The smallest part of an Have a radius of around 0.

1 Before the discovery of the

Atom Tiny solid spheres that electron, John Dalton said the
element that can exist nanometres and have no charge (0). Pre 1900
could not be divided solid sphere made up the different
elements and
Around 100 different elements each elements.
compounds
Contains only one type of
Element one is represented by a symbol e.g. O,
Atoms,

atom JJ Thompson ‘s experiments

Na, Br. 1897 A ball of positive charge
showed that showed that an atom
‘plum with negative electrons
Two or more elements Compounds can only be separated must contain small negative
Compound pudding’ embedded in it
chemically combined into elements by chemical reactions. charges (discovery of electrons).
- Ernest Rutherford's alpha particle
1909 - - Positively charge nucleus
Central nucleus Contains protons and neutrons - + scattering experiment showed
nuclear - at the centre surrounded
- - that the mass was concentrated at
model - negative electrons
Electron shells Contains electrons the centre of the atom.
Niels Bohr proposed that electrons
Electronic Max number of 1913 Electrons
orbited in fixed shells; this was
shell electrons Bohr orbit the nucleus at
supported by experimental

structures
Name of Relative Relative

Electronic
model specific distances
Particle Charge Mass 1 2 observations.

Proton +1 1 2 8
The development of James Provided the evidence to
Neutron 0 1 3 8 the model of the atom Chadwick show the existence of neutrons within the nucleus
Electron -1 Very small 4 2
A beam of alpha particles are

Rutherford's scattering
AQA GCSE directed at a very thin gold foil Most of the alpha particles
Relative electrical charges of subatomic particles passed right through.
Atomic structure

experiment
- A few (+) alpha particles were
and periodic - - deflected by the positive
Mass The sum of the protons and neutrons in the
7 number nucleus table part 1 - + -
nucleus.
A tiny number of particles
Li
Atomic The number of Number of electrons = - reflected back from the
3 number protons in the atom number of protons
-
nucleus.

Two or more elements or compounds Can be separated by Show chemical reactions - need Law of conservation of mass states
Mixtures Chemical
not chemically combined together physical processes. reactant(s) and product(s) energy the total mass of products = the
equations
always involves and energy change total mass of reactants.
Method Description Example
Uses words to show reaction Does not show what is
Separating an insoluble solid To get sand from a mixture of Word
Filtration equations reactants  products happening to the atoms or the
from a liquid sand, salt and water. number of atoms.
magnesium + oxygen  magnesium oxide
To separate a solid from a To obtain pure crystals of sodium
Crystallisation Uses symbols to show reaction Shows the number of atoms and
solution chloride from salt water. Symbol
equations reactants  products molecules in the reaction, these
To separate a solvent from a 2Mg + O2  2MgO need to be balanced.
Simple distillation To get pure water from salt water.
solution
35Cl (75%) and 37Cl (25%)
atomic mass

Fractional Separating a mixture of liquids To separate the different Atoms of the same element
Relative

distillation each with different boiling points compounds in crude oil. with the same number of Relative abundance =
Separating substances that move Isotopes (% isotope 1 x mass isotope 1) + (% isotope
To separate out the dyes in food protons and different
Chromatography at different rates through a numbers of neutrons 2 x mass isotope 2) ÷ 100
colouring. e.g. (25 x 37) + (75x 35) ÷ 100 = 35.5
medium
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 Alkali metals Noble gases
Halogens Elements Elements in the same group have the
Elements with similar
arranged in same number of outer shell electrons and
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 properties are in columns
order of atomic elements in the same period (row) have
H Transition metals He called groups
number the same number of electron shells.
Li Be B C N O F Ne

Before discovery
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar

neutrons and
of protons,
Early periodic tables were incomplete,

electrons
The Periodic Elements arranged in order some elements were placed in
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
table of atomic weight inappropriate groups if the strict order
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe atomic weights was followed.

of the Periodic
Development
Cs Ba La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
Fr Ra Ac Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt ? ? ? Elements with properties predicted by

table

Mendeleev
Mendeleev were discovered and filled
Metals to the left of this line, non Left gaps for elements that
in the gaps. Knowledge of isotopes
Form positive ions. metals to the right hadn’t been discovered yet
To the left of explained why order based on atomic
Conductors, high melting and weights was not always correct.
Metals the Periodic Metals and
boiling points, ductile,
table non metals
malleable. Very reactive with
Only have one electron in their outer

Alkali metals
oxygen, water and

Group 1
To the right of shell. Form +1 ions.
AQA GCSE chlorine

Group
Non Form negative ions. Insulators,
the Periodic

7
metals low melting and boiling points.
table Atomic structure Negative outer electron is further
Reactivity increases
away from the positive nucleus so is
and periodic down the group
more easily lost.
Consist of molecules made of a pair Have seven electrons in their
of atoms outer shell. Form -1 ions. table part 2
Metal + oxygen  e.g. 4Na + O2 
Halogens

Melting and boiling points increase With Forms a metal

down the group (gas  liquid  Increasing atomic mass number. Group 0 Transition metals oxygen oxide metal oxide 2Na2O
solid) (Chemistry only)
Forms a metal Metal + water 
Increasing proton number means With e.g. 2Na + 2H2O 
Reactivity decreases down the group hydroxide and metal hydroxide +
an electron is more easily gained water 2NaOH + H2
hydrogen hydrogen

e.g. NaCl This is due

With metals

Metal + halogen  metal With Forms a metal Metal + chlorine  e.g. 2Na + Cl2 
metal atom loses Unreactive, to having
Forms a metal halide chlorine chloride metal chloride 2NaCl
outer shell electrons do not form full outer
halide e.g. Sodium + chlorine 
and halogen gains an molecules shells of
sodium chloride
outer shell electron electrons.
• Less reactive • Cu2+ is blue
Noble gases

Hydrogen + halogen  Compared • Harder

hydrogen

to group 1 • Denser • Ni2+ is pale green, used in the

With

Forms a hydrogen hydrogen halide

e.g. Cl2 + H2  2HCl • Higher melting points manufacture of margarine
halide e.g. Hydrogen + bromine
 hydrogen bromide Boiling
• Many have different ion • Fe2+ is green, used in the
points Increasing Haber process
With aqueous

