare' flash.

DSLR

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Stands for Digital Single Lens Reflex. This is the digital equivalent of a SLR camera. The
difference between this and a traditional SLR is that a DSLR does not need film. The photograph
is recorded on a digital image sensor and saved onto a memory card.

Compact Flash (CF) memory card

A popular type of memory card. Used in digital photography to store images. The amount of
memory per card varies. Popular memory capacities range from 256mb to 8GB. The larger
capacity cards are really of use to professionals only. CF cards are the largest popular format
memory card. These days they are used mostly in larger digital cameras.

CCD

Stands for Charge-Coupled Device. A type of sensor commonly found in consumer level (i.e.
affordable!) cameras. See sensor for more information.

CMOS :Stands for Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor. A type of sensor commonly
found in more professional level cameras. See sensor for more information.

ISO
ISO is a term "borrowed" from film photography. In film photography the ISO was a measure of
how sensitive film was to light. It was called film speed. The higher the number, the more
sensitive it was (and the film was called "fast film"). E.g. ISO 100 was not that sensitive, ISO
1600 was very sensitive.

In digital photography the number (still called "ISO") refers to how sensitive the image sensor is
to light. By making the sensor more sensitive to light, photos can be shot with higher shutter
speeds and/or in lower light.

The downside of making the image sensor more sensitive is that it introduces noise into the
picture. Noise is the digital equivalent of film grain.

JPEG :
In digital photography terminology, JPEG is a type of lossy file format. Stands for Joint
Photographic Experts Group. It is the most common file format used in digital photography.
When the image is saved, the camera strips out data (parts of the photo) that the human eye
probably notices. This is called compressing the file. It keeps the size of the file down so that
more images can be stored on the camera.

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Macro
Not strictly digital photography terminology, "macro" means the ability for a camera (or lens) to
focus so near to the subject that it is captured life size on the image sensor.

The term macro is used more loosely these days, and usually refers to the ability to get close up
shots (not necessarily life size). Typical macro subjects are flowers and insects.

Noise
In digital photography terminology, noise is the digital equivalent of film grain. It shows up on
digital photographs as small coloured blotches, usually in the darker areas of an image. Noise
often goes overlooked in snapshots, but becomes very obvious if enlargements are made.

Noise is worse in digital photos taken in low light. It can be removed to some extent by
software, but a better quality digital camera will usually produce less noise in the first place.

Whereas film grain can add atmosphere to a photograph, digital noise is generally considered
to be unattractive. Digital photographers looking for a "grainy" effect aim to start with a clean
image (i.e. free from digital noise), and then add the grain effect afterwards using software.

Pixel
A small dot in a digital photography image. Thousands of pixels make up a digital photograph.

Prime Lens
The opposite of a zoom lens, prime lenses have one fixed focal length. They represent the best
quality of lens available, but have the big drawback in that they cannot 'zoom in' to a subject.

RAW
RAW files are the actual data taken directly from a digital cameras image sensor. They have not
been processed by the camera at all. This means they are the purest image file possible in
digital photography. Often, quite correctly, the terminology digital image is used to describe
them.

Different camera manufacturers have different names for their own RAW files. For example,
Canon uses the digital photography terminology RAW, Nikon uses different digital photography
terminology NEFA. They are incompatible with each other. Whereas every computer can
show JPEG images, RAW files need specific software. This is always supplied by the
manufacturer when you purchase a digital camera. It is also easy to obtain on the internet too.
Resolution:

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In digital photography terminology, resolution is a measure of the number of pixels there are
on a sensor. The resolution of digital cameras is measured in megapixel in a megapixel there
are millions of pixels. It works by a simple bit of math’s a “multiply the number of pixels along
the bottom of the sensor by those up the side. For example, a sensor with 3000 pixels along the
bottom and 2000 up the side equals 6,000,000 pixels in total. That would make it a 6 megapixel
camera.
Theoretically it is possible to change the sensor in a digital camera (say, to upgrade a 5
megapixel sensor to a 10 megapixel sensor). In practice though, so much of the camera would
have to be replaced it makes this impossible to do.

SLR
Stands for Single Lens Reflex. A design of camera where the photographer looks straight
through the lens prior to taking a photograph. The view through the viewfinder of a SLR camera
is therefore the exact same image that will be recorded by the camera.

Sensor
The electronic chip that records the image in a digital camera. They come in two main types.
CCD (Charge-Coupled Device) and CMOS (Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor) are the
most common. CCDs are used almost exclusively in compact cameras, CMOS sensors are used
in larger, and more expensive DSLRs.

SLR camera: Parts of a Camera:

Body:

The camera body is the most basic part of a camera. It is the box that holds the film and the
camera controls. The lens is either built-into the body or attaches to the body. The body also
houses a battery that powers the shutter, flash, light meter, and other controls. There are
generally rings to connect a strap to the camera for easy carrying as well.

Viewfinder:

The viewfinder is the hole in the back of the camera that a photographer looks through to aim
the camera. Some viewfinders use a mirror inside the camera to look through the lens (TTL).
Other viewfinders are simply holes through the body of the camera. Viewfinders that look
through the lens (TTL) allow the photographer better accuracy when composing their images.

