Lab Handouts - Ver Spring2023 MEP

Cairo University
Faculty of Engineering
Mechanical Power Engineering Department
1
List of laboratories: Laboratories of Mechanical Measurements and Instrumentation
1. Function Generator / Oscilloscope / Power Supply / Multi-Meter

2. Flash and Fire Points
3. Volatility And Distillation of Gasoline
4. Measurements of Calorific Value
5. Viscosity Measurements
6. Wind Tunnel (IA): Measurements of Lift and Drag Coefficients
7. Wind Tunnel (IB): Flow Visualization
8. Wind Tunnel (IIA): Pressure Distributions about Blunt and Streamlined Bodies
9. Wind Tunnel (IIb): Friction in Pipe Flow
10. Forced Convection Heat Transfer to a Tube in Cross Flow
11. Film and Dropwise Condensation
12. Dead Weight Tester and Pressure Measurements
13. Flow Bench
14. Temperature Measurements
2
List of laboratories: Laboratories of Mechanical Power Engineering
1. Heat Engines: Classification and Parts

2. Performance Test of a Multi-cylinder Spark Ignition Engine (SIE)
3. Performance Test of a Reciprocating Multistage Compressor
4. Performance Test of a Multi-Cylinder Compression Ignition Engine (CIE)
5. Performance Test of a Fire-Tube Boiler
6. Performance Test of an Industrial Refrigeration Learning System
7. Performance Test of an Air Handling Unit (AHU)
8. Performance Test of a Coppus Steam Turbine
9. Performance Test of a Pelton Turbine
10. Performance Test of a Francis Turbine
11. Performance Test of a Centrifugal Pump
3
List of laboratories: Laboratories of Mechanical Measurements and Instrumentation ........2
List of laboratories: Laboratories of Mechanical Power Engineering .....................................3
Table of Contents ........................................................................................................................13
Laboratories of Mechanical Measurements and Instrumentation .........................................25
1. Function Generator / Oscilloscope / Power Supply / Multi-Meter ..................................26
A. Objectives ........................................................................................................................26
B. Function Generator ..........................................................................................................26
C. Oscilloscope ....................................................................................................................27
D. DC Power Supply ............................................................................................................28
E. Digital Multi-Meter .........................................................................................................29
F. Suggested Readings.........................................................................................................29
2. Flash and Fire Points ...........................................................................................................30
A. Objectives ........................................................................................................................30
B. Background .....................................................................................................................30
C. Experimental Setup .........................................................................................................30
D. Experimental Procedure ..................................................................................................31
E. Required Work ................................................................................................................31
F. Suggested Reading ..........................................................................................................31
3. Volatility And Distillation of Gasoline ...............................................................................32
A. Objectives ........................................................................................................................32
B. Background .....................................................................................................................32
C. Requirements in the Fuels ...............................................................................................32
D. Gasoline Distillation Curve .............................................................................................34
E. Experimental Setup .........................................................................................................36
F. Experimental Procedure ..................................................................................................36
G. Required Work ................................................................................................................37
H. Suggested Reading ..........................................................................................................37
4. Measurements of Calorific Value .......................................................................................38
A. Objectives ........................................................................................................................38
B. Background .....................................................................................................................38
E. Required Work ................................................................................................................39
4
5. Viscosity Measurements ......................................................................................................41
A. Objectives ........................................................................................................................41
B. Background .....................................................................................................................41
E. Required Work ................................................................................................................43
6. Wind Tunnel (IA): Measurements of Lift and Drag Coefficients ...................................44
A. Objectives ........................................................................................................................44
B. Experimental Setup .........................................................................................................44
C. Instrumentation................................................................................................................44
3. Experimental Procedure ..................................................................................................47
D. Drag Models ....................................................................................................................47
E. Analysis & Discussion ....................................................................................................48
F. Required Work ................................................................................................................54
G. Suggested Reading ..........................................................................................................54
7. Wind Tunnel (IB): Flow Visualization ...............................................................................56
A. Objectives ........................................................................................................................56
B. Background .....................................................................................................................56
D. Principle of Operation .....................................................................................................57
E. Experimental Procedure ..................................................................................................59
F. Required Work ................................................................................................................59
8. Wind Tunnel (IIA): Pressure Distributions about Blunt and Streamlined Bodies .......60
A. Objectives ........................................................................................................................60
B. Experimental Setup and Instrumentation ........................................................................60
C. Experimental Procedure ..................................................................................................60
D. Analysis & Discussion ....................................................................................................61
E. Required Work ................................................................................................................64
9. Wind Tunnel (IIb): Friction in Pipe Flow .........................................................................66
A. Objectives ........................................................................................................................66
B. Background .....................................................................................................................66
5
E. Required Work ................................................................................................................69
10. Forced Convection Heat Transfer to a Tube in Cross Flow ............................................70
A. Objectives ........................................................................................................................70
B. Background .....................................................................................................................70
D. Assumptions & Theoretical Background ........................................................................75
F. Test Sheet ........................................................................................................................78
G. Required Work ................................................................................................................78
11. Film and Dropwise Condensation ......................................................................................80
A. Objectives ........................................................................................................................80
B. Background .....................................................................................................................80
C. Film-wise Condensation ..................................................................................................80
D. Drop-wise Condensation .................................................................................................81
E. Effect of Air (and Other Non-Condensable Gases) in Condensers .................................81
F. Experimental Setup .........................................................................................................83
G. Visual Demonstration of Film-wise Condensation, Drop-wise Condensation, and
Nucleate Boiling: .......................................................................................................................84
H. Measurement of Heat Flux and Surface Heat Transfer Coefficient for Film-wise and
Drop-wise Condensation:...........................................................................................................84
I. Observation Sheet ...........................................................................................................86
J. Calculation Procedure .....................................................................................................87
K. Derived results.................................................................................................................87
L. Required work .................................................................................................................88
M. Suggested Reading ..........................................................................................................88
12. Dead Weight Tester and Pressure Measurements ............................................................89
A. Objectives ........................................................................................................................89
B. Background .....................................................................................................................89
D. Oil Charging Procedure ...................................................................................................90
F. Required Work ................................................................................................................91
6
II- Pressure Measurements .........................................................................................................93
1. Objectives ........................................................................................................................93
2. Background .....................................................................................................................93
3. Manometers .....................................................................................................................94
4. Elastic Transducers .........................................................................................................95
5. Strain Gages ....................................................................................................................96
6. Semiconductor-on Bending Beam Pressure Transducer .................................................96
7. Piezo-Electric Transducer ................................................................................................97
8. Experimental Setup .........................................................................................................97
9. Experimental procedure ..................................................................................................97
10. Required Work ................................................................................................................97
11. Suggested Online Reading ..............................................................................................98
13. Flow Bench ...........................................................................................................................99
A. Objectives ........................................................................................................................99
B. Background .....................................................................................................................99
B.1. Primary and secondary Flow Measurements ..................................................................99
B.2. Concept of Operation ......................................................................................................99
B.2.1. Variable head meters .......................................................................................................99
B.2.2. Linear Resistance Element Flow Meter (Capillary Flow Meter) ..................................102
B.2.3. Turbine Meter ................................................................................................................103
B.2.4. Rotameter ......................................................................................................................103
B.2.5. Bellows Meter ...............................................................................................................104
B.3. Chocking Phenomenon .................................................................................................105
C. Experimental Facility ....................................................................................................105
D. Required Work ..............................................................................................................107
14. Temperature Measurements .............................................................................................110
A. Objectives ......................................................................................................................110
B. Thermocouple................................................................................................................110
C. Thermocouple Background ...........................................................................................110
D. Experimental Procedure (Thermocouple) .....................................................................111
E. Required Work (Thermocouple) ...................................................................................111
F. Suggested Online Reading (Thermocouples) ................................................................112
G. RTD (Resistance Temperature Detector) ......................................................................112
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H. RTD Background ..........................................................................................................112
I. Experimental Procedure ................................................................................................113
J. Suggested Readings (RTD) ...........................................................................................115
Laboratories of Mechanical Power Engineering ....................................................................116
15. Heat Engines: Classification and Parts ............................................................................117
A. Objectives ......................................................................................................................117
B. Methods of Classification..............................................................................................117
C. Required Work ..............................................................................................................117
16. Performance Test of a Multi-cylinder Spark Ignition Engine (SIE) .............................123
A. Objectives ....................................................................................................................123
B. Engine specifications.....................................................................................................123
C. Experimental Setup ....................................................................................................123
D. Experimental Procedure .............................................................................................130
E. Morse Test ...................................................................................................................130
F. Calculation Procedure ................................................................................................131
G. Measured Data ............................................................................................................133
H. Calculated Data ...........................................................................................................134
I. Morse Test Data ..........................................................................................................134
J. Required Work ..............................................................................................................135
K. Further Reading .............................................................................................................136
17. Performance Test of a Reciprocating Multistage Compressor ......................................137
A. Objectives ......................................................................................................................137
B. Experimental Setup .......................................................................................................137
C. Instrumentation..............................................................................................................137
D. Calculation Procedure ...................................................................................................138
E. Required Work ..............................................................................................................145
F. Further Reading: ............................................................................................................146
18. Performance Test of a Multi-Cylinder Compression Ignition Engine (CIE) ...............147
A. Objectives ......................................................................................................................147
B. Experimental Setup ...................................................................................................148
G. Experimental Procedure ................................................................................................154
H. Calculation Procedure ...................................................................................................154
I. Measured Data...............................................................................................................156
J. Required Work ..............................................................................................................156
8
19. Performance Test of a Fire-Tube Boiler ..........................................................................159
A. Objectives ......................................................................................................................159
B. Introduction ...................................................................................................................159
C. Safety precautions .........................................................................................................159
D. Experimental Setup .......................................................................................................160
E. Instrumentation..............................................................................................................162
F. Energy Balance .............................................................................................................163
G. Required Work ..............................................................................................................164
H. Further Readings ...........................................................................................................165
Performance Test of an Industrial Refrigeration Learning System.....................................166
19.1. Performance Test of an Industrial Refrigeration Learning System-Part 1 ..........166
A. Objectives ......................................................................................................................166
B. Experimental Apparatus ................................................................................................166
C. Experimental Procedure ................................................................................................166
A. Objectives ......................................................................................................................170
D. Experimental Observation Table ...................................................................................171
E. Assumptions ..................................................................................................................171
F. Results ...........................................................................................................................172
G. Further Reading .............................................................................................................174
20. Performance Test of an Air Handling Unit (AHU).........................................................175
A. Objectives ......................................................................................................................175
B. Introduction ...................................................................................................................175
C. Experimental Setup .......................................................................................................177
E. Commenting on the Results ..........................................................................................185
F. Experiment #1: Sensible-Heating Process ....................................................................180
G. Experiment #2: Cooling and Dehumidification Process ...............................................181
H. Experiment #3: Heating and Humidification Process ...................................................182
I. Experiment #4: Cooling and Reheating Process ...........................................................183
J. Experiment #5: Evaporative Cooling Process ...............................................................184
K. Experiment #6: Reversed Cycle ....................................................................................185
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L. Further Reading .............................................................................................................186
21. Performance Test of a Coppus Steam Turbine ...............................................................189
A. Objectives ......................................................................................................................189
B. Principle of Operation ...................................................................................................189
C. Impulse Turbines versus Reaction Turbines .................................................................189
D. Description of the Coppus Steam Turbine ....................................................................191
E. Steam path .....................................................................................................................194
F. Main Auxiliaries ............................................................................................................194
G. Starting up the Turbine ..................................................................................................198
H. Test Procedure ...............................................................................................................198
I. Calculation Procedure ...................................................................................................198
J. Experimental Record .....................................................................................................199
K. Required Work ..............................................................................................................199
22. Performance Test of a Pelton Turbine .............................................................................201
A. Objectives ......................................................................................................................201
B. Introduction ...................................................................................................................201
H. Concept of operation and terminology ..........................................................................202
I. Main parts of the Pelton wheel turbine .........................................................................204
J. Experimental Setup .......................................................................................................205
K. Equations .......................................................................................................................208
L. Velocity Diagrams.........................................................................................................209
At the inlet of the blade:...........................................................................................................209
At the exit of the blade: ............................................................................................................210
M. Degree of reaction .........................................................................................................210
N. Impulse force acting by the water jet on the blade in the tangential direction, Fx: .......210
O. Power developed by the turbine = Fx U ........................................................................210
P. Kinetic energy per unit time of the jet at inlet: .............................................................210
Q. Hydraulic efficiency, H: ...............................................................................................210
R. Optimum hydraulic efficiency: .....................................................................................210
Figure 22.7: Optimum hydraulic efficiency occurs when the bucket velocity U is set to be half
the absolute value of the water jet velocity at the exit of the nozzle C1..................................211
S. Overall Efficiency: ........................................................................................................211
T. Specific speed of a Pelton wheel, Ns: ............................................................................211
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U. Given Data: ...................................................................................................................211
V. Required Measurements ................................................................................................211
W. Experimental Procedure ................................................................................................212
X. Experimental Records ...................................................................................................213
Y. Required Work ..............................................................................................................217
23. Performance Test of a Francis Turbine ...........................................................................219
A. Objectives ......................................................................................................................219
B. Introduction ...................................................................................................................219
C. Characteristics of Francis Turbines ...............................................................................222
D. Rotation Rate:................................................................................................................223
E. Specific Speed: ..............................................................................................................223
F. Main parts of the Francis Turbine .................................................................................223
G. Cavitation in Francis turbines: ......................................................................................223
H. Comparison with Pelton and Kaplan turbines ...............................................................224
I. Experimental Setup .......................................................................................................226
J. Calculation Procedure ...................................................................................................227
K. Velocity Diagrams.........................................................................................................228
L. Blade geometry: ............................................................................................................228
M. Calculation Procedure used for the Velocity Diagram..................................................229
N. Experimental Records ...................................................................................................229
O. Experimental Procedure: ...............................................................................................229
P. Required Work ..............................................................................................................234
Q. Suggested Reading ........................................................................................................235
24. Performance Test of a Centrifugal Pump ........................................................................237
A. Objectives ......................................................................................................................237
B. Introduction ...................................................................................................................237
C. Cavitation in Centrifugal Pumps ...................................................................................238
D. Performance Curves ......................................................................................................240
E. Dimensionless Parameters.............................................................................................243
F. Affinity Laws in Centrifugal Pumps .............................................................................243
H. Centrifugal pump start up procedure .............................................................................245
J. Experimental Records ...................................................................................................247
11
K. Required Work ..............................................................................................................247
L. Suggested Reading ........................................................................................................248
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Table of Contents
Laboratories of Mechanical Engineering and Laboratories of Energy Systems ............ Error!
Bookmark not defined.
List of laboratories: Laboratories of Mechanical Engineering .................................................2
List of laboratories: Laboratories of Energy Systems ...............................................................3
Table of Contents ........................................................................................................................13
Laboratories of Mechanical Engineering ..................................................................................25
1. Function Generator / Oscilloscope / Power Supply / Multi-Meter ..................................26
A. Objectives ........................................................................................................................26
B. Function Generator ..........................................................................................................26
C. Oscilloscope ....................................................................................................................27
D. DC Power Supply ............................................................................................................28
E. Digital Multi-Meter .........................................................................................................29
F. Suggested Readings.........................................................................................................29
2. Flash and Fire Points ...........................................................................................................30
A. Objectives ........................................................................................................................30
B. Background .....................................................................................................................30
E. Required Work ................................................................................................................31
3. Volatility And Distillation of Gasoline ...............................................................................32
A. Objectives ........................................................................................................................32
B. Background .....................................................................................................................32
C. Requirements in the Fuels ...............................................................................................32
D. Gasoline Distillation Curve .............................................................................................34
E. Experimental Setup .........................................................................................................36
F. Experimental Procedure ..................................................................................................36
G. Required Work ................................................................................................................37
4. Measurements of Calorific Value .......................................................................................38
A. Objectives ........................................................................................................................38
B. Background .....................................................................................................................38
13
E. Required Work ................................................................................................................39
5. Viscosity Measurements ......................................................................................................41
A. Objectives ........................................................................................................................41
B. Background .....................................................................................................................41
E. Required Work ................................................................................................................43
6. Wind Tunnel (IA): Measurements of Lift and Drag Coefficients ...................................44
A. Objectives ........................................................................................................................44
B. Experimental Setup .........................................................................................................44
C. Instrumentation................................................................................................................44
3. Experimental Procedure ..................................................................................................47
D. Drag Models ....................................................................................................................47
E. Analysis & Discussion ....................................................................................................48
F. Required Work ................................................................................................................54
7. Wind Tunnel (IB): Flow Visualization ...............................................................................56
A. Objectives ........................................................................................................................56
B. Background .....................................................................................................................56
D. Principle of Operation .....................................................................................................57
F. Required Work ................................................................................................................59
8. Wind Tunnel (IIA): Pressure Distributions about Blunt and Streamlined Bodies .......60
A. Objectives ........................................................................................................................60
B. Experimental Setup and Instrumentation ........................................................................60
C. Experimental Procedure ..................................................................................................60
D. Analysis & Discussion ....................................................................................................61
E. Required Work ................................................................................................................64
14
9. Wind Tunnel (IIb): Friction in Pipe Flow .........................................................................66
A. Objectives ........................................................................................................................66
B. Background .....................................................................................................................66
E. Required Work ................................................................................................................69
10. Forced Convection Heat Transfer to a Tube in Cross Flow ............................................70
A. Objectives ........................................................................................................................70
B. Background .....................................................................................................................70
D. Assumptions & Theoretical Background ........................................................................75
F. Test Sheet ........................................................................................................................78
G. Required Work ................................................................................................................78
11. Film and Dropwise Condensation ......................................................................................80
A. Objectives ........................................................................................................................80
B. Background .....................................................................................................................80
C. Film-wise Condensation ..................................................................................................80
D. Drop-wise Condensation .................................................................................................81
E. Effect of Air (and Other Non-Condensable Gases) in Condensers .................................81
F. Experimental Setup .........................................................................................................83
Nucleate Boiling: .......................................................................................................................84
Drop-wise Condensation:...........................................................................................................84
I. Observation Sheet ...........................................................................................................86
J. Calculation Procedure .....................................................................................................87
K. Derived results.................................................................................................................87
L. Required work .................................................................................................................88
M. Suggested Reading ..........................................................................................................88
12. Dead Weight Tester and Pressure Measurements ............................................................89
A. Objectives ........................................................................................................................89
B. Background .....................................................................................................................89
15
D. Oil Charging Procedure ...................................................................................................90
F. Required Work ................................................................................................................91
II- Pressure Measurements .........................................................................................................93
1. Objectives ........................................................................................................................93
2. Background .....................................................................................................................93
3. Manometers .....................................................................................................................94
4. Elastic Transducers .........................................................................................................95
5. Strain Gages ....................................................................................................................96
6. Semiconductor-on Bending Beam Pressure Transducer .................................................96
7. Piezo-Electric Transducer ................................................................................................97
8. Experimental Setup .........................................................................................................97
9. Experimental procedure ..................................................................................................97
10. Required Work ................................................................................................................97
11. Suggested Online Reading ..............................................................................................98
13. Flow Bench ...........................................................................................................................99
A. Objectives ........................................................................................................................99
B. Background .....................................................................................................................99
B.1. Primary and secondary Flow Measurements ..................................................................99
B.2. Concept of Operation ......................................................................................................99
B.2.1. Variable head meters .......................................................................................................99
B.2.2. Linear Resistance Element Flow Meter (Capillary Flow Meter) ..................................102
B.2.3. Turbine Meter ................................................................................................................103
B.2.4. Rotameter ......................................................................................................................103
B.2.5. Bellows Meter ...............................................................................................................104
B.3. Chocking Phenomenon .................................................................................................105
C. Experimental Facility ....................................................................................................105
D. Required Work ..............................................................................................................107
14. Temperature Measurements .............................................................................................110
A. Objectives ......................................................................................................................110
B. Thermocouple................................................................................................................110
C. Thermocouple Background ...........................................................................................110
16
D. Experimental Procedure (Thermocouple) .....................................................................111
E. Required Work (Thermocouple) ...................................................................................111
F. Suggested Online Reading (Thermocouples) ................................................................112
G. RTD (Resistance Temperature Detector) ......................................................................112
H. RTD Background ..........................................................................................................112
I. Experimental Procedure ................................................................................................113
J. Suggested Readings (RTD) ...........................................................................................115
Laboratories of Mechanical Engineering ................................................................................116
15. Heat Engines: Classification and Parts ............................................................................117
A. Objectives ......................................................................................................................117
B. Methods of Classification..............................................................................................117
C. Required Work ..............................................................................................................117
16. Performance Test of a Multi-cylinder Spark Ignition Engine (SIE) .............................123
A. Objectives ....................................................................................................................123
B. Engine specifications.....................................................................................................123
C. Experimental Setup ....................................................................................................123
D. Experimental Procedure .............................................................................................130
E. Morse Test ...................................................................................................................130
F. Calculation Procedure ................................................................................................131
G. Measured Data ............................................................................................................133
H. Calculated Data ...........................................................................................................134
I. Morse Test Data ..........................................................................................................134
J. Required Work ..............................................................................................................135
17. Performance Test of a Reciprocating Multistage Compressor ......................................137
A. Objectives ......................................................................................................................137
C. Instrumentation..............................................................................................................137
E. Required Work ..............................................................................................................145
F. Further Reading: ............................................................................................................146
18. Performance Test of a Multi-Cylinder Compression Ignition Engine (CIE) ...............147
A. Objectives ......................................................................................................................147
B. Experimental Setup ...................................................................................................148
17
H. Calculation Procedure ...................................................................................................154
I. Measured Data...............................................................................................................156
J. Required Work ..............................................................................................................156
19. Performance Test of a Fire-Tube Boiler ..........................................................................159
A. Objectives ......................................................................................................................159
B. Introduction ...................................................................................................................159
C. Safety precautions .........................................................................................................159
E. Instrumentation..............................................................................................................162
F. Energy Balance .............................................................................................................163
G. Required Work ..............................................................................................................164
H. Further Readings ...........................................................................................................165
Performance Test of an Industrial Refrigeration Learning System.....................................166
19.1. Performance Test of an Industrial Refrigeration Learning System-Part 1 ..........166
A. Objectives ......................................................................................................................166
B. Experimental Apparatus ................................................................................................166
19.2. Performance Test of an Industrial Refrigeration Learning System – Part 2 .......170
A. Objectives ......................................................................................................................170
D. Experimental Observation Table ...................................................................................171
E. Assumptions ..................................................................................................................171
F. Results ...........................................................................................................................172
G. Further Reading .............................................................................................................174
20. Performance Test of an Air Handling Unit (AHU).........................................................175
A. Objectives ......................................................................................................................175
B. Introduction ...................................................................................................................175
C. Experimental Setup .......................................................................................................177
E. Commenting on the Results ..........................................................................................185
F. Experiment #1: Sensible-Heating Process ....................................................................180
18
G. Experiment #2: Cooling and Dehumidification Process ...............................................181
H. Experiment #3: Heating and Humidification Process ...................................................182
I. Experiment #4: Cooling and Reheating Process ...........................................................183
J. Experiment #5: Evaporative Cooling Process ...............................................................184
K. Experiment #6: Reversed Cycle ....................................................................................185
21. Performance Test of a Coppus Steam Turbine ...............................................................189
A. Objectives ......................................................................................................................189
B. Principle of Operation ...................................................................................................189
C. Impulse Turbines versus Reaction Turbines .................................................................189
D. Description of the Coppus Steam Turbine ....................................................................191
E. Steam path .....................................................................................................................194
F. Main Auxiliaries ............................................................................................................194
G. Starting up the Turbine ..................................................................................................198
H. Test Procedure ...............................................................................................................198
J. Experimental Record .....................................................................................................199
K. Required Work ..............................................................................................................199
22. Performance Test of a Pelton Turbine .............................................................................201
A. Objectives ......................................................................................................................201
B. Introduction ...................................................................................................................201
H. Terminology ..................................................................................................................202
I. Experimental Setup .......................................................................................................205
J. Equations .......................................................................................................................208
K. Velocity Diagrams.........................................................................................................209
At the inlet of the blade ............................................................................................................209
At the exit of the blade .............................................................................................................210
L. Calculation Procedure for the velocity diagram .............. Error! Bookmark not defined.
M. Measurements................................................................................................................210
N. Experimental Procedure ................................................................................................212
O. Experimental Records ...................................................................................................213
P. Required Work ..............................................................................................................217
23. Performance Test of a Francis Turbine ...........................................................................219
19
A. Objectives ......................................................................................................................219
B. Introduction ...................................................................................................................219
C. Main parts of the Francis Turbine .................................................................................223
E. Calculation Procedure ...................................................................................................227
F. Velocity Diagrams.........................................................................................................228
G. Calculation Procedure used for the Velocity Diagram..................................................229
H. Experimental Record .....................................................................................................229
I. Experimental Procedure: ...............................................................................................229
J. Required Work ..............................................................................................................234
K. Suggested Reading ........................................................................................................235
24. Performance Test of a Centrifugal Pump ........................................................................237
A. Objectives ......................................................................................................................237
B. Introduction ...................................................................................................................237
C. Cavitation in Centrifugal Pumps ...................................................................................238
D. Performance Curves ......................................................................................................240
E. Calculation Procedure ...................................................................................................243
F. Dimensionless Parameters.............................................................................................243
G. Affinity Laws in Centrifugal Pumps .............................................................................243
H. Experimental Procedure ................................................................................................245
I. Experimental Records ...................................................................................................247
J. Required Work ..............................................................................................................247
K. Suggested Reading ........................................................................................................248
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List of Figures
Figure 1.1: Function Generator................................................................................................................................ 26
Figure 1.2: Digital-storage oscilloscope ................................................................................................................... 27
Figure 1.3: DC power supply .................................................................................................................................... 28
Figure 1.4: Multi meter ............................................................................................................................................. 29
Figure 3.1: An example of the gasoline distillation curve (classified as 60- 100- 156˚C) ..................................... 35
Figure 3.2: Seasonal variation of volatility for gasoline from summer-grade to winter-grade gasoline ............ 35
Figure 3.3: Standard distillation apparatus ............................................................................................................ 36
Figure 4.1: Junker Calorimeter ................................................................................................................................ 38
Figure 5.1: Different spindles available ................................................................................................................... 42
Figure 6.1: Overall side elevation: 12" EIFFEL type, open circuit, subsonic wind tunnel ................................ 45
Figure 6.2: Dynamometer assembly ......................................................................................................................... 46
Figure 6.3: Cutaway view of the pressure transducer ............................................................................................ 46
Figure 6.4: Smoke flow visualization showing a stalled flow on the upper surface (suction side) of an airfoil at
high angle of attack. The airfoil is said to be stalled: Lift drops off and drag increases remarkably; the
airfoil is no longer flyable. (After the National Committee for Fluid Mechanics Films, Education
Development Center, Inc., © 1972.) ................................................................................................................. 48
Figure 6.5: Drag coefficient of a smooth sphere as a function of Reynolds number ............................................ 49
Figure 6.6: The drag coefficient on a streamlined body as a function of the thickness ratio, showing the trade-
off between pressure and skin-friction drag forces ....................................................................................... 50
Figure 6.7: Description of the NACA 4-digit series. For symmetrical airfoils, the camber and chord lines are
straight lines, and they coincide. An airfoil with a curved camber line is said to be cambered. ............... 51
Figure 6.8: Variations of drag and lift coefficients with the angle of attack α for the symmetrical NACA 0012
airfoil at different Reynolds numbers ............................................................................................................ 52
Figure 6.9: (Left) Flow past a cambered airfoil, (a) attached flow, (b) separated flow, after Prandtl-Tietjens
(1931). (Right) Effect of camber on lift and drag characteristics................................................................. 52
Figure 6.10: Sample lift and drag curves ................................................................................................................. 53
Figure 7.1: Illustration of the concept of flow separation behind a bluff body .................................................... 56
Figure 7.2: Flow visualization apparatus................................................................................................................. 57
Figure 7.3: Streamlines around immersed (a) Blunt, (b) Streamlined body in an inviscid flow ......................... 57
Figure 7.4: Streamlines around immersed (a) Blunt, (b) Streamlined body in actual flow. Note that the angle
at which separation occurs and the flow behavior after separation depend on the shape geometry and
the flow Reynolds number. Also note that at very low Reynolds numbers, the flow around bluff bodies
may not separate and note that the flow around streamlined bodies may separate at large angle of
attack and/or large Reynolds numbers as shown in the figure bellow: ....................................................... 58
Figure 7.5: Boundary layer flow separation behind an airfoil at large angle of attack ....................................... 58
Figure 8.1: Pressure-tap locations for the NACA 0012 airfoil (Dimensions in inch) ........................................... 60
Figure 8.2: Pressure-coefficient distribution around a circular cylinder. The right figure shows typical
distributions of Cp and Cp cos ...................................................................................................................... 61
Figure 8.3: Dependence of the drag coefficient on Reynolds number for a circular cylinder ............................ 63
Figure 8.4: Pressure distribution around a NACA 0012 airfoil ............................................................................. 63
Figure 9.1: Schematic of the friction-in-pipe flow experimental setup ................................................................. 67
Figure 10.1: The cooling of a boiled egg by forced versus by natural convection ................................................ 70
Figure 10.2: Schematic of the experimental setup .................................................................................................. 73
Figure 11.1: Steam at atmospheric pressure condensing on a vertical copper surface. Film condensation is
visible on the right side, and dropwise condensation in the presence of a promoter is visible on the left
side. The horizontal tube is a thermocouple .................................................................................................. 81
Figure 11.2: Heat flux for drop-wise versus film-wise ............................................................................................ 82
Figure 11.3: Schematic of the experimental setup .................................................................................................. 83
Figure 12.1: Schematic for the dead weight tester setup ........................................................................................ 90
Figure 12.2: Example of hysteresis ........................................................................................................................... 92
Figure 12.3: Terminology for the pressures showing the atmospheric, gage, and vacuum pressures ............... 93
Figure 12.4: Straight U-Tube manometer ............................................................................................................... 94
Figure 12.5: Inclined U-Tube manometer ............................................................................................................... 95
Figure 12.6: Different elastic elements used for pressure measurements ............................................................. 95
21
Figure 12.7: Schematic of a Bourdon tube gage ...................................................................................................... 96
Figure 12.8: Strain gages ........................................................................................................................................... 96
Figure 13.1: Pressure distribution along venturimeter, orifice-meter and flow-nozzle..................................... 100
Figure 13.2: The dimensions of the three obstruction meters used in this experiment ..................................... 102
Figure 13.3: Laminar flow element ........................................................................................................................ 103
Figure 13.4: Turbine meter ..................................................................................................................................... 103
Figure 13.5: Rotameter ........................................................................................................................................... 104
Figure 13.6: Flow Bench.......................................................................................................................................... 106
Figure 14.1: Concept of operation of a thermocouple .......................................................................................... 110
Figure 14.2: Thermocouple and its digital reader ................................................................................................ 111
Figure 14.3: Resistance temperature detector (RTD) ........................................................................................... 113
Figure 14.4: RTD connection .................................................................................................................................. 113
Figure 14.5: RTD connection (Top view) ............................................................................................................... 114
Figure 14.6: RTD connection (Side view) .............................................................................................................. 114
Figure 15.1: Jet engine ............................................................................................................................................ 118
Figure 15.2: Another view of the jet engine .......................................................................................................... 118
Figure 15.3: Governor ............................................................................................................................................. 119
Figure 15.4: One-cylinder engine with a huge fly wheel ...................................................................................... 119
Figure 15.5: Air-cooled spark-ignition engine (Volkswagen) .............................................................................. 120
Figure 15.6: Another view of the air-cooled spark-ignition engine (Volkswagen) ............................................. 120
Figure 15.7: V-engine Compression Ignition Engine ............................................................................................ 121
Figure 15.8: A picture showing the piston, the piston rings and other details of the combustion chamber .... 122
Figure 16.1: Metered flask, Stop-watch, Stroboscope used to measure the shaft RPM, and Thermocouple used
to measure the inlet and outlet gas temperatures ........................................................................................ 125
Figure 16.2: General view of the spark ignition engine setup showing parts of the SIE, the radiator, the
dynamometer and the air and fuel flow rates measurements .................................................................... 126
Figure 16.3: Hydraulic dynamometer showing the inlet and outlet water flow directions ............................... 127
Figure 16.4: Torque meter on the hydraulic dynamometer ................................................................................. 128
Figure 16.5: Measurement panel showing the air and fuel flow rates measurements ....................................... 129
Figure 16.6: Air box used to smooth down the fluctuations in the air flow supplied to the engine, orifice also
shown. .............................................................................................................................................................. 130
Figure 16.7: Typical variation of some of the SIEs performance parameters with the engine RPM ............... 133
Figure 17.1: Schematic diagram of the multi-stage compressor setup................................................................ 137
Figure 17.2: A general view of the compressor setup, showing the air filter, the storage tank, the intercooler,
the aftercooler, the pressure gage on the tank and the electric motor ....................................................... 140
Figure 17.3: The pressure gage on the storage tank ............................................................................................. 141
Figure 17.4: A general view of the compressor setup showing the electric motor, the belt, and the air filter . 142
Figure 17.5: The intercooler and aftercooler on the storage tank and the fins .................................................. 143
Figure 17.6: The clamp meter and the thermocouple used .................................................................................. 144
Figure 18.1: Main parts of the energy balance on the compression-ignition engine .......................................... 147
Figure 18.2: General view of the CIE setup .......................................................................................................... 149
Figure 18.3: Air box on the CIE setup ................................................................................................................... 150
Figure 18.4: Dynamometer on the CIE setup ........................................................................................................ 151
Figure 18.5: Metered flask, Stop-watch, Stroboscope used to measure the shaft RPM, and Thermocouple used
to measure the inlet and outlet gas temperatures ........................................................................................ 152
Figure 18.6: Measurements of the air and fuel flow rates I the CIE setup ......................................................... 153
Figure 18.7: William’s line ...................................................................................................................................... 154
Figure 18.8: Calibration of the rotameter ............................................................................................................. 157
Figure 19.1: Side view of the flame-tube boiler ..................................................................................................... 160
Figure 19.2: Front view of the flame-tube boiler .................................................................................................. 160
Figure 19.3: Schematic of the flame-tube boiler ................................................................................................... 161
Figure 19.4: Air blower ........................................................................................................................................... 161
Figure 19.5: Pressure regulator (top) and air knob (bottom) .............................................................................. 161
Figure 19.6: Some of the components of the flame-tube setup ............................................................................ 162
Figure 20.1.1: General view of the experimental setup of the industrial refrigeration learning system .......... 168
Figure 20.1.2: Schematic of the experimental setup of the industrial refrigeration learning system ............... 168
22
Figure 20.2.1: Typical thermodynamic cycle of refrigeration on the P-H diagram ........................................... 172
Figure 20.2.2: P-H diagram for R-12 ..................................................................................................................... 173
Figure 21.1: AHU Overview ................................................................................................................................... 175
Figure 21.2: Schematic diagram of an AHU ......................................................................................................... 176
Figure 21.3: Some parts of the Air Handling Unit ................................................................................................ 179
Figure 21.4: Damper calibration curve .................................................................................................................. 187
Figure 21.5: Psychometric chart............................................................................................................................. 188
Figure 22.1: Principle of operation of an impulse turbine – The steam pressure decreases thorough the stator
while it remains constant through the rotor. Also note that only kinetic energy is used to rotate the rotor
......................................................................................................................................................................... 189
Figure 22.2: Comparison between impulse turbines (top row) versus reaction turbines (middle row) – Note
that in reaction turbines the pressure drop occurs gradually and continuously over both the fixed blades
(stator) and the moving blades (rotor) ......................................................................................................... 190
Figure 22.3: Schematic of the Coppus turbine. ..................................................................................................... 192
Figure 22.4: Cross section of the Coppus steam turbine. ..................................................................................... 193
Figure 22.5: Flow of the steam from its point of generation at the fire-tube boiler to the turbine then to the
atmosphere...................................................................................................................................................... 194
Figure 22.6: Schematic of the oil relay governor. ....................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Figure 22.7: Fire-tube boiler to generate the steam .............................................................................................. 195
Figure 22.8: The Coppus steam turbine setup with its different accessories ...................................................... 196
Figure 22.9: Some of the components of the Coppus steam turbine setup ......................................................... 197
Figure 23.1: Concept of operation of the Pelton turbine ............................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Figure 23.2: Schematic and images of the Pelton turbine .................................................................................... 204
Figure 23.3: Terminology in Pelton turbines .............................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Figure 23.4: Experimental setup of the Pelton turbine experiment showing the centrifugal pump and its
motor, the pressure gage that reads the outlet pressure from the pump, the pressure gage that reads the
water pressure at the turbine inlet, the Pelton turbine, the coupling with the dynamometer, the
dynamometer, the point gage reading (used to estimate the discharge), the water basin (contains stones
in a cage to make flow non turbulent to ease the measurement of discharge), The V-notch (a device used
to measure the height of the water in order to obtain the flow rate), and the measuring instruments for
the turbine torque. The RPM is measured by a separate speedometer. .................................................... 205
Figure 23.5: Some of the parts in the Pelton turbine setup .................................................................................. 207
Figure 23.6: Velocity diagram in the Pelton turbine ............................................................................................ 209
Figure 23.7: Velocity diagram in the Pelton turbine .................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Figure 24.1: Types of hydraulic turbines and their operating ranges (Reference: left figure: Korpela; right
and bottom figures: Dexon ............................................................................................................................ 225
Figure 24.2: Parts of the Francis turbine .............................................................................................................. 222
Figure 24.3: Experimental setup of the Francis turbine experiment showing the centrifugal pump and its
motor, the pressure gage that reads the outlet pressure from the pump, the pressure gage that reads the
water pressure at the turbine inlet, the Francis turbine, the coupling with the dynamometer, the electric
dynamometer, the point gage reading (used to estimate the discharge), the water basin (contains stones
in a cage to make the flow non turbulent to ease the measurement of discharge), the V-notch (a device
used to measure the height of the water in order to obtain the flow rate), and the measuring instruments
for the torque. Note that the turbine RPM is measured via a separate speedometer. ............................. 227
Figure 24.4: Velocity diagram for the Francis turbine ............................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Figure 25.1: Basic features of centrifugal pumps.................................................................................................. 238
Figure 25.2: (left) pressure gradient through a centrifugal pump experiencing cavitation: fluid enters the
pump, then the pressure drops below vapor pressure at the impeller’s eye. As the pressure rises in the
volute, the bubbles collapse causing cavitation ............................................................................................ 239
Figure 25.3: Sample performance charts of centrifugal pumps ................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Figure 25.4:Top figure: Affinity laws at different pump RPM ........................................................................... 244
Figure 25.5: Experimental setup of the centrifugal pump setup, showing the electric motor, the coupling with
the pump, the suction and discharge pipes, the panel that reads the measured torque and pump RPM.
............................................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Figure 25.6: Some of the accessories and instrumentation on the centrifugal pump setup .............................. 247
23
24
Cairo University
Sustainable Energy Engineering
Laboratories of Mechanical Measurements and Instrumentation
25
1. Function Generator / Oscilloscope / Power Supply / Multi-Meter
(80 points for the report and 20 points for the preparation)
A. Objectives
1- Generate a sine, square, triangular function from the function generator with different
amplitudes, DC offsets, phases and frequencies
2- Adjust the settings on the oscilloscope to view any given function from the function
generator or from a real sensor. This includes the ability to view two channels at a time, use AC/DC
coupling. The trigger function is not taught at this level
3- Use the spectrum analyzer and the math function of the oscilloscope
4- Store data from the oscilloscope into a flash drive and view the data on Excel for analysis
5- Generate DC voltage form the power supply at any required value
6- View the output DC voltage on the oscilloscope
7- Use all the functions on the multi-meter effectively
8- Realize the precautions for measuring the voltage, current, resistance on the multi-meter
B. Function Generator
This device generates different kinds of signals. It can generate a sine wave, square wave
and a triangular wave. You can control the amplitude, the frequency, the phase and the DC offset
of the wave generated. To see the generated function, you will use the oscilloscope.
Figure 1.1: Function generator
Activity #1: Make sure you know how to set the function generator to produce the following
signal: Y= 2 + 0.5(sin 200  t). Sketch the signal. (5 points)
Hint: In the above sine-wave signal, the DC offset is 2 volt, the signal amplitude is 0.5 V and the
frequency is 100 Hz. In the function generator in the lab, you cannot see the value of the DC offset
or the amplitude. You will use the oscilloscope to adjust these values.
26
Activity #2: Set the function generator to a triangular wave of frequency 1 kHz. Move the
amplitude button and watch the signal on the oscilloscope. Apply a DC offset. Sketch the signals.
(5 points)
Activity #3: What is the frequency range that can be generated using this function generator? What
is the amplitude range? (5 points)
C. Oscilloscope
The oscilloscope is a device that allows you to view the signal with time and to view its frequency
content as well. The oscilloscope in our lab has two channels and therefore you can see and
compare two signals at a time. It also has digital-storage capabilities and spectrum analyzer
Figure 1.2: Digital-storage oscilloscope
Carefully study all the buttons in the oscilloscope to do the following:

1. Learn how you can see channel one only, channel two only, or both
2. Learn how to find the zero line for each channel (set to GND)
3. Learn how to set the horizontal axis (ms/division, position)
4. Learn how to set the vertical axis for channel one (volt/division and position)
5. Learn how to set the vertical axis for channel two (volt/division and position)
6. Learn the difference between DC and AC coupling
7. Learn how to set the intensity and focus of the curves
8. Learn the math function
9. Learn the measurement function
10. Learn the spectrum function
11. Learn how to save the viewed data on a flash drive
Activity #4: Use the function generator to generate two different signals (a sine wave and a
triangular wave). Select the amplitude and frequency yourself. Watch the sine-wave signal on
Channel one and the triangular wave on channel two. Watch both together and watch their sum.
Sketch these signals. Make sure that the frequency you read on the oscilloscope is the same as you
read on the function generator. (10 points)
27
Note: In the oscilloscope in the lab, sometimes the signal starts to “move” horizontally. If this
happens, change the ms/division, adjust the sweep rate or the frequency of the input signal.
Activity #5: Generate and view the signal Y= 2 + 0.5(sin 200  t). Watch the signal with DC
coupling and with AC coupling. Sketch both signals. (5 points)
Activity #6: Get a thermocouple (type K) and connect it to a temperature reader, then connect it
to a voltmeter and then to an oscilloscope. Watch the output of these three devices as you approach
a match to it. Comment. (5 points)
Please note: Do not leave this part unless you are confident with your abilities to operate the
oscilloscope and function generator.
Activity #7: Sketch the function generator panel and state the function of the buttons you used
(5 points)
Activity #8: Sketch the oscilloscope panel and state the function of the buttons you used
(5 points)
D. DC Power Supply
Figure 1.3: DC power supply
Activity #9: Generate different voltages from the power supply- Measure them using a multi meter
(5 points)
Activity #10: View the generated voltages from the power supply on the oscilloscope
(5 points)
28
E. Digital Multi-Meter
Figure 1.4: Multi meter
Activity #11: Sketch the screen of the digital multi-meter, and write down the function of the
different buttons (5 points)
Activity #12: State the precautions for measuring the voltage, current, resistance on the multi-
meter (10 points)
Activity #13: Use the serial number on the above devices to download their technical manuals and
write in a table form their main technical specifications (10 points)
F. Suggested Readings
1. Oscilloscopes: http://ecelabs.njit.edu/student_resources/XYZ-Scope.pdf
2. Mutli-meters:
https://www.idealind.com/content/dam/electrical/assets/TestMeasurement/Multimeters/basics-of-
digital-multimeters.pdf
3. Function Generators: https://www.mouser.com/pdfdocs/BK-precision-function-
generator-awg-guide.pdf, and http://cnx.org/content/m11895/latest/
29
2. Flash and Fire Points
A. Objectives
1- Comprehend the difference between the flash point (open and closed), the fire point and the
self-ignition point
2- Measure the open flash point using the open cup method
3- Measure the closed flash point using the closed cup point
4- Measure the fire point
B. Background
The flash point of a flammable liquid is the lowest temperature at which it can form an
ignitable mixture in air. At this temperature the vapor may cease to burn when the source of
ignition is removed. A slightly higher temperature, the fire point, is defined as the temperature at
which the vapor continues to burn after being ignited.
Neither of these parameters is related to the temperatures of the ignition source or the temperature
of the burning liquid, which are much higher. These temperatures are not to be confused with the
self-ignition temperature, which is the lowest temperature at which a substance will spontaneously
ignite in a normal atmosphere without an ignition source.
The flash point is often used as one descriptive characteristic of liquid fuel, but it is also used to
describe liquids that are not used intentionally as fuels.
Every flammable liquid has a vapor pressure, which is a function of that liquid's temperature. As
the temperature increases, the vapor pressure increases. As the vapor pressure increases, the
concentration of evaporated flammable liquid in the air increases. Hence, temperature determines
the concentration of evaporated flammable liquid in the air under equilibrium conditions. Different
flammable liquids require different concentrations in air to sustain combustion. The flash point is
that minimum temperature at which there is a sufficient concentration of evaporated fuel in the air
for combustion to propagate after an ignition source has been introduced. Flash point is basically
the lowest temperature at which there is enough fuel vapor to ignite.
An example of the use of these different points appears in spark ignition engines. These engines
use gasoline fuel. The fuel is premixed with air within its flammable limits and heated above its
flash point, then ignited by the spark plug. The fuel should not pre--ignite in the hot engine.
Therefore, gasoline is required to have a low flash point and a high self-ignition temperature.
Diesel fuel is designed for use in a compression ignition engines. Air is compressed until it has
been heated above the self-ignition temperature of diesel engine; then the fuel is injected as a high-
pressure spray, keeping the fuel-air mix within the flammable limits of diesel. There is no ignition
source. Therefore, diesel is required to have a high flash point and a low self-ignition temperature.
C. Experimental Setup
The Pensky-Martin apparatus is used for all petroleum products having a flash point above
o
50 C. It consists of a cup with a circumscribed filling mark, fitted with a lid which carries the
thermometer.
There are three ports cut in the lid; one for admittance of the test flame, which is usually
about 3mm long: and two for the observation of the flash. The shutters for the ports and the
mechanism for depressing the test flame are operated by a spring loaded handle. The cup is fitted
with a stirrer which should not be operated whilst applying the test flame.
30
D. Experimental Procedure
1. Fill the cup to the circumscribed mark with fresh oil.
2. Place the oil cup in the flash-point apparatus bath.
3. Place the top onto cup and lock. The top houses an electrically driven paddle, a
thermometer and an ignition/pilot burner.
4. Place the thermometer into the cup via the port hole and clamp into position.
5. Heat the sample with the electric heater.
6. Rotate the stirrer at a uniform rate.
o o
7. At 15 C below the estimated flash point the test flame is applied at intervals of 1 C.
8. As the flash point is approached an enlargement of the test flame, due to enrichment of the
oil vapor, will be noticed.
9. Recorded the temperature at which a distinct flash is noted as a closed flash point.
10. Open the cup and recorded the temperature at which a distinct flash is noted as an open
flash point at this case.
11. Record the fire point at which the oil is firing and still firing for a 5 sec. at minimum.
E. Required Work
Activity #1: Define the open and closed flash points. Explain the difference between them. Which
one is higher and why? (20 points)
Activity #2: Define the fire point. What is the difference between the fire point and the self-ignition
point? (20 points)
Activity #3: State the values of the flash (open and closed) and fire points of the oil used.
(20 points)
Activity #4: Using textbooks or the internet, find the range of flash, fire and self-ignition points
for different fuels. (20 points)
F. Suggested Reading
1. https://beeindia.gov.in/sites/default/files/2Ch1.pdf
2. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fire_point
3. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flash_point
31
3. Volatility And Distillation of Gasoline
A. Objectives
1. Comprehend the concept of volatility and its relationship to the distillation of crude oil.
2. Generate the gasoline distillation curve for the sample provided and to estimate the percent
of residuals (heavy hydrocarbons) that are not distillable in the temperature range of the test.
3. Comprehend the effects of volatility on the spark ignition engine performance in summer
and in winter.
4. Differentiate between evaporation and vaporization.
B. Background
Volatility is a measure of the tendency of a substance to evaporate. Evaporation is totally different
from vaporization. Evaporation is the escape of the molecules from the liquid surface even if
there is no heat transfer. Evaporation occurs on the microscopic level (only the molecules on the
surface escape) and therefore requires more time than vaporization. Evaporation occurs for many
reasons, including mass transfer due to the concentration gradient. i.e., the liquid molecules escape
from high concentration (liquid surface) to low concentration (air).
During evaporation, the liquid molecules absorb their latent heat from the liquid surface or from
the air itself before escaping as vapor.
Substances of high molecular weights (heavy hydrocarbons) are less volatile than substances of
low molecular weights (light hydrocarbons). Also, the heavy hydrocarbons have more calorific
value than the light hydrocarbons.
Vaporization (boiling) requires a heat source and is a full macroscopic phase change from
liquid to vapor at the saturation conditions. It requires less time than evaporation and occurs on
the macroscopic scale (i.e., the whole liquid vaporizes, not just the layer on the surface)
As the temperature increases, the liquid molecules at the surface gain more kinetic energy, which
enhances their escape to the air. This means that as the temperature increases the evaporation
process is enhanced causing higher volatility. When the temperature reaches the boiling point, the
whole liquid starts to vaporize on full scale.
Note that pure water will vaporize at one temperature. However, a mixture of different substances
(like gazoline) will evaporate in a range of temperatures.
Because of the strong relation between volatility and boiling points the method used to measure
the volatility of gasoline is the distillation test.
Distillation test is the heating of a chemical mixture of liquids to a set of given
temperatures. At each temperature, a percentage of the liquid volume evaporates (boils) and is then
cooled to condensation. The result of this test is a curve showing the temperature on the vertical
axis and the percentage of the volume evaporated on the horizontal axis.
Commercial gasoline fuel is obtained from crude oil and it is a mixture of several
hydrocarbons. Therefore, its properties are not as those of a pure substance. Gasoline is used in
spark ignition engines (SIE) in a vaporized phase mixed with air, and this makes the volatility of
the gasoline a very important property for smooth ignition in spark ignition engines.
Volatility affects the fuel mixing with air and subsequently affects engine performance. Many
engine parameters are strongly affected by the volatility of the fuel.
C. Requirements in the Fuels
32
1) Cold engine starting: Because the gasoline must evaporate at low temperatures, the engine
will need a more volatile fuel to make cold starting easier. Therefore, gasoline should contain
highly volatile hydrocarbons to ensure easy starting even at low temperatures in winter.
2) Short warm-up time: The more the volatility of the used gasoline, the shorter the warm-
up period of the engine. This will reduce emissions and will conserve engine life. The crank case
dilution will be minimized if the warm-up period is as short as possible.
3) Crankcase dilution: As the fuel enters the cold cylinder at starting, it condenses and falls
into droplets which go down through piston rings and mix with lubricating oil spoiling it. A more
volatile fuel will reduce this problem even at low temperatures.
4) Vapor lock: This phenomenon happens when the temperature increases. The fuel in the
fuel pump or the fuel line evaporates too much forming bubbles. The bubbles prevent the fuel from
reaching the engine. In old engine designs, where a mechanical fuel pump was used (which
contains a rubber diaphragm), this was a common fault that occurred especially in hot climates.
For modern fuel injection, this fault has been seldom detected.
5) Fuel economy: A fuel with low volatility reduces the amount of vapor escaping from the
fuel tank. Also, the low volatile elements (i.e., heavy hydrocarbons) have more calorific value thus
improving fuel economy which gives another reason to lower the volatility. Usually, gasoline
contains a mixture of light and heavy hydrocarbons; the more the percentage of the heavy
compounds the better is the fuel economy.
6) Smooth acceleration: At sudden acceleration an extra amount of fuel is sprayed into the
intake manifold to compensate for the rapid air rush. If the fuel is highly volatile, then it will
evaporate immediately and the engine will accelerate smoothly. Usually, the more volatile
elements tend to do this job, but unfortunately, they have low calorific values. Thus for smooth
and sudden acceleration, an extra amount of gasoline is required to be sprayed into the intake
manifold.
7) Carburetor icing: In spark ignition engines, fuel is sprayed in the entering air stream in
an adjusted amount in the carburetor. In order for the fuel to evaporate in this mixture it absorbs
its latent heat from the air stream. The air stream, however, has some water vapor in it. As the fuel
absorbs its latent heat, the temperature of the air stream decreases causing the water vapor in it to
freeze. Therefore, in cold climates, ice may form on the walls of the carburetor plugging it. A more
volatile fuel will make the evaporation easier, and the temperature will not be lowered to the
freezing point of water. For carbureted engines this problem occurs for high altitudes (helicopters
or mountains) and for moderately cold climates (very cold climates has no water vapor in the air).
Engines with injection systems do not suffer from such a problem
8) Mixture distribution problems on cylinders: after completing the carburetion or

injection process some droplets of fuel are not evaporated yet. These droplets are distributed on
the cylinders among the flow but due to inertia effects they are not evenly distributed causing
different A/F ratios inside cylinders and different cycle efficiencies for each cylinder. A more
volatile fuel is easier to evaporate and will not suffer from such a problem. A famous phenomenon
33
in SIE is the knock which is a noisy sound resulting from violent variations in pressure inside
cylinders damaging the cylinders and reducing the engine lifetime. Some additives are added to
solve this problem, but they are heavy hydrocarbons, and they are not easily evaporated and so
they cause distribution problems causing knocking to occur in some cylinders and not to occur in
others.
9) Spark plug fouling: Due to mixture distribution problems, some liquid droplets enter the
cylinders as liquids. Therefore, they do not react properly and they form soot particles on the spark
plug affecting spark timing and causing problems in combustion and even damaging the spark
plug with time. More volatile fuel will not suffer from this problem.
D. Gasoline Distillation Curve