A more reactive
solution of a

increase atomic possibilities with different

halide salt

halogen will Chlorine + potassium Typical charges

e.g. Cl2 +2KBr 2KCl down the number. • Fe3+ is reddish-brown
displace the less bromide  potassium properties • Used as catalysts
+ Br2 group
reactive halogen chloride + bromine • Form coloured compounds
from the salt • Mn2+ is pale pink

better hope – brighter future

 Occurs in compounds formed
Particles are oppositely

Ionic
from metals combined with (HT only)
charged ions Melting and
non metals. Limitations of simple model:
freezing happen at
Solid, • There are no forces in the

Metallic Covalent
Occurs in most non metallic melting point, s solid
Particles are atoms that liquid, model
elements and in compounds of boiling and The amount of energy needed
share pairs of electrons gas • All particles are shown as
non metals. condensing happen for a state change depends on
the strength of forces between
spheres
at boiling point. l liquid
Particles are atoms which particles in the substance. • Spheres are solid
Occurs in metallic elements
share delocalised
and alloys.
electrons
Delocalised electrons g gas

states of matter
Good conductors
carry electrical charge

The three
High melting and boiling Large amounts of energy needed to of electricity

Chemical
through the metal.

bonds
points break the bonds. High melting This is due to the
Energy is transferred by and boiling strong metallic

Properties of ionic
Good conductors
the delocalised points bonds.

compounds
of thermal energy
Do not conduct electricity Ions are held in a fixed position in electrons.
Atoms are arranged
when solid the lattice and cannot move. Pure metals
in layers that can
can be bent
AQA Metals as conductors and shaped
slide over each
other.
Do conduct electricity Lattice breaks apart and the ions BONDING,

metals and alloys

when molten or dissolved are free to move. STRUCTURE AND

Properties of
THE PROPERTIES Mixture of two or Harder than pure metals because
more elements at atoms of different sizes disrupt
Ionic bonding OF MATTER 1 Alloys
least one of the layers so they cannot slide
which is a metal over each other.

Metal atoms lose electrons and

Group 1 metals form +1 ions
Electrons are transferred so become positively charged ions
Group 2 metals form +2 ions
that all atoms have a noble Pure metal Alloy
gas configuration (full outer Non metals atoms gain electrons to

bonding
Metallic
shells). Group 6 non metals form -2 ions
become negatively charged ions
Group 7 non metals form -1 ions

+ -
[ ][ ]
x x
Dot and x x x x Ionic compounds
Na Cl Na x Cl
cross x x x
x x x x
diagram
(2, 8, 1) (2, 8, 7) (2, 8) (2, 8, 8)
Electrons in the outer shell
of metal atoms are
Giant structure
• Held together by strong delocalised and free to
of atoms
electrostatic forces of move through the whole
arranged in a
Giant attraction between oppositely structure. This sharing of
Structure regular pattern
structure charged ions electrons leads to strong
• Forces act in all directions in metallic bonds.
Na+ Cl- the lattice

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 The sum of the Mr of the 2Mg + O2  2MgO
The sum of the relative
reactants in the quantities The reactant that is Limits the amount of Less moles of product
atomic masses of the
Mr shown equals the sum of 48g + 32g = 80g completely used up product that is made are made.
atoms in the numbers
the Mr of the products in
shown in the formula
the quantities shown. 80g = 80g

Chemical measurements
Whenever a 1. Calculate the mean
measurement is Can determine 2. Calculate the range

Limiting reactants
Mass appears to

Relative formula
One of the reactants taken, there is whether the mean of the results
increase during a Magnesium + oxygen  magnesium oxide
is a gas always some value falls within the 3. Estimate of

mass (Mr)

(HT only)
reaction
uncertainty range of uncertainty uncertainty in mean
Mass appears to One of the products about the result of the result would be half the
decrease during a is a gas and has Calcium carbonate  carbon dioxide + calcium oxide obtained range
reaction escaped
Example:
Mass changes when a reactant or product is a gas Concentration of 1. Mean value is 46.5s
solutions 2. Range of results is 44s to 49s = 5s
3. Time taken was 46.5s ±2.5s
No atoms are lost or AQA GCSE
Conservation Mass of the products equals HT only
made during a QUANTITATIVE CHEMISTRY 1 Measured in
of mass the mass of the reactants. Greater mass = higher
chemical reaction mass per given Conc. = mass (g) .
concentration.
volume of volume (dm3)
Greater volume = lower

equations (HT only)

solution (g/dm3)

Conservation of mass

balance equations
and balanced symbol
Represent H2 + Cl2  2HCl concentration.

Using moles to
substances in
Moles (HT only)

Amounts of
chemical

(HT only)
Balanced symbol

equations
reactions and Subscript Normal script
equations

have the same The balancing numbers in a Convert the masses in grams to
number of Subscript numbers show the number of symbol equation can be amounts in moles and convert
atoms of each atoms of the element to its left. calculated from the masses of the number of moles to simple
element on both reactants and products whole number ratios.
sides of the Normal script numbers show the number of
equation molecules.
If you have a 60g of Mg, what mass of

Chemical equations show the number of moles

Chemical amounts are One mole of H2O = 18g (1 + 1 + 16) HCl do you need to convert it to MgCl2?
Mass of one mole of a substance in grams

reacting and the number of moles made

measured in moles
= relative formula mass Ar : Mg =24 so mass of 1 mole of Mg =
(mol) One mole of Mg = 24g
24g
Mr : HCl (1 + 35.5) so mass of 1 mole of
Mg + 2HCl  MgCl2 + H2 HCl = 36.5g
6.02 x 1023 per mole
Avogadro
constant

One mole of any substance will

contain the same number of particles, One mole of magnesium reacts
One mole of H2O will contain 6.02 x 1023 molecules with two moles of hydrochloric So 60g of Mg is 60/24 = 2.5 moles
atoms, molecules or ions.
One mole of NaCl will contain 6.02 x 1023 Na+ ions acid to make one mole of
magnesium chloride and one Balanced symbol equation tells us that
mole of hydrogen for every one mole of Mg, you need
How many moles of sulfuric acid molecules are there in two moles of HCl to react with it.
4.7g of sulfuric acid (H2SO4)?
Number of moles = mass (g) or mass (g) So you need 2.5x2 = 5 moles of HCl
Give your answer to 1 significant figure.
Ar Mr
4.7 = 0.05 mol You will need 5 x 36.5g of HCl= 182.5g
98 (Mr of H2SO4)
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A measure of the amount
of starting materials that
end up as useful products
High atom economy is
Atom economy = Relative formula mass of desired product from equation x 100
important or sustainable
Sum of relative formula mass of all reactants from equation
development and economic
reasons