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Shutter Release:

The shutter release is a button that raises a shutter inside the camera for a specified amount of
time to allow light to expose the film. In a SLR camera, this button also raises a mirror that
allows the photographer to use the viewfinder to look through the lens itself. Many SLR
cameras also allow a remote release of the shutter via a cable or IR remote.

In automatic cameras, the shutter release also causes the film to advance to the next exposure.
In manual cameras, there is a "film advance lever" that must be turned in order to advance the
film and the exposure counter.

Shutter:

An opaque piece of metal or plastic inside your camera that prevents light from reaching the
film or digital sensor. The shutter is opened, or released, by the shutter release button. The
amount of time the shutter stays open is controlled by the shutter speed setting.

Shutter Speed Control:

The shutter speed control is the point on your camera where you set the amount of time the
shutter will remain open. On automatic cameras, this is generally accessed through a menu and
displayed on a screen on the back of the camera. In manual cameras, the shutter speed is
generally controlled and displayed on a knob on the top of the camera. The shutter speed is
measured in fractions of a second but is generally shown as the denominator only. For example,
1/60 of a second is shown as 60.

Film Speed Control:

The film speed control allows you to calibrate your camera's meter to your film speed so that
you will get an accurate exposure reading. The film speed may be set electronically through a
menu or via a knob/button on manual cameras. On manual cameras, the control is often
integrated with a film speed indicator on the top of the camera. On automatic cameras, the
control and film speed indicator are generally separate with the film speed being indicated on
the electronic menu display on the back of the camera.

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F-Stop Control:

On automatic cameras, the F-Stop control is on the camera. For older manual cameras, the F-
Stop is controlled on the lens. The F-Stop controls allow you to set the size of
the aperture within the lens.

Film Compartment:

In film cameras, there is a compartment in the back of the camera to hold the film. This
compartment has a space for the film canister, sprockets to guide the film across the exposure
area, a pressure plate to tighten the film, and a take up reel to wind the film. When the roll of
film has been completely exposed, automatic cameras use a small motor to rewind the film.
Manual cameras require the photographer to turn a small "rewind knob" to manually rewind
the film into the canister. If the film is not rewound before the back compartment is opened,
the film will be exposed to enough light to ruin the images.

Flash:

Most cameras now include a built-in flash. Some are simple light bulbs built into the front of the
camera. On SLR cameras, most built-in flashes pop-up out of a protective storage area on the
top of the camera. External flashes can often be attached via the "hot shoe mount" or, in the
case of manual cameras, an small connector port on the front of the camera that accepts a
cable attached to a distant flash.

Hot Shoe Mount:

The hot shoe mount is a point on the top of most SLR cameras where an external flash can be
connected. It is called a "hot shoe" because it has electrical contact points and guide rails that
fit over the bottom of the flash like a shoe.

Lens Ring Mount:

On cameras that allow interchangeable lenses, there is a metal ring on the front of the camera
where the lens will attach. This ring contains electrical contact points to connect the lens
controls to the camera body. There is a small button or lever to the side of this mount called
the "lens release button" that releases the lens from the body.Lens:

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The lens is the part of the camera (or an attachment for the camera) that focuses light into
the body and onto the film. The aperture is also contained within the lens. Optical Lens:

On the front of a camera lens there is a glass lens that focuses light into the camera body and
onto the film. Inside the lens body, there are several other optical lenses that further refine the
image. These lenses are sometimes called "elements".

Filter Threads:

In front of the first optical lens, there is a small ring with screw threads cut into it. These screw
threads allow for filters and other accessories to be easily attached to the front of the lens.
Each lens carries a second mm rating that tells the diameter of this front attachment point.

Focusing Ring:

Each lens has a focusing ring. This is a section of the lens that rotates to allow the photographer
to focus the image. On automatic cameras, this ring is moved by a small motor within the lens
whenever the photographer presses the shutter release buttonhalfway down. These rings are
usually marked with guide numbers showing how far away a subject is when focused.

Focal Length Ring:

Each lens that has zoom capability has a focal length ring. This ring allows the photographer to
zoom in or zoom out on a subject. Lenses are often described by their focal length. For
example, a lens may be called a 70-300mm lens. This indicates that the lens can zoom from
70mm to 300mm. Example of images taken with different focal lengths.

Aperture Ring:

The aperture ring on a lens allows the photographer to control the aperture within the lens.
These settings are marked on the lens using F-Stops. On automatic cameras the aperture can
only be controlled through the camera body F-Stop settings.

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Aperture:

The aperture is an adjustable opening in the lens used to allow light onto the film or digital
surface. The size of the aperture is measured by the F-Stop setting. The larger opening of the
aperture results in less light needed to expose the image and less depth of field (less in focus). A
smaller opening of the aperture results in more light needed to expose the image and more
depth of field (more in focus).

Lens Mount:

The lens mount is a metal area that has been machined into a particular shape to fit a specific
camera body type. Each camera manufacturer uses a different lens mount design. The lens is
attached to the camera at the lens mount ring by lining up a small dot on both the camera body
and the lens. The lens is then gently rotated into place. The lens mount also contains contacts
that will match up with contacts on the lens ring mount to allow the camera to control the lens.