Gasoline is a mixture of several hydrocarbons, and each constituent has its own boiling
temperature, thus gasoline does not have a single boiling temperature like pure water but rather
has a range of evaporation that may extend from 25°C to 220°C for different types and additives.
Usually, three temperatures give an indication of the volatility of gasoline, the first at which 10%
of the condensed volume is received (10% point), the second at which 50% of the condensed
volume is received (50% point) and the third at which 90% of the condensed volume is received
(90% point). A small percentage of components that vaporize (boil) at low temperature is needed
to ensure smooth cold engine starting, short warm up time, minimum crank case dilution and no
vapor lock. These components are called front-end volatility components. Their percentage in
the fuel controls the 10% point to match the need at summers and another match is for winters.
Also, components of high temperature vaporization are present in the gasoline mixture by a certain
percent that controls the 90% point to have enough heavy hydrocarbons for a high calorific value,
on the other hand heavy hydrocarbons shouldn't give liquid droplets that cause mixture distribution
problems on cylinders or spark plug fouling. These components are called high-end volatility
components.
The 50% point is also controlled by the ratio between front- and high-end components in the
mixture. 50% point also, governs the behavior of the engine regarding carburetor icing and sudden
acceleration. The 50% and 90% points are adjusted with different values in summers and winters.
An example of the Gasoline Distillation Curve is shown in Figure #1. An example of the seasonal
variation of volatility from summer-grade gasoline to winter-grade gasoline is shown in Figure 2.
34
Figure 3.1: An example of the gasoline distillation curve (classified as 60- 100- 156˚C)
Figure 3.2: Seasonal variation of volatility for gasoline from summer-grade to winter-grade
gasoline
35
E. Experimental Setup
Figure 3 shows the simple standard distillation apparatus used in this experiment. The facility
consists of:
1- Heating source (burner)
2- Fuel flask
3- Thermometer
4- Condenser (ice bath)
5- Graduated receiver
A known amount of fuel is placed in the fuel flask. The fuel is then heated using the burner causing
the fuel to evaporate gradually as the temperature increases. The vapor is then condensed in the
condenser and received in the graduated receiver.
Figure 3.3: Standard distillation apparatus
F. Experimental Procedure
1. Fill the fuel flask with 100 milliliters of commercial gasoline then mount it on its position and
make sure that the apparatus is completely sealed from outside air (safety precaution for no fires
or explosions).
2. Light on the burner to start heating.
3. Start observing the receiver as the fuel evaporates into the condenser and condense back in the
receiver.
4. Record the temperature as the first droplet falls into the receiver which presents this mixture's
initial boiling point (IBP).
5. Record temperature each 10 ml volume condensation on the receiver until you reach the 90 ml
volume (100 ml will not be reached as some residuals exist in the fuel which have high molecular
weight making its boiling point very high and can't be reached on the test range).
6. Observe the temperature until it reaches a maximum value and starts to decrease (the flask
contains air only as all distillable gasoline is vaporized and due to low heat transfer coefficient of
air lower heat is transferred and temperature is decreasing) then record the final distillated volume
with maximum temperature and switch of the burner.
36
7. Fill in the following table:
T(˚C)
% 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
vol.
Evap.
8. Measure the volume of residuals in the flask using another receiver. You will find that
summation of volumes is still not 100 ml. The rest of losses have escaped to the atmosphere. Now
calculate their volume.
9. Plot the distillation curve and determine the key points on this curve.
G. Required Work
Activity #1: Make a table that summarizes the advantages and disadvantages of high and low
volatile fuel components in spark ignition engines (10 points)
Activity #2: Clearly define volatility, evaporation, boiling and distillation (10 points)
Activity #3: Fill-in Table 1 above (10 points)
Activity #4: Plot the distillation curve of the sample tested (20 points)
Activity #5: Show the IBP, 10%, 50% and 90% points on the curve and state their values
(10 points)
Activity #6: Using reference books or the internet, find and print the distillation curve of any crude
oil. State your references. (10 points)
Activity #7: Sketch the distillation curve of pure water (10 points)
H. Suggested Reading
1. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volatility_(chemistry)
37
4. Measurements of Calorific Value
(80 points for the report + 20 points for the preparation)
A. Objectives
1. Comprehend the difference between the lower and higher calorific values for a given
sample of a fuel
2. Measure the lower and higher calorific values for a given sample of a fuel
3. Comprehend the effects of the fuel chemical composition on the combustion efficiency
B. Background
The heating value (calorific value) for a certain fuel is the amount of energy released when
a unit of mass (or unit volume) of fuel is burned completely in a steady flow process and the
product are returned to the state of the reaction.
There are two types of heating values: The higher heating value (HHV), which occurs when H2O
in the products is in the liquid form; and the lower heating value (LHV) which occurs when H2O
in the products is in the vapor form.
In this experiment, the Junker calorimeter will be used. In this device, a certain mass flow
rate of fuel is burnt. Water, with a known flow rate, is cooling the inside of the device. The inlet
and outlet temperatures of the water are measured. Part of the water condenses and is also
measured. The products of combustion leave the device and their temperature is measured.
Figure 4.1: Junker Calorimeter
38
The Junker calorimeter used in this experiment consists of:
1. Heating source (burner)
2. Water flask
3. Thermometer
4. Stopwatch
5. Pressure regulator
1. Fill the calorimeter with water which passes inside the tubes.
2. Light on the burner to start heating. The fuel used is liquefied petroleum gas (LPG)– assume its
composition as 50% propane (C3H8) and 50% butane (C4H10).
3. Record the water inlet temperature
4. Record the water exit temperature and the exhaust temperature
5. Measure the water mass flow rate mow by measuring the time needed to fill a certain volume of
water.
6. Similarly, measure the condensed water mass flow rate mow cond.
7. Fill your measurements in the following tables:
twi two texh
Vw time
Vw, condensed time
8. Measure mof using a rotameter. The rotameter was initially calibrated for air, not for LPG. You
can still use it for LPG by correcting its reading as follows:
mof = moa * sqrt (fuel/air)
E. Required Work
Activity #1: Fill-in all the tables above (10 points)
Activity #2: Calculate the higher heating value (HHV) from an energy balance: the energy released
by the fuel is equal to the increase in the water's energy:
mow *cp,w* (two – twi) = mof *HHV (10 points)
Activity #3: Calculate the lower heating value (LHV) by accounting for the latent heat of the
condensed water:
mof * HHV = mof *LHV + mow,cond *hfg (10 points)
39
Activity #4: Compare the calculated HHV and LHV of LPG to the published values for propone
and butane. Comment. (10 points)
Activity #5: The more hydrogen in the fuel, the more water vapor forms and more is the difference
between the HHV and the LHV. Fill-in the table below and then plot the carbon-to-hydrogen ratio
on the horizontal axis and the (HHV-LHV)/HHV on the vertical axis. Comment.
(15 points)
Activity #6: What do you think is the difference between the HHV and the LHV for carbon? Why?
Would the combustion efficiency be higher for a fuel made of only carbon or for fuel made of only
hydrogen? Why? (15 points)
Fuel Chemical Carbon-to- HHV LHV (HHV-LHV)/HHV

Formula hydrogen
ratio
Hydrogen H2 =0/2
Methane CH4 =1/4
Propane C3H8 =3/8
Butane C4H10 =4/10
Activity #7: One of the methods of waste management is to actually burn the waste in a controlled
manner inside an incinerator. Can we also generate electricity while getting rid of the waste? Why
yes or why no? (10 points)
1. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heat_of_combustion
2. http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/fuels-higher-calorific-values-d_169.html
40
5. Viscosity Measurements
A. Objectives
To be able to define dynamic and kinematic viscosities and to understand their dependence on
temperature and significance.
To be able measure the viscosity of a given fluid and to properly select the correct
spindle/rotational speed combination.
B. Background
Viscosity describes a fluid's internal resistance to flow and may be thought of as a measure of fluid
friction. The less viscous a fluid is, the greater its ease of movement. A fluid which has no
resistance to shear stress is known as an ideal fluid or inviscid fluid. The study of viscosity is
known as rheology.
Fluid viscosity varies with its temperature and therefore close temperature control of the fluid is
essential for accurate measurements, particularly in fluids like lubricants, whose viscosity can
double with a change of only 5 °C.
Viscosity is measured as dynamic viscosity, , measured in kg/m.s or as kinematic viscosity, , in
m2/s.
A viscometer is an instrument used to measure the viscosity of a fluid. In viscosity measurements,
either the fluid remains stationary and an object moves through it, or the object is stationary and
the fluid moves past it. The drag caused by relative motion of the fluid and a surface is a measure
of the fluid’s viscosity. The flow conditions must have a sufficiently small value of Reynolds
number for laminar flow conditions to allow simple calculation of viscosity
Rotational viscometers use the fact that the torque required to turn an object in a fluid is a function
of the viscosity of that fluid. They measure the torque required to rotate a disk in a fluid at a known
speed and they infer the viscosity from it. These devices allow precise viscosity measurements
quickly and efficiently. Ease of use and versatility enable them to be used in many industrial
applications where the determination of fluid properties and behavior is essential. The resultant
torque measurement, rotational speed and spindle properties are then combined to automatically
calculate the resultant viscosity value.
The Brookfield dial reading viscometer is a rugged, simple instrument to quickly and accurately
determine viscosity. Readings from the dial viscometer can be directly converted into centipoise
(cP); no timing or involved calculations are needed. Just simply multiply the reading by a
calibration constant to obtain cP viscosity. Repeatability is within 0.2%.
In the digital viscometer, simplified controls allow operators to change test parameters quickly
with the push of a switch and turn of a knob. The digital display ensures easy and accurate readout
of test results for simultaneous measurements of viscosity and torque.
➢ Direct display in cP or mPa, % torque, spindle, and speed.

➢ Excellent accuracy of 1% and repeatability of 0.2%.
➢ Rotary switch allows you to quickly change spindle and speed settings.
Auto range features lets you view full scale range of spindle/speed selections.
41
Figure 5.1: Different spindles available
Different spindles have different diameters and therefore produce different torques for the
same viscosity. The objective is to choose a spindle that produces a reading between 10% and
100%. Because the viscosity is not known, the process of choosing a spindle and rotational speed
for use with the Brookfield viscometer may require trial and error. If a sample has been tested
previously using a particular speed and spindle combination, the user should use that same
combination.
When an approximate value of the fluid's viscosity is known, you can use the following
procedure:
The maximum viscosity range of a spindle running at a given speed is equal to the spindle
factor multiplied by 100. This is the full-scale range for that spindle/speed combination. The
minimum viscosity that can be measured is equal to 10 times the factor, or one tenth of the full-
scale range. Knowing the full-scale range, you can then determine if your fluid fits within the
capabilities of that spindle/speed combination. On the other hand, digital viscometers equipped
with the AUTO RANGE key allow the full-scale range to be obtained automatically. Enter a
spindle code and an RPM setting and press the AUTO RANGE key. The viscometer will calculate
and display the full-scale range viscosity for that spindle and speed combination.
When an approximate value of the fluid's viscosity is NOT known, you can use the
following procedure:
If the reading is below 10% or above 100%, the user should choose a different speed to
obtain a reading in the recommended range. If changing speeds doesn't provide readings between
10% and 100%, the user should try another spindle. Generally, if the reading is above 100% at the
lowest speed, the next smallest spindle should be used. If the reading is below 10% at the highest
speed, the next largest spindle should be used.
1- Fill the cup of the viscometer with the lubricating oil.
42
2- Attach a proper spindle in the viscometer: large spindle for low viscosity and small spindle
for high viscosity.
3- Put the cup in the viscometer.
4- Put the spindle down in the oil until the notch of the spindle is covered with oil.
5- Adjust the spindle axis to be vertical by the three legs of the viscometer to center the air
bubble.
6- Switch the motor on with the first rotational speed.
7- Check the display reading. (if it between 10% to 100% of the torque, take this reading)
8- If the display reading is out of the range, increase the rotational speed until it falls in the range
then take the reading.
9- For the digital viscometer the viscosity appears directly in the screen in cps or mPa.s.
10- For the analog viscometer use the factor ruler to calculate the viscosity by multiplying the
display reading by the factor obtained from the ruler.
E. Required Work
Activity #1: Define the dynamic and kinematic viscosities. Using textbooks or the internet, State
these values for pure water at 20 C. State your references. (10 points)
Activity #2: Explain the physical concept used to measure the viscosity in this experiment.
(10 points)
Activity #3: What are the differences between the analog and digital viscometers used in this
experiment? (10 points)
Activity #4: State the values of the viscosity as measured by the analog and the digital viscometer
of the lubricating oil used. (40 points)
Activity #5: Using textbooks or the internet, find the viscosity of three different liquids. State the
temperature at which this viscosity is given. State your references. (10 points)
1. http://www.brookfieldengineering.com/support/faq.asp
2. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viscosity
3. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viscometer
4. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viscometer#Rotational_viscometers
43
6. Wind Tunnel (IA): Measurements of Lift and Drag Coefficients
Location: Fluid Mechanics Laboratory
A. Objectives
1. To measure and characterize the drag forces exerted on various blunt and streamlined
bodies placed in a uniform air stream
2. To measure and characterize the lift forces exerted on symmetrical and cambered airfoils
as functions of the flow Reynolds number and the airfoils angles of attack.
B. Experimental Setup
The ELD’s 12" open-circuit subsonic wind-tunnel unit located in the Fluid Mechanics Lab
is used to measure the drag forces on different two- and three-dimensional blunt and streamlined
bodies, including airfoils, disks, and spheres, as well as the lift forces on lifting bodies, such as
airfoils. Air is drawn from the room into a rounded inlet, passes through the flow straightening
section, is accelerated through the contraction, passes through the test section, recovers static
pressure in the diffuser and is discharged back to the room from the fan outlet at the downstream
end of the system (See Figure 1).
The wind tunnel ducts are fabricated of fiberglass reinforced plastic laminated over precision
molds. The flow straightener is made of a precision, hexagonal cell, aluminum honeycomb
followed by three, graduated mesh, high-porosity, screens. The contraction section is designed
with 6.25:1 area ratio. The test section is 12" by 12" in cross section by 24" in length and is
fabricated of 1/2"-thick clear plexiglass. A 4"-diameter wall port, located in the test section side
wall, provides access to the interior of the test section.
The diffuser section consists of a parabolic transition joining a 7° included angle, transformation
to a round cross section. In a clear test section, the velocity is continuously variable from 3 m/s to
55 m/s. The velocity profile is flat across 95% of the test section span with less than ±1% variation
from the mean. The turbulence level is estimated to be less than 0.25%. The tunnel uses a centaxial-
type fan that is powered by a 20 HP, AC induction motor. A variable frequency transistor speed
control regulates the fan motor RPM. An acoustic diffuser is finally provided at the fan discharge
to minimize the fan sound levels.
C. Instrumentation
The instrumentation system consists of three main components:
1. Traversing probe: A two-axis traversing mechanism is capable of positioning and reporting

the location of a probe at any point in the upstream 75% of the test section vertical centerline plane.
The probe is fitted with a total pressure probe for boundary layer survey measurements.
2. Lift/drag balance: A two-component dynamometer that uses restrained cantilever beams,

whose deflection under load, is measured by precision linear variable differential transformer
(LVDT). Forces generated by the model under test are conveyed to the dynamometer through a
stiff strut and result in the deflection of the beam assemblies. These deflections are proportional to
the applied forces.
44
Figure 6.1: Overall side elevation: 12" EIFFEL type, open circuit, subsonic wind tunnel
The deflection of each beam assembly is sensed by the LVDT (Figure 2). The output DC voltages
represent the magnitude and direction of the applied forces.
45
Figure 6.2: Dynamometer assembly
3. Meter cabinet: A control/readout assembly containing the signal conditioning, the

calibration, and the control functions for the system. The cabinet also include a high-quality
differential-type pressure transducer and a 9-position manual pressure selector valve. The pressure
transducer includes a precision pressure capsule, a linear variable differential transformer (LVDT)
and an excitation (Figure 3). Pressure is applied to the sealed cavity surrounding the pressure
capsule. The reference pressure, either atmosphere or the test section static pressure, is applied to
the interior of the capsule. The capsule deflects linearly in response to the differences in the applied
pressures. The movable core of the LVDT is coupled to the capsule and is translated within the
LVDT armature as the capsule deflects. The resulting LVDT output voltage is proportional to the
applied differential pressure.
Figure 6.3: Cutaway view of the pressure transducer
46
3. Experimental Procedure
Install the appropriate strut (airfoil or drag model) in the dynamometer base block. Remove
the plexiglass plate that closes the floor aperture and install the dynamometer in place. Select and
install the desired model. Observe the lift and drag display and remove “tare” loads by adjusting
the brass “zeroing” thumbwheels so that a 0000 display is presented while the tunnel is at rest.
Replace the test section cover and the wall port plug. Start the wind tunnel fan, establish an
appropriate air speed, then observe and record the desired data.
D. Drag Models
The standard set includes a smooth sphere, a roughened sphere, a chamfered disk, a cup, and a
hemisphere. All models are 2" diameter.
1. Screw the sting of the selected model into the threaded sleeve at the top of the strut.
Set the mode selector switch at DRAG and adjust the drag “Zeroing” thumbscrew to remove the
“tare” weight while at rest.
2. Start the wind tunnel fan and record the drag forces at many tunnel speeds. Calculate and plot
the drag coefficient versus Reynolds number.
3. Replace the drag model and repeat the same steps. Compare the drag coefficients of models
with equal projected areas.
Airfoils: Two airfoil sections are available: The symmetrical NACA 0012 profile and the
cambered NACA 4412 profile. These models are precision casting made using a filled epoxy resin.
The chord length is 4". The airfoils are fitted with an aluminum inset block for fastening to the
strut.
1. Fit the strut to the insert block of the airfoil; thread a small socket head screw into the forward
hole (the pivot) and into the threaded hole in the strut. The aft screw secures the airfoil at the
desired angle of attack.
2. Adjust the airfoil angle so that the scribed profile is exactly superimposed over the airfoil,
then tighten the aft screw. Set the mode selector switch to LIFT (and/or DRAG), then adjust the
“Zeroing” thumbscrew to remove the “tare” weight of the model while the system is at rest.
3. With the angle of attack 𝛼 set at 0°, adjust the speed control switch and record the pressure
value and the corresponding drag/lift forces. Repeat the above steps for different fan speeds and
air velocities.
4. By increasing the angle of attack in increments of 5°, repeat the above steps for angles 5°,
10°, 15°, 20° and 25°, by which time the airfoil should have lost all lift -at this point, the flow has
stalled-, as indicated in Figure 4. Note the angle of stall. Also note the angle at which lift is restored
as the angle of attack is reduced slowly from its stall position.
47
Figure 6.4: Smoke flow visualization showing a stalled flow on the upper surface (suction
side) of an airfoil at high angle of attack. The airfoil is said to be stalled: Lift drops off and
drag increases remarkably; the airfoil is no longer flyable. (After the National Committee for
Fluid Mechanics Films, Education Development Center, Inc., © 1972.)
E. Analysis & Discussion

Drag: It is the component of the net force, exerted on a body by a fluid, acting parallel to
the direction of the unperturbed free stream. The drag force is a resistive force to body motion.
The total drag force 𝐹𝐷 is the sum of friction drag and pressure drag. The skin friction drag is that
contribution due to tangential shear stresses, integrated over the body surface. It is directly a
consequence of the fluid viscosity. The pressure drag is the contribution of the resultant pressure
force. It depends strongly on the shape of the body and is also referred to as the form drag or the
drag due to separation.
Drag Coefficient: It is a dimensionless coefficient, which is generally defined for a two- or

three-dimensional body of arbitrary shape as the ratio of the total drag 𝐹𝐷 in a stream of speed 𝑉
at infinity to the product of the dynamic pressure and the body’s frontal area 𝐴𝑓 that corresponds
to the projection of the body on a plane normal to the free stream:
𝐹𝐷
𝐶𝐷 = (1)
1 2
𝜌𝑉 𝐴𝑓
2
The upstream flow speed 𝑉 that is needed to evaluate the right-hand side of Eqn. (1) is not
actually measured in the current procedure, but its value can be approximated through the
determination of the stagnation pressure 𝑝𝑠 that is measured using the total pressure probe. Then,
writing a Bernoulli equation from an arbitrary upstream location to the stagnation position yields:
2(𝑝𝑠 − 𝑝0 ) 2∆𝑝
𝑉=√ =√ (2)
𝜌 𝜌
48
Figure 6.5: Laminar (left) versus turbulent (right) boundary layers
Figure 6.6: Drag coefficient of a smooth sphere as a function of Reynolds number
The upstream flow speed can be also expressed in terms of the selected fan frequency:
𝑉 = 1.126 𝑓 − 5.581 (3)
For instance, as 𝑓 varies in the range from 10 to 40 Hz, Eqn. (3) gives an approximate
value for the corresponding flow speed falling in the range from 5.68 to 39.46 m/s. For
geometrically similar bodies having different orientation to the free stream direction, the
dimensionless drag coefficients are dependent on both the Reynolds number Re and the body’s
orientation. The Reynolds number is defined as the ratio of the inertial force to the viscous/friction
force:
49
𝜌𝑉𝐷 𝑉𝐷
Re = = (4)
𝜇 𝜈
Here, 𝜇 and 𝜈 refer to the air dynamic and kinematic viscosities, respectively, while 𝐷 is a
characteristic length scale that describes the body shape. It corresponds to the diameter length for
cylinders and spheres and to the chord length for airfoils.
The drag coefficient for flow over a smooth sphere is presented in Figure 5 as a function of the
Reynolds number. At Re ≤ 1, there is no flow separation, and the drag is predominantly friction
drag, as predicted by Stokes’ theory. With the increase of Re, the adverse pressure gradient
developed at the rear of the sphere leads to boundary layer separation and ultimately to a low-
pressure turbulent wake. For 103 ≤ Re ≤ 3 × 105 , 𝐶𝐷 is approximately constant. For Re >
3 × 105 , flow transition to turbulence occurs and the boundary layer on the front portion of the
sphere becomes turbulent. The net pressure force on the sphere is reduced, and the drag coefficient
decreases suddenly.
The extent of the separated flow regime can be reduced by streamlining the body shape. This will
reduce the adverse pressure gradient and make the turbulent wake narrower. Hence, streamlining
helps reduce the pressure drag, but at the expense of the friction drag, simply because of the
increased surface area, as illustrated in Figure 6.
Figure 6.7: The drag coefficient on a streamlined body as a function of the thickness
ratio, showing the trade-off between pressure and skin-friction drag forces
Airfoils and wings are typical examples of streamlined lifting bodies. The drag coefficient for an
airfoil is a function of both Reynolds number and the airfoil’s angle of attack 𝛼, which is the angle
between the airfoil chord and the freestream velocity vector. The chord of an airfoil is the straight
line joining the leading edge and the trailing edge (Figure 7).
50
Figure 6.8: Description of the NACA 4-digit series. For symmetrical airfoils, the
camber and chord lines are straight lines, and they coincide. An airfoil with a curved
camber line is said to be cambered.
Note that the airfoil’s projected area changes with the angle of attack 𝛼. Consequently, drag -as
well as lift- coefficient for airfoils is usually based on the planform area 𝐴𝑝 , which is the maximum
projected area (𝐴𝑝 = span×chord = 0.03096 m2). Therefore, for an air density of 1.2 kg/m3, the
drag coefficient becomes:
𝐹𝐷 𝐹𝐷
𝐶𝐷 = = 53.82 (5)
1 2 𝑉2
2 𝜌𝑉 𝐴𝑝
Lift: It is the component of the net force, exerted on a lifting body, such as an airfoil, acting normal
to the direction of the relative fluid motion. The aerodynamic lift is commonly explained by
referring to the stream tubes next to the upper (suction) and the lower (pressure) surfaces of the
airfoil -the stream tubes are more constricted in the upper surface than in the lower one, so that the
air flow becomes faster, and the pressure gets lower on the upper surface (the Bernoulli effect)-.
The resulting pressure distributions on the airfoil surfaces produces lift. It is worth noting that the
existence of lift force can also be related to the generation of vorticity at a wall within the boundary
layer. This leads to the necessary circulation around the airfoil and ultimately to the pressure
difference between its upper and lower surfaces.
Lift Coefficient: It is a dimensionless coefficient, which is defined as the ratio of the lift force 𝐹𝐿
in a stream of speed 𝑉 at infinity to the product of the dynamic pressure and the airfoil’s planform
area 𝐴𝑝 . Similarly, the lift coefficient becomes:
𝐹𝐿 𝐹𝐿
𝐶𝐿 = = 53.82 (6)
1 2 𝑉2
2 𝜌𝑉 𝐴𝑝
Typical variations with Reynolds number of the lift and drag characteristics around the stall region
for the NACA 0012 airfoil are shown in Figure 8. The Reynolds number is based on the chord
length 𝐶 = 4". For smaller angles of attack, the 𝐶𝐿 increases linearly while the 𝐶𝐷 changes very
51
gradually with increasing angle of attack. At higher angles of attack, 𝐶𝐿 is shown to increase more
slowly with increasing angle of attack and reach a maximum. This phenomenon is known as “stall”
and the angle of attack for maximum 𝐶𝐿 is called the “stall angle of attack”. In contrary with the
lift characteristics, the drag coefficient 𝐶𝐷 increases much more rapidly at higher angles of attack.
Figure 6.9: Variations of drag and lift coefficients with the angle of attack α for the
symmetrical NACA 0012 airfoil at different Reynolds numbers
Figure 9 visualizes the flow field around a cambered airfoil that is (a) aligned roughly with
the stream (b) not so aligned, whereas the right plot sketches of the effect of camber on both lift
and drag profiles. Because of its shape, a cambered airfoil produces non-zero lift at zero angle of
attack. The angle of attack for which the cambered airfoil generates zero lift is negative. It is called
the zero-lift angle of attack 𝐴° (See Figure 7).
Figure 6.10: (Left) Flow past a cambered airfoil, (a) attached flow, (b) separated flow,
after Prandtl-Tietjens (1931). (Right) Effect of camber on lift and drag characteristics.
52
Figure 6.11: Sample lift and drag curves
53
F. Required Work
Part A: Smooth and roughened spheres
1. Make a table summarizing your drag measurements as well as your calculations of the
corresponding drag coefficients and Reynolds numbers.
2. Compare your drag results with available measurements, given in Figure 5. Use the
following reproduction of Figure 5 to plot your values for smooth and roughened spheres and
include this graph in your report. Note that Re and 𝐶𝐷 are both defined in terms of the sphere
diameter 𝐷 = 2".
3. To your understanding, did the flow undergo clear transition to turbulence using either of
the drag models? If yes, what are the corresponding critical Reynolds numbers? Discuss your
observations.
Part B: NACA 0012 and NACA 4412 Airfoils
4. Make a table summarizing your drag and lift measurements as well as your calculations of
the corresponding drag and lift coefficients, and Reynolds numbers for both NACA 0012 and 4412
airfoils:
𝛼 𝑓 (Hz) 𝑉 (m/s) 𝐹𝐷 (N) 𝐹𝐿 (N) Rec 𝐶𝐷 𝐶𝐿
0 10
0 15
0 ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮
0 40
5. Extend your table to include measurements for angles 5°, 10°, 15°, 20° and 25°. Compare
your drag and lift results with available measurements. Use the following reproductions to plot
your calculated values at different Reynolds numbers.
6. By examining the lift and drag characteristics of both airfoils for increasingly larger angles
of attack, determine the angle at which the airfoil no longer has any lift, and the angle at which the
lift is restored. Comment on your results.
7. By examining the lift profile for the cambered airfoil, what is 𝐶𝐿 at 𝛼 = 0? To your
understanding, is this reasonable? Determine the zero-lift angle of attack.
8. Discuss the Reynolds-number effects for both airfoils.
9. What condition needs to be satisfied at the wall for a boundary layer to separate?
10. What are the two major consequences of flow separation?
11. Can you explain why manufacturers produces golf balls with dimpled surfaces?
12. A NASA 4412 airfoil with a 0.5-m chord and 2-m span is being tested in a wind tunnel at
standard sea-level conditions (𝜈 = 1.5 × 10−5 m2/s), and a test-section velocity of 45 m/s at an
angle of attack of 12 deg. What is the airfoil’s maximum thickness, maximum camber, and
location of maximum camber? How much lift and drag is the airfoil generating?
G. Suggested Reading
1. Frank M. White, 2011. Fluid Mechanics, 7th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill. Section 7.6:
Experimental External Flows.
54
2. Robert W. Fox, Alan T. McDonald, and Philip J. Pritchard, 2012. Introduction to Fluid
Mechanics, 8th ed., John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Chapter 9, Part B: Fluid Flow About Immersed
Bodies.
3. Bruce R. Munson, Theodore H. Okiishi, Wade W. Huebsch and Alric P. Rothmayer, 2012.
Fluid Mechanics, 7th ed., John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Chapter 9: Flow Over Immersed Bodies.
4. Ira H. Abbott and Albert E. Von Doenhoff, 1959. Theory of Wing Sections: Including a
Summary of Airfoil Data. Dover Publications Inc., New York.
5. Steven A. Brandt, Randall J. Stiles, John J. Bertin and Ray Whitford, 2015. Introduction
to Aeronautics: A Design Perspective, 3rd ed., American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics,
Inc., Virginia.
55
7. Wind Tunnel (IB): Flow Visualization
A. Objectives
1. Visualization of how the streamlines move around the outer surface of both stream-lined
and blunt bodies.
2. Visualization of laminar and turbulent boundary layers and how the thickness of the
boundary layer varies with Reynolds number
B. Background
When the fluid streamlines impacts on a body, the frontal area decreases forcing the fluid
particles to accelerate around the external surface of the body. This forms a new pattern for the
streamlines which is completely different from the free stream pattern. Nevertheless, if the body
shape becomes different, the fluid particles had already attained specific amount of inertia and
cannot retain its original pass or even follow the new path. This may cause separation of the fluid
particles from the surface of the body and generating a wake region, shown in figure (1). This
phenomenon is called Boundary Layer Separation.
Boundary layer separation and different associated regions
Figure 7.1: Illustration of the concept of flow separation behind a bluff body
The apparatus available in the fluid laboratory consists of:
1. Water basin: It contains the water and a pump (imbedded in the bottom) to circulate the
water
2. Electric generator: It produces (and control) the electric current that flows through the
electrode
3. Electrode: It is a thin wire and carries an intense electric current (responsible for analyzing
the water)
4. Body placing area: A simple plain area where we can place the body under consideration,
and we can easily observe the streamlines with the aid of a light reflecting prism.
56
Figure 7.2: Flow visualization apparatus
D. Principle of Operation
When the current passes through the electrode, the water is analyzed into H2 and O2 at the
tips of the electrode and they form several gaseous bubbles. When water flows with a specified
speed, these bubbles flow with the water stream and over any obstacle. They will follow certain
trajectories which is called streamlines. Hence, we can visualize the streamlines around the outer
surface of both stream-lined and bluff bodies.
(a) (b)
Figure 7.3: Streamlines around immersed (a) Blunt, (b) Streamlined body in an inviscid flow
57
(b)
Figure 7.4: Streamlines around immersed (a) Blunt, (b) Streamlined body in actual flow. Note
that the angle at which separation occurs and the flow behavior after separation depend on the
shape geometry and the flow Reynolds number. Also note that at very low Reynolds numbers,
the flow around bluff bodies may not separate and note that the flow around streamlined bodies
may separate at large angle of attack and/or large Reynolds numbers as shown in the figure
bellow:
Figure 7.5: Boundary layer flow separation behind an airfoil at large angle of attack
58
E. Experimental Procedure
1- Check the junction of the wire and electrode to be connected.
2- Turn the switch on.
3- Touch the electrode tips with the water surface until bubbles are formed.
4- Put bodies [stream & blunt] in front of electrode tips in the direction of the bubbles
formation.
Note: If there is no bubbles generation, put some salt in the water or check the connection of the
electrode junction.
F. Required Work
1- Sketch the streamlines and make a comparison between blunt bodies (cube and cylinder)
and the stream body (airfoil body) from the following views: (40 points)
- The location of the separation point
- The location of the stagnation point
- The shape of the boundary layer
- Turbulence zone
2- What do you think will happen to the boundary layer when the angle of attack increases
for the stream-lined body? What will be the effect on the lift and drag coefficients? (20 points)
3- Using the internet/books, find flow visualization pictures for different streamlines and
blunt bodies’ shapes. Print the pictures and explain under each picture the type of body
(streamlined or blunt), describe the flow conditions (Re number, laminar/ turbulent) and comment.
State the references (20 points)
1- http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drag_force
2- http://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/k-12/airplane/drag1.html
3- http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potential_flow
4- http://ocw.mit.edu/OcwWeb/Aeronautics-and-Astronautics/16-01Fall-2005-Spring-
2006/FluidMechanics/index.htm
5- http://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/k-12/airplane/shortt.html
59
8. Wind Tunnel (IIA): Pressure Distributions about Blunt and Streamlined
Bodies
A. Objectives
Measure and describe the local pressure distributions around the circumferences of (1) a
smooth circular cylinder at different Reynolds numbers; and (2) a symmetric airfoil shape at
different angles of attack.
B. Experimental Setup and Instrumentation