Calculate the atom economy for making hydrogen What is the concentration of a solution that has 35.0g of
by reacting zinc with hydrochloric acid: Concentration of a solution Concentration = amount (mol) solute in 0.5dm3 of solution?
is the amount of solute per (mol/dm3) volume (dm3)
Zn + 2HCl → ZnCl2 + H2 volume of solution 35/0.5 = 70 g/dm3

Atom economy
Mr of H2 = 1 + 1 = 2
2NaOH(aq) + H2SO4(aq)→ Na2S04(aq) + 2H2O(l)
Mr of Zn + 2HCl = 65 + 1 + 1 + 35.5 + 35.5 = 138 Using concentrations of
solutions in mol/dm3 It takes 12.20cm3 of sulfuric acid to neutralise 24.00cm3 of
(HT only, chemistry only) If the volumes of sodium hydroxide solution, which has a concentration of
Atom economy = 2∕138 × 100 two solutions that 0.50mol/dm3.
= 2∕138 × 100 = 1.45% react completely
AQA are known and the Calculate the concentration of the sulfuric acid in mol/dm3:

Titration
QUANTITATIVE concentrations of
This method is unlikely to be chosen as it has a one solution is 0.5 mol/dm3 x (24/1000) dm3 = 0.012 mol of NaOH
low atom economy. CHEMISTRY 2 known, the The equation shows that 2 mol of NaOH reacts with 1 mol of
concentration of H2SO4, so the number of moles in 12.20cm3 of sulfuric acid is
the other solution (0.012/2) = 0.006 mol of sulfuric acid
HT only:
can be calculated.
200g of calcium carbonate is heated. It decomposes to make calcium oxide
Calculate the concentration of sulfuric acid in mol/ dm3

Percentage yield
and carbon dioxide. Calculate the theoretical mass of calcium oxide made.
0.006 mol x (1000/12.2) dm3 =0.49mol/dm3
CaCO3  CaO + CO2
Mr of CaCO3 = 40 + 12 + (16x3) = 100 Use of amount of substance in Calculate the concentration of sulfuric acid in
Mr of CaO = 40 + 16 = 56 g/ dm3:
100g of CaCO3 would make 56 g of CaO
relation to volumes of gases
(HT only, chemistry only) H2SO4 = (2x1) + 32 + (4x16) = 98g
So 200g would make 112g 0.49 x 98g = 48.2g/dm3

The reaction may not go to completion because it is Equal amounts of

It is not always reversible. moles or gases occupy The volume of one mole of
Yield is the
possible to obtain the same volume any gas at room temperature No. of moles of gas = vol of gas (dm3)
amount of Some of the product may be lost when it is separated
the calculated under the same and pressure (20°C and 1 24dm3
product from the reaction mixture.
amount of a conditions of atmospheric pressure) is 24
obtained
product Some of the reactants may react in ways different to temperature and dm3
the expected reaction. pressure

A piece of sodium metal is heated in What is the volume of 11.6 g of 6g of a hydrocarbon gas had a volume of 4.8 dm3.
Percentage yield is
chlorine gas. A maximum theoretical butane (C4H10) gas at RTP? Calculate its molecular mass.
comparing the
mass of 10g for sodium chloride was 1 mole = 24 dm3, so 4.8/24 = 0.2 mol
amount of product Mr : (4 x 12) + (10 x 1) = 58
% Yield = Mass of product made x 100 calculated, but the actual yield was
obtained as a
Max. theoretical mass only 8g.
percentage of the 11.6/58 = 0.20 mol Mr = 6 / 0.2 = 30
Calculate the percentage yield.
maximum
theoretical amount Volume = 0.20 x 24 = 4.8 dm3 If 6g = 0.2 mol, 1 mol equals 30 g
Percentage yield = 8/10 x 100 =80%
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 Oxidation Is Loss (of electrons) Reduction Is Gain (of electrons) HT ONLY: Reactions between metals and acids are redox reactions as the metal donates
electrons to the hydrogen ions. This displaces hydrogen as a gas while the metal ions are
left in the solution.
Ionic half equations (HT only)
Reactions magnesium + hydrochloric acid  magnesium chloride + hydrogen
For example: metal + acid  metal salt
with
The ionic equation for the reaction + hydrogen
acids zinc + sulfuric acid  zinc sulfate + hydrogen
Ionic half between iron and copper (II) ions is:
equations show Fe + Cu2+  Fe2+ + Cu Extraction using carbon
For Acids react with some metals to
what happens
displacement produce salts and hydrogen.
to each of the The half-equation for iron (II) is: Metals less reactive than
reactions
reactants during Fe  Fe2+ + 2e- carbon can be extracted For example:
reactions Reactions of acids
from their oxides by zinc oxide + carbon  zinc + carbon dioxide
The half-equation for copper (II) ions is: and metals reduction.
Cu2+ + 2e-  Cu