Viewfinder - what the operator looks through to aim, focus the image
and get other camera settings ready.

Lens - lets the light in and focuses it on the film or a mirror which reflects
the image to the viewfinder. If the image through the viewfinder is not in
focus, the light on the film will produce a blurry image.

Mirror - is in use when the shutter is closed. It reflects light of the image
through a prism to the eye of the photographer. When the shutter is open,
the mirror moves up and the light rays fall on the film, taking the picture.

The top picture to the left is the mirror up. The bottom picture shows the
mirror down.

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Prism - This is the only camera part without a photograph. The prism is
located on the inside of the camera near the top. It is a solid transparent
object which refracts [changes the direction of] light.

Shutter Release Button - the control that releases the aperture opening,
lifts up the mirror, and exposes the film to the light.

Definition of: DSLR

(Digital Single Lens Reflex) A digital still image camera that uses a single lens reflex (SLR)
mechanism. Most professional cameras have always been single lens reflex cameras, although
analog. Digital SLRs began to emerge in the early 1990s, but became very popular after the turn
of the century. Following are the two major differences between DSLRs and standard digital
cameras.

Removable Lenses
No single lens can accommodate every photographic requirement, and SLR cameras have
always used removable lenses. A wide variety of lenses are available for each camera system,
and many lenses that fit 35mm analog SLRs also fit digital SLRs. However, the CCD or CMOS
sensor in a digital SLR is generally not as large as a 35mm film frame, and there is typically a
multiplier factor in focal length. For example, using a multiplier factor of 1.5x, a 50mm lens on a
35mm camera is equivalent to a 75mm lens when attached to a digital SLR.

Through the Lens

In an SLR, the photographer sees the image through the actual picture lens. To compose the
picture, a mirror reflects the light from the lens to the viewfinder. When the picture is taken,
the mirror momentarily flips out of the way to allow the light to pass through the lens
diaphragm to the CCD or CMOS sensor (or to film in an analog SLR). Through-the-lens viewing

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enables precise manual focusing because tiny LCD screens do not have sufficient resolution. In
addition, holding the camera against the face helps steady it.

With the first digital SLRs, the LCD screen was used to review the recorded image, not to
preview it for picture taking. In 2006, Olympus introduced the first DSLR with an LCD "live
preview," and other camera vendors followed soon after. See viewfinder, digital
camera and Four Thirds system.

Beware the Dust!

Unlike an analog SLR, which uses a completely fresh film frame for each photo, the digital SLR
uses the same sensor chip for every image. Unfortunately, that sensor is susceptible to dust,
which is why DSLR users are advised to keep a lens on the camera at all times. Starting in 2007,
DSLRs began to include a built-in, automatic system for dust reduction or removal.

Cleaning the Sensor

DSLRs have a "mirror lockup" function that flips the mirror out of the way to expose the sensor
for cleaning, and there is a raft of sensor cleaning materials on the market that cost from a few
dollars to several hundred. For a comprehensive overview of all cleaning methods, visit
www.cleaningdigitalcameras.com.

Types of Camera and lens:

There are several ways to categorize cameras (and paper, and film…). The main divisions are by
film format and body types.

Miniature:

The most commonly available miniature cameras use the APS, or Advanced Photo System. This
is a cartridge film in a 16 x 24mm format. The idea behind APS is that the film is encoded with
exposure data, which is used by dedicated film processors to yield (hopefully) better negatives
and prints. APS is mostly used for point-and shoot. Also in this category is the Minox, a true spy
camera. with an 8 x 11mm image. Minox use is a true specialty, and a near cult thing.

Small:
This is 35mm (or 135), which gives a 24 x 36mm negative. 126 format also fits into this
category, which is the Kodak Instamatic. These cameras are usually modular, easy to handle
and use.

Medium:

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Medium format ranges from 6 x 4 cm to 6 x 8 cm. Medium combines the ease of use of the
35mm with a larger negative size. Mostly used by professionals, the medium format is also
generally modular, allowing lens, back, viewfinder, and other cool stuff to be switched out as
the need arises and budget allows. The most famous of medium format is the Hasselblad.

Large:
Large format runs generally from 4 x 5 inches up to 16 x 20”. The large format is the bulkiest
and hardest type to use, but offers incredible image control, with the ability to move both the
film plane and the lens plane independently

BODY TYPE:
Each of these may be found using more than a single format, as mentioned in the descriptions.
As well, I am describing more specific types than usual.

Point and Shoot:

Usually found in 35mm format, although also using the 110 cartridge, point and shoots are
designed to be extremely simple to use. With better technology at lower costs, these cameras
are now often quite sophisticated. The point and shoot is typified by ease of use. Load the film,
point it and press the shutter release. Most have minimal viewfinders, fixed exposure and fixed
focus. The current most basic of this type is the single-use cameras, which are the same idea as
the original consumer camera, the Kodak Brownie.

Rangefinder:
The rangefinder is distinguished by its viewfinder. The rangefinder uses a superimposed image
in the viewfinder which moves with the focus on the lens. When the superimposed image of
the subject is aligned with the regular image of the subject in the viewfinder, you have focus.
Rangefinders are valued because they are usually quieter and have less inherent vibration than
cameras with other focusing systems. They are available in a variety of formats. The most
notable rangefinder is the Leica.