Same as in wind tunnel - Part I
C. Experimental Procedure
Cylinder: A smooth brass tube (3/4" in diameter) with one pressure tap that is mounted to
a plexiglass plug. Insert the cylinder into the test section through the wall port. The flange of the
plug has a scribed index that relates the radial location of the pressure tap to the degree scale
surrounding the wall port. Positioning the index at 0° orients the cylinder pressure tap at the
stagnation point. Set the mode selector at PRESSURE and connect the white tube (No. 1) to the
fitting on the cylinder plug. Turn the selector valve to the selected position. Measurement of the
pressure distribution about a cylinder can be obtained by rotating the cylinder clockwise through
10° intervals.
Pressure airfoil: This airfoil is mounted to a plexiglass wall plug and is fitted with a small
brass pin at the opposite end. The airfoil’s angle of attack is set by aligning the scribed index line
on the edge of the plug with the degree scale surrounding the wall port. The individual numbered
or “color-coded” tubes are pushed onto the fittings of the plug leading from the pressure taps while
the bulkhead connector is secured at the back of the meter cabinet. The chord length 𝑐 = 4".
Note that the NACA 0012 has only upper surface taps. Lower surface measurements can
be made by setting the airfoil at a comparable negative angle of attack. Measurement of static
pressure distributions on both upper and lower surfaces at various velocities and angles of attack
can be obtained.
Figure 8.1: Pressure-tap locations for the NACA 0012 airfoil (Dimensions in inch)
60
With the angle of attack 𝛼 set to 0°, record the pressure distribution over the airfoil. By
increasing the angle of attack in increments of 4°, repeat the data acquisition for angles of 4°, 8°,
12°, and 16°, by which time the airfoil should have lost all lift – Stall limit.
D. Analysis & Discussion

Pressure Coefficient: The pressure distribution around a body that is immersed in a fluid
is often expressed in terms of the non-dimensional pressure coefficient 𝐶𝑝 , defined as the ratio of
the pressure force exerted on the surface of the body to the dynamic component of the stagnation
pressure:
𝑝 − 𝑝0
𝐶𝑝 = ,
1 2 (7)
𝜌𝑉
2
where 𝜌 and 𝑝0 refer to the upstream density and pressure, respectively. 𝐶𝑝 depends on the body
shape and generally determined by experiment. Thus, in the present experiment, a pressure
coefficient 𝐶𝑝,𝑖 can be defined for the pressure 𝑝𝑖 at each pressure tap 𝑖 on a given shape and for a
given orientation.
𝑝𝑖 − 𝑝0
𝐶𝑝,𝑖 =
1 2 (8)
2 𝜌𝑉
The upstream flow speed 𝑉 that is needed to evaluate the right-hand side of Eqn. (2) is not
actually measured in the current procedure, but its value can be approximated through the
determination of the stagnation pressure 𝑝𝑠 that is measured using the total pressure probe. Then,
writing a Bernoulli equation from an arbitrary upstream location to the stagnation position, one
finds that 𝜌𝑉 2 /2 = 𝑝𝑠 − 𝑝0 . Equation (2) becomes:
𝑝𝑖 − 𝑝0
𝐶𝑝,𝑖 = (9)
𝑝𝑠 − 𝑝0
A typical pressure distribution for a circular cylinder is illustrated in Figure (2). Note that
the value of the pressure coefficient at the stagnation point is equal to unity, as expected.
Figure 8.2: Pressure-coefficient distribution around a circular cylinder. The right figure shows
typical distributions of Cp and Cp cos
61
Calculation of Drag Coefficient Due to Pressure: The drag force due to pressure 𝐹𝐷,𝑝 on a two-
dimensional body of arbitrary shape is given directly as:
1
𝐹𝐷,𝑝 = ∬(𝑝𝑖 − 𝑝0 ) cos 𝜃 𝑑𝐴 = 𝐶𝐷,𝑝 ( 𝜌𝑉 2 𝐴𝑓 ) (10)
2
Here, 𝐴 is the surface area that is in contact with the fluid, 𝐴𝑓 is the cylinder’s frontal area, and 𝜃
is the angle that the normal to the surface makes with the upstream flow direction (See Figure (2)).
An important related quantity is the non-dimensional drag coefficient 𝐶𝐷,𝑝 , discussed in Part I. For
the present circular cylinder, one can determine the value of the drag coefficient from the measured
pressure distribution in a straightforward manner by setting the differential area 𝑑𝐴 = 𝑏𝑅 𝑑𝜃 in
Eqn. (4), where 𝑏 and 𝑅 denote the span length and the cylinder radius, respectively.
Furthermore, since the pressure distributions over the top and bottom surfaces of the
cylinder can be assumed symmetric (at least within the sub-critical flow regime, Reynolds number
of which is known to be < 1.5 × 105 ).
𝜋
𝐹𝐷,𝑝 = 2𝑏𝑅 ∫ (𝑝𝑖 − 𝑝0 ) cos 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 (11)
0
From the above definition of the pressure coefficient (Eqn. (3)), the definition of the drag
coefficient in Eqn. (4) and the special result for a circular cylinder in Eqn. (5), it can be shown
that:
𝜋
𝐶𝐷,𝑝 = ∫ 𝐶𝑝,𝑖 cos 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 (12)
0
Typical distributions of both 𝐶𝑝 and 𝐶𝑝 cos 𝜃 are presented in Figure (2). In practice, the
integral in this expression can be evaluated using an integration scheme. For example, if
measurements are made at an increment of 10° starting at 0° and ending at 180° , then an
appropriate integration formula, according to the trapezoidal rule, would be:
1
𝐶𝐷,𝑝 = [ 𝐶𝑝,0 cos 0° + 𝐶𝑝,10 cos 10° + ⋯ + 𝐶𝑝,170 cos 170°
2 (13)
1 𝜋
+ 𝐶𝑝,180 cos 180°] (10°)
2 180°
Accepted experimental values of the total drag coefficient 𝐶𝐷 for a smooth circular cylinder are
plotted in Figure (3) as a function of the flow Reynolds number 𝑅𝑒𝐷 = 𝑉𝐷/𝜈, in which 𝐷 and 𝜈
refer to the cylinder diameter and the air kinematic viscosity, respectively.
62
Figure 8.3: Dependence of the drag coefficient on Reynolds number for a circular cylinder
Figure 8.4: Pressure distribution around a NACA 0012 airfoil
63
E. Required Work
Part A: Smooth circular cylinder
1- Using the pressure data points, measured at a fan frequency of 25 Hz, verify the
calculations of Cp for the circular cylinder. Plot the pressure coefficients 𝐶𝑝 and 𝐶𝑝 cos 𝜃 versus
position 𝜃 in a manner similar to that presented in the figure above
2- Verify the computed value for 𝐶𝐷,𝑝 by performing numerical integration. Using the value
of 𝐶𝐷,𝑝 just found, calculate the drag force 𝐹𝐷,𝑝 on the circular cylinder. The cylinder diameter and
length are 19.05 and 304.8 mm, respectively.
3- Repeat your measurements at fan frequencies of 10 and 35 Hz. Compare your values of
𝐶𝐷,𝑝 with the accepted experimental values given in Figure (3). Use the reproduction of Figure (3)
below to plot your values and include this graph in your report. Comment on your results.
Part B: Symmetric NACA 0012 Pressure Airfoil

1- Adjust the fan frequency to 25 Hz and record the pressure data points at zero angle of
attack. This yields a Reynolds number of approximately 1.5 × 105 . Make a table summarizing
your measurements as well as your calculations of the resulting pressure coefficients. The
pressure-tap locations 𝑥 are given in Figure (1). Note that the static pressure 𝑝𝑥=0 at the leading
edge of the NACA 0012 symmetric airfoil at zero angle of attack corresponds exactly to the
stagnation pressure 𝑝𝑠 , therefore, 𝐶𝑝 = 1.0 at 𝑥 = 0 when 𝛼 = 0°.
𝛼 𝑥 (inch) 𝑥/𝑐 (∆𝐻)𝑅𝐸𝐴𝐷 (∆𝐻)𝐶𝑂𝑅𝑅𝐸𝐶𝑇 𝑝𝑖 − 𝑝0 𝐶𝑝
0 0 0 -- -- -- 1.0
0 0.1542 0.03855
0 0.3874 0.09685
0 ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮
0 3.2117 0.80293
Extend your measurements to include the pressure distributions for angles of attack 4° and
8°. Compare your values for the 𝐶𝑝 with published results. Use the following reproduction
of Figure (4) to plot your calculated values at different angles of attack and include this
graph in your report.
2- By examining the pressure distributions over the NACA 0012 airfoil at 𝛼 = 0°, can this airfoil
generate lift? Why? For increasingly larger angles of attack, can you determine the angle at which
the airfoil has no longer any lift generated?
3- From the definitions of 𝐶𝑝,𝑖 and drag coefficient 𝐶𝐷,𝑝 , show how Eqn. (6) is derived. Is this
result valid for bodies of arbitrary shapes?
4- In a 50-mph wind, what is the total drag force on a 30-ft vertical flagpole of 4-in. diameter?
What is the magnitude of the resulting bending moment at the base of the pole? Hoes does the
Reynolds number for the flagpole problem compare with the Reynolds number in your experiment.
5- Can you resolve the following disagreement? Two investigators are independently determining
the drag force on a circular cylinder at the same Reynolds number: The first investigator carefully
measures the pressure distribution and integrates around the cylinder according to Eqn. (6). The
second carefully measures the drag force directly, by means of a force balance to which the model
64
is attached. Both investigators claim that their values of the drag force are accurate to within 1%,
yet, to within this experimental accuracy, the two values do not agree. Can both answers be
correct? Explain.
1. Frank M. White, 2011. Fluid Mechanics, 7th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill. Section 7.6:
Experimental External Flows.
2. Robert W. Fox, Alan T. McDonald, and Philip J. Pritchard, 2012. Introduction to Fluid
Mechanics, 8th ed., John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Chapter 9, Part B: Fluid Flow About Immersed
Bodies.
3. Bruce R. Munson, Theodore H. Okiishi, Wade W. Huebsch and Alric P. Rothmayer, 2012.
Fluid Mechanics, 7th ed., John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Chapter 9: Flow Over Immersed Bodies.
4. Ira H. Abbott and Albert E. Von Doenhoff, 1959. Theory of Wing Sections: Including a
Summary of Airfoil Data. Dover Publications Inc., New York.
5. Steven A. Brandt, Randall J. Stiles, John J. Bertin and Ray Whitford, 2015. Introduction
to Aeronautics: A Design Perspective, 3rd ed., American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics,
Inc., Virginia.
65
9. Wind Tunnel (IIb): Friction in Pipe Flow
A. Objectives
1. Determine the friction losses in pipes at different flow rates
2. Comprehend the effects of pipe length and diameter on the friction losses
B. Background
Engineers frequently deal with transportation of fluid through pipes. Examples include the
distribution of oil, natural gas or water. Experimental observation by Fraud on long straight and
uniform diameter pipes on the flow of water indicated that head loss due to friction (hf) between
two sections of the pipe varied in direct proportion with the velocity head (V2/2g), the distance
between the two sections (L), and inversely with the pipe diameter (D). By introducing a
coefficient of proportionality, F, called the friction factor, Darcy and Weisbach proposed the
following equation for head loss due to friction in pipe.
L V2
h f = F. .
D 2g
Flow through a pipe may be laminar or turbulent depending upon the relative predominance of the
viscous forces or the inertial forces. A convenient measure of the relative importance of the two
forces is the Reynolds number defined as:
.V.D
Re = ,

where (V) is the average velocity of flow in a pipe of diameter (D), () being the density of the
flied, and () is the dynamic viscosity.
64
For laminar flows: Re < 2000, F =
Re
For turbulent flows: Re > 4000, and friction factor is a function of Reynolds number and relative
roughness of the pipe. The factor F can be obtained from the following equation:
−2
   21.25  
F = 1.14 − 2 log  + 
0.9 
(1)
  D Re  
Energy equation has several forms. One of these special forms is the Bernoulli’s equation which
assume ideal conditions (see the Wind tunnel 2a for details)
P1 V12 P2 V22
+ + g.Z1 = + + g.Z2
 2  2
If friction losses is accounted for, the equation is modified to be
66
P1 V12 P2 V22 P
+ + g.Z1 = + + g.Z2 + loss
 2  2 
Or
P1 V12 P2 V22
+ + Z1 = + + Z2 + h f1−2
.g 2g .g 2g
A useful interpretation of the Bernoulli equation can be obtained through the use of the concepts
of the hydraulic grade line and energy grade line. These ideas represent a geometrical
interpretation of a flow and can often be effectively used to better grasp the fundamental processes
involved.
P V2
The energy line is the line that represents the total head available to the fluid ( + + Z)
.g 2g
The hydraulic grade line is the line that represents the sum of the pressure head and the elevation
P
head ( + Z ).
.g
The following figure shows the main component of the apparatus:
Figure 9.1: Schematic of the friction-in-pipe flow experimental setup
1. Water tank
2. Centrifugal pump
67
3. Regulating valve
4. Rotameter
5. Straight pipe
The inclination angle of the straight pipe can be changed.
1. Adjust the pipe to be horizontal.
2. Turn the pump on and wait until the steady state is reached.
3. Take the reading of the flow rate from the rotameter.
4. Record the piezometer reading for the total and static pressure at the four locations on the pipe.
5. Calculate the pressure loss (hf) through each pipe segment and get the friction coefficient (F).
6. Calculate the Reynolds number.
7. Draw the hydraulic grade line and the energy line.
8. Change the volume flow rate and repeat steps from 3-7 (do this step 3 times).
9. Change the inclination angel and repeat steps from 3-7 with the largest flow (1000 L/h).
10. Record your results in the following table:
L1 = L2 = L3 = 0.35 m
D = 0.019 m

= 0.008
D
Inclination angle () = ……. o
Flow rate (Q) = ……………
Location 1 2 3 4
Pt
PS
68
E. Required Work
Activity #1: Fill-in the above table and then fill-in the following: (30 points)
Q Q
V= = = ……… m/s
A (  .D 2 )
4
h f1−2 = ………. m h f 2−3 = ………. m h f 3−4 = ………. m
h f1−2 + h f 2−3 + h f 3−4

hf = = …….. m
3
D hf
F=2g . = …………
L V2
 .V .D
Re = =……………

Activity #2: Draw the hydraulic grade line and the total pressure line (30 points)
Activity #3: Estimate the factor F using Equation (1) and compare it to the measured value.
Comment (20 points)
69
10.Forced Convection Heat Transfer to a Tube in Cross Flow
Location: Heat Transfer Laboratory
A. Objectives
1. To understand the difference between natural and forced convection.
2. To measure the heat transfer coefficient on a tube in a cross flow as a function of flow
velocity.
3. To present the experimental measurements in dimensionless form as Nusselt number (Nu)
versus Reynolds number (Re) and to compare the measured Nu-Re relation with existing
correlations in the textbooks.
4. To repeat the measurements correlation and comparison for a tube bundle.
B. Background
Convection is the mode of energy transfer between a solid surface and the adjacent liquid or gas
that is in motion, and it involves the combined effects of conduction and fluid motion. The faster
the fluid motion, the greater the heat transfer by convection. In the absence of any bulk fluid
motion, heat transfer between a solid surface and the adjacent fluid is by pure conduction. The
presence of bulk motion of the fluid enhances the heat transfer between the solid surface and the
fluid, but it also complicates the determination of heat transfer rates.
Energy is first transferred to the air layer adjacent to the block by conduction. This energy is then
carried away from the surface by convection, that is, by the combined effects of conduction within
the air that is due to random motion of air molecules and the bulk or macroscopic motion of the
air that removes the heated air near the surface and replaces it by the cooler air.
Convection is called forced convection if the fluid is forced to flow over the surface by external
means such as a fan, pump, or the wind. In contrast, convection is called natural (or free)
convection if the fluid motion is caused by buoyancy forces that are induced by density differences
due to the variation of temperature in the fluid. Heat transfer between the egg and the surrounding
air will be by conduction if the temperature difference between the air and the block is not large
enough to overcome the resistance of air to movement and thus to initiate natural convection
currents.
Figure 10.1: The cooling of a boiled egg by forced versus by natural convection
70
Despite the complexity of convection, the rate of convection heat transfer is observed to be
proportional to the temperature difference, and is conveniently expressed by Newton’s law of
cooling as
Qconv = h*As* (Ts - T∞) (W),
where h is the convection heat transfer coefficient in W/m2 ·
Table 1: Typical values of convection heat transfer coefficient

Type of convection h, W/m2 °C
Free convection of gases 2-25
Free convection of liquids 10-1000
Forced convection of gases 25-250
Forced convection of liquids 50-20000
Boiling and condensation 2500-100000
Many heat exchanger designs depend upon external convective heat transfer from cylinders or
multiple rows of tubes (tube bundle) subjected to cross flow. The heat transfer characteristics of
these cross flow configurations are determined by thermal boundary layer development on the
cylinders. Since the simplest configuration usually involves boundary layer separation, the time–
dependent phenomena, it is not possible to calculate analytically the average heat transfer
coefficients in cross flow.
Even with the great progress made in numerical methods, calculations at arbitrary Reynolds
number is not yet possible, because of the 3-D and time dependent flow instabilities after
separation. As a consequence, heat transfer calculations for problems of this type are based upon
correlations of experimental data which relate the Nusselt number to Reynolds number and Prandtl
number. Since the Prandtl number is practically constant for gases under a wide range of
conditions, the rate of heat transfer for gases is effectively a function of just Reynolds number.
It is intended for the study of heat transfer phenomena associated with flow past cylindrical tubes
arranged either in isolation or in banks of various configurations.
The apparatus consists of Perspex working section through which air may be drawn by a
centrifugal fan. Perspex rods may be inserted into the working section with their axes at right
angles to the direction of flow, thus simulating a typical cross flow heat exchanger of the type used
in many branches of engineering.
One of the spaces provided in the working section for the rods is occupied by an element consisting
of a rod of pure copper approximately 10 cm in length carried between two extension rods of
fabric–based plastic compound. Arrangements are made for heating this copper element in
isolation from the working section, replacing it in the section and then recording its rate of cooling
as indicated by thermocouple imbedded at its center. A semi-logarithmic plot of rate of cooling
together with knowledge of the thermal capacity and surface area of the copper then permits a
direct calculation of the heat transfer coefficient between the copper element and the air flowing
71
past it.
The element is heated by withdrawing it from the working section and placing it in a cylindrical
electric heater. The heater is supplied with current at a low voltage from a rectifier and raises the
temperature of the element to a maximum of about 80 ºC. The element temperature is indicated
by a thermocouple potentiometer, either a standard laboratory instrument or supplied as an extra.
The potentiometer records the temperature difference between the hot junction embedded in the
element and a cold junction in the air stream at the inlet to the working section. The initial
temperature of the air is indicated by a mercury-in-glass thermometer at the air inlet.
The apparatus includes a centrifugal fan driven by a 1 HP electric motor and having its inlet
connected to the working section. Air enters the apparatus by way of a bell-mouth. A transition
pieces is connected after the working section and leads to the fan inlet and carries a honeycomb
flow straighter intended to prevent the transmission of swirl from the fan back into the working
section. The fan discharges to graduated throttle valve by means of which the air velocity through
the apparatus may be regulated.
To permit exploration of the flow pattern upstream of the tube bank a total head tube is provided,
and this may be traversed in a direction perpendicular both to the air flow and to the axes of the
element. Five traversing stations are provided at 2.5 cm centers, as shown in the following figure,
permitting a complete survey of the cross section. In addition, a traversing position is provided
downstream of the tube bank, permitting investigation of the flow pattern in the wake.
Associated static tapings are provided so that the velocity head may be recorded by means of the
manometer. The velocity distribution upstream of the tube bank is sensibly constant and may be
established by a single measurement of the static wall pressure downstream of the bell-mouth.
When all the tube elements are in position, the static pressure drop across the four tube banks is
about four times the velocity head, and once the relation between velocity head and pressure drop
has been established it is preferable to observe the pressure drop rather than the velocity head as
an indication of the air velocity past the tube bank.
Pressure difference and velocity heads in the apparatus reach a maximum of about 75 mm water
gauge. The inclined manometer provided has a range of this magnitude; for greater precision an
electronic micro manometer, available as an extra, may be used.
The thermocouples in the element and at the air inlet are of copper and constantan to British
Standard Reference.
Within the small range 0-50 ºC temperature difference, the temperature characteristic of the
thermocouple is approximately linear and: 1 ºC = 0.041 mV.
The apparatus is mounted on a tubular steel bench carried on castors and an integral cabinet carries
an isolator, starter, and control switch for the element heater.
72
Figure 10.2: Schematic of the experimental setup
Table 2: Nominal dimensions (in mm)

Width of the working section 125
Height of the working section 125
Diameter of the elements 12.5
Transverse pitch of the elements 25
Longitudinal pitch of the elements 18.75
73
Table 3: Specimen specifications
Material Copper
Diameter, d 12.43 mm
Length, l 95.08 mm
Weight, m 107.3 gm
Table 4: Nomenclature
NOTATION & SYMBOL UNITS
Diameter of element, d m
Length of element, l m
Effective Length of element, l1 M
Surface area of element, A m²
Effective surface area of element, A1 m²
Mass of element, m Kg
Specific heat of copper element, C (=380) J/kg.K
Barometric pressure, pA N/m²
Temperature of air, TA K
Velocity head, upstream, H1 cm H2O
Velocity head, downstream of element, H2 cm H2O
Static pressure drop across element, H3 cm H2O
Velocity upstream of working section, V1 m/s
Mean velocity past element, V m/s
Velocity downstream of element, V2 m/s
Density of air,  kg/m³
Specific heat of air at constant pressure, cp J/kg K
Viscosity of air,  kg/m.s
Thermal conductivity of air, k W/m.K
Temperature of element, T K
Slop of cooling cure, M -
Rate of heat transfer to air, q W
Coefficient of heat transfer, h W/m².K
Table 5: Dimensionless groups

h.d
Nusselt number, Nu
K
.C P
Prandtl number, Pr
k
.V.d
Reynolds number, Re

74
D. Assumptions & Theoretical Background
It is assumed that the whole of the heat lost from the cylindrical copper element is
transferred to the air flowing past it.
It is further assumed that temperature gradients within the element are negligible, so that
the thermocouple embedded at the center gives a true indication of the effective surface
temperature.
A certain amount of heat is conducted from the element into the plastic extension pieces.
The extent of this effect has been determined by making comparative tests using copper elements
of identical diameter but varying length. From these tests the equivalent additional surface area
represented by the plastic extensions has been calculated and is allowed for by making an addition
to the true length of the element to give an effective length that is used in the calculations. This
correction amounts to 8.4 mm, where:
l1 = 1 + 0.0084mm
From the definition of the heat transfer coefficient, the rate of transmission of heat from
the element to air is given by:
q = h.A1. (T - TA) (1)
In a time period (dt) the fall in temperature (dT) is given by:

- q.dt = m.c.dT
(2)
Combining equations (1) and (2) and eliminating (q):