Oxidation and
Reactions of Extraction of Unreactive metals, such as gold, are found in
Acid name Salt name reduction in terms of acids metals and the Earth as the metal itself. They can be mined
electrons (HT ONLY) reduction from the ground.
Hydrochloric
Chloride
acid AQA Chemical Reactions with water Reactions with acid
Sulfuric acid Sulfate Neutralisation of acids Changes 1 Reactions get more Reactions get more
and salt production Group 1 metals vigorous as you go down vigorous as you go down
Nitric acid Nitrate Reactivity of the group the group
metals Observable reactions
Group 2 metals Do not react with water include fizzing and
sodium hydroxide + hydrochloric acid  sodium chloride + water
temperature increases
calcium carbonate + sulfuric acid  calcium sulfate, + carbon dioxide + water The reactivity series Zinc and iron react slowly
Zinc, iron and
Do not react with water with acid. Copper does not
Acids can An alkali is a soluble base e.g. metal Metal copper
react with acid.
be hydroxide. oxides
Neutralisation neutralised A base is a substance that
Metals form The reactivity of a The reactivity series arranges
by alkalis neutralises an acid e.g. a soluble
positive ions metal is related to its metals in order of their reactivity
and bases metal hydroxide or a metal oxide.
when they tendency to form (their tendency to form positive
react positive ions ions).
Metals react with
Metals and magnesium + oxygen  magnesium oxide
oxygen to form metal These two non-metals are
oxygen 2Mg + O2  2MgO Carbon and hydrogen
oxides included in the reactivity series as
Carbon and are non-metals but are
This is when oxygen is they can be used to extract some
hydrogen included in the
removed from a e.g. metal oxides reacting with hydrogen, metals from their ores, depending
Reduction reactivity series
compound during a extracting low reactivity metals on their reactivity.
reaction
A more reactive metal
Silver nitrate + Sodium chloride 
This is when oxygen is e.g. metals reacting with oxygen, rusting of can displace a less
Displacement
Oxidation gained by a compound iron reactive metal from a
Sodium nitrate + Silver chloride
during a reaction compound.

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 The ions discharged when an aqueous
solution is electrolysed using inert
electrodes depend on the relative
reactivity of the elements involved.
When an ionic compound is melted or dissolved in
Splitting up water, the ions are free to move. These are then able
Process of
using to conduct electricity and are called electrolytes.
electrolysis Metals can be extracted from molten
electricity Passing an electric current though electrolytes causes
the ions to move to the electrodes. compounds using electrolysis.

Extracting metals using

Metal will be produced on the electrode
At the Anode The positive electrode is called the anode. This process is used when the metal is too
if it is less reactive than hydrogen.

electrolysis
negative Electrode reactive to be extracted by reduction with
Hydrogen will be produced if the metal is Cathode The negative electrode is called the cathode.
electrode carbon.
more reactive than hydrogen.
Cations are positive ions and they move to the
Where do The process is expensive due to large
Oxygen is formed at positive electrode. Cations negative cathode.
At the the ions amounts of energy needed to produce the
If you have a halide ion (Cl-, I-, Br-) then Anions Anions are negative ions and they move to the
positive go? electrical current.
you will get chlorine, bromine or iodine positive anode.
electrode Example: aluminium is extracted in this
formed at that electrode. _ + way.
Electrolysis of aqueous solutions Electrolysis
Higher tier: You can display what is happening

Strong and weak acids

at each electrode using half-equations:
Bromide ions Br - At the cathode: Pb2+ + 2e-  Pb
Strong acids
Completely ionised in aqueous solutions AQA Chemical Lead ions Pb + +
+
+
- -
-
At the anode: 2Br-  Br2 + 2e-

(HT ONLY)
-
e.g. hydrochloric, nitric and sulfuric acids. + Molten lead (II)
Changes 2 + -
bromide

1. Use the pipette to add 25 cm3 of alkali to a conical flask

Only partially ionised in aqueous solutions
Weak acids
e.g. ethanoic acid, citric acid. Reactions of and add a few drops of indicator.

acids Titrations
As the pH decreases by one unit (becoming (Chemistry 2. Fill the burette with acid and note the starting volume.
Hydrogen ion
a stronger acid), the hydrogen ion Slowly add the acid from the burette to the alkali in the
concentration only)
concentration increases by a factor of 10. conical flask, swirling to mix.
Titrations are used to work out 3. Stop adding the acid when the end-point is reached (the
Soluble salts

Soluble salts can be made from reacting the precise volumes of acid and appropriate colour change in the indicator happens). Note
acids with solid insoluble substances alkali solutions that react with
Soluble salts the final volume reading. Repeat steps 1 to 3 until you get
(e.g. metals, metal oxides, hydroxides each other. consistent readings.
and carbonates).

Add the solid to the acid until no more

Production of
dissolves. Filter off excess solid and then
The pH scale and

soluble salts Calculating the chemical quantities in

neutralisation

crystallise to produce solid salts. The equation shows that 2 mol of NaOH reacts
titrations involving concentrations in
with 1 mol of H2SO4, so the number of moles
mol/dm3 and in g/dm3
You can use universal in 12.20cm3 of sulfuric acid is (0.012/2) =
(HT ONLY):
indicator or a pH probe to 0.006 mol of sulfuric acid
2NaOH(aq) + H2SO4(aq)→ Na2S04(aq) +
measure the acidity or 2H2O(l)
alkalinity of a solution Calculate the concentration of sulfuric acid in
against the pH scale. It takes 12.20cm3 of sulfuric acid to neutralise mol/ dm3
24.00cm3 of sodium hydroxide solution, which 0.006 mol x (1000/12.2) dm3 =0.49mol/dm3
has a concentration of 0.50mol/dm3.
Acids produce hydrogen ions (H+) Calculate the concentration of sulfuric acid in
Acids Calculate the concentration of the sulfuric acid
In neutralisation reactions, hydrogen in aqueous solutions. g/ dm3
ions react with hydroxide ions to in g/dm3 H2SO4 = (2x1) + 32 + (4x16) = 98g
produce water: Aqueous solutions of alkalis 0.5 mol/dm3 x (24/1000) dm3 = 0.012 mol of 0.49 x 98g = 48.2g/dm3
Alkalis NaOH
H+ + OH-  H2O contain hydroxide ions (OH-).

better hope – brighter future

 equations
Ionic half
Energy is taken in from the Negative electrode: Positive electrode:
• Thermal decomposition
surroundings so the 2H2 (g) + 4OH- (aq)  4H2O (l) + 4e- O2 (g) + 2H2O (l) + 4e-  4OH- (aq)
Endothermic • Sports injury packs
temperature of the
surroundings decreases

Energy is transferred to the Word equation: Symbol equation:

Hydrogen fuel cells

• Combustion
surroundings so the
Exothermic • Hand warmers hydrogen + oxygen  water 2H2 + O2  2H2O
temperature of the
• Neutralisation
surroundings increases
Advantages: Disadvantages:
• No pollutants produced • Hydrogen is highly flammable
Show the overall energy change of a
Reaction • Can be a range of sizes • Hydrogen is difficult to store
reaction
profiles
Types of
reaction Fuel cells (Chemistry only)
Breaking bonds in reactants Endothermic process
The energy
AQA GCSE