Twin-Lens Reflex:
Less available now than in their heyday, the twin-lens reflex uses two identical lenses, one
mounted above the other. The upper lens is used for focusing and the lower forms the image
on the film. The twin-lens reflex is bulkier than its single-lens-reflex counterpart, usually had a
fixed lens (you couldn’t change lenses), and reversed the image in the viewfinder. However,
they generally have a much larger and brighter viewfinder, and use medium-format film, so are
capable of very good image quality.
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Single Lens Reflex:

The single-lens reflex is distinguished by a mirror and prism system which allows viewing
directly through the lens. When the shutter is released, the mirror flips up, out of the light path,
and returns when the shutter closes. The SLR’s most common format is 35mm, but they are
also made for larger (medium) format. The huge popularity of the SLR is due to its viewing
system, which allows changing lens at will. Viewing directly through the taking lens gives a
greater control of the image. This idea of interchangeable lenses led to the idea of a modular,
system-based camera, where one could not only change lens, but also viewing screens, backs,
add winders and strobes—in effect easily customize at will.
Both the 35mm and medium format SLR are the most widely used professional cameras.

View Camera:
The view camera views directly from the lens. The image is focused onto a ground-glass plate.
The glass is then replaced by a film holder to capture an image. The view camera offers extreme
image control. While other cameras are designed with the film plane and lens plane parallel,
the view camera allows independent movement of both. The film plane (back) and the lens
plane of the view camera can be raised, lowered, tilted front-to-back, and swung side-to-side.
This allows for the aforementioned image control. View cameras usually use 4 × 5 or larger
sheet film.
A drawback to the view camera is its bulk, which most often means using a tripod, They are
slow to operate, which can be looked at as an advantage or a disadvantage. A version of the
view camera, the field camera, is more compact, but sacrifices some of the movement ability.

35mm:

By far the most common format of photography is the 35mm. Originating with film
photography, it was first devised by the company Leitz, in 1913 when they began working on
taking the 35mm format used in cine film cameras at the time, in order to use the same format
to take still pictures instead of a moving image. The research and development was a success
and company later produced and sold the first 35mm film camera, called Lecia 1 in 1925.

35mm was given the name because this is the length of the horizontal plane of the negative.
The 35mm film negative are still readily available in canisters as a continuous roll of film
containing up to 36 exposures inside a single canister. At the time they were first produced they
were a breakthrough in photography because of their compactness, convenience, and
affordability.

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Digital 35mm
Instead of film, now digital cameras produce a photograph that is the size of the sensor it uses
to record the image inside. All most all typical compact and DSLR digital cameras today model
themselves on using a similar ratio to take photographs as the 35mm film camera did. So at first
glance, your digital photographs seem to be in the similar size to your old film ones. In fact
though a digital picture is only just slightly higher and longer than the 35mm film, typically with
a sensor of 23.9mm in height and a length of 35.8mm.

Medium Format (6x4.5, & 6x7)

Medium format is categorized as the next larger size up from the 35mm. Again first devised
from film, it was invented before the 35mm at a time when the race was on to devise a format
for making a photographic latent image that could be used again and again to make prints.
Previously the best method to make a negative image was onto plates of glass, coated with a
mixture of chemicals that was reactive to light falling on it.

However in those early times of photography for both the professional photographer and the
budding amateur these plates were bulky, took up a lot of room in storage, tricky to make
prints, and were fragile too as they were easily broken.

Kodak was the major leader that came up with a revolutionary method of producing a negative
image, that which could be produced on paper film in 1888. They combined the new paper film,
then later gelatine film with their flagship product the box brownie camera. Another revolution
in the history of photography as for the first time photography became accessible to everyone
at an affordable price.

In times past there have been varying sizes of the medium format type but the most popular
sizes of medium format today are 6cm x 7cm and 6cm x 4.5cm on 120 rollfilm. With digital
however, the size is slightly smaller than of its film counterpart with a sensor measuring 48mm
x 36mm.

TYPES OF LENS:

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Wide-angle lens
Wide-angle lenses allow you to emphasize perspective by getting in close to your subject.
This makes them great for sweeping landscapes where objects in the foreground appear
much larger and the horizon appears much further away. A wide angle lens has a focal length
wider than 40mm (35mm equivalent). Anything wider than 21mm is classed as ultra-
wide. Wide angles are essential for interior photography where space may be tight and also
architecture or expanses of land where the subject is huge and needs the wide-angle to get
everything in frame.

Standard lens A standard lens is so called because it gives

roughly the same magnification as the human eye, which is
actually around 43mm. This lens used to be supplied with all
film cameras when you bought a camera, but once zooms
appeared the standard lens took a back seat. It's often
preferred by purists because it has three key features. First is
speed. A standard lens will have an aparture of f/2 or faster.
Most of the modern standard lenses are either f/1.7 of f/1.4.
There are also a few f/1.2s and f/1s around too. Secondly the
simple construction allows a standard lens to be smaller and
lighter making it east to carry around. Third is the fact a standard gives roughly what the eye
sees so can ensure what you photograph appears more natural and doesn't place emphasis
on what appears to be unnatural perspective.