− dT h.A1
= dt
T − TA m.c (3)
Integrating:
h.A1 .t
log e (T − TA ) − log e (To − TA ) = −
m.c (4)
T −T A h. A1 .t
log e =−
TO − T A m.c
(4a)
where ( To ) is the element temperature at (t) = 0
This equation suggests that a plot of loge [(T-TA)/(To-TA)] against (t) should yield a straight
h.A1
line of slope ( − ) . Since the other factors in this expression are known, the heat transfer
m.c
coefficient (h) may be calculated. Therefore, the heat transfer coefficient is estimated by measuring
how fast the element is cooled.
In practice, you can plot log e (T − TA ) /(To − TA ) against (t) on a linear axis and estimate the
slope of the best straight line that fits the data; or you can plot [(T-TA)/(To-TA)] on a semi-log paper
(linear on the horizontal axis (t) and log10 on the vertical axis), but in this case make sure you plot
[(T-TA)/(To-TA)], not log [(T-TA)/(To-TA)] and notice that the original expression had loge, not
log10, and the semi-log paper is using log10, not loge. Therefore, if you use a semi-log paper,
knowing that loge N = 2.3026 log10 N , the heat transfer coefficient is related to the slope (M) of
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this line by the expression:
m.c
h = −2.3026 M (5)
A1
In order to establish the effective velocity of the air passing the element it is necessary to calculate
the velocity upstream from the velocity head downstream.
The velocity of the air, V1, is measured with a Pitot tube. Neglecting the compressibility effects
(since the Mach number is very small), the dynamic pressure measured, P, is given by:
 air .V12
P = (6)
2
where P is given by water g H, where H is the head difference measured by the manometer.
Since, 1 cm H2O = 98.1 N.m2, Equation (7) becomes:
V12
= 98.1 H 1 (6a)
2
The density of under pressure (  A ) and at temperature ( TA ) is given by:
pA
= R. TA (7)

where the gas constant R = 287 J/kg.K.
Combining equations (6a) and (7):
H 1 . TA
V1 = 237 .3 (8)
pA
It is usual, when calculating the effective velocity through a bank of tubes to base this on
the minimum flow area. When all the tubes are present this minimum area occurs in a transverse
plan including a row of 5 tubes. Since the tubes have a diameter of 12.5 mm and the width of the
working section is 125 mm the effective area is one half that of the working section, and we may
write for this case:
V = 2V1 (9a)
when a single element is being studied isolation, the minimum flow area is (9/10) of the full
working section area, and we may write:
10
V= V1 (9b)
9
Equation (8) may also be used for calculating local velocities downstream of the element,
substituting (H2) for (H1).
The theory of convective heat transfer leads us to expect that the heat transfer coefficient
(h) will be some function of fluid velocity (V) and of the independent variables: D, p, cp, , k.
Dimensional analysis shows that the relationship between (h) and the independent variables
may be expressed in the form:
h.d  .V.d c p . 
= f  .  or Nu = f (Re.Pr)
k   k 
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In practice the Prandtl (Pr) number is constant for gases under a wide range of conditions,
and the rate of heat transfer is effectively a function of Reynolds number (Re).
i.e. Nu = f (Re)
The purpose is to produce cooling curves for the element used under various flow conditions, in
order to measure the heat transfer coefficient, h. Follow up the following procedure:
1. The apparatus should be set up with the heated element in the desired position.
2. The manometer should be connected to the total head tube, which should be located in the
center upstream position, with the tube itself on the horizontal centerline of the working
section and facing upstream.
3. The other leg of the manometer should be connected to the static tapping at the upstream
end of the working section.
4. The throttle valve should be closed, and the fan stared up.
5. Open the throttle to give the desired flow rate.
6. Switch on and standardize the thermocouple potentiometer in accordance with the
instructions provided with the instrument.
7. It will be found that the velocity head upstream of the working section is, in fact, equal to
the pressure drop between atmosphere and the upstream static pressure tapping.
8. Once this has been established the depression at the static tapping may be employed as a
measure of (H1).
9. Reading of air inlet temperature and total head tube reading should be recorded.
10. The element heater switched on and the element removed from the working section and
inserted in the heater.
11. When the temperature of the element reaches to about 70 oC, corresponding to a
thermocouple voltage of about 2.8 mV, replace the element in the working section.
12. Now, set the potentiometer to reading rather lower than that corresponding to the
temperature of the element, observe the galvanometer needle and start a stopwatch when
the needle passes through the zero position.
13. Re-set the potentiometer to a lower value and observe the stopwatch reading when the
galvanometer needle again passes the zero mark.
14. Repeat this operation for a series of diminishing potentiometer settings: the resulting
information enables a cooling curve to be plotted.
15. It will be found instructive to plot cooling curves for a range of different air velocities and
also with the element in each of the four ranks of the heat exchanger and an isolation.
16. As a preliminary experiment when using the full tube bank it is useful to determine the
relation between upstream velocity head and pressure drop across the tube bank. The latter
pressure drop may then be used as a more accurate measure of flow velocity.
17. As a further test, the velocity distribution upstream of the working section and also at
various positions in the wake may be explored by means of total head tube.
77
F. Test Sheet
Date … /…/ 20
o
Ambient temperature: C Barometric pressure: bar
Voltage: 220 V 1 phase 50 HZ
Element dimensions: Length (1): Diameter (d): Mass (m):
Time ,t in seconds
T/°C , mv Log10 (T-TA)
10% 50% 100%
2.8
2.4
2.0
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
10% 50% 100%

Velocity head, upstream the element H1 cm H2O
Throttle Setting
Units
10% 50% 100%
Slope M -
L1 = l + 0.0084 m
A1 = π.d.11 m2
h = 874.988 (m.M/A1) W/m2.K
TA K
pA = 133.322 x mm Hg N/m2
V1 = 237.3 H 1 .TA / p A M/s
Re = 815 V -
Nu = h.d / 0.0259 -
G. Required Work
1. Fill-in the table above. (35 points)
2. Using heat transfer textbooks (or the internet) find the relationship between the Nusselt
number and the Reynolds number for the case studied and compare it to the obtained relationship
in the lab (state your references). (10 points)
3. Calculate the heat transfer coefficient for the case studied in the lab using the relationship
78
obtained in the lab. (10 points)
4. Calculate the heat transfer coefficient for the case studied in the lab using the relationship
obtained from any heat transfer textbook (10 points)
5. The radiator in your car is not functioning properly. When you drive at medium speed, the
temperature gage in your car does not show dangerous temperature level (red range). However,
when you stop in the traffic signal, the temperature, as shown in the gage, shows dangerous level
(red). Explain why. (10 points)
6. Give three examples of forced convection from industry. (5 points)
H. Suggested Reading
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convection
79
11.Film and Dropwise Condensation
This experiment introduces two different types of condensation:

1- Film-wise condensation
2- Drop-wise condensation
A. Objectives
1- To determine the convective heat transfer coefficient (h) for the two types of
condensation.
2- To determine the amount of heat flux during the two types.
3- To observe the shape of film-wise and drop-wise condensation.
B. Background
Condensation occurs when the temperature of a vapor is reduced below its saturation
temperature. In industrial equipment, the process commonly results from contact between the
vapor and a cool surface. The latent energy of the vapor is released, heat is transferred to the
surface, and the condensation is formed. Other common modes are homogeneous condensation,
where vapor condenses out as droplets suspended in a gas phase to form a fog. And direct contact
condensation, which occurs when vapor is brought into contact with a cold liquid.
C. Film-wise Condensation
During film-wise condensation a layer of condensate covers the cool surface and this offers
resistance to the transfer of heat. Depending upon the height of the condensing surface, the rate
of condensation and the local vapor velocity, flow in this layer, which is flowing in a generally
downward direction, may be laminar, or mildly turbulent with a 'rippled surface'. When flow is
laminar as in the experiment, the rate of heat transfer can be determined from theoretical
considerations provided a number of assumptions are made. These include,
1- Flow in the condensate film is laminar.

2- Heat is transmitted through the layer by conduction only.
3- The temperature in the layer falls uniformly from the saturation temperature of the
vapor on the outside to the temperature of the cooling surface on the inside.
4- The condensate flows under the action of gravity only.
Using these assumptions Nusselt derived the following equation of mean heat transfer
coefficient, hmean in (W/m2.K), for vertical surfaces with film-wise condensation.
where, g is the gravitational acceleration, m/s2

h enthalpy of H2O, J/kg
k thermal conductivity of H2O liquid, W/m.K
80
x height, m
 Viscosity of H2O, N.s/ m2
 Density of H2O, kg/ m3
Subscript f refers to saturated liquid.
Subscript g refers to saturated vapor.
Subscript fg refers to a phase change from saturated liquid to saturated vapor or
vice versa.
Note: The properties k,  and  used are at saturated liquid conditions, although within the layer
of condensate the liquid will be slightly sub-cooled.
D. Drop-wise Condensation
The surface heat transfer coefficient achieved during drop-wise condensation is usually
between 5 and 10 times greater than with film-wise condensation under the same conditions. Drop-
wise condensation does not provide the same opportunity for theoretical analysis as does film-
wise, but a considerable amount of experimental data has been accumulated. This has related to
both heat transfer coefficients and to methods of promoting drop-wise condensation in practice.
Unfortunately, common drop-wise condensation promoters are effective for a relatively short time,
and at present suitable permanent surface treatments are either too expensive or impractical. If
drop-wise condensation can be reliably achieved practically, the heat transfer surface area required
in steam to water heat exchangers can be reduced in size to about 60% of the present size.
The figure bellow shows the difference between film-wise and drop-wise condensation:
Figure 11.1: Steam at atmospheric pressure condensing on a vertical copper surface. Film
condensation is visible on the right side, and dropwise condensation in the presence of a promoter
is visible on the left side. The horizontal tube is a thermocouple
E. Effect of Air (and Other Non-Condensable Gases) in Condensers

A very small air leak into the condensing system of steam power plant will have a far more
detrimental effect on its efficiency than that caused by the partial pressure of the air alone. All
condensing vapor heat exchangers perform much better when "non-condensable gases" are
eliminated. In a stationary atmosphere with no condensation, the air and steam will diffuse into
each other to form a homogenous mixture. However, in a condenser, the steam/air mixture flows
81
at a high velocity towards the cool surfaces where condensation of the steam occurs. The air
remaining after condensation tends to diffuse into the surrounding space, but more air is moving
towards the cool surface with fresh steam. The result is that an envelope of air surrounds the cool
surface and the steam must diffuse through this before it can condense. The obstacle presented by
the air causes a considerable reduction in the heat transfer coefficient, e.g. 1% by mass of air in
steam will approximately halve the drop-wise surface heat transfer coefficient. The highly
undesirable effect of air in condensing heat exchangers requires the employment of some method
of air extraction or air venting. Steam power plant condensers, which work below atmospheric
pressure, are fitted with air pumps or air ejectors, which operate continuously while other heat
exchangers working above atmospheric pressure have either automatic or manual air venting
fittings.
Figure 11.2: Heat flux for drop-wise versus film-wise
82
F. Experimental Setup
Figure 11.3: Schematic of the experimental setup

The experimental facility consists of:
1. Steam chamber
2. Heating element
3. Condensers
4. Film-wise condenser
5. Drop-wise condenser
6. Air extraction system
7. Heater control
Instrumentation
8. Multi point electronic temperature indicator
9. Two water flow meters
10. Pressure gauge
83
Safety Devices
11. Pressure switch
12. Pressure relief valve
13. Thermal protection of heating element
14. Miniature circuit breaker (MCB)
15. Residual current circuit breaker (RCCB)
Precautions
1. Use only high-quality distilled water in this unit - this prevents foaming and contamination
of the condensers.
2. Do not allow detergent, soap or other impurities to enter the steam chamber.
3. Always maintain the correct water level in the chamber - i.e. 15 to 30 mm above the top of
the heating element.
4. Notes: too little water will allow the element to overheat and cause the thermal protection
to operate, while too much water will cause hot water to splash on to the condensers
5. Always turn off both the heater and the condenser cooling water when checking the water
level
6. Do not allow a large quantity of cold water to suddenly enter a hot and empty chamber.
The chamber and other surfaces are hot (up to 100 oC) and must be treated accordingly
7. The glass chamber must not be used if it is cracked or badly scratched and must always be
treated with care.
8. The pressure relief valve and pressure switch should be checked for correct operation at
regular intervals.
9. Disconnect the unit from the mains electrical supply before and while any cover is
removed.
10. Always use the same hand to turn the water jet vacuum pump control valve and the air
extraction valve. (This prevents them being operated in the wrong sequence.)

Nucleate Boiling:
1. Check that there is sufficient water in the chamber to cover the element by about 30 mm.
2. Switch on the heater and increase the water temperature (t1) to about 80 oC.
3. Carry out the air extraction procedure and carry-on heating until t1 reaches the desired value
say 100 oC.
4. Adjust the condenser water flow rates until the surface temperatures of the dropwise (t2) and
the film-wise (t5) are equal and about 8 to 10o C less than t1.
5. The condensation processes may be observed and compared.
Drop-wise Condensation:
84
It is possible to simultaneously run tests on both condensers. However, at the higher heat
fluxes with the drop-wise condenser, it is necessary to turn off the water to the film-wise condenser.
1. Ensure that the water level in the chamber is correct
2. Carry-out the air extraction procedure
3. Run the unit for about five minutes with a saturation (steam) temperature t1 of 100 oC and low
condenser water flow rates. This is to warm all components and to reduce condensation on the
glass
4. Select the steam temperature (t1) which is to be constant for the test (this may be between about
50 oC and 100 oC)
5. Circulate water through the drop-wise condenser at a low rate (say 5 gm/s) and adjust the heater
input to maintain the selected value of t1
6. Note the steam temperature t1, the surface temperature t2, the cooling water inlet temperature
t3, the water outlet temperature t4, and the water flow rate.
7. Increase the water flow rate (to say 10 gm/s) and again adjust the heater input to bring the steam
temperature (t1) to the selected value.
8. Again, record t1, t2, t3, t4 and the water flow rate
9. Repeat at other water flow rates up to the maximum.
10. Repeat in a similar manner but using the film-wise condenser with appropriate water flow rates,
observing t1, t2, t3, t4 and the water flow rate
11. Repeat both tests at other constant values of t1.
Notes:
12. Cooling water flow rates outside the range of the flow meters can be measured by timing the
discharge of cooling water into a measuring cylinder.
13. Air leakage into the chamber is unlikely at t1 = 100 oC, but at lower temperatures some air
infiltration is possible and at intervals it will be necessary to carry out the air extraction
procedure.
14. Fresh distilled water must be available to make good the losses during air extraction.
85
I. Observation Sheet
Atmospheric Temperature: . . . . . oC
Atmospheric Pressure: . . . . . . . . bar
Dropwise Condensation
TEST NO 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Chamber gauge pressure psat, kPa … … … … … … …
Saturation temperature t1, oC … … … … … … …
Indicated surface temperature t2, oC … … … … … … …
Water inlet temperature t3, oC … … … … … … …
Water outlet temperature t4, oC … … … … … … …
Water flow rate, 10-3 kg/s … … … … … … …
Film-Wise Condensation
TEST NO 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Chamber gauge pressure psat, kPa … … … … … … …
Saturation temperature t1, oC … … … … … … …
Indicated surface temperature t2 oC … … … … … … …
Water inlet temperature t3, oC … … … … … … …
Water outlet temperature t4, oC … … … … … … …
Water flow rate, 10-3 kg/s … … … … … … …
86
J. Calculation Procedure
1. Calculate the total heat transfer, Q (w)
2. Calculate the total heat flux,

(w/m2)
3. Calculate the corrected steam

temperature {tsat}
4. Calculate the heat transfer coefficient,

hDc (w/m2.k)
K. Derived results
Atmospheric Temperature: . . . . . oC
Atmospheric Pressure: . . . . . . . . bar
Dropwise Condensation
TEST NO 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Steam pressure (abs) psat, kPa … … … … … … …
Steam temperature tsat, oC

Heat transfer rate, kW Q … … … … … … …
Heat flux , k/m2 … … … … … … …
Temperature drop through shell tmetal, oC … … … … … … …
Corrected steam to surface temperature difference … … … … … … …

(tsat – tsur), oC
Surface heat transfer Coefficient h, kW/m2 K … … … … … … …
Film-wise Condensation
TEST NO 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Steam pressure (abs) psat, kPa … … … … … … …
87
Steam temperature tsat, oC

Heat transfer rate, kW Q … … … … … … …
Heat flux , k/m2 … … … … … … …
Temperature drop through shell tmetal, oC … … … … … … …
Corrected steam to surface temperature difference … … … … … … …

(tsat – tsur), oC
Surface heat transfer Coefficient h, kW/m2 K … … … … … … …
L. Required work
Activity #1: Fill-in the tables above (30 points)
Activity #2: Draw the following diagrams:

1. The relation between the [Heat flux , k/m2] and the [corrected steam to surface
temperature difference (tsat – tsur), oC] for both drop-wise and film-wise condensers at different
steam saturation conditions (say 50 kPa and 100 kPa). (25 points)
2. The relation between the [Surface heat transfer Coefficient h, kW/ m2 K] and the
[Corrected steam to surface temperature difference (tsat – tsur), oC] for both drop-wise and film-
wise condensers at different steam saturation conditions (say 50 kPa and 100 kPa) (25 points)
M. Suggested Reading
1. http://www.p-a-hilton.co.uk/H910.pdf
88
12.Dead Weight Tester and Pressure Measurements
I- Dead Weight Tester

A. Objectives
In this experiment, you will learn:
1. What is meant by calibration and the difference between primary and secondary
calibrations.
2. The use of Bourdon tube and dead weight tester in pressure measurements.
3. The hysteresis error: What is it, what causes it and how it can be quantified.
B. Background
Calibration is the validation of specific measurements. For example, by inserting a
thermometer (with no marks on it) into pure water boiling at atmospheric pressure, we can set a
mark of 100C on the thermometer. We can then insert the thermometer into a mixture of pure
liquid water and ice at freezing conditions to set another mark at 0C. We can place more marks by
using the boiling and freezing points of other pure liquids. Once we finish marking this
thermometer, we can then use it to know the temperature and to mark another thermometer without
having to use pure water at boiling or freezing conditions. The first thermometer was subjected to
primary calibration (since it was marked, i.e., calibrated, using a physical phenomena) and the
second thermometer was calibrated using secondary calibration (since no physical phenomenon
was used but rather a primary-calibrated thermometer).
Therefore, a primary calibration is to calibrate the device against a primary standard which is
a basic quantity (temperature, mass, length ...). Secondary calibration is comparing the device
against another device which was primary calibrated.
In this experiment, we will use the physical phenomena that when a force is applied normally
on an area, a pressure is developed and is equal to: P = Fnormal/Area.
The dead weight tester will simply apply a normal force (which is the weight of some metallic
pieces) across a known area. This way, the true pressure is known (= normal force/area). Then, a
pressure gage will be used to measure the pressure. We can then calibrate the pressure gage using
the true pressure (= normal force/area). Since this uses a basic physical phenomenon, the pressure
gage was calibrated using primary calibration. Then, it can be used to calibrate other pressure
gages without the need of accurate weights or known areas.
89
The dead weight tester applies the pressure from known weight into a pressure gage. It is
commonly used for static calibration of pressure measuring devices. (Static calibration means
that it gives the mean not the fluctuations in the measured values. It cannot be used for dynamic
calibration of devices).
The pressure in the tester is built up till the weights are seen to float, when the fluid gage
pressure equals the dead weight divided by the piston area.
D. Oil Charging Procedure

In order to use the dead weight tester, it must be filled with tester oil. Only use the oil
supplied with each tester. The procedure of oil charging is as follows:
1. Check that the oil pump (plunger) hand crank fully clockwise, i.e. the hand crank should be
at its lowest point.
2. Close both the suction valve and the discharge valve.
3. Remove the metal cap from the oil can.
4. Out off the top of the plastic funnel and place in the screw cap. Attach to the oil can.
5. Remove the filler cap from the oil reservoir.
6. Fill the oil reservoir with oil.
7. Open the suction valve.
8. Turn the oil pump hand crank fully counterclockwise.
9. Close the suction valve.
10. Open the discharge valve.
11. Repeat the procedure until the oil level is above the lower end of the cylinder. One or two
charges will do it.
12. Replace the filler cap on the oil reservoir.
Figure 12.1: Schematic for the dead weight tester setup
90
1. Complete setting the device and the oil charging.
2. Check that both the suction and discharge valves are closed.
3. Pre-load the tester's piston with approximately the expected unknown pressure to be applied.
4. Pre-load the tester's piston with weights before applying pressure to the gauge. Otherwise,
shock from the pressure can dislodge the piston retainer ring, allowing the piston to fly out
of the tester at high velocity. The operator could be seriously injured if standing directly
over the instrument. This also applies when using the tester "as a deadweight gauge".
5. Whenever the piston rises very fast, examine the ring to ensure that it is still tight in its
groove. The ring should fit securely and not be easy to turn with the finger.
6. Connect the unknown pressure to the swivel connector.
7. Adjust the weight on the piston until the piston "floats" while being rotated.
8. Record the pressure and adjust the full-scales output of the pressure gauge or transducer.
9. Reduce the pressure to the dead weight tester slowly.
10. Before bleeding pressure from the tester, the valve at the pressure source should be closed.
Then, the instrument's pressure should be slowly bled to atmosphere. If a vent valve is
unavailable, the fitting at the tester should be carefully and slowly loosened. This procedure
is to create a small leak, minimizing the volume of oil that all enter the interconnecting
tubing.
11. Record the weights that indicate the correct pressure value (correct pressure = weight/area)
12. For pressure gauges, increase weights gradually in steps and record both readings of the
gauge and the dead weights while the weights are being increased (this is called loading)
13. Remove weight gradually in steps and record both readings of the gauge and the dead weight
while the weights are being decreased (this is called unloading).
14. Plot the required calibration chart of the gauge for both loading (adding weights) and un-
loading (removing weights). The difference between the loading and the unloading curves is
called hysteresis. When plotting the loading/unloading curves on the same graph, the
resulting curve is in the form of a loop. In contrast, the curve for a system without hysteresis
is a single, not necessarily straight, line.
F. Required Work
Activity # 1: What happens if you subject the Bourdon tube gage to an excessive pressure (i.e., a
plastic deformation occurs)? Can it be used again to give accurate readings? How do you know if
the tube may have subjected to such high pressures? (15 Points)
Activity #2: Can the Burdon tube be used to measure very rapid changes in pressures (i.e., the
change in pressure inside an engine's cylinder? (15 Points)
Activity # 3: Compare the true pressure (Normal force/area) versus the measured pressure (as read
on the pressure gage) for both loading and unloading cases. Put these values in Table 1. Plot the
gage pressure on the horizontal axis and the true pressure on the vertical axis. Plot both curves on
the same graph. (30 points)
91
Table 1: Comparison between true and measured pressures
True Pressure Gage Pressure
Loading
Unloading
Activity # 4: Compare the two curves (loading and unloading) and estimate the maximum
hysteresis error. (20 points)
Activity # 5: Comment on your results. (10 points)
Activity # 6: The figure below shows an example of hysteresis effect for a rubber band. Think of
some factors that may cause hysteresis. State at least two of them. A good article is available on
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hysteresis (10 points)
Figure 12.2: Example of hysteresis
1. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calibration
2. http://www.nasa.gov/centers/wstf/hardware/measurement/index.html
3. http://www.ansi.org/
4. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pressure_measurement
92
II- Pressure Measurements
(80 points for the report plus 20 points for the preparation)
1. Objectives
1. To understand the concept of operation and to use different types of pressure
measuring devices.
2. To understand and apply the concept of calibration.
3. To understand and quantify the hysteresis phenomenon.
This experiment includes:

1. The Bourdon tube gauge
2. Manometers and inclined manometers
3. Electrical transducers:
A. Strain gauge diaphragm pressure transducer
B. Semiconductor on bending beam pressure transducer
C. Pizo-resistive transducer
The calibration of pressure transducers will be made using the dead-weight tester and standard
calibrated gauges
2. Background
Pressure is defined as the normal force per unit area exerted by a fluid on the surface.
The local fluid pressure depends upon many variables: Elevation, flow velocity, fluid density,
and temperature.
Figure 12.3: Terminology for the pressures showing the atmospheric, gage, and vacuum
pressures
In the metric system, the pressure is expressed in Pa (N/m2). In English system, the pressure
is expressed in PSI (pounds per square inches. 1 atmosphere = 1.013 bar = 14.7 PSI = 760 mm
Hg)
Pressure may also be expressed as the height of a column of fluid (e.g., water or mercury)
The techniques for pressure measurement vary, depending on whether the pressure is low,
moderate or high and whether the pressure is static or dynamic.
93
3. Manometers
A manometer is the simplest device for measuring static pressure. A simple U-tube
manometer uses water, mercury or any other suitable fluid. The difference in levels h between the
two limbs is an indication of the pressure difference (P1 -P2) between the two limbs. i.e.,
P1- P2 = gh, where  is the density of the liquid used in the manometer, and g is the local
gravitational acceleration.
The desirable characteristics of a manometer fluid are:
1. It should be non-corrosive and not have any chemical reaction with the fluid whose pressure
is being measured.
2. It should have low viscosity and thus quick adjustment with pressure change.
3. It should have negligible surface tension and capillary effects.
4. The density of the manometer should be select to yield a reasonable height for a given
pressure difference.
Several types of manometers are available which have the advantages of ease in use and
high sensitivity. [Sensitivity is defined as the output signal over the input signal. In the manometer
case, this is the h/(p1-p1)]
Figure 12.4: Straight U-Tube manometer
94
Figure 12.5: Inclined U-Tube manometer
4. Elastic Transducers
Elastic elements when subjected to pressure get deformed. The deformation, when
measured gives an indication of the pressure. These elements may be in the form of diaphragm,
capsules, bellows, bourdon or helical tubes. The deformation may be measured by mechanical or
electrical means. These devices are convenient to use and can cover a wide range of pressure
depending on the design of the elastic elements. Some examples are given in the Figure bellow:
Figure 12.6: Different elastic elements used for pressure measurements
A Bourdon tube gage is an example of an elastic element. The tube, due to pressure, tends
to round out. The motion of the end of the tube is amplified and indicated by a pointer moving on
a calibrated scale.
95
Figure 12.7: Schematic of a Bourdon tube gage
5. Strain Gages
A strain gage is a device that changes its electrical resistance when it is stretched or
compressed. The change in electrical resistance is caused by the change in its geometrical
dimensions. By attaching the strain gage to a diaphragm, when the diaphragm is subjected to
pressure, one side expands and the other contracts changing the electric resistance of the strain
gage. You can attach one strain gage on one side of the diaphragm; or two strain gages on one side
of the diaphragm; or you can attach two strain gages, one up and one down (to get twice the
sensitivity).
To measure the change in the resistance in the strain gage, a Wheatstone bridge is used.
The following figure shows a strain gage pressure transducer in which two strain gages are used:
Figure 12.8: Strain gages
6. Semiconductor-on Bending Beam Pressure Transducer

It consists of four strain gauge elements bonded to a beam to measure the bending strain.
Two of the strain gauges are mounted on the bottom side of the beam to measure the positive
(tensile) strain, and the other two are mounted on the top side to measure the negative
(compressive) strain. The diaphragm in this case supplies the force to the beam and isolates it from
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the process.
7. Piezo-Electric Transducer
It is a self-generating transducer. It is made of a crystal that generates an electric charge
when subjected to a pressure. The charge is proportional to the pressure. By measuring the charge,
the pressure can be estimated. The dynamics response of this type allows measuring quick
variations in pressures.
8. Experimental Setup
In this experiment, you will use:
1) The Bourdon tube test gauge
2) Semiconductor on bending beam pressure transducer
In this experiment, the Bourdon tube test gage will be used for calibrating other types of pressure
devices.
9. Experimental procedure
1- Plug in the test bench switch on the main and each of the instruments switches. Note that the
pressure transducers operate independently of one another.
2- Plug in the air compressor unit.