Activation energy
change of Reaction The minimum amount
Making bonds in products Exothermic process Chemical reactions only
reactions Energy changes profiles
happen when particles
of energy that colliding
(HT only) collide with sufficient
particles must have in
Energy released making new Cells and batteries order to react is called
Overall energy change

energy
Exothermic bonds is greater than the the activation energy.
(Chemistry only)
of a reaction

energy taken in breaking

existing bonds.
Simple cell

Make a simple cell by

Energy needed to break existing connecting two different Increase the
Endothermic bonds is greater than the metals in contact with an voltage by Products are at a higher energy
energy released making new electrolyte increasing the level than the reactants. As the
bonds. reactants form products, energy

Endothermic
reactivity
Consist of two or more difference is transferred from the
Batteries

cells connected together between the surroundings to the reaction

in series to provide a two metals. mixture. The temperature of the
Calculate the overall energy change for the greater voltage. surroundings decreases because
forward reaction energy is taken in during the
N2 + 3H2 ⇌ 2NH3 reaction.
Non-rechargeable

Bond energies (in kJ/mol): H-H 436, H-N 391,

Bond energy calculation

Stop when one of the

N≡N 945 reactants has been Alkaline
cells

used up batteries Products are at a lower energy

level than the reactants. When
Bond breaking: 945 + (3 x 436) = 945 + 1308 = the reactants form products,
2253 kJ/mol
Exothermic
energy is transferred to the
Can be recharged
Rechargeable cells

surroundings. The temperature

Bond making: 6 x 391 = 2346 kJ/mol because the chemical of the surroundings increases
reactions are reversed Rechargeable because energy is released
Overall energy change = 2253 - 2346 = -93kJ/mol when an external batteries during the reaction.
electrical current is
Therefore reaction is exothermic overall. supplied

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 Rate = quantity of reactant used Factors affecting the rate of reaction
This can be calculated by
Rate of time taken
measuring the quantity of The higher the temperature, the quicker the

Factors affecting rates

chemical Temperature
reactant used or product rate of reaction.
reaction Rate = quantity of product formed
formed in a given time.
time taken The higher the concentration, the quicker the
Concentration
rate of reaction.
Quantity Unit Calculating rates of reactions The larger the surface area of a reactant solid,
Surface area
Mass Grams (g) the quicker the rate of reaction.

When gases react, the higher the pressure

Volume cm3 Rate of Pressure (of gases)
upon them, the quicker the rate of reaction.

Rate of
Grams per cm3 (g/cm3) reaction
HT: moles per second
reaction Collision theory and
(mol/s)
activation energy
AQA GCSE
A catalyst changes the rate
Catalyst of a chemical reaction but
The rate and Chemical reactions can Increasing the temperature increases

Catalysts
is not used in the reaction. extent of only occur when reacting the frequency of collisions and makes
Collision theory particles collide with each the collisions more energetic,
Enzymes
These are biological chemical change other with sufficient therefore increasing the rate of
catalysts. energy. reaction.
Catalysts provide a
This is the minimum
If a catalyst is used How do
different reaction pathway Reversible reactions amount of energy
Increasing the concentration, pressure
where reactants do not Activation (gases) and surface area (solids) of
in a reaction, it is they work? and dynamic colliding particles in a
require as much energy to energy reactions increases the frequency of
not shown in the reaction need in order to
word equation. react when they collide. equilibrium react.
collisions, therefore increasing the rate
of reaction.
Reversible reactions
In some chemical reactions, the Changing conditions
Reversible Le Chatelier’s States that when a system experiences a disturbance (change in
products can react again to re-form and equilibrium (HT)
reactions Principles condition), it will respond to restore a new equilibrium state.
Equilibrium

the reactants.
Representing The relative amounts of reactants and
If the concentration of a reactant is increased, more products
reversible A + B C + D products at equilibrium depend on the
Changing will be formed .
reactions conditions of the reaction.
concentration If the concentration of a product is decreased, more reactants
The direction of reversible reactions will react.
can be changed by changing
conditions: When a reversible reaction occurs
The direction If the temperature of a system at equilibrium is increased:
heat in apparatus which prevents the Changing
Equilibrium - Exothermic reaction = products decrease
A + B C + D escape of reactants and products, temperature
in reversible - Endothermic reaction = products increase
cool equilibrium is reached when the
reactions
forward and reverse reactions
Energy changes and reversible reactions occur exactly at the same rate. Changing
For a gaseous system at equilibrium:
- Pressure increase = equilibrium position shifts to side of
pressure
equation with smaller number of molecules.
If one direction of a reversible reaction is exothermic, For example: endothermic (gaseous
- Pressure decrease = equilibrium position shifts to side of
the opposite direction is endothermic. The same Hydrated copper Anhydrous copper + Water reactions)
exothermic equation with larger number of molecules.
amount of energy is transferred in each case. sulfate sulfate

better hope – brighter future

 Display formula for first four alkanes
Each fraction contains

Crude oil, hydrocarbons

molecules with a similar
The hydrocarbons in
number of carbon atoms in
Consisting mainly of Fractions crude oil can be split

and alkanes
them. The process used to
plankton that was buried into fractions
do this is called fractional
Crude oil A finite resource in the mud, crude oil is Methane (CH4) Ethane (C2H6) distillation.
the remains of ancient
biomass. We depend on many of
Fractions can be these fuels; petrol, diesel
These make up processed to and kerosene.
Most of these
the majority of Propane (C3H8) Butane (C4H10) Using produce fuels and
Hydrocarbons hydrocarbons are called
the compounds fractions feedstock for Many useful materials are
alkanes.
in crude oil petrochemical made by the petrochemical
Carbon compounds as fuels industry industry; solvents, lubricants
For example: and polymers.
and feedstock
General formula
CnH2n+2 C2H6
for alkanes
Fractional distillation and
C6H14 AQA GCSE petrochemicals
Organic chemistry 1

Boiling points In oil

Hydrocarbon chains in crude oil come

Hydrocarbon chains
Alkanes to Long chain alkanes are cracked into short in lots of different lengths.
alkenes chain alkenes. Carbon compounds The boiling point of the chain
as fuels and depends on its length. During
Alkenes are hydrocarbons with a double fractional distillation, they boil and
Alkenes bond (some are formed during the
feedstock separate at different temperatures
cracking process). due to this.