See this article on using standard lenses here

Telephoto lens
Telephoto lenses not only bring a distant subject closer, they
also have the effect of compressing perspective because you
will generally be further from your subject. Lenses from this
range are useful for landscapes or sports and wildlife, where
access is restricted. Telephotos are lenses longer than a
standard 50mm and a short telephoto in the 90-100mm region
is perfect for portrait photography, while 135mm-300mm are
more suitable for pulling in distant detail in a landscape or for
picking out details on buildings. anything above 300mm is
classed as a super telephoto.

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Super telephoto lens

These lenses have focal lengths above 300mm and are what the sports
and action photographers use to home in on distant subjects. They're
also ideal for bird and wildlife photography to shoot timid or
dangerous animals from afar. The downside of such a lens is weight
and bulk. A tripod is also often needed to hold the len steady.

Zoom lens
A zoom lens offers a continuously variable focal length,
normally without the need to refocus. A wide-angle zoom
covers a range of focal lengths that include a wide angle
setting. A standard zoom goes from a slight wide angle to
telephoto and a telezoom covers a range of telephoto focal
lengths. Some zoom lenses are called super zooms because
they cover a larger range of focal lengths from wide angle to
longer telephoto.

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Fish-eye lens Extreme wide-angle lens that gives 180° coverage

and is uncorrected for curvilinear distortion so you produce a
circular photograph.

Mirror Lens
This is technically known as a catadioptric lens and has an
unusual construction of mirrors and lens elements. As well as
glass elements there are mirrors at the front and rear to fold
the light as it enters the lens. This results in a casing that's a
little wider than normal, but half the length and much lighter.
Mirror lenses appear in focal lengths from 300mm to 2000mm.

Macro lens
A lens that is designed to give optimum resolution at close
subject distances. Macro lenses are made in focal lengths from
50mm to 200mm. 90-100mm being the most common choice.

See this article for more information on close-up

photography

Teleconverters
This accessory fits between the camera body and lens to increase the magnification of the
the lens. They are available in 1.4x, 1.7x, 2x and 3x magnifications and usually come in
different constructions from 3 to 7 elements depending on the quality you are after.
Generally speaking, the more elements the better the quality. When used an 80-200mm

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zoom, for example, becomes a 112-280mm, 136-340mm, 160-

400mm and 240-600mm respectively.

The independence to change lenses based on your needs gives a lot of freedom to a
photographer. But what are these different types of lenses. Various lenses are suited for
specific application. Let’s have a look at some common names and what they do.
▪ Normal/ Standard Lenses – These are lenses provided by the camera manufacturers along
with the camera as a part of the kit. These are generally of the 18 – 55mm focal length for a
normal 35mm camera.
▪ Telephoto lenses – These are the lenses with focal length longer than the standard lens.
Also called as Long focus Lens. These lenses are generally used to take photographs from a
distance. Especially for nature and wildlife photography where you can not go near to the
subject but want to fill the frame with the subject from a distance. Normally, 70 – 300mm
lens is recommended for such purpose though different combination can be used based on
your requirement.
▪ Mirror Lenses – This is a special design of a long focus lens in which some of the lens
elements are replaced with the mirrors. These lenses are generally lighter than the normal
lens of the same focal length but they come with fixed aperture.
▪ Wide Angle Lenses – These lenses have lower focal length than the standard lenses which
helps in getting more area of view in the frame from the same distance. Typically used for
landscape photography. These lenses can increase the perspective distortion. So, caution is
recommended.
▪ Zoom Lenses – These are the lenses with variable focal lengths. In these lenses the positive
and negative elements of the lens are put together in such a way that by moving them you
can get varied focal lengths. You can also find telephoto lens with zoom lens capabilities. Do
not get confused between the two.
▪ Prime Lenses – As opposed to zoom lenses, prime lenses have fixed focal length. These
lenses generally have lesser moving parts as compared to zoom lenses and thus reduce the
problems like chromatic aberrations. Prime lenses are also referred to as fast lenses. These
lenses generally have larger apertures which allow you to photograph in lower light and
create wonderful bokeh effect.
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▪ Macro Lenses – These lenses are designed to do close up photography like flowers, insects,
etc. Basically the macro lenses have very high focusing movement than the normal lenses.

▪ What is the relationship between aperture, shutter speed, and ISO?

Two controls affect the amount of light that comes into the camera and strikes the image sensor
- aperture and shutter speed. The ISO affects how much light is needed to produce a correct
exposure.

Aperture
The lens aperture is a diaphragm that is in the lens itself or immediately behind it. It affects the
amount of light that passes through the lens and is usually made up of a set of blades that open
or close depending on the aperture setting selected. The aperture settings are commonly
referred to as f-stops and have a specific numerical sequence, such as F5.6, F7.1, F8, F11 and so
forth. Lower f-stop settings (such as F5.6) have a larger diaphragm opening, allowing more light
through the lens. On the other hand, Higher f-stop settings (such as F11) have a smaller
diaphragm opening, allowing less light through the lens.

IMPORTANT: Changing the aperture also affects the depth of field.

