Biology

 Bioaccumulation-It is the accumulation of chemicals or a contaminant on any organism from possible sources like
air, water and diet
 Biomagnification-It is the increase of Chemical build up than expected by possible heavy metals such as Mercury,
Arsenic and DND
 Eutrophication-It is the build-up of Nutrients such as Nitrogen and Phosphorus, By coastal sides which increases
Algal growth thus blocking sunlight leading to death of fishes
 Artificial Insemination-It is the Process of introducing a sperm sample into a female’s cervix by injecting a catheter.
This is in-vivo Fertilization, meaning sperm fertilizes the egg inside the body
 In-Vitro Fertilization-It is the process of fertilizing an egg in a culture and introduce the embryo into a mammal’s
uterus by a catheter
 We can measure energy of a producer by burning or a calorimeter
The Eye
 Cornea-The cornea is completely transparent and contains no blood vessels as it is the first to be passed through
by light. Oxygen diffuses from the outside into the cornea as it does not contain any blood vessels. The cornea
refracts the light entered by a certain angle.
 Iris-It controls how big or small the pupil is. Its job is to refract the light as well.it can also change its shape which
allows it to control how strongly it refracts the light
 Pupil-The pupil is just a gap between the iris.
 Retina-It is located at the back of the eye and is the place where light is refracted perfectly to be able to see.it
contains two cells which are cone cells and rod cells, cone cells allow us to see in colour but does not work well
under low light intensity. Rod cells are more sensitive to light but only allow us to see in black and white which is
how we see in the dark as only rod Cells are working.
 Fovea-It contains only cone cells. Light has to concentrated here for us to see
 Optic Nerve-It transmits all the impulses generated by the receptor cells to the brain.

Iris Reflex
 Under bright light conditions, it could damage the retina thus the iris controls the size of the pupil to control how
much light enters. Under bright light conditions the iris makes the pupil smaller to let less light enter which is
called Constricted but larger under low light conditions to let more light enter called Dilated.
 The iris contains both circular muscles, which stretch around the pupil like circles, and the radial muscles which
stretch from the inside to the outside
 In order to make the pupil smaller, circular muscles have to contract while radial muscles are relaxed
 To make the pupil larger, The circular muscles have to relax while the radial muscles contract

Accomodation
 A reflex that changes the refractive power of the lens
 The cornea always refracts light by the same amount while the lens fine tunes light refraction to enter the fovea.
 For near objects, when light enters the lens has to refract light to be able to reach the fovea, for this to be
possible the lens has to be short and fat to curve the light more.
 The suspensory ligaments attach the lens to ciliary muscles, for a nearby object ciliary muscles contract towards
the lens while suspensory ligaments slacken, thus makes the lens fatter allowing it to refract the light more.
 Meanwhile, for a distant object the lens need to be relaxed as it doesn’t have to refract light as much, so the
ciliary muscles relax while suspensory ligaments become taut pulling the lens larger.
 In the case of long-sightedness, light doesn’t refract enough, thus we cannot focus on nearby objects as light
needs to be refracted more for nearby objects, convex lens is used to refract it more in the case of this.
Hyperopia
 In the case of short-sightedness, light rays form an image before the retina thus appears a little blurry, concave
lens is used in this case as it refracts the light outwards for the eye to do its job. Myopia
Endocrine System
 It is similar to the nervous system in the sense of transmitting information but has many
differences.
 The glands spread throughout the human body produce hormones which travel throughout
out body by using the blood as the medium.
 The pituitary gland is one of the main glands also called the “Master Gland”, as both directly
tells the body what to do and also instructs other glands to produce hormones.
 In the case of thyroxine, which is used to regulate metabolism and growth and
development, the pituitary gland produces TSH(Thyroid Stimulating Hormone) which tells
the thyroid to produce more thyroxine if lower levels are observed. This process is called
Negative Feedback
 The adrenal gland produces Adrenaline, Used for flight or fight response, And the pancreatic
glands which produce Insulin which regulate blood glucose concentration.
 Differences Between the nervous and endocrine system include:
 The endocrine system spreads generally throughout the body by the blood stream using
hormones and travel slowly while the effects last longer, Meanwhile the nervous system
targets specific areas and uses electrical impulses which travel through nerves travelling
very fast but the effects lasting shorter.
Nervous System
Reflex Arc