Alkenes are more reactive that alkanes Properties of hydrocarbons

Cracking and alkenes
Properties of and react with bromine water. Bromine
During the complete combustion of
alkenes water changes from orange to colourless
hydrocarbons, the carbon and hydrogen in
in the presence of alkenes. Combustion
the fuels are oxidised, releasing carbon
The smaller chains are more dioxide, water and energy.
The breaking down of
useful. Cracking can be done by Decane  pentane + propene + ethane Complete combustion of methane:
long chain
Cracking various methods including Methane + oxygen  carbon dioxide + water + energy
hydrocarbons into
catalytic cracking and steam C10H22  C5H12 + C3H6 + C2H4 CH4 (g) + 2O2 (g)  CO2 (g) + 2 H2O (l)
smaller chains
cracking.
Used to produce polymers.
Boiling point
After vaporisation, the vapour is Alkenes They are also used as the As the hydrocarbon chain length
The heavy fraction is (temperature at
passed over a hot catalyst and uses starting materials of many increases, boiling point increases.
Catalytic cracking heated until which liquid boils)
forming smaller, more useful as other chemicals, such as
vaporised polymers alcohol, plastics and
hydrocarbons.
detergents. Viscosity As the hydrocarbon chain length
After vaporisation, the vapour is (how easily it flows) increases, viscosity increases.
Without cracking, many of the
The heavy fraction is mixed with steam and heated to Why do
long hydrocarbons would be
Steam cracking heated until a very high temperature forming we crack
wasted as there is not much Flammability As the hydrocarbon chain length
vaporised smaller, more useful long
demand for these as for the (how easily it burns) increases, flammability decreases.
hydrocarbons. chains?
shorter chains.
better hope – brighter future
 Alkenes are hydrocarbons The functional group of an
Hydrocarbons with a Functional
in the functional group organic compound determined

Structure and formula of alkenes

Alkenes double carbon-carbon group
C=C. their reactions.
bond.
Ethene C2H4 Alkenes react with oxygen Methanol Ethanol
Alkenes are Alkenes also react with
unsaturated because in the same way as other
Alkene hydrogen, water and the
they contain two hydrocarbons, just with a
Unsaturated reactions halogens. The C=C bond allows
fewer hydrogen atoms smoky flame due to
for the addition of other atoms.
Propene C3H6
than their alkane incomplete combustion. Propanol Butanol
counterparts.
Reactions of alkenes -OH

Alcohols
Functional Methanol, ethanol, propanol and butanol
Butene C4H8 General formula group For example: are the first four of the homologous series.
CnH2n Reactions of alkenes
for alkenes CH3CH2OH
and alcohols Alcohols and sodium:
bubbling, hydrogen gas given off and salt
Pentene C5H10
formed.
AQA GCSE Organic

Carboxylic acids
-COOH Methanoic acid, ethanoic acid, chemistry 2 Alcohol
Alcohols react Alcohols and air:
Functional propanoic acid and butanoic acid are with sodium, alcohols burn in air releasing carbon
group For example: the first four of the homologous (CHEMISTRY ONLY) reactions
air and water. dioxide and water.
CH3COOH series.
Synthetic and naturally Alcohols and water:
Carboxylic acids and carbonates: alcohols dissolve in water to form a neutral
Carboxylic
These acids are neutralised by occurring polymers solution.
carbonates
acids react When sugar solutions are fermented using
Carboxylic
with Carboxylic acids and water: Ethanol is yeast, aqueous solutions of ethanol are

DNA and naturally occurring polymers

acid Condensation polymerisation (HT only)
Addition polymerisation

reactions
carbonates, These acids dissolve in water. Amino acids produced produced. The conditions needed for this
water and Fermentation
Carboxylic acids and alcohols: from process include a moderate temperature
alcohols. fermentation. (25 – 50⁰C), water (from sugar solution)
The acids react with alcohols to form Amino acids have two
esters. functional groups in a and an absence of oxygen.
molecule. They react
Carboxylic acids only partially ionise in by condensation Deoxyribonucleic acid is a large molecule essential for life.
Carboxylic polymerisation to DNA DNA gives the genetic instructions to ensure development
Strength water.
acids are produce peptides. and functioning of living organisms and viruses.
(HT only) An aqueous solution of a weak acid
weak acids
with have a high pH (but still below 7).
Most DNA molecules are two polymer chains made from four
DNA
different monomers, called nucleotides. They are in the
structure
double helix formation.
Alkenes are used to make Many small molecules join
Polymers polymers by addition together to form polymers (very Natural Other naturally occurring polymers include proteins, starch
polymerisation. large molecules). Glycine polymers and cellulose and are all important for life.

It can be displayed like this:

In addition polymers, the When these types of monomers react they join
Displaying repeating unit has the Condensation polymerisation
Condensation together and usually lose small molecules, such
polymers same atoms as the involves monomers with two
polymerisation as water. This is why they are called
monomer. functional groups
condensation reactions.

better hope – brighter future

 A pure substances is a Element Colour flames Sodium Is added to solutions
Pure substances melt and boil at

Metal hydroxides (chem only)

single element or hydroxide to identify metal ions.
Pure specific temperatures. Heating
compound, not mixed Lithium Crimson
substances graphs can be used to distinguish
with any other Aluminium, calcium
pure substances from impure. Sodium Yellow
substance. White and magnesium ions
precipitates form this with sodium
Potassium Lilac
hydroxide solution.
Pure substances
Calcium Orange-red
Copper (II) = blue
Coloured
Purity, Copper Green
precipitates
Iron (II) = green
Melting point of a Melting point of an Iron (III) = brown
pure substance impure substance formulations and
chromatography Flame tests (chem only)
Carbonates, halides and sulfates
Formulations
A formulation is a (chem only)
Chromatography
mixture that has Identification of
Formulation
been designed as a
AQA
Position solvent
useful product. reaches Chemical ions (CHEMISTRY Carbonates
React with dilute acids to form
carbon dioxide.
analysis ONLY)
By mixing chemicals
How are Mixture When in a solution, they produce
that have a
formulations separated precipitates with silver nitrate