Shutter speed
Shutter speed also can affect the amount of light that comes into the camera by controlling how
long the camera shutter remains open. The longer the camera shutter is left open, the more
light that is allowed to enter the camera; this is achieved by using slower shutter speeds (such as
1/60). If the camera shutter is left open for a shorter duration, less light is allowed inside the
camera; this is achieved by using faster shutter speeds (such as 1/250 or even faster). Shutter
speeds can vary from fractions of a second to several seconds in duration.

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IMPORTANT: Changing the shutter speed also affects motion blur.

NOTE: There is a reciprocal relationship between shutter speed and aperture. You can get the
same amount of light if you change the shutter speed and aperture settings at equivalent
amounts. For example, 1/30 at F5.6 is the same as 1/8 at F11. Essentially, using a fast shutter
speed with a wide aperture can provide the same amount of light to the image sensor as when
using a slow shutter speed with a narrow aperture.

ISO

ISO determines the sensitivity of the camera sensor to light. A higher ISO number increases the
sensitivity; this means that less light is needed to produce a correct exposure. A lower ISO

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number decreases the sensitivity and requires more light to produce a correct exposure.
Therefore, in well-lit environments, a lower ISO (200 or below) should be used. When shooting
in low-light situations, a higher ISO (400 or above) is recommended. It may also be necessary to
use a higher ISO setting when shooting with a narrow aperture or high shutter speed - since a
narrow aperture and high shutter speed reduce the amount of light that strikes the image
sensor.

How Cameras Work - The SLR camera in a nutshell!

The basic principle of capturing light to make a permanent image has not changed for hundreds
of years. Artists from centuries ago used a simple, one element lens to throw a reversed and
flipped image onto a piece of paper enabling them to trace the outline of a subject that they
wished to paint.

This is how some of the oldest paintings are so incredibly accurate with regards to composition
and proportions. Did you ever paint people with excessively large hands or small heads at
school? It is difficult to judge, but when using the above methods, you cannot go wrong.

The SLR camera is no different. The light passing through the lens is flipped and reversed in the
same way and firstly projected onto the focussing screen via the mirror. This enables you to see
what will be recorded and make adjustments to the focussing and composition.

How Cameras Work - Fig. 1

When you take the shot, the mirror is lifted, the shutter opened and the light hits the sensor at
the back of the camera.

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The distance from the rear of the lens to the focussing screen (when bounced from the mirror)
is exactly the same as the distance from the lens to the sensor. This is necessary to be able to
"shoot what you see".

Quite simply, if you focus, compose and expose your subject well, that is all you need for a
good shot! In a nutshell, most of the features of modern Digital SLR's could be redundant; they
are there to increase speed, efficiency and to satisfy our desire for gadgetry, technology and
sometimes, laziness.

As proof, take your camera outside and try this. If you have a tripod, use it. Set the camera to
fully manual including setting the lens to manual focus. Line up the shot, focus carefully, use the
camera's built in light meter (the led bar in the bottom of the viewfinder) to set the shutter
speed and aperture correctly and just take the shot. Just adjust the aperture and shutter speed
until the bar in in the center. That means the exposure is correct.

Now switch the camera to Program mode or fully auto including focussing. Take another shot
and have a look at them both. Apart from varying depth of field due to aperture fluctuations,
the images should be practically identical. Many people, including myself as a youngster,
mistakenly think that "Fully Auto" means better pictures.

My point is that it is not important to get caught up with all the latest updates, upgrades and
features when what you should really be doing is improving your "eye" and the basic principles
of how cameras work. Your ability to see a great shot, capture it well and process it to
perfection are more important than all the technical jargon that is widespread nowadays.

One of the most famous photographers of our time, who sadly died in 2004, was Henri Cartier-
Bresson. He mainly used a simple 35mm camera with a standard 50mm lens and very little else.

No filters, no matrix metering, no 45-point autofocus and no Photoshopping, just a keen eye.

Of course, in the real world, we all crave knowledge and understanding. It is sometimes
necessary to know how the modern cameras function and how to put their features to best
use, especially in a more professional capacity when time and perfection are of the essence and
that is where this book comes in.

In my opinion, it doesn't matter how an image was created, if it looks good, it looks good but
everyone is different and has different tastes, styles and techniques, which brings me back to
my original point. Learn the functions and features of your equipment, find what "works for
you" and get out and enjoy yourself!

How Cameras Work - Just for your information, the settings that I personally use 95% of the
time are these:

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 Focussing - Auto, centre-point only, one shot (Servo sometimes for sports). See Chapter
11.

 Metering - Evaluative. I.e. an average of the whole scene. I use exposure lock on many
occasions to make any necessary adjustments. See Chapter 4.

 Mode - Av/Aperture Priority, Tv/Shutter Priority or Manual. For much of the work I do, I
would rather have control over the depth of field than the shutter speed. If I need a fast
speed, I simply whack open the aperture to the largest to give the fastest possible
shutter speed although on ocassion, it is good to be in control of the shutter. See
Chapter 10.

 ISO - 100 to 500, nowadays the difference is barely noticeable. Have used up to 1600 on
occasion.

These chop and change depending on what and where I shoot but are the general settings I
tend to use.