 Due to a stimuli, which could be touching a pin, an electric impulse would be generated by a
sensory neuron bringing it to the spinal cord, which is part of the CNS(Central Nervous
System), where a relay neuron transmits this information to a motor neuron which
commands a effector, such as muscles and glands, in this case a muscle such as a bicep to
contract and pull away.
 Between synapses, a electrical signal is converted to a chemical signal to jump past the
synaptic cleft.
 Sensory neurons have long dendrites and short axons, relay neurons have short dendrites
and short or long axons, meanwhile motor neurons have short dendrites and long axons.
 The myelin sheath increases the speed of the nerve impulse along the nerve.
Homeostasis
 Vasoconstriction-it is the narrowing down of blood vessels to trap heat within the skin when
it Is too cold.
 Vasodilation-It is the widening of blood vessels due to the relaxation of the muscular walls
to diffuse heat out when it is too hot
 Osmoregulation- Regulation of the body’s water levels.
Diaphragm and Muscles
During Inhalation, Diaphragm contracts and moves down, the muscles contract and pull
upward, while during exhalation, Diaphragm and muscles relax causing the lungs to deflate.
 Cloning
You take a body cell from the desired organism, take an enucleated egg cell from and both
with an electric pulse, forming an embryo and place it inside a surrogate mother.

Cross Section of a Leaf

 The waxy cuticle prevents water loss.

 The upper epidermis contains little to no choloroplasts, instead it is transparent to let light
through and reach the palisade mesophyll cells.
 The palisade mesophyll cells contain chlorophyll used for photosynthesis, and is adapted to
absorb light efficiently.
 The spongy mesophyll cells are adapted for diffusion of carbon dioxide through it to reach
the palisade mesophyll cells.
 The veins contain the Xylem, which transports water to the stems and leaves, and the
phloem which transports sugars, amino acids and food substances produced by
photosynthesis downwards.
 The xylem is a hollow tube with no end cells to allow the transportation of water while the
phloem is made of living cells which contain end cell walls connected to each cell to allow
the smooth flow of sugars and amino acids.
 The stomata are adapted for gas exchange and to let the minimum amount of water loss.
For this the stomata is open only during the day and is open for the shortest time possible
for maximum efficiency, this opening is controlled by guard cells which decide if the stomata
should open or close.
 If there is a higher concentration of water in the guard cell, it becomes turgid and opens the
stomata to let the water out while at night less water is absorbed thus it becomes flaccid to
prevent water loss.
Ten Questions for 1B
Describe diffusion
The movement of particles from an higher area of concentration to a lower area. This takes
place in non living organisms as well.
Define osmosis?
The movement of water from a more dilute solution to a more concentrated solution
through a partially permeable membrane.
Define active transport?
Movement of particles from an area of lower concentration to an area of higher
concentration
 Arteries have a smaller lumen than veins
 Thicker walls
 More elastic tissue
 Do not have valves while veins do
 Explain How human lung tissue allows efficient gas exchange?
 The alveoli provide a large surface area
 Alveoli walls are one cell thick for a short diffusion pathway
 Capillaries walls are one cell thick for a short diffusion pathway
 Alveoli walls are moist for gases to dissolve

Explain how the structure of the small intestine allows efficient exchange of substances?
 The villi provide a large surface area, they have thin walls for a short diffusion pathway,have
many capillaries to absorb glucose, the lacteal absorbs fatty acids and glycerol.
Describe the stages required to genetically modify bacterium
 Isolate bacteria plasmids, open plasmid using a specific restriction enzyme, extract gene for
particular subject using the same restriction enzyme, fuse with plasmid using ligase forming
a recombinant plasmid and reinsert back into bacteria
Circulatory System
Aorta-Bring oxygenated blood to the rest of the body
Vena Cava-brings deoxygenated blood to the heart
Atrium-Chambers in the Heart
Veins- Carry blood to the heart deoxygenated or not
Arteries-Carry blood away from the Heart
Pulmonary Artery-carries deoxygenated blood to the lungs
Pulmonary veins-carry oxygenated blood to the heart
There are two circulation chambers occurring at the same time, right side of the heart brings blood from
the body and to the lungs while left side takes oxygenated blood to the rest of the body.
When blood is brought by the vena cava into the heart, it passes through the right atrium, atria contract
and bring blood to the right ventricle, it contracts and takes blood through the pulmonary artery to the
lungs to get oxygenated.

When oxygenated blood is brought into the left atrium by the pulmonary vein from the lungs, left atrium
contracts going to left ventricle which also contracts passing oxygenated blood to the rest of the body
through the aorta.
Pacemakers are responsible for the contraction of the heart by electrical impulses.