Instrumental methods
particular purpose Halide ions
made?
in careful quantities. Identification Flame emission
solution in the presence of nitric
acid.
of common spectroscopy
Fuels, cleaning gases When in a solutions they produce
Examples of agents, paints, Sulfate a white precipitate with barium
formulations. medicines and ions chloride solutions in the presence
fertilisers. of hydrochloric acid.
Mixture
Gas Test Positive result
Solvent

Can be used to Burning Can be used to identify

Involves a mobile phase (e.g. water Hydrogen ‘Pop’ sound.
separate mixtures splint Methods that elements and
Chromatography or ethanol) and a stationary phase Instrumental
and help identify rely on compounds. These
(e.g. chromatography paper). methods
substances. machines methods are accurate,
Glowing Re-lights the sensitive and rapid.
The ratio of the Oxygen
distance moved by splint splint.
Rf = distance moved by substance
Rf Values a compound to the
distance moved by solvent
distance moved by
solvent. Litmus The sample solution is put
Bleaches the
Chlorine paper into a flame and the light that
paper white. An
(damp) is given out is put through a
This depends on the solvent used. Flame instrumental
The compounds in spectroscope. The output line
A pure substance will produce a emission method used
a mixture separate Goes cloudy (as spectrum, can be analysed to
Pure substances single spot in all solvents whereas spectroscopy to analyse
into different Carbon a solid calcium identify the metal ions in the
an impure substance will produce Limewater metal ions.
spots. dioxide carbonate solution. It can also be used
multiple spots. forms). to measure concentrations.

better hope – brighter future

 Gas Percentage These produced the oxygen that is
carbon dioxide + water  glucose + oxygen

Proportions of
Algae and plants now in the atmosphere, through

atmosphere
gases in the
Nitrogen ~80% 6CO2 + 6H2O  C6H12O6 + 6O2
photosynthesis.
Oxygen ~20%
Over the next billion years plants evolved to
Argon 0.93% Oxygen in the First produced by algae 2.7 billion gradually produce more oxygen. This gradually
atmosphere years ago. increased to a level that enabled animals to
Carbon
0.04% evolve.
dioxide
How oxygen increased Reducing carbon These gradually reduced the carbon dioxide
This released gases

The Earth’s early atmosphere

Billions of years dioxide in the Algae and plants levels in the atmosphere by absorbing it for
Volcano (mainly CO2) that How carbon
ago there was atmosphere photosynthesis.
activity
intense
formed to early dioxide decreased
1st Billion atmosphere and water
volcanic Remains of biological matter falls to the
years vapour that condensed These are made
activity bottom of oceans. Over millions of years
to form the oceans. Composition and Formation of
out of the remains
layers of sediment settled on top of them
of biological
Nitrogen was also evolution of the sedimentary rocks
matter, formed
and the huge pressures turned them into
released, gradually and fossil fuels coal, oil, natural gas and sedimentary rocks.
Released from building up in the
atmosphere over millions of
The sedimentary rocks contain carbon
years
Other gases volcanic atmosphere. Small dioxide from the biological matter.
eruptions proportions of ammonia AQA GCSE
and methane also
produced. Chemistry of the Greenhouse gases
atmosphere CO2 and methane
This formed carbonate
Reducing as greenhouse Carbon dioxide, Examples of greenhouse gases that
When the precipitates, forming
carbon water vapour maintain temperatures on Earth in
oceans formed, sediments. This reduced gases
dioxide in
carbon dioxide the levels of carbon
Common and methane order to support life
the
atmosphere
dissolved into it dioxide in the atmospheric Carbon footprints
atmosphere. Radiation from the Sun enters the
pollutants

Global climate
Earth’s atmosphere and reflects off
The total amount of greenhouse The greenhouse of the Earth. Some of this radiation is
Atmospheric pollutants from fuels

Source of atmospheric
Combustion pollutants. Most fuels
of fuels may also contain some
sulfur.
Carbon dioxide, water
vapour, carbon
Gases from
monoxide, sulfur
burning fuels
dioxide and oxides of dioxide and
nitrogen.
Solid particles and
unburned
Particulates
hydrocarbons released Particulates
when burning fuels.
change
gases emitted over the full life effect re-radiated back by the atmosphere
Properties and effects of cycle of a product/event. This to the Earth, warming up the global
atmospheric pollutants can be reduced by reducing temperature.
emissions of carbon dioxide and
methane. Human activities and greenhouse gases
Carbon Toxic, colourless and odourless Effects of climate change Human activities that increase carbon
Carbon
monoxide gas. Not easily detected, can kill. dioxide levels include burning fossil fuels
dioxide
Rising sea levels and deforestation.
Sulfur Human activities that increase methane
Cause respiratory problems in Extreme weather events such as
levels include raising livestock (for food)
humans and acid rain which severe storms Methane
oxides of and using landfills (the decay of organic
affects the environment.
nitrogen Change in amount and matter released methane).
distribution of rainfall
There is evidence to suggest that human
Cause global dimming and health Changes to distribution of Climate activities will cause the Earth’s
problems in humans. wildlife species with some change atmospheric temperature to increase and
becoming extinct cause climate change.
better hope – brighter future
 Gas Percentage These produced the oxygen that is
carbon dioxide + water  glucose + oxygen

Proportions of
Algae and plants now in the atmosphere, through

atmosphere
gases in the
Nitrogen ~80% 6CO2 + 6H2O  C6H12O6 + 6O2
photosynthesis.
Oxygen ~20%
Over the next billion years plants evolved to
Argon 0.93% Oxygen in the First produced by algae 2.7 billion gradually produce more oxygen. This gradually
atmosphere years ago. increased to a level that enabled animals to
Carbon
0.04% evolve.
dioxide
How oxygen increased Reducing carbon These gradually reduced the carbon dioxide
This released gases