Experiment with different set ups to find what is good for you and your style of photography, all
the practising "sinks in" over time and you will have a much better understanding of your
equipment and how it works.

Focal Length

The focal length of a lens determines its angle of view, and also how much the subject will be
magnified for a given photographic position.

Focal length also determines the perspective of an image.

Longer focal lengths require shorter exposure times to minimize burring caused by the shake of
hands.

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The Focal Length means how much can your camera see.

Aperture

The aperture range of a lens refers to the amount of light that the diaphragm can let inside
the camera to reach the sensor.

Apertures are listed in terms of f-numbers (expresses the diameter of the entrance pupil in
terms of the effective focal length of the lens; It is the quantitative measure of lens speed),
which are marked on the lens.
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On a camera, the f-number is usually adjusted in f-stops.

Each “stop” is marked with its corresponding f-number, and represents a halving of the light
intensity from the previous stop. Modern electronically-controlled interchangeable lenses, such
as those from Canon and Sigma for SLR cameras, have f-stops specified internally in 1/8-stop
increments, so the cameras’ 1/3-stop settings are approximated by the nearest 1/8-stop setting
in the lens. The F number can be displayed as 1:X instead of f/X(like in our example).

Lenses with larger apertures are faster because, for a given ISO speed, the shutter speed can be
made faster for the same exposure. A smaller aperture means that objects can be in focus over
a wider range of distance (depth of field).

Portrait and indoor (sports and theater also) photography often requires lenses with large
maximum apertures in order to be capable of faster shutter speeds (and narrower depth of
fields) in order to combat the low light problems with no camera shake.
The narrow depth of field in a portrait, as well as in macro photography, helps isolate the
subject from the background.

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Minimum apertures for lenses are almost as important as maximum apertures. This is primarily
because the minimum apertures are rarely used due to photo blurring from lens diffraction,
and because these may require long exposure times.

For cases where extreme depth of field is desired, then smaller minimum aperture (larger
maximum f-number) lenses allow a wider depth of field.
It’s also good to know that lenses typically have fewer aberrations when they perform the
exposure stopped down one or two f-stops from their maximum aperture.

The distance between the two extreme axial points behind a lens at which an image is judged
to be in focus.

All light can be divided into categories based on the type (source), the intensity, and the
direction. One of the most basic divisions is between natural and artificial light. Another is hard
versus diffuse (soft) light. A third set of categories distinguishes the direction from which the
light is coming, which it also determines where highlights and shadows will appear in the image.
Side, frontal, and back light are a few examples of direction. But, before diving into specifics, it’s
important to understand the relationship of these categories to one another.

Natural light is the best type of light for many photographic situations. In fact, the broader goal
for many photographers using artificial light is simply to emulate the qualities of natural light.
One positive note on natural light: no batteries needed. It’s available anywhere you go and,
apart from the subject matter, it’s probably the quality of the natural light that drew you to the
scene in the first place. In short, the one reason why natural light looks so good in images is
that it is natural.

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As previously noted, natural light comes from the Sun (or other “suns,” in the case of starlight),
and each type of natural light has its own qualities:

 Full, midday sunlight versus early-morning or late-afternoon

 Open shade
 Overcast skies
 Sunrise or sunset
 The deep blues of twilight
 Moonlight
 Starlight
 Window light
 Reflected sunlight, both soft and hard
 Daylight illumination from a frosted skylight
 Other natural sources not from the sun include firelight and lightning
Natural light can also be great for photos of people, though it may sometimes prove more
difficult to use because it requires careful planning and observation. It takes more skill to find
the ideal natural light for the idea, emotion, or mood you wish to convey.

Learning to evaluate and take advantage of natural light will dramatically improve your
photographs.

Taking Advantage of Natural Light: Time of Day

Pay close attention to the shadows, highlights and feeling of depth created in photos captured
around 7:45 a.m. as compared with the photos captured around 7:00 p.m. The light used in the
earlier image (7:45 a.m.) helps create more depth in the scene, and it helps provide the
perception of more space between foreground, middle ground, and background. In the later
image (7:00 p.m.), the light is not helping to create more depth. Spatially, the scene is “flatter”
in terms of contrast, and thus has less depth.

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"morning mist" captured by Robert Strachan (Click Image to See More From Robert Strachan)

Landscape photographers are known to use the warm colors and long shadows of morning
light. This can create more drama in the landscape, which may better represent the land itself.
If you search for landscape images in magazines and calendars, you will find many examples of
dramatic light achieved in early-morning hours. You will not see many landscape images made
in midday light, because the increased contrast, lack of visual depth, and (unsaturated) colors
are not what the photographer thought would best describe the scene.

Obviously, this is a generalization, but as you pay close attention to the thousands of images
you encounter daily, you’ll likely notice trends in terms of the type of light used for different
situations.

Taking Advantage of Natural Light – Disabling Your Flash

The one thing that can kill the ambience of natural or existing light is the on-camera flash.
Though this is not as big of an issue when shooting in manual mode, semi-automatic and fully
automatic modes (such as aperture-priority and sports modes, respectively) can trigger the
flash.
The best thing to do is to turn off the flash in these modes. The camera is programmed to make
a good exposure, and often that includes adding in some of its own light if it feels there isn’t

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enough available light for a good exposure. In some cases, the flash is triggered simply because
it has been fooled by the presence of dark tones in the main subject or the background. This
goes back, remember, to your understanding of how your in-camera (reflective) meter works.
Nothing can destroy the subtlety and character of natural light more than camera’s built-in
flash. If you want to take advantage of natural light, learn how to turn off your camera’s built-in
flash.