Various compression ratios (RC) can be set using one of the shim spacers under the compressor
head. The spacers are in 3 sizes: 1/4", 1/2", and 3/4". The bore and stroke of the compressor are
1.75" and 2" respectively. (1"=2.54 cm).
3- Get different pressure values by changing the compression ratio and the number of revolutions (N
in rpm) of the motor.
10. Required Work
Activity #1: What are the densities of water and mercury? When to use each type? (10 points)
Activity #2: Which one has more sensitivity: The straight U-tube manometer or the inclined U-
tube manometer? Which one would you use for very small (P1-P2)? Which one would you use for
very large (P1-P2)? (10 points)
Activity #3: What is the benefit of using four strain gages, rather than just one? (10 points)
Activity #4: When you use the Bourdon tube gage to calibrate other types of pressure devices, is
this primary or secondary calibration? How to calibrate the Bourdon tube gage? [Hint: Read the
dead weight tester handout] (10 points)
Activity #5: Fill the following tables with the readings of the Bourdon tube pressure gauge (PB)
with the semiconductor pressure gauge (PS) in both cases loading and unloading.
(10 points)
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Table 1: Loading case
Bourdon tube(PB)
KPa
Semiconductor
gage (PS) mΩ
Table 2: Unloading case

Bourdon tube(PB)
KPa
Semiconductor
gauge (PS) mΩ
Activity #6: Draw the calibration curve for the Bourdon tube pressure gauge vs Semiconductor
pressure gauge using tables 1 & 2.
Activity #7: From the results of the previous activity, quantify the maximum hysteresis error.
[Hint: Read the handout of the dead weight tester] (10 points)
Activity #8: Comment on all the results (10 points)
11. Suggested Online Reading

1. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pressure
2. http://www.omega.com/pressure/psc.html
3. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hysteresis
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13.Flow Bench
A. Objectives
1. Comprehend and properly-use different flowrate measuring devices: The flow nozzle; the
laminar flow meter; the Venture-meter; the orifice meter; the turbine meter; the rotameter
and the Bellows meter
2. Differentiate between primary (in this experiment, the Bellows meter) and secondary
devices (in this experiment, all the others)
3. Calibrate secondary devices using a primary device
4. Quantify the pressure loss in some flowrate measuring devices (in this experiment, the
orifice-meter and the Venture-meter)
5. Comprehend the choking phenomenon
B. Background
B.1. Primary and secondary Flow Measurements
Primary or quantity flow measurements, by mass or volume, are usually accomplished by
counting successive isolated portions. These meters fill a certain known volume with the flow and
measure the number of times this volume has been filled. This provides a measurement of the total
volume that passed through the meter. The average flow rate is then obtained by dividing the total
volume/mass of flow by the total time taken in the flow measurement process. Because this method
relies on direct physics (the average mass flow rate = the total mass flow divided by the time), this
method is known as a primary calibration. Therefore, such devices do not need another device to
calibrate them, but they can be used themselves to calibrate other devices.
Secondary or rate flow measurements do not measure the flow directly, but they rather infer
the flow rate from its effect on pressure, force, heat transfer, flow area, etc… and they need to be
calibrated. For example, some such meters operate by causing local changes in the velocity. As a
result of the velocity change, there is a corresponding pressure change in the flow. This variation
in pressure change is correlated with the rate of flow of the fluid. By measuring the difference in
pressure, the flow rate can be inferred. In this experiment, flow nozzle, orifice-meter and venture-
meters operate by this concept. The difference between these three meters is the amount of
permanent pressure loss they induce. In this experiment, you will measure this loss in the orifice-
meter and venture-meters.
B.2. Concept of Operation

B.2.1. Variable head meters
These rate meters introduce a constriction in the flow passage. This results in an increase in
the flow velocity and a decrease in the pressure. Therefore, the pressure before the meter is higher
than the pressure after the meter and the magnitude of this pressure drop is easily measured and is
related to the flow rate.
The main forms of restrictions used in this experiment are the flow nozzle, the orifice-meter
and the Venture-meter. The variation of pressure in these differential pressure devices is indicated
in the following figure.
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Figure 13.1: Pressure distribution along venturimeter, orifice-meter and flow-nozzle
The position of minimum pressure is located slightly downstream from the restriction at a
point where the stream is the narrowest. This phenomenon is called the Vena Contracta. Beyond
this point the pressure again rises but does not return to the upstream value and thus there is a
permanent pressure loss. Notice the permanent pressure loss in each of these devices.
The magnitude of this loss depends on the type of restriction and on the dimensions of the
device. The ratio of the diameter at the constriction (d) to the diameter of the pipe (D) is called
the diameter ratio. If this ratio is too small, the opening is too narrow, the pressure loss is easy to
measure but is too large. If this ratio is too large, the reduction in pressure is too small for accurate
measurements. In practice, diameter ratios in the range 0.2 to 0.6 are usually employed.
The general expression for the rate of flow in these devices can be derived as follows:
Rate of discharge = Q = A1.V1 = A2.V2 (1)
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In actual practice, the actual rate of fluid flow is always less than the ideal value given by
Eq.(1) because of the losses in fluid flow due to friction and eddies. To account for this
discrepancy, we define the term coefficient of discharge Cd as:
Cd = Qactual/ Qideal (2)
In the variable-head meters, it can be shown that the actual fluid flow rate is proportional to
the square root of the pressure drop in the device, as follows:
Qactual = Cd .K. h (3)

where
Cd is the discharge coefficient
K is the constant of flow obstruction device;
A1.A 2
K= . 2.g
A12 − A 22
∆h is the differential pressure head across the device
A1 is the cross section area at point 1
A2 is the cross section area at point 2
Cd is the coefficient of discharge that corrects for non-uniform velocity profiles, friction and
jet contraction and also takes into account the pressure tap location. It depends on the obstruction
device and also on the Reynolds number of the flow (Re = .V.D/).
The Venture-meter offers the best accuracy, least head loss as compared to both flow-nozzle
and orifice-meter. Because of the smooth surface, it is not much affected by the wear and abrasion
from dirty fluids. Due to low value of losses, the coefficient of discharge Cd is high and approaches
unity under favorable conditions. However, the Venture-meter is more expensive, occupies more
space than the flow-nozzle and the orifice-meter.
The flow-nozzle offers all the advantages of the Venture-meter to a lesser extent but it occupies
considerably less space. The nozzle is difficult to install and is further limited to moderate pipe
sizes.
An orifice meter is quite cheap, easy to install and takes almost no space. It suffers from a
head loss which is of the order of 30 to 40%. Also, it is susceptible to inaccuracies resulting from
erosion, corrosion, clogging, etc. due to flow of dirty fluids.
In general, the variable head devices are widely used in practice, because they have no moving
parts and can be used without calibration if made to standard dimensions. One significant
disadvantage is the square-root relationship between the pressure loss and the rate of fluid flow.
It is not practical to measure the flow below 20% of the rated meter capacity because of the
inaccuracies involved in very low-pressure differential measurements.
The pressure differentials for the Venture and orifice are measured on manometers. The flow
leaving the orifice expands to fill the pipe and some pressure is regained. The Venture is designed
with a gradually diverging section which decelerates the flow more efficiently. Therefore, the
Venture has the lower percent pressure loss.
101
The flow bench is equipped with valves that allow the measurement of both pressure
differential and pressure loss for the Venture and orifice meters. Alternate positions of valves allow
the same manometers to be used for both measurements.
Figure 13.2: The dimensions of the three obstruction meters used in this experiment
D = pipe diameter = 2.54 cm

d = Orifice diameter (0.8382 cm), or Venture diameter (0.6604 cm), or flow-nozzle diameter
(0.19612 cm).
B.2.2. Linear Resistance Element Flow Meter (Capillary Flow Meter)

It is an obstruction type meter suitable for very small flow rates or for highly viscous flows.
As shown in the figure the total metered fluid is guided by means of flow straighteners to the
metering element in the shape of a bundle of capillary tubes in honeycomb configuration. Because
of the high viscosity, small flow rate and small size diameter tube, the Reynolds number is quite
small and is in the laminar range and that is why it is called the laminar flow element (LFE). As
a result, the relationship between the flow rate and the pressure drop is linear (and not square-root
as in the variable-head meters). The device gives more accurate average measurements of pulsating
flows because of its good damping ability. It can also measure reversed flow with no difficulty.
The main disadvantage is that the metering element is subject to plugging if the metered fluid is
not clean. The device is relatively expensive and is associated with high-pressure losses. To
increase the accuracy of measurement of this small pressure differential, an inclined manometer
(M) is used to measure the resulting pressure drop.

m th = 2 *1.74212x10−5 * H mm kg/s
(4)
102
Figure 13.3: Laminar flow element
B.2.3. Turbine Meter

The turbine-type incorporates a form of a multi-vane rotor driven by the metered fluid. It
consists of a turbine wheel mounted with its axis of rotation parallel with the direction of flow.
The flowing fluid causes the turbine wheel to rotate. The angular velocity of the rotor results in
the generation of an alternating voltage signal by a transducer mounted on the housing. The
frequency of this voltage is a measure of the volumetric flow through the element. The turbine
meter indicator (TMI) converts this voltage to a digital reading of the volumetric flow rate.
. Hertz 10− 3
m th = .3. (5)
7 60 kg/s
Figure 13.4: Turbine meter

B.2.4. Rotameter
It is a variable area-constant head flow meter. As shown in the figure it consists of a tapered
vertical tube in which a float or bob (which has higher density than the fluid) is free to move in the
upward direction as the flow enters the bottom of the tube. As the float rises, the annular flow area
103
between the float and the wall increases. The float will rise to a point in the tube where the drag
force (acting in the upward direction) and buoyancy force (acting in the upward direction) is
balanced by the weight of float (acting in the downward direction).
The position of the float on scale is taken as an indication of flow rate. The scale on the
Rota meter is calibrated in percent maximum standard flow. For conditions of' pressure and
temperature other than standard, corrections must be applied.
.
m th = 2.14 s .3 . y % (6)
kg/s
Where S = 1.2 kg/m3

The main advantage of Rota meters is that they give direct visual indication on a linear scale. Their
limitations are that they must be mounted vertically and are subject to oscillations in pulsating
flows.
Figure 13.5: Rotameter
B.2.5. Bellows Meter

It is a primary or quantity measuring device. The gas is metered by the alternate filling and
emptying of two flexible bellows which are linked to a counting mechanism and indicator which
registers in liters. The flow rate can be obtained by measuring the time for a known volume of air
to be displaced. This meter will serve as the standard against which the other meters may be
compared for purposes of determining the discharge coefficients. The pressure at the meter inlet
is indicated on an inclined manometer (P4) in cm of water. The figure shows a similar concept of
operation to that of the bellows meter.
104
.
mact = (V t ) . 4 (7)
Where V = 0.1 m3 for every two cycles.
B.3. Chocking Phenomenon
For the flow of compressible gases in nozzles, the mass flow rate depends on the ratio between the
inlet and outlet pressures. For example, the mass flow rate is zero if this ratio is one.
As this ratio increases, the mass flow rate increases up to a certain limit, and then the mass flow
rate becomes constant.
When the mass flow rate ceases to increase with the pressure ratio, this is called chocking.
Chocking means that the mass flow rate no longer depends on the pressure ratio and will continue
to be constant even if you decrease the back pressure.
When chocking occurs, the Mach number (the dimensionless number expressing the ratio between
flow velocity and speed of sound) is unity at the throat of the nozzle.
Chocking can happen in converging nozzles, converging-diverging nozzles and even in normal
pipes or pipe networks (friction generates pressure drop).
In this experiment, it is required that you verify the chocking phenomenon, by varying the back
pressure and measuring the flow rate using the Bellows meter.
C. Experimental Facility
Figure 6 shows the different devices used in this experiment.
1- Flow nozzle (FN)
2- Laminar Flow Element (LFE)
3- Venture Meter (VEN)
4- Orifice Meter (O)
5- Turbine Meter (TM)
6- Rota Meter (R)
7- Bellows Meter (BM)
105
Figure 13.6: Flow Bench
First, you will apply objectives 1, 2 and 3.
1. The flow is supplied by a compressor. The TA will operate it for you. In general, you should
make sure that the compressor supplies dry air. Moisture will plug the devices in this
experiment.
106
2. Operate the on/off switch. This allows the flow to pass through all devices.
3. The pressure gauge Ps reads the supply pressure. The flowrate is controlled by varying the inlet
pressure P1 and back pressure P3. Make sure you know how to adjust the inlet and back-
pressure valves
4. Adjust the inlet and back-pressure valves to supply different flow rates as shown in table 1.
5. The flowrate in all devices is equal. Calculate this value using the Bellows meter.
6. Using equations 2 and 3, calculate the discharge coefficient (Cd) for the flow-nozzle, the
Venture meter and the orifice-meter. Note that when you obtain the Cd values for the Flow
Nozzle Meter, Venture Meter and Orifice Meter; you have actually calibrated these devices
and you can use them directly without the Bellows meter.
7. Similarly calibrate the laminar flow meter, the turbine meter and the Rotameter by obtaining
their discharge coefficients.
8. Fill-in the calculated values in table 1.
9. Considering the measured values of pressure losses in Venture Meter and Orifice Meter, which
one of these two causes less pressure drop? Which one is more expensive and why?
10. Plot the discharge coefficient versus the pipe Reynolds number for all devices.
D. Required Work
1. Fill-in Table 1 and Table 2 below. (80 points)
2. Plot the variation of the discharge coefficients with Reynolds number for all devices
(20 points)
3. Compare the pressure loss in the venture-meter and the orifice meter. (20 points)
4. Plot the mass flow rate versus Reynolds number curves. (20 points)
5. Verify the chocking phenomenon. Obtain the pressure ratio at which the chocking occurred.
(20 points)
107
Inlet pressure P1 Kpa
40
40
40
40
400 40
Back pressure P3 kPa
P2 Kpa (exit from flow nozzle)
∆H mm (in Laminar Flow

Meter)
∆h cm (Diff. in Venture Meter)
Controlled Variables
∆h cm (Loss in Venture Meter)
∆h cm (Diff. in Orifice)
∆h cm (Loss in orifice)
RPM of Turbine Meter

Measured Values
Float Position in rotameter

for constant back pressure and different inlet pressures
Time, S, bellows meter
P4 mmH20 Pressure - Bellows

meter
Cd (Flow Nozzle)
Table 1: The controlled variables, the measured and calculated values
Cd (laminar Flow Meter)
Cd (Venture)
Calculated Values
Cd (Orifice)
Cd (Turbine Meter)
108
Cd (Rotameter)
Inlet pressure P1 Kpa
400
400
400
400
400
50
Back pressure P3 kPa
P2 Kpa (exit from flow nozzle)
∆H mm (in Laminar Flow

Controlled Variables
Meter)
∆h cm (Diff. in Venture Meter)
∆h cm (Loss in Venture Meter)
∆h cm (Diff. in Orifice)
∆h cm (Loss in orifice)
RPM of Turbine Meter

Measured Values
Float Position in rotameter

for constant inlet pressure and different back pressures
Time, S, bellows meter
P4 mmH20 Pressure - Bellows

meter
Cd (Flow Nozzle)
Table 2: The controlled variables, the measured and calculated values
Cd (laminar Flow Meter)
Cd (Venture)
Calculated Values
Cd (Orifice)
Cd (Turbine Meter)
109
Cd (Rotameter)
14.Temperature Measurements
(80 points for the report plus 20 points for the preparation)
A. Objectives
1. To understand the concept of operation of different temperature measurement devices
2. To comprehend the signal conditioning needed.
3. To take temperature measurements using different temperature sensors.
4. To understand some of the methods used to measure the change in resistances.
The sensors covered in this lab are: The thermocouple, the Resistance Temperature Detector
(RTD), and the thermistor.
B. Thermocouple
C. Thermocouple Background
The thermocouple is a passive temperature measuring device. It consists of two different
metallic wires. When the junctions are at different temperatures, a voltage difference develops
across the two junctions. This voltage is proportional to the difference in the temperatures. This
voltage is typically in the milli-volt range and is non-linear with the temperature difference. This
phenomenon is known as the See-beck effect. During the use of thermocouples, typically one
junction (known as the cold junction) is subjected to a known temperature (usually 0 C) so that the
voltage difference is proportional to the temperature of the other junction (known as the hot
junction). The voltage difference is then measured by a voltmeter (with high resolution to measure
in the milli-volt range) or the signal is amplified and then measured.
The 0 C at the cold junction is usually generated physically by inserting the junction in an
equilibrium of ice-liquid water or is simulated electronically.
The concept of operation is illustrated in the figure bellow
Figure 14.1: Concept of operation of a thermocouple
110
Typical signal conditioning on the thermocouple signals include amplification (because the
original signal is typically very low in aplitude); linearization (to generate an output voltage that
varies linearly with the temperature because the original output is non-linear); cold junction
compensation (to add an electronic circuit that measures the atmospheric temperature and
compensates for the fact that the cold junction is subjected to the atmosphere rather than to the 0
C. This eliminates the need to carry an ice bath during the measurements).
D. Experimental Procedure (Thermocouple)

In this lab, you will first use the thermocouple with the thermocouple reader shown in the
figure.
Figure 14.2: Thermocouple and its digital reader
In this set, the thermocouple generates a voltage in the millivolt range. The reader performs
signal conditioning on the signal by amplification, cold junction compensation as well as
transforming the measured millivolt into temperature (note that you have to set the thermocouple
type in the reader so that it can use the proper transformation equation).
E. Required Work (Thermocouple)
Activity #1: Measure the temperature of your hands. Is it 37 C? Why? (10 points)
Activity #2: Disconnect the thermocouple from the thermocouple reader. Connect the
thermocouple output to a voltmeter. What is the output voltage? If you consult reference textbooks
that relate the millivotage output to temperature, can you use the thermocouple alone without the
reader? How? (10 points)
111
Activity #3: Insert the thermocouple into a tank that contains water. Inset an electric heater
inside the tank and a liquid-in-glass thermometer. Operate the heater and plot the relationship
between the output voltage and the temperature. (10 points)
Activity #4: In the above activity, you used the temperature measured by the liquid-in-
glass thermometer as an indication of the true temperature and you obtained the corresponding
output voltage from the thermocouple. Was this primary or secondary calibration? Why?
(10 points)
Then, plot the output the voltage versus the measured temperature difference. Comment on all
results (20 points)
Activity #7: Using the internet/books, locate the reference tables for type K thermocouple. Plot
the temperature versus the milli-volt output for this thermocouple. (10 points)
F. Suggested Online Reading (Thermocouples)

1. http://www.omega.com/thermocouples.html
2. http://www.omega.com/Temperature/pdf/SEL_GUIDE_THERMOCOUPLE.pdf
3. http://me.queensu.ca/courses/MECH215/documents/MECH215-Week04Lecture2-
Thermocouples.pdf
G. RTD (Resistance Temperature Detector)
H. RTD Background
The operation of RTD is based on the fact that the resistance of metals increases with
temperature: R =~ R0 + (T-T0), where R is the resistance at a temperature T and R0 is the
resistance at a reference temperature T0. The coefficient  is the rate of increase of resistance with
temperature and is 0.385 Ω/oC for the platinum RTD used here.
Therefore, by measuring the change in the RTD resistance, the temperature can be inferred.
For example, at 30 C, the RTD resistance is
R= 100 + 0.385 * (30-0) = 111.55 Ω
The RTD element is made from a pure material whose resistance at various temperatures
has been documented. The material has a predictable change in resistance as the temperature
changes because it is this predictable change that is used to determine temperature.
The construction of the RTD is shown in the figure below:
112
Figure 14.3: Resistance temperature detector (RTD)
The RTD consists of a thin film of platinum deposited on a ceramic substrate. At each end,
there is a gold contact plate that makes contact with the film. The platinum film is trimmed with a
laser beam to cut a spiral for a reference resistance of 100 at 0oC. (i.e., T0 = 0 C and R0 = 100 Ω).
Although platinum is very expensive (more expensive than gold), it is used in RTD since
its resistance is stable.
I. Experimental Procedure
1. Make sure the power is off, then make the connections as follows:
Figure 14.4: RTD connection
The top and side views of the connections are shown below:
113
Figure 14.5: RTD connection (Top view)
Figure 14.6: RTD connection (Side view)
114
2. Set the slider of the 10kΩ carbon resistor to mid-way and connect the circuit as shown in the
figures above, with the digital multi-meter set to its 400mV or 2V DC range
3. Measure the ambient temperature using the INT output of the IC and calculate the RTD resistance
at that temperature. For the purpose of illustration, we will assume that the ambient temperature
was 20 C and therefore the RTD resistance was l08 mV.
4. Switch ON the power supply and adjust the slider control of the l6kΩ resistor so that the voltage
drop across the platinum RTD is l08 mV (0.108V) as indicated by the digital voltmeter.
5. This calibrates the platinum RTD for an assumed ambient temperature of 20oC (since the resistance
of the RTD at 20oC is 108 ).
Note that the voltage reading across the RTD in mV is the same as the RTD resistance in Ω, since
the current flowing is 0.108/108 = 1mA.
• Connect the +l2V supply to the heater element input and note the values of the voltage across the
RTD with the voltmeter set to its 200mV or 2v range, (this representing the RTD resistance) and
the output voltage from the IC Temperature Sensor with the voltmeter set to its 20V range, (this
representing the temperature of the RTD) after each of the times given in the table below:
• Convert the two voltage readings to RTD Temperature (K) and RTD Resistance ().
• Fill-in the above table and then plot the RTD resistance versus the measured temperature.
(20 points)
• From the table or the graph, estimate a value for the coefficient . Compare this value to the value
stated in the manual (0.385 /C). (20 points)
• Switch off the power supply of the board.
J. Suggested Readings (RTD)

1. http://www.omega.com/rtd.html
2. http://www.omega.com/Temperature/pdf/SEL_GUIDE_RTD.pdf
115
Cairo University
Mechanical Power Department
Laboratories of Mechanical Power Engineering

Edited by: Associate Prof. Abdelmaged H. Ibrahim
116
15.Heat Engines: Classification and Parts
Location: Heat Laboratory
A. Objectives
To study the classification and the functions of the main elements of the different types of heat
engines
B. Methods of Classification
For each internal combustion engine in the lab, identify the following
1. Method of ignition: Spark ignition/compression engine
2. Number of strokes per cycle: 4 cycles/2 cycles
3. Type of aspiration: Naturally aspirated/super charger/turbo charged
4. Cylinder arrangement: In-line/V-type/W-type/Opposed/etc…
5. Number of cylinders: 4/6/8/etc…
6. Cooling system type: air-cooled / water cooled
7. Type of fuel burned: Gasoline/Diesel fuel/Compressed Natural Gas/Alcohol-based fuels
/Dual Fuel/etc…
C. Required Work
1. For each internal combustion engine in the lab, identify the different classifications of the
engine as detailed in item B above
2. Write the names of the main parts of the engines on the photos
117
Figure 15.1: Jet engine
Figure 15.2: Another view of the jet engine
118
Figure 15.3: Governor
Figure 15.4: One-cylinder engine with a huge fly wheel
119
Figure 15.5: Air-cooled spark-ignition engine (Volkswagen)
Figure 15.6: Another view of the air-cooled spark-ignition engine (Volkswagen)
120
Figure 15.7: V-engine Compression Ignition Engine
121
Figure 15.8: A picture showing the piston, the piston rings and other details of the
combustion chamber
122
16.Performance Test of a Multi-cylinder Spark Ignition Engine (SIE)
A. Objectives
The objectives of this experiments are to measure the performance parameters of a spark ignition
engine, including:
1. Indicated and brake powers of the engine
2. Friction power
3. Indicated and brake specific fuel consumption
4. Indicated and brake thermal efficiencies
5. Volumetric efficiency
6. Indicated and brake mean effective pressures
7. Energy balance for a single operating condition, and
8. To understand how these parameters change with the engine RPM and the engine load
(torque) as well as how the developed torque changes with the engine RPM.
B. Engine specifications
The engine used is four-stroke, four-cylinder petrol engine with the following specifications:
Capacity 1.1163 liter
Bore 80 mm
Stroke 55.5 mm
No. of cylinders (Z) 4
No. of strokes (ns) 4
Fuel used Benzine (80), (C8H18)
Lower calorific value C.V. 40900 kJ/kg
Density 740 kg/m3
Maximum power 55 HP
Maximum Speed 4000 RPPM
Cooling medium water
Compression ratio 8.8
Spark advance angle 280
Firing order 1-3-4-2
Metered flask and stop-watch: They build a primary measurement method that is used to
measure the volume flow rate and hence the mass flow rate of the fuel. The fuel flow rate is equal
to the volume consumed times the fuel density divided by the time of fuel consumption, measured
by a stopwatch.
Hydraulic Dynamometer:
It is essentially a torque measuring device which can provide a controllable torque opposing to
the engine, to simulate the real engine operation.
Tachometer & Stroboscope:

The tachometer and stroboscope are RPM-measuring devices. The tachometer is a mechanical
device which operates in direct contact to the engine shaft. The stroboscope is an electronic device
123
which provides very short and brilliant flashes of light at an adjustable frequency. These flashes
are used to illuminate a mark on the rotating shaft of the engine. In order to measure the RPM, the
rotating shaft is illuminated by the flashes of the stroboscope at a frequency higher than the
expected RPM. Now, there are more flashes per minute than the RPM and the mark will appear to
be rotating slowly backwards. The frequency of the flashes is then reduced gradually until the
mark appears stationary. The frequency of the stroboscope flashes may be equal to the RPM. The
use of the stroboscope needs some skills because if the frequency equals twice the RPM, the mark
will again appear stationary. In this case, the mark may be a line on the end of the rotating shaft.
Twice the frequency means that two flashes will illuminate the mark per revolution, and it appears
stationary at both halves of the shaft. Another case may occur if the frequency of the flashes is half
the RPM, and then the mark will again appear to be stationary. in this case, the mark is illuminated
once every two revolutions and hence the brightness is half that of the correct frequency. This may
not be quite clear to the observer. So, it is required to double the frequency and check the mark
brightness. We keep doubling the frequency and the correct frequency is half the first frequency
that leads to two marks.
Thermocouples:
Thermocouples are used to measure the temperature of the cooling water (inlet and exit) as well
as the exhaust gas temperature.
Air tank and orifice meter:

An air tank equipped with an orifice-meter at its entrance is used to measure and estimate the
inlet air flow rate because at the inlet of the engine the air flow rate is not steady during the
engine cycle. So, an air tank with a volume much larger than the volume of air sucked per cycle
(at least 40 times), is used to compensate for the fluctuations of the air flow rate. The tank is
connected to the engine at one side and the other side is open to the atmosphere with an orifice-
meter. The pressure drop across the orifice meter is measured, where it is related to the air flow
rate by the following relation:
∆𝑃
𝑚′ = 𝜌𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝐶𝐷 𝐴 ∗ √2 ,
𝜌𝑎𝑖𝑟
where A is the area of the orifice; 𝐶𝐷 is the discharge coefficient (about 0.6) and ∆𝑃 is the pressure
drop across the orifice = 𝜌𝐿𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑔 ℎ.
Metered flask and stop-watch:
These are used to measure the volume flow rate of the consumed fuel, and hence the mass flow
rate of the fuel. The estimated fuel flow rate is equal to the volume consumed times the fuel density
divided by the time of fuel consumption, measured by a stopwatch. It is better to measure the time
of consumption of a volume of 50 cm3 of fuel, but a volume of 25 cm3 can be also measured when
either the RPM or the developed torque are high.
Gas analyzer:
A gas analyzer can be used to measure the exhaust gases concentration (O2, CO and CO2). Using
this analysis, the air-to-fuel ratio of the inlet air and fuel can be obtained and thus the inlet air flow
rate can be calculated from the estimated air-to-fuel ratio and the measured air mass flow rate.
124
Figure 16.1: Metered flask, Stop-watch, Stroboscope used to measure the shaft RPM, and
Thermocouple used to measure the inlet and outlet gas temperatures
125
Figure 16.2: General view of the spark ignition engine setup showing parts of the SIE, the
radiator, the dynamometer and the air and fuel flow rates measurements
126
Figure 16.3: Hydraulic dynamometer showing the inlet and outlet water flow directions
127
Figure 16.4: Torque meter on the hydraulic dynamometer
128
Figure 16.5: Measurement panel showing the air and fuel flow rates measurements
129
Figure 16.6: Air box used to smooth down the fluctuations in the air flow supplied to the
engine, orifice also shown.
Before starting the engine, it is necessary to check the fuel, cooling water, and lubricating oil
levels and that the dynamometer is at the no load position.
Then, warm up the engine to the steady-state condition (this may take up to 5-10 minutes
depending on the atmospheric temperature) before taking any measurements. Then,
1. Adjust the rack position to a certain RPM.
2. Run the engine at no load (i.e., the dynamometer is at the no-load condition)
3. Wait for steady-state conditions
4. Measure the fuel consumption
5. Record the torque
6. Record the exhaust analysis
7. Change the load
8. Repeat steps 4-7 about 5-8 times
9. Try to take data over a wide range of RPM in order to observe the dependence of the
different performance parameters on the RPM clearly.
E. Morse Test
This test is used to measure the friction power at a certain RPM for multi-cylinder
engines
Run the engine at a certain load (medium load) and certain RPM (about 3000).
130
Record the torque and RPM (to get the brake power for all cylinders together)
Disconnect the cable of one of the spark plugs and then reduce the load gradually to reach the
same rpm with three cylinders working only.
Record the torque and RPM (which should be the same RPM as before). This is to get the brake
power of the three other cylinders.
Return the spark plug and then remove the spark plug of the next cylinder.
Repeat steps 3 and 4 again for each cylinder (i.e. 4 tests should be done)
Now you have measured the brake powers of the engine with all four cylinders in operation, and
with four measurements each with three cylinders only
F. Calculation Procedure
The performance parameters can be calculated as follows:
Brake power, BP
𝐵𝑃 = 𝑇𝜔, where
𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑁/60
Indicated power IP and the frictional power FP, by using the Morse test:
This method is suitable for all multi-cylinder reciprocating engines. The brake power can be
measured for either all four cylinders (Z) or for three of them only (Z-1). The indicated, brake
and frictional powers can be estimated as:
IPz = BPz + FP
IPz-1 = BPz-1 + FP
Where IPz and BPz are the indicated and brake powers for all cylinders (z), respectively; while
IP(z-1) and BP(z-1) are those for (z-1) cylinders.
At the same RPM, the frictional power can be considered constant. So, the indicated power of
the disconnected cylinder j, IPJ, can be obtained by subtracting as:
IPJ = IPZ – IPZ-1 = BPZ – BPZ-1
The total indicated power of the engine, IP, is the sum of all cylinder power, as:
IP = IP1+IP2+IP3+IP4
Mechanical efficiency, 𝜼𝒎 :
𝜂𝑚 = 𝐵𝑃/𝐼𝑃
Air and fuel flow rates, 𝒎𝑨 & 𝒎𝒇 :
The mass flow rate of the consumed fuel is calculated as:
𝑚𝑓 = 𝜌𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑉𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 / 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒(𝜏)
The mass flow rate of the air is calculated from the equation of the orifice-meter installed at the
inlet of the air box, as:
∆𝑃 1/2
mair = 𝜌𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝐶𝐷 𝐴 ∗ (2 )
𝜌𝑎𝑖𝑟
Then the air-to-fuel ratio, A/F, can be calculated as:
𝐴/𝐹 = 𝑚𝐴 /𝑚𝑓
The above estimate of the air-to-fuel ratio may be compared to that estimated from ana;yzing the
exhaust from the combustion equation
Specific fuel constipation, brake(bsfc) and indicated (isfc):

131
𝑚𝑓
𝐼𝑠𝑓𝑐 = 𝐼𝑃
𝑚𝑓
𝐵𝑠𝑓𝑐 = 𝐵𝑃
Mean effective pressure, MEP:

The mean effective pressure is defined as the ratio between the work and the stroke
volume of the engine. The indicated mean effective pressure is based on the indicated power
while the brake mean effective pressure is based on the brake power. Thus, the following
equations are used to calculate the indicated and brake mean effective pressures:
𝐼𝑃
𝐼𝑀𝐸𝑃 =
2 𝑁
( )𝜋𝐷2 𝐿( )𝑍/4
𝑛𝑠 60
𝐵𝑃
𝐵𝑀𝐸𝑃 =
2 𝑁
(𝑛𝑠)𝜋𝐷2 𝐿(60)𝑍/4
Volumetric efficiency, 𝜼𝒗 :
It is defined as the ratio between the actual air consumed and the maximum possible
theoretical air. So, the following relation may be used to calculate the volumetric efficiency:
𝑚𝑎
𝜂𝑣 =
2 𝑁
(𝑛𝑠)𝜋𝐷2 𝐿(60)𝑍/4
Indicated thermal efficiency, 𝜼𝒕𝒉 :
𝜂𝑡ℎ,𝑖 = 𝐼𝑃/[𝑚𝑓 ∗ 𝐶. 𝑉. ]
𝜂𝑡ℎ,𝑏 = 𝐵𝑃/[𝑚𝑓 ∗ 𝐶. 𝑉. ]
The above estimations may be compared to the values from the figure bellow, where differences
are expected
132
Figure 16.7: Typical variation of some of the SIEs performance parameters with the engine
RPM
G. Measured Data
Test Engine Load Time of Pressure drop % O2 % CO A/F
No (rpm) (Nm) 50ml in orifice
fuel (sec)
1
133
H. Calculated Data
Test PB IP BSFC ISFC ηv i,th b,th IMEP BMEP
No (kW) (kW) (kJ/kg) (kJ/kg) (%) (%) (%) (kPa) (kPa)
I. Morse Test Data

Test Engine Cylinder Load BPz BPz-1 FP IPJ
No RPM out
1 none
2 1
3 2
4 3
5 4
134
J. Required Work
1. From the above measured parameters, calculate the following data for each run:
a. A/F
b. IP
c. BP
d. bsfc
e. isfc
f. imep
g. bmep
h. m
i. v
j. th, i
k. th, b
2. Plot the isfc, bsfc, imep, bmep, volumetric efficiency and the indicated thermal efficiency
versus the rpm of the engine and also versus the torque.
3. Plot the torque versus the rpm to get the torque-rpm characteristics of this engine.
4. In a table form, define each of the following technical terms – State the units and give
equations when possible
Combustion in SIE
SIE
Knocking
Pre-ignition
Self ignition
Spark advance angle
Fully-premixed flame
Partially-premixed flame
Stoichiometric mixture
Excess air factor
Equivalence ratio
Fuel Properties
Low Calorific value
High Calorific value
Flash Point
Fire Point
Octane number
Measurement Techniques
Morse Test
Air box
Metered- flask
Orifice meter
Hydraulic dynamometer
Stroboscope
135
Thermocouple
Stopwatch
Exhaust gas analyzer
Control Methods
Rack position
Load
Measured Variables
Brake power
Friction power
Indicated power
Brake mean effective
pressure
Indicated mean effective
pressure
Brake specific fuel
consumption
Indicated specific fuel
consumption
Brake thermal efficiency
Indicated thermal efficiency
Volumetric efficiency
Mechanical efficiency
Air-to-fuel ratio
Note that in the current experiment, it is not possible to carry-out a complete energy balance at a
single operating condition because the mass flow rate of the cooling water is not measured. Write
your comments regarding all results.
K. Further Reading
1. https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/internal-combustion-
engines
2. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/327971733_Relative_Performanc
e_of_4-Stroke_SI_Engine_using_Modified_Fuel_Formula_in_Iraq
3. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/281832384_Development_And_T
esting_Of_Biogas-
Petrol_Blend_As_An_Alternative_Fuel_For_Spark_Ignition_Engine
4. https://www.energy.gov/eere/vehicles/articles/internal-combustion-engine-
basics
136
17.Performance Test of a Reciprocating Multistage Compressor
A. Objectives
1. To estimate the average mass flow rate at a given tank pressure.
2. To perform an overall energy balance of the compressor including the inter-cooler, after-
cooler and the tank.
3. To calculate the effectiveness of the intercooler.
The compressor is two-stage with intercooler and after-cooler, as shown in the figure below
Figure 17.1: Schematic diagram of the multi-stage compressor setup
C. Instrumentation
A. Thermocouples:
Thermocouples are used to measure the temperature of the intercooler and after cooler.
B. Pressure gage:
To measure the tank pressure.
137
D. Calculation Procedure
Based on the figure above, it is required to perform complete energy balance and calculate the heat
losses from the compressor, the intercooler effectiveness and the volumetric efficiency of the
compressor. Assuming that the mechanical efficiency, ηm, of the motor coupling to the compressor
is 90 %, then
Ẇ 𝐶 = η𝑚 X Ẇ 𝑚
Ẇ m = 3 X V X I X cos ∅
Where V and I are the volt (380), and current of the power supply to the motor, and cos Ø is the
power factor (Assumed to be 0.8)
Ẇ C = Ẇ L + Ẇ H
Assume
Ẇ 𝐿 = Ẇ 𝐻
At steady-state condition the following equations are valid:

For the L.P. stage
Ẇ L + ṁCP T1 = Q̇ L + ṁCP T2
Q̇L = ṁCP (T1 − T2 ) + Ẇ L
For the H.P. stage

Ẇ H + ṁCP T3 = Q̇ H + ṁCP T4
Q̇H = ṁCP (T3 − T4 ) + Ẇ H
For the Inter-cooler

Q̇I = ṁCP (T3 − T2 )
For the After-cooler and the pipeline to the tank, the heat losses are
Q̇A𝑃 = ṁCP (T5 − T4 ) + ṁCP (T6 − T5 )
In the above equations, the mass flow rate is required to calculate heat losses.
The mass flow rate ṁ can be obtained by calibration of the compressor at a different back
pressure. To do this, record the time and tank pressure, for a step of 1 bar, during filling up the
tank. Then plot the time, t, versus the absolute pressure, P. Also, plot the mass flow rate versus the
pressure. The mass flow rate can be calculated as:
ṁ = (mfinal − minitial )/δt
where δt is the interval of time. the mass, either final, mfinal , or initial, minitial , can be obtained
from:
138
m = PV/RT
where V is the tank volume (0.5 m3).
The effectiveness of the intercooler, ∈𝐼 , is defined as:

∈I = (T2 − T3 )/(T2 − T1 )
The volumetric efficiency, ηV , of each stage may be calculated as follows:

1
VC Pi n
ηV)L.P. = 1 − ( ) {( ) − 1}
VS P1
n
Pi T n−1
where, ( )=( 2 )
P1 T1
V
Assume: n = 1.25 and (VC ) = 0.05 (The ratio of the clearance volume to the stroke volume).
S
1
VC P2 n
ηV)H.P. = 1 − ( ) {( ) − 1}
VS Pi
V
Assume: P2 = 12 bar (maximum pressure), n = 1.2 and (VC ) = 0.03.
S
139
Figure 17.2: A general view of the compressor setup, showing the air filter, the storage tank, the
intercooler, the aftercooler, the pressure gage on the tank and the electric motor
140
Figure 17.3: The pressure gage on the storage tank
141
Figure 17.4: A general view of the compressor setup showing the electric motor, the belt, and
the air filter
142
Figure 17.5: The intercooler and aftercooler on the storage tank and the fins
143
Thermocouple
Clamp meter to measure the current

Figure 17.6: The clamp meter and the thermocouple used
144
E. Required Work
Two tests are required in the present experiment:
Test 1: To obtain the mass flow rate:

In this test, run the compressor from cold. Then, record the time and pressure of the tank.
Fill in table 1. Plot the time and mass flow rate, obtained from equations 8 and 9. Write a comment
regarding these two plots. From these plots, the mass flow rate can be obtained.
Table 1
Time Ptank I
Sec. Bar Amp
0 1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
8.75
Test 2: To perform an energy balance:

In this test, it is required to calculate the heat losses from the compressor, the intercooler
effectiveness and the volumetric efficiency. These parameters should be obtained from equations
4-7 and 10-12 above. These equations are applied only at steady state condition. So, it is required
to reach a steady state before recording any data. To do this, run the compressor while the
delivery valve of the tank is partially opened and wait until the pressure in the tank remains
constant. Then fill in table 2 below.
Table 2:
P T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 I
bar ℃ ℃ ℃ ℃ ℃ ℃ Amp
From the previous data, tables 1 and 2, and equations the following results can be obtained
Average mass flow rate at (P = bar) = kg/s

All other parameters are listed in the following table:
Table 3:
Q̇L Q̇ H Q̇A𝑃 Ẇ 𝐶 ∈𝐼 ηV)L.P. ηV)H.P. ṁ
kW kW kW kW % % Kg/s
145
Task 3: In a table form, define each of the following technical terms – State the units and give
Compressor Terminology
Multi-staging
Inter cooler
After cooler
Storage tank
Polytropic process
Polytropic index
Electric motor power factor
Measuring Devices
Clamp meter
Thermocouple
Pressure gage
Control Devices
Automatic control
Safety Devices
Safety valve
Derived variables
Compressor work, low stage
Compressor work, high stage
Motor work
Intercooler effectiveness
F. Further Reading:
https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/compressors
146
18.Performance Test of a Multi-Cylinder Compression Ignition Engine (CIE)
A. Objectives
To calculate the performance parameters of a compression ignition engine. These parameters
include:
1. Indicated and brake power at different engine speeds
2. Friction power and mechanical efficiency
3. Specific fuel consumption at different loads
4. Thermal efficiency
5. Volumetric efficiency
6. Mean effective pressure at different loads, and
7. Complete energy balance at a single operating condition
Figure 18.1: Main parts of the energy balance on the compression-ignition engine
147
Engine specification:
The engine used in the present test is four-stroke, four-cylinder diesel engine.
The following are the main design parameters of the engine:
Capacity 1.931 liter
Bore 80 mm
Stroke 96 mm
No. of cylinders 4 (Z)
No. of strokes 4 (ns)
Calorific value C.V. 39000 kJ/kg
Fuel Density 850 kg/m3
Maximum Speed 3500 RPM
Cooling Water
Fuel Commercial light diesel fuel 87% C and 13% H2 by mass
Instrumentation:
Metered flask and stop-watch:

These are used to measure the volume flow rate and hence the mass flow rate of the fuel. The
fuel flow rate is equal to the volume consumed times the fuel density divided by the time of fuel
consumption, measured by a stopwatch.
Hydraulic dynamometer:
It is essentially a torque measuring device which must, by definition, be capable of providing an
adjustable and measuring torque opposing that of the engine. Thus, it is used to apply a certain
load in order to simulate the actual running conditions of the engine.
Tachometer & Stroboscope:

The tachometer and stroboscope are rpm measuring devices. The tachometer is a
mechanical device which should be in contact directly to the engine shaft. The stroboscope is an
electronic device which provides very short, brilliant flashes of light at an adjustable frequency.
These flashes are used to illuminate a mark on the rotating shaft of the engine. In order to measure
the rpm, the rotating shaft is illuminated by the flashes of the stroboscope at a frequency higher
than the expected rpm. Now there are more flashes per minute than the rpm, and the mark will
appear to be rotating slowly backwards. The frequency of the flashes is then reduced gradually
until the mark appears stationary. The frequency of the stroboscope flashes is thus equaling the
rpm. The use of the stroboscope needs some skills If the frequency equals twice the pm, the mark
will again appear stationary. In this case, the mark may be a line on the end of the rotating shaft.
Twice the frequency means that two flashes will illuminate the mark per revolution, and it appears
stationary at both halves of the shaft Another case if the frequency of the flashes is half the rpm,
the mark will again appear to be stationary. in this case, the mark is illuminated once every two
revolutions and hence the brightness should be half that at the correct frequency. This may not be
quite clear to the observer. So, it is required to double the frequency and check the mark brightness.
Thermocouples:
148
Thermocouples are used to measure the temperature of the cooling water (at the inlet and the
exit), and at the exhaust.
Air tank and orifice meter:

The air tank with an orifice-meter is used to calculate the air flow rate. At the inlet of the engine
the air flow rate is not steady during the cycle, which makes it difficult to measure the air mass
flow rate. So, an an air tank with quite a large capacity relative to the rate sucked by the engine
per cycle, at least 40 times, is used to compensate the fluctuations of the air flow rate. The tank is
connected to the engine at one side and the other side is open to the atmosphere with an orifice-
meter. The pressure drop across the orifice is measured, and is related to the air flow rate by the
following relation:
∆𝑃 1/2
𝜌𝑎𝑖𝑟
where A is the area of the orifice; 𝐶𝐷 is the discharge coefficient (about 0.6), and ∆𝑃 is the
pressure drop across the orifice (𝜌𝐿𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑔 ℎ)
Figure 18.2: General view of the CIE setup
149
Figure 18.3: Air box on the CIE setup
150
Figure 18.4: Dynamometer on the CIE setup
151
Figure 18.5: Metered flask, Stop-watch, Stroboscope used to measure the shaft RPM, and
Thermocouple used to measure the inlet and outlet gas temperatures
152
Figure 18.6: Measurements of the air and fuel flow rates I the CIE setup
153
G. Experimental Procedure
1. Adjust the rack position to the end position.
2. Run the engine at no load.
3. Wait for a steady-state conditions, about 1-2 minutes
4. Record the following data:
5. Torque and rpm
6. Time of consumption of 50 ml of fuel
7. Inlet and exit temperatures of the cooling water and its flow rate
8. The exhaust temperature
9. The pressure drop across the orifice-meter of the air tank
10. Change the load and repeat steps 3 and 4. About five points are required. Try to change
the load in order to reach certain rpm values (say 1000, 1300, 1700 and 2000). Note: it may
not be possible to reach all rpm values required at all rack position settings.
11. Change the rack position and repeat steps 2-5. About four rack positions are possible.
12. Another test is required, called the torque-rpm characteristics of a diesel engine. In this
test, keep the adjustment of the dynamometer at a certain position (about medium load)
and change the rack position. Record the rpm and the torque at each rack position. About
four points are available to measure.
H. Calculation Procedure
The performance parameters can be calculated as follows:
Brake power, PB
𝐵𝑃 = 𝑇𝜔, where
𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑁/60
Indicated power IP and the frictional power FP, by using the Willian’s line:
This is a method to calculate the frictional power and hence the indicated power. Plot the torque
versus the fuel consumption at a constant rpm. As shown in the figure below, the torque to
overcome friction at this rpm can be obtained and hence the frictional power. Thus, the indicated
power is calculated as follows: IP = BP + FP
Figure 18.7: William’s line
154
Mechanical efficiency, 𝜼𝒎 : 𝜂𝑚 = 𝐵𝑃/𝐼𝑃
Air and fuel flow rates, 𝒎𝑨 & 𝒎𝒇 : The mass flow rate of the consumed fuel is calculated as:
𝑚𝑓 = 𝜌𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑉𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 / 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒(𝜏)
The mass flow rate of the air is calculated from the equation of the orifice-meter, as:
∆𝑃 1/2
𝜌𝑎𝑖𝑟
Then the air-to-fuel ratio, A/F, is calculated as: 𝐴/𝐹 = 𝑚𝐴 /𝑚𝑓
Specific fuel constipation, brake(bsfc) and indicated (isfc):

𝑚
𝐼𝑠𝑓𝑐 = 𝐼𝑃𝑓
𝑚𝑓
𝐵𝑠𝑓𝑐 = 𝐵𝑃
Mean effective pressure, mep:

The mean effective pressure is defined as the ratio between the work and the stroke volume of
the engine. The indicated mean effective pressure is based on the indicated power while the
brake mean effective pressure is based on the brake power. Thus, the following equations are
used to calculate the indicated and brake mean effective pressures:
𝐼𝑃
𝐼𝑀𝐸𝑃 =
2 𝑁
(𝑛𝑠)𝜋𝐷2 𝐿(60)𝑍/4
𝐵𝑃
𝐵𝑀𝐸𝑃 =
2 𝑁
(𝑛𝑠)𝜋𝐷2 𝐿(60)𝑍/4
Volumetric efficiency, 𝜼𝒗 :
It is defined as the ratio between the actual air consumed and the maximum possible theoretical
air. So, the following relation may be used to calculate the volumetric efficiency:
𝑚𝑎
𝜂𝑣 =
2 𝑁
(𝑛𝑠)𝜋𝐷2 𝐿(60)𝑍/4
Indicated thermal efficiency, 𝜼𝒕𝒉 :
𝜂𝑡ℎ,𝑖 = 𝐼𝑃/[𝑚𝑓 ∗ 𝐶. 𝑉. ]
𝜂𝑡ℎ,𝑏 = 𝐵𝑃/[𝑚𝑓 ∗ 𝐶. 𝑉. ]
155
I. Measured Data
Test Engine, Load, Time of Pressure Tw,i Tw,o Vwater Texh Tair
No rpm Nm 50 ml drop (air) [˚C] [˚C] [Lit/h] [˚C] [˚C]
fuel, s [mm
H2O]
1
J. Required Work
Task 1: From the above measured parameters, it is required to calculate the following data for
each run:
1. A/F
2. IP
3. BP
4. bsfc
5. isfc
6. imep
7. bmep
8. m
9. v
10. th, i
11. th, b
Then plot the isfc, bsfc, imep, bmep, volumetric efficiency and the indicated thermal
efficiency versus the rpm of the engine and also versus the torque. Then, plot the torque versus the
rpm to get the torque-rpm characteristics of this engine and finally carry-out a complete energy
balance at a single operating condition of your choice. Write your comments regarding these
results.
156
Figure 18.8: Calibration of the rotameter
Task 2: In a table form, define each of the following technical terms – State the units and give
Combustion in CIE
CIE
Detonation (Diesel Knock)
Diffusion flame
Ultra-lean mixture
Excess air factor
Equivalence ratio
Fuel Properties
Low Calorific value
High Calorific value
Flash Point
Fire Point
Auto ignition temperature
Cetane number
Measurement Techniques
William’s line
Air box
Metered- flask
157
Orifice meter
Stroboscope
Thermocouple
Stopwatch
Exhaust gas analyzer
Control Methods
Rack position
Load
Measured Variables
Brake power
Friction power
Indicated power
Brake mean effective
pressure
Indicated mean effective
pressure
Brake specific fuel
consumption
Indicated specific fuel
consumption
Brake thermal efficiency
Indicated thermal efficiency
Volumetric efficiency
Mechanical efficiency
Air-to-fuel ratio
K. Further Reading
1. https://www.beeindia.gov.in/sites/default/files/4Ch8.pdf
158
19.Performance Test of a Fire-Tube Boiler
A. Objectives
1. To recognize the different parts of a fire-tube boiler
2. To perform an overall energy balance at different air-to-fuel ratios
B. Introduction
The unit is a continuous-flame fire-tube boiler unit (diffusion type), operating with a dual-
fuel burner that operates either with gaseous fuel (Compressed Natural Gas CNG or Liquified
Petroleum Gas LPG), or liquid fuel.
The unit is basically a diffusion flame surrounded a water jacket. The fuels used in the
present experiment are CNG gas and liquid fuel (commercial diesel fuel)
The liberated heat is partially transferred to the water jacket. Part of the rest of the heat is
carried away by the exhaust gases and part is lost to the surroundings by convection and radiation
losses.
The air flow rate is controlled by a throttle valve. The air is supplied by an air blower which
provides a forced-draft and produces a maximum flow rate of l60 kg/hr. The water flows at
minimum rate of 0.5 kg/s.
The ignition system is an insulated electrode. The unit usually starts with gaseous fuel from
cold state to warm-up and then changes while running to the liquid fuel.
C. Safety precautions
1. During operation, an ultra-violet sensor is used to monitor the flame.
2. In case of flame shut-down due to miss fire, this sensor provides an electric signal to two
solenoid valves provided on the fuel lines to stop the fuel supply to prevent fuel
accumulation at no ignition.
3. Also, to prevent overheating due to shortage of water supply or leakage, a relay driven by
the outlet water temperature sensor is used to provide a signal to the same fuel solenoid
valves. Thus, these two safety devices are used to stop the fuel supply in case of lack of
ignition or reduced flow rate of water.
4. Purge any possible unburnt gases from previous operation by operating the air flow first
for a short period of time before operating the fuel.
159
D. Experimental Setup
Figure 19.1: Side view of the flame-tube boiler
Figure 19.2: Front view of the flame-tube boiler
160
Figure 19.3: Schematic of the flame-tube boiler
Figure 19.5: Pressure regulator (top) and

air knob (bottom)
Figure 19.4: Air blower
161
Solenoid vlave
Orifice meter to measure the air flow rate
Exhaust gas chimney Gas analyzer

Figure 19.6: Some of the components of the flame-tube setup
E. Instrumentation
The unit is provided by thermocouples to measure the air inlet temperature and the exhaust
temperature, as well as the inlet and outlet temperatures of the water. The flow rates of the water,
liquid /gaseous fuels and air are also measured by flow meters.
These temperatures and flow rate measurements are then used to calculate the heat transfer to the
water and the heat losses. Then, the energy balance test can be done at different air-to-fuel ratios.
Liquid-fuel flow rate

The flow meter of the liquid fuel should be calibrated first. This is done without any flame.
The amount of fuel provided at a certain valve setting for a certain time (say 60 seconds) is
recorded in the table below for different valve settings
Table 1: Calibration of the liquid-fuel flowmeter

Amount (cm3)
Time (S)
Reading
162
Water flow rate
Similar to the above test, the flow meter of the water is to be calibrated. To do this, at a
certain valve setting for a certain time (say 60 seconds), the amount of water supplied is
measured. This should be done at three different valve setting. At each setting, measure two
or three times and then report the average below
Table 2: Calibration of the water flowmeter

Amount (cm3)
Time (S)
Reading
Air mass flow rate: The air mass flow rate is estimated from the installed orifice meter, and
the gage is calibrated to read the air mass flow rate directly, using the following data:
Orifice discharge coefficient Cd = 0.65
Orifice diameter: 27 mm
Inlet air pressure: 1.05 bar (forced-draft)
Inlet air temperature: 300 K
Mass flow rate (mair) = ƿair Cd A (2ΔP/ƿair)1/2, where ΔP = ƿwater g h
Gaseous Fuel: If using LPG (Liquified Petroleum Gas), it is assumed that the LPG consists
of 50% propane and 50% Butane (by volume). For this case, the present flowmeter provides
correct readings only for pure propane. So, the following correction factor is to be used for
LPG: For a flow rate of 2.2 gm/s setting, the corrected value is 2.3 gm /s.
F. Energy Balance
It is required to operate the unit and record all temperatures and flow rates for three air-to-
fuel ratios and then apply full energy balance calculations for each air-to-fuel ratio. Fill in
the following tables
Table 3: Measured values at different air-to-fuel ratios