The Earth’s early atmosphere

Billions of years dioxide in the Algae and plants levels in the atmosphere by absorbing it for
Volcano (mainly CO2) that How carbon
ago there was atmosphere photosynthesis.
activity
intense
formed to early dioxide decreased
1st Billion atmosphere and water
volcanic Remains of biological matter falls to the
years vapour that condensed These are made
activity bottom of oceans. Over millions of years
to form the oceans. Composition and Formation of
out of the remains
layers of sediment settled on top of them
of biological
Nitrogen was also evolution of the sedimentary rocks
matter, formed
and the huge pressures turned them into
released, gradually and fossil fuels coal, oil, natural gas and sedimentary rocks.
Released from building up in the
atmosphere over millions of
The sedimentary rocks contain carbon
years
Other gases volcanic atmosphere. Small dioxide from the biological matter.
eruptions proportions of ammonia AQA GCSE
and methane also
produced. Chemistry of the Greenhouse gases
atmosphere CO2 and methane
This formed carbonate
Reducing as greenhouse Carbon dioxide, Examples of greenhouse gases that
When the precipitates, forming
carbon water vapour maintain temperatures on Earth in
oceans formed, sediments. This reduced gases
dioxide in
carbon dioxide the levels of carbon
Common and methane order to support life
the
atmosphere
dissolved into it dioxide in the atmospheric Carbon footprints
atmosphere. Radiation from the Sun enters the
pollutants

Global climate
Earth’s atmosphere and reflects off
The total amount of greenhouse The greenhouse of the Earth. Some of this radiation is
Atmospheric pollutants from fuels

Source of atmospheric
Combustion pollutants. Most fuels
of fuels may also contain some
sulfur.
Carbon dioxide, water
vapour, carbon
Gases from
monoxide, sulfur
burning fuels
dioxide and oxides of dioxide and
nitrogen.
Solid particles and
unburned
Particulates
hydrocarbons released Particulates
when burning fuels.
change
gases emitted over the full life effect re-radiated back by the atmosphere
Properties and effects of cycle of a product/event. This to the Earth, warming up the global
atmospheric pollutants can be reduced by reducing temperature.
emissions of carbon dioxide and
methane. Human activities and greenhouse gases
Carbon Toxic, colourless and odourless Effects of climate change Human activities that increase carbon
Carbon
monoxide gas. Not easily detected, can kill. dioxide levels include burning fossil fuels
dioxide
Rising sea levels and deforestation.
Sulfur Human activities that increase methane
Cause respiratory problems in Extreme weather events such as
levels include raising livestock (for food)
humans and acid rain which severe storms Methane
oxides of and using landfills (the decay of organic
affects the environment.
nitrogen Change in amount and matter released methane).
distribution of rainfall
There is evidence to suggest that human
Cause global dimming and health Changes to distribution of Climate activities will cause the Earth’s
problems in humans. wildlife species with some change atmospheric temperature to increase and
becoming extinct cause climate change.
better hope – brighter future
 Alloys
A mixture of two elements, one of which must be a metal e.g. Bronze is an alloy of
copper and tin and Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc.

carats
The destruction of Gold jewellery is usually an alloy with silver, copper and zinc. The carat of the jewellery is

Gold
Corrosion and its prevention
An example of this is iron rusting; iron
materials by a measure of the amount of gold in it e.g. 18 carat is 75% gold, 24 carat is 100% gold.

Alloys are useful materials

reacts with oxygen from the air to form
Corrosion chemical reactions
iron oxide (rust) water needs to be Alloys of iron, carbon and other metals.
with substances in
present for iron to rust.
the environment High carbon steel is strong but brittle.

Steels
Examples of this are greasing, painting Low carbon steel is softer and easily shaped.
Coatings can be
Preventing and electroplating. Aluminium has an
added to metals to Steel containing chromium and nickel (stainless) are hard and corrosion resistant.
corrosion oxide coating that protects the metal
act as a barrier
from further corrosion. Aluminium alloys are low density.
When a more This means that the coating will react Ceramics,
Sacrificial reactive metal is with the air and not the underlying polymers and polymers that do not melt when
Thermosetting
corrosion used to coat a less metal. An example of this is zinc used to they are heated.
composites Polymers
reactive metal galvanise iron. polymers that melt when they are
Thermosoftening
These contain Formulations of various
Using materials heated.

Production and uses of NPK

NPK nitrogen, salts containing appropriate Soda-lime glass, made by heating sand, sodium
fertilisers phosphorous percentages of the AQA GCSE Using carbonate and limestone.
and potassium elements.
resources 2 A mixture of Borosilicate glass, made from sand and boron

fertilisers
Phosphate rock needs to be materials put trioxide, melts at higher temperatures than
Potassium
treated with an acid to (CHEM ONLY) Composite
together for a soda-lime glass.
chloride, materials
produce a soluble salt specific purpose
potassium MDF wood (woodchips, shavings, sawdust and
Fertiliser which is then used as a The Haber process e.g. strength
sulfate and resin)
examples fertiliser. Ammonia can be
phosphate rock
used to manufacture
and the use of
are obtained Concrete (cement, sand and gravel)
ammonium salts and nitric NPK fertilisers
by mining Made by shaping wet clay and then heating in a
acid. Ceramic
Made from clay furnace, common examples include pottery and
materials
bricks.
The Haber process – conditions and equilibrium

The Haber process

These factors affect the properties of the
Phosphate rock
The reactants side of the equation has Many polymer. Low density (LD) polymers and high
Treatment Products more molecules of gas. This means that Polymers monomers can density (HD) polymers are produced from
if pressure is increased, equilibrium make polymers ethene. These are formed under different
The acid is neutralised conditions.
with ammonia to Pressure shifts towards the production of
Nitric acid produce ammonium ammonia (Le Chatelier’s principle). The
The Haber Used to manufacture Ammonia is used to produce fertilisers
phosphate, a NPK pressure needs to be as high as
process ammonia Nitrogen + hydrogen ammonia
fertiliser. possible.
Both of these gases are purified before
Calcium phosphate and The forward reaction is exothermic.
Nitrogen from the air being passed over an iron catalyst. This is
Decreasing temperature increases Raw
Sulfuric acid calcium sulfate (a single while hydrogen from completed under high temperature (about
ammonia production at equilibrium. materials
superphosphate). natural gas 450⁰C) and pressure (about 200
The exothermic reaction that occurs
Temperature atmospheres).
Phosphoric Calcium phosphate (a releases energy to surrounding,
acid triple superphosphate). opposing the temperature decreases. The catalyst speeds up both directions of
Too low though and collisions would be Catalyst Iron the reaction, therefore not actually
too infrequent to be financially viable. increasing the amount of valuable product.
better hope – brighter future