Artificial light is any light that is not natural and depends on an external source of power. This
could be your on-camera flash, external flash units or studio strobes, tungsten photo floods, an
overhead light fixture, fluorescent lights in an office environment, streetlights, stadium lights,
stage lighting for a concert, the twinkling glow from Christmas-tree lights, neon, and so forth.
Like natural light, artificial light can fall under the larger category of existing or available light (in
other words, light you do not bring to or set up for your subject).

You might decide to use artificial light for a variety of reasons, including:

 When you need maximum control of your scene by using studio light sources, whether they
are strobes or continuous hot lights.
 When there is not enough natural light to make an exposure.
 When you want to preserve the quality of the artificial light as an element in your image,
such as the warm yellow light from a corner lamp, the harsh overhead from fluorescent
lights, or the colorful glow of stage or club lights.

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Photo captured by keenan butcher (click image to see more from keenan butcher)

Experimenting with different types of artificial lighting will help you understand how they
influence the image and how your camera records them. The more you know about the
qualities of light, natural and artificial, the better you can visualize and control the effects they
bring. Being able to identify different sources of artificial light and their inherent qualities will
go a long way in helping you predict how they will affect your photography.

These are also referred to as incandescent lights. They are most often found in homes, and they
are among the cheapest bulbs to purchase. However, they are much less energy-efficient, and
they give off a good amount of heat. Light from tungsten bulbs can vary quite a bit in terms of
brightness (25-watt bulb versus a 500-watt photo flood, for example), but this light is generally
softer and warmer than fluorescent light.

This type of incandescent light is more energy-efficient and produces a brighter, whiter light
source. It is used in projectors, household lamps, some streetlights, car headlights, and
continuous studio lighting (also referred to as “hot lights”).

A true neon light will have an orange-red color and is filled with neon gas, through which a
small current is passed, causing it to glow. What we know as neon signs, which may be a

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number of different colors, rely on other types of gases for their color. Though neon lights don’t
really provide enough illumination to be a light source for a broader scene, they themselves can
make for interesting subjects or background material

Like neon lights, sodium-vapor lights use pressurized gas to produce light. You can identify
sodium-vapor lights by their yellow illumination. If you take a long night exposure using street
lamps as your light source, you’ll notice this same, somewhat eerie yellow-orange glow pervade
your image.

In addition to ambient or available artificial light, there are a number of options with which you
can have more control: namely, flash or strobes. Many digital cameras come with built-in on-
camera flash units that may automatically pop up, ready to fire in low-light situations
(depending on your exposure mode and camera make). As alluded to earlier, these are
generally the least appealing light sources in terms of effect..

An off-camera flash is more useful and offers many possibilities for positioning the flash, as well
as for using accessories such as a mini flash-softbox or bounce cards to modify the quality of
the light. In order to use an off-camera flash, your camera needs to have either a hot shoe or
flash sync connection.

Amazing effects can be achieved with these multicolored directional lights. Stage lights in
particular are extremely powerful, making it easy to isolate separate beams of illumination.
Concerts make liberal use of such effects

These are lighting systems that run from a power pack that is plugged into a standard power
outlet. They connect to your camera via a sync cord, a slave unit (a device where an on-camera
flash triggers the studio strobes), or a wireless connection. Studio strobes offer the most
versatility and control in how the scene is lit. Their power output can be varied at the power
pack, and they can accept a wide variety of light-modifying accessories.

As far as studio work goes, for the new user, the main disadvantage of a strobe system is that
you cannot see the effect that the light will have on the subject. You have to use a flash meter
to determine exposure and take test shots to determine how well the lighting setup is working.
Fortunately, digital cameras provide instant feedback without the need for costly Polaroid tests.

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"Tanisha" captured by Vishwa Kiran (Click Image to See More From Vishwa Kiran)

There is a wide variety of stands and softbox types. If you plan to shoot on-location, size and
weight might be an issue, and if you plan to keep lights only in the studio, maybe size is not
such a big issue. More important, though, is the quality of light provided by the various light-
modification tools. There are many different shapes of soft boxes and umbrellas, and they all
produce a different quality of light.

Some portrait studios still use hot lights for various reasons. There are advantages and
disadvantage to both. In general, these are all terms with which you should be familiar, and this
knowledge will help you choose the right lighting for any situation down the road.

We used the terms soft and hard light several times to describe characteristics of individual
artificial light sources, and, in the case of natural light, qualities relating to specific times of day.
Certainly, all light can be divided into one of these two categories, also referred to as specular
and diffuse light.

light is lower in contrast and more even. As a result, it is often easier to achieve a good
exposure for both highlighted and shadowy areas, as the difference between the two is slight.
Diffuse light can be very complementary for pictures of people where that person’s likeness is
the highest priority.

Compiled by Dr.Umesh C. Pathak