Run# m fuel m air A/F Tair Texh Twi Two m water
(kg/hr) (C) (C) (C) (C) (Kg/hr)
1 (CNG) 2.2 135
g/s
2 (CNG) 2.2 145
g/s
3 (CNG) 2.2 155
g/s
4 (Diesel Fuel) 4.4 kg/hr 175
163
Table 4: Energy balance at different air-to-fuel ratios
Run# A/F Q_input Q_water Q_exhaust Q_Surroundings  boiler =
Qwater /
(mfuel*Calorific Value)
1 (CNG)
2 (CNG)
3 (CNG)
4 (Diesel
Fuel)
Note: It is possible to check the A/F ratio based on the readings of the flow meters by
analyzing a gas sample at the exhaust. This may be done by measuring the oxygen and carbon-
monoxide concentrations at the exhaust. Then use the reaction equation for equilibrium
conditions and calculate the A/F ratio, where the fuel composition can be assumed as 50%
propane and 50% butane, by volume if LPG is used and 100% CH4 if CNG is used.
G. Required Work
1. Fill all the tables above
2. Plot the results of the energy balance in the form of pie charts
3. Comment on all results
4. Discuss the troubleshooting of fire-tube boilers.
5. In a table form, define each of the following technical terms – State the units, give
equations, and make sketches when possible.
Boiler Terminology
Fire-tube boiler
Water-tube boiler
Wet region
Saturated vapor
Superheated vapor
Forced draft fan
Induced draft fan
Balanced draft fan
Thermal flame length
Chemical flame length
Residence time
Flame flash back
Flame blow off
Fuels
CNG
LPG
Unburnt fuel
Measuring Devices
164
Rotameter
Orifice meter
Exhaust gas analysis
Thermocouple
Control Devices
Pressure regulator
Safety
Purging process
Ultra-violet sensor
Thermal sensor
Fuel solenoid valve
Safety relief valve
Level gage
Derived Variables
Boiler efficiency
Unaccounted losses
(Convection and radiation
losses)
Air-to-fuel ratio
H. Further Readings
1. https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/boilers
165
Performance Test of an Industrial Refrigeration Learning System
19.1. Performance Test of an Industrial Refrigeration Learning System-Part 1
A. Objectives
1. Identify the parts of an industrial refrigeration system and their functions
2. Identify the different safety, instrumentation and control devices utilized in industrial
refrigeration systems
3. Measure how long it takes for the refrigeration system to reach its steady state
conditions.
B. Experimental Apparatus
The main components of the system are:
1. Compressor: Semi-hermetic and electrically driven with a 3-HP electric motor (220
volt). A sight glass is added to the front of the compressor to allow for the observation of
the oil level.
2. Condensers: Two water cooled condensers. One of them is tube-in-tube type while the
other condenser is a shell-and-tube type.
3. Evaporators: Two air-cooled evaporators (forced-air cooling). These two evaporators
can be used either in series or in parallel operation.
4. Defrosters: The system has two defrosting systems, one for each evaporator. One of
these defrosters uses electric heating while the other uses the hot gas heating.
5. Evaporator Fans: Two fans, one for each evaporator. The speed of each fan can be
regulated from 0 % to 100 %.
6. Evaporator Pressure Regulator: An externally adjustable pressure regulator is located
between the evaporator and the compressor.
7. Pressure Gauges: Three pressure gauges are used in experiment. Two gages are installed
at the evaporator’s inlet while the third is used to measure the condenser’s pressure.
8. Cooling Tower: it consists of a pump, a cooling section, a reservoir, and an electrically
driven fan.
9. Oil Separator: It is used to separate any droplets of oil that may be discharged with the
refrigerant and return them back to the compressor.
10. Liquid Receiver: it is used to store refrigerant during the machine maintenance.
11. Refrigerant: Freon-12 (R-12)
12. Instrumentation:
a. Thermocouple to measure the compressor discharge temperature.
b. Thermocouple to measure the compressor suction temperature.
c. Thermocouple to measure the cooling water temperature at the inlet to condenser.
d. Thermocouple to measure the cooling water temperature at the outlet from the
condenser.
e. Flow meter to measure the cooling water flow rate.
1. If the system is in use, turn off the system and allow it to remain idle for at least 30
minutes
166
2. Record all temperature and pressure readings prior to start-up
3. Open valves V6 and V7
4. Turn on the cooling tower pump
5. Turn on the cooling tower fan
6. Open valves V1, V2, V3, and V4
7. Close valve V5 - This sets up the system for both evaporators in parallel flow
8. Check to see that oil level is in the middle of the sight glass
9. Turn-on the system through the main switch at the lower front right hand side corner of
the unit
10. Rotate the fan switches to the fully-clockwise position
11. Check to see that the timers are not in the defrost cycle
12. Check to see that the suction pressure gauge is in the range from 5 to 30 PSI and the
high-pressure gauge is in the range from 95 to 130 PSI
13. Record all temperature and pressure readings every 30 seconds for 50 minutes
14. Plot a graph for each gauge showing either temperature or pressure, according to the
component, on the vertical coordinate and time on the horizontal one
167
Figure 19.1.1: General view of the experimental setup of the industrial refrigeration
learning system
Figure 19.1.2: Schematic of the experimental setup of the industrial refrigeration learning
system
168
Time 𝑻𝑪𝑾,𝒊𝒏 𝑻𝑪𝑾,𝒐𝒖𝒕 𝑷𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅 𝑷𝒆𝒗𝒂𝒑,𝟏 𝑷𝒆𝒗𝒂𝒑,𝟐 𝑻𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑,𝒊𝒏 𝑻𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑,𝒐𝒖𝒕 𝑽𝑪𝑾
(min) (℃) (℃) (PSI) (PSI) (PSI) (℃) (℃) (litre)
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
4.5
5
6
7
8
9
10
12
14
16
18
20
23
26
29
32
35
38
41
169
Performance Test of an Industrial Refrigeration Learning System – Part 2
A. Objectives
The objectives of this part are the determination of:
1. Rate of heat rejection to the condenser cooling water
2. Refrigerant mass flow rate
3. Refrigeration load
4. Coefficient of performance of the system
5. The compression index, n
6. Rate of heat rejection in the compressor
The main components of the system are:
1. Compressor: Semi-hermetic and electrically driven with a 3 HP electric motor (220 volt).
A sight glass is added to the front of the compressor to allow for the observation of oil
level.
2. Condensers: Two water cooled condensers. One of them is tube-in-tube type while the
other is shell-and-tube type.
3. Evaporators: Two air cooled evaporators (forced air cooling). The evaporators can be
used either in series or in parallel operation.
4. Defrosters: Two defrosting systems are existing, one for each evaporator. One of these
defrosters is based on the electric heating while the other is based on the hot gas heating.
5. Evaporator Fans: Two fans, one for each evaporator. The speed of each fan can be
regulated from zero value to 100%.
6. Evaporator Pressure Regulator: An externally adjustable pressure regulator is located
between the evaporator and the compressor.
7. Pressure Gauges: Three pressure gauges are used in experiment. Two are installed at the
evaporator’s inlet while the third is used to measure the condensing pressure.
8. Cooling Tower: It consists of a pump, cooling section, reservoir, and electrically driven
fan.
9. Oil Separator: It is used to separate any droplets of oil that may be discharged with the
refrigerant and return them back to the compressor.
10. Liquid Receiver: It is used to store refrigerant during the machine maintenance.
11. Refrigerant: Freon-12 (R-12)
12. Measuring elements: The machine is fitted with the following instruments:
a) Thermocouple to measure the compressor discharge temperature.
b) Thermocouple to measure the compressor suction temperature.
c) Thermocouple to measure the cooling water temperature at the inlet to condenser.
d) Thermocouple to measure the cooling water temperature at the outlet from the
condenser.
e) Flow meter to measure the cooling water flow rate.
1. Open valves V6 and V7
2. Record the flow meter reading at the starting
3. Record the time at starting
170
4. Tum on the cooling tower pump
5. Turn on the cooling tower fan
6. Open valves V1, V2, V3 and V4
7. Close valve V5
8. The above steps set up the system for both evaporators in parallel flow.
9. Check to see that oil level is in the middle of the sight glass.
10. Turn the system on through the main switch at the lower front right hand side corner of
the unit
11. Rotate fan switches to full clockwise position
12. Check to see that the timers are not in the defrost cycle
13. Check to see that the suction pressure gauge is in the range from 5 to 30 PSI and the
high-pressure gauge is in the range from 95 to 130 PSI
14. Allow the unit to run for five minutes to stabilize
15. Record the inlet and outlet temperature of the condenser cooling water
16. Record the refrigerant temperature at the compressor suction and discharge
17. Record the flow meter reading at the end
18. Record the elapsed time at the end
D. Experimental Observation Table

Item Symbol Value Unit
Flow meter reading at start V1 litres
Flow meter reading at end V2 litres
Total water flow Vc = V2-V1 litres
Time required for Vc τc second
o
Condenser cooling water inlet temperature 𝑻𝑪𝑾,𝒊𝒏 C
o
Condenser cooling water outlet temperature 𝑻𝑪𝑾,𝒐𝒖𝒕 C
o
Compressor suction temperature Tr,i C
o
Compressor discharge temperature Tr,o C
Compressor suction pressure gauge reading Pr,i PSI
Compressor discharge pressure gauge reading Pr,o PSI
E. Assumptions
171
Assume that the condensate leaves the condenser as saturated liquid
Figure 19.1.3: Typical thermodynamic cycle of refrigeration on the P-H diagram
F. Required work
Task 1: Calculate the following performance indices and then comment
Flow rate of cooling water, kg/s 𝑉𝑐𝑤 ∙ 𝜌𝑤

𝑚̇𝑤 = 𝜏𝑐
Condenser heat rejection rate, kW 𝑄̇𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 = 𝑚̇𝑤 ∙ 𝐶𝑝,𝑤 ∙ (𝑡𝑐𝑤,𝑜 − 𝑡𝑐𝑤,𝑖 )
Refrigerant mass flow rate, kg/s 𝑄̇𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑

𝑚̇𝑟 = ℎ
@𝑃𝑟,𝑜 & 𝑡𝑟,𝑜 − ℎ@𝑃𝑟,𝑜 & 𝑥=0
Refrigeration load, kW 𝑄̇𝑟𝑒𝑓 = 𝑚̇𝑟 ∙ (ℎ@𝑃𝑟,𝑖 & 𝑡𝑟,𝑖 − ℎ@𝑃𝑟,𝑜 & 𝑥=0 )
𝑛 𝑛
Compression index, n 𝑃𝑟,𝑖 ∙ 𝑉𝑟,𝑖 = 𝑃𝑟,𝑜 ∙ 𝑉𝑟,𝑜
𝑃
ln 𝑃𝑟,𝑖
𝑟,𝑜
𝑛=
𝑉
ln 𝑉𝑟,𝑜
𝑟,𝑖
𝑛
Compression indicated power, kW 𝐼𝑊𝑐 = 𝑚̇𝑟 𝑛−1 (𝑃𝑟,𝑜 ∙ 𝑉𝑟,𝑜 − 𝑃𝑟,𝑖 ∙ 𝑉𝑟,𝑖 )
Heat rejected from the compressor, kW 𝑄̇𝑟𝑒𝑗 = 𝐼𝑊𝑐 + 𝑄̇𝑟𝑒𝑓 − 𝑄̇𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑
C.O.P of the cycle 𝑄̇𝑟𝑒𝑓
C.O.P = 𝐼𝑊𝑐
172
Figure 19.1.4: P-H diagram for R-12
Task 2: In a table form, define each of the following technical terms – State the units, give
Refrigeration Terminology
Refrigerator
Heat pump
Coefficient of performance
Clausius statement
Suction pressure
Delivery pressure
Evaporator
Condenser
Compressor
Hermetic compressor
Semi-hermetic compressor
Throttling valve
Refrigeration load
Oil separator
Liquid receiver
Defroster
173
Cooling tower
Measuring Devices
Thermocouple
Pressure gauge
Stopwatch
Control devices
Pressure regulating valve
Evaporator fan
G. Further Reading
174
20.Performance Test of an Air Handling Unit (AHU)
A. Objectives
The objectives of this experiment are to identify the main components employed in the Air
Handling Unit (AHU), to utilize the science and art of measurements to identify the main processes
that take place to condition the air; and to operate the necessary components of the unit in order to
achieve different states in the comfort of the conditioned space.
B. Introduction
The Air Handling Unit (AHU) is a main part of central air conditioning systems. It is a
collection of components that control the incoming air flow rate (and thus the required ventilation),
and then achieve the required supply conditions to the served zone, mainly in terms of the required
temperature and the required relative humidity. The AHU is designed to treat the air though the
whole year, so it contains components that can perform four main processes: cooling, heating,
humidification, and dehumidification. The size of AHUs depends on the load of the zone(s) being
conditioned.
Figure 20.1: AHU Overview
175
Figure 20.2: Schematic diagram of an AHU
176
The apparatus is an AHU with the following components:
Damper to control the ratio of the fresh air to Variable-speed centrifugal fan
the total air
Electric preheater made of a number of Electric reheater

resistive heaters
Inclined manometer Air filter
177
Water spray nozzle in the humidifer Cooling coil as the evaporator in a vapor
section compression cycle operated by R22. The
thermodynamic cycle can be operated at half-
load and can be reversed to a heat pump by a
system of solenoid valves
Air outlet with a grill Control board with switches for operating
the compressor, the fan, the electric heaters,
the water spray, the full/half load cycles, and
the heat pump reversed cycle. Each switch is
provided with an indication lamp.
178
Measuring and control devices: solenoid Hygrometer and temperature sensor placed
valves, expansion devices, rotameters, air at different sections of the duct to measure the
flow rate inclined manometer, compressor relative humidity and dry bulb temperature of
suction/discharge pressure and temperature the conditioned air.
measurement gauges
Figure 20.3: Some parts of the Air Handling Unit
D. Calculation Procedure
The air flow capacity (Q) is the summation of the rate of the recirculated (return) air and the rate
of the fresh air. The ratio between the rates is managed by the damper.
According to the damper calibration graph, the movement of the damper is scaled and interpreted
to the actual flow ratio.
To calculate the total air flow rate, follow these steps:
Adjust the lever of damper and read its position index from the scale.
Obtain the recirculation ratio as a function of the position index from the calibration graph
Calculate the flow rate of the return air from the reading of the inclined manometer using:
Qreturn air = 100√∆P, where
Qreturn air: volume flow rate of the return air (m3/h)
∆P: differential pressure (mm H2O)
Total flow rate (Qtotal) = Qreturn / recirculation ratio
Fresh air flow rate (Qfresh) = Qtotal - Qreturn
General instructions for fan operation:

Rotate the fan switch anti-clockwise till you hear a momentary sound (Turn on).
Rotate the switch clockwise for controlling the speed of the fan.
Read the damper scale and inclined manometer and calculate the air flow rates.
Record the air state at the entrance (point C), and then estimate the density (ρ).
Calculate the total inlet air mass flow rate (ṁtotal ) in (kg/s).
179
E. Experiment #1: Sensible-Heating Process
Objective: Trace the path and determine the rate of heating during a “Sensible Heating” process.
Steps:
1. Turn on the reheater switch.
2. Record (ϕ) and (T) before and after the reheater (Points E and F respectively) using the
available instrumentation.
3. Place the points of air states (E and F) according to the recorded properties on the
psychrometric chart.
4. Draw the vector line representing the process and calculate the following:
5. Reheating coil capacity (Qre): Qre = ṁtotal (hF − hE )
6. Comment on the results
180
F. Experiment #2: Cooling and Dehumidification Process
Objective: Trace the path and determine the rate of cooling and the rate of condensate from the
cooling coil during a cooling and dehumidification process.
Steps:
1. Set the operation on the direct cycle.
2. Turn on the vapor compression refrigeration system’s solenoid valves switch.
3. Turn on the compressor switch.
4. Record (ϕ) and (T) before and after the cooling coil (Points D and E respectively) using
instrumentation.
5. Place points of air states (D and E) according to the recorded properties on the
6. From D and E, get the apparatus dew point temperature of the cooling coil (t adp ).
8. Cooling coil capacity (Qc.c):
9. Qc.c = ṁtotal (hE − hD ) − ṁtotal (ψE − ψD ) ∗ 4.187 ∗ t adp
10. Comment on the results
181
G. Experiment #3: Heating and Humidification Process
Objective: Trace the path and determine the rate of heating of both of preheater and reheater,
and the rate of water consumption in the air washer during the Heating and Humidification
process.
Steps:
1. Turn on the (Reheater) switch on the full capacity
2. Turn on the (Preheater) switch on the full capacity
3. Operate the valve of the two water nozzles
4. Record (ϕ) and (T) before and after the preheating coil, air washer, and reheating coil
(Points C, D, E, and F respectively) using instrumentation
5. Place points of air states (C, D, E, and F) according to the recorded properties on the
6. Draw the vector line representing the process
7. Calculate the following:
Preheating coil capacity (Qpre): Qpre = ṁtotal (hD − hC )
Air washer water consumption (𝑚̇𝑤𝑎𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑟 ): 𝑚̇𝑤𝑎𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑟 = ṁtotal (ψE − ψD )
Reheating coil capacity (Qre): Qre = ṁtotal (hF − hE )
182
H. Experiment #4: Cooling and Reheating Process
Objective: Trace the path and determine the cooling coil capacity and the reheater heat rate
during the Cooling and Reheating process.
Steps:
1. Set the operation on the direct cycle.
4. Turn on the (Reheater) switch on the full capacity.
5. Record (ϕ) and (T) before and after the cooling coil and reheating coil (Points D, E, and F
respectively) using instrumentation.
6. Place points of air states (D, E, and F) according to the recorded properties on the
7. From D and E, get the apparatus dew point temperature of the cooling coil (t adp ).
8. Draw the vector line(s) representing the process(es)
9. Calculate the following:
Cooling coil capacity (Qc.c): Qc.c = ṁtotal (hE − hD ) − ṁtotal (ψE − ψD ) ∗
4.187 ∗ t adp
Reheating coil capacity (Qre): Qre = ṁtotal (hF − hE )
183
I. Experiment #5: Evaporative Cooling Process
Objective: Trace the path and determine the water consumption in the air washer during the
“Evaporative Cooling” process.
Steps:
1. Operate the two water nozzles’ valve.
2. Record (ϕ) and (T) before and after the air washer (Points D and E respectively) using
instrumentation.
4. Draw the vector line(s) representing the process(es) and calculate the following:
5. Air washer water consumption (𝑚̇𝑤𝑎𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑟 ): 𝑚̇𝑤𝑎𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑟 = ṁtotal (ψE − ψD )
184
J. Experiment #6: Reversed Cycle
Objective: Trace the path and determine the rate of heating coil during the “Reversed Cycle”
process.
Steps:
1. Set the operation to the reversed cycle.
4. Record (ϕ) and (T) before and after the heating coil, which in this case is the condenser of
the cycle (Points D and E respectively) using instrumentation.
psychometric chart.
Heating coil capacity (Qheat): Qheat = ṁtotal (hE − hD )
7. Is it more beneficial to use the reversed vapor compression cycle for heating instead of
electrical heater? Why?
K. Commenting on the Results

1. Should the process be horizontal or vertical or inclined? Do the measurements reflect
this? What are the possible causes for differences?
2. Should the process be adiabatic? Why? Do the results reflect this? What are the possible
causes for differences?
3. Does the process involve both cooling and heating together? If so, why?
4. What are the inlet conditions suitable for the process?
185
Task: In a table form, define each of the following technical terms – State the units, give
HVAC Terminology
HVAC
AHU
Psychrometric chart
Relative humidity
Humidity ratio
Sensible heating
Sensible cooling
Latent heat
Wet bulb temperature
Dew point
Thermal comfort
Humidification
De-humidification
Evaporative Cooling
Reversed Cycle
Water spray nozzle
Cooling coil
Centrifugal fan
Grill
Fresh air
Exhaust air
Return air
Recirculating air
Measuring Devices
Thermocouple
Hygrometer
Pressure gauge
Stopwatch
Control devices
Pressure regulating valve
Damper
L. Further Reading
186
Figure 20.4: Damper calibration curve
187
Air State Properties Table: According to the process, shade the inconsiderable states and fill in
the recorded values
C D E F
State
Process ϕC TC ϕD TD ϕE TE ϕF TF
(%) (ºC) (%) (ºC) (%) (ºC) (%) (ºC)
Sensible Heating
Cooling and Dehumidification
Heating and Humidification
Cooling and Reheating
Evaporative Cooling
Reversed Cycle
Figure 20.5: Psychometric chart
188
21.Performance Test of a Coppus Steam Turbine
A. Objectives
1. Recognize the different safety, measurements and instrumentation utilized on the steam
systems
2. Carry-out a performance test on a steam turbine of the Coppus type to determine its
performance parameters (i.e., steam consumption and specific steam consumption).
B. Principle of Operation
The mechanical power on the rotating shaft of a steam turbine is obtained via the rate of
change in momentum of a high velocity jet of steam impinging on the curved blade of the turbine.
The steam is obtained from a boiler and then typically is discharged to a condenser (in a power
plant), to an industrial process (in industry), or to the atmosphere (as in this experiment).
C. Impulse Turbines versus Reaction Turbines

An impulse turbine has a set of fixed nozzles (stator) that orient the steam flow into high-
speed jets. These jets contain significant kinetic energy. The rotor blades, shaped like buckets,
convert the large kinetic energy into shaft rotation as the steam jet changes its direction and loses
its kinetic energy. The pressure drop in the steam occurs only the stator (the stationary blades),
through which the steam pressure is reduced and the steam velocity increases.
Figure 21.1: Principle of operation of an impulse turbine – The steam pressure decreases
thorough the stator while it remains constant through the rotor. Also note that only kinetic energy
is used to rotate the rotor
189
Figure 21.2: Comparison between impulse turbines (top row) versus reaction turbines
(middle row) – Note that in reaction turbines the pressure drop occurs gradually and
continuously over both the fixed blades (stator) and the moving blades (rotor)
190
D. Description of the Coppus Steam Turbine
It is a single pressure stage (with a rotor having two rows of blades) of the impulse non-
condensing type. The turbine has the following specifications:
Model RLA 12L
Rated power 15 kW
Rated speed 4000 rpm
Inlet steam pressure (gauge) 10 kp/cm2 (note: 1 killoPond/cm2 = 0.980665
bar)
Inlet steam quality dry saturated (x = 1)
Exhaust pressure (gauge) 0.5 kp/ cm2
The Coppus turbine is a small-scale steam turbine capable of generating up to 50 horsepower of

mechanical power. Work is extracted from the turbine using a hydraulic dynamometer, which can
be adjusted to apply a wide range of loading conditions.
The steam enters the turbine cover after passing through a steam strainer, an over-speed trip valve,
and a throttle valve. Cast into the turbine cover is the steam chest, which contains several individual
steam nozzles. Some of these nozzles are controlled by hand valves that control the steam flow rate
for partial load or overload operation. Steam flowing through the nozzles expands and is directed
at high velocity against the rotating blades of the first row on the turbine rotor. After passing through
the first row, the stationary blades redirect the steam against the second row of rotating blades. The
steam is then discharged into the exhaust casing and from there into an exhaust pipe at the exhaust
system pressure. The figures below show schematics of the casing and a section of the Coppus
turbine.
Figure 21.3: Instrumentation on the Coppus steam turbine
191
Figure 21.4: Schematic of the Coppus turbine.
192
Figure 21.5: Cross section of the Coppus steam turbine.
193
E. Steam path
The figure bellow illustrates the steam path from its generation at the firs-tube boiler till it is
discharged at the atmosphere
Figure 21.6: Flow of the steam from its point of generation at the fire-tube boiler to the turbine
and then to the atmosphere
F. Main Auxiliaries
Steam trap: Used to drain and remove water content from steam lines. The three important
functions of steam traps are:
a. Discharge any water condensate (i.e., liquid water) as soon as it is formed.
b. Have negligible steam consumption.
c. Capable of discharging air and other non-condensable gases.
Over-speed tripping: It typically consists of two balls with springs holding them down. When the
turbine spins too fast, the centrifugal force pushes the balls past the resistance of the springs at
which point they hit a lever that stops the steam/compressed gas flow to the turbine and the turbine
shuts down. They are designed to keep the turbine from going so fast that it damages itself or
damage the equipment driven by the turbine.
Oil relay governor:

In practice, the load on the turbine frequently varies from the designed or economic load
condition, causing deviation from the desired performance of the turbine. The governing of a steam
turbine is the procedure of controlling the flow rate of steam into the turbine in order to maintain
194
the turbine’s RPM. This is critical because the primary objective in the steam turbine operation is
to maintain a constant speed of rotation irrespective of the varying load.
The Coppus turbine speed is controlled by an oil-relay governor mounted directly on the
end of the turbine shaft and is connected through a linkage mechanism to a balanced throttle valve,
which regulates the steam supply to the nozzles by a throttling process such as to keep the
turbine RPM constant.
Three-hand valve: It reduces the mass flow rate of steam at part load without changing the steam
inlet conditions.
The multiple hand valve feature allows part load, overload, and minimum inlet/maximum back
pressure control for flexible operation and increased part-load efficiency. The appropriate number
of hand valves is determined by steam and operating conditions and application load requirements.
Hydraulic dynamometer: Provides a controllable load on the turbine. The load is controlled by
varying the dynamometer water pressure.
Figure 21.7: Fire-tube boiler to generate the steam
195
Figure 21.8: The Coppus steam turbine setup with its different accessories
Oil relay governor Over-speed trap
Three-hand valve Steam traps
196
Figure 21.9: Some of the components of the Coppus steam turbine setup
197
G. Starting up the Turbine
1. Check the oil level in the bearing housing and in the oil-relay governor.
2. Open all hand valves.
3. Drain all the condensate from the lowest point in the inlet steam line, from the lowest point
in the exhaust steam line and from the safety trip shut off and throttle valves bodies.
4. Be sure that all valves in the exhaust line are open.
5. Check that the safety trip lever is latched, and that the safety trip shut off valve is fully open,
by pressing down on the connecting rod end of the operator lever.
6. Turn the governor speed adjusting screw on the end of the governor, fully counter-clockwise
to the speed-decrease position.
7. Open the shut-off valve in the inlet steam line gradually, bringing the speed up slowly until
the governor takes control at the low-speed settings.
8. Once the speed control has been established, open the inlet valve fully and adjust the speed
setting screw on the governor clockwise to bring the turbine up to the required operating
speed as required by the equipment driven by the turbine.
9. Once the turbine has reached its rated speed under governor control, check the safety trip
system operation by manually tripping the turbine by pressing down on the trip lever where
the word “TRIP” appears. The turbine should come to a complete stop. Open the safety trip
valve and latch the linkage by pressing down on the connecting rod end of the operator lever.
10. Check the operation of the safety trip system by either over speed operation or manual trip.
Increase the turbine speed by means of the governor speed adjusting screw until trip speed
is reached. The turbine should trip within the ± 2% of the trip speed setting on the turbine
nameplate, and thereafter the turbine should come to complete stop. If trip speed cannot be
achieved for any reason, manually trip the turbine by pressing down on the trip lever where
the word “TRIP” appears.
H. Test Procedure
Varying the turbine load at constant speed and constant inlet steam conditions
1. Set the inlet pressure at about 9 kp/cm2 gauge
2. Open the three hand valves.
3. Set the exhaust pressure to about 0.5 kp/cm2 gauge
4. Set the governor speed to 3500 rpm.
5. Adjust the dynamometer load until throttle valve is wide open or chest pressure is equal to
about 8 kp/cm2 gauge
6. Adjust the load in 5 equal increments down to minimum.
7. Take set of readings at each load increment.
I. Calculation Procedure
1. Torque (T) = 14.242 * torque reading (N.m)
2. Angular speed () = 2πN/60, where N is the speed in rpm
3. Mechanical Power (P) = T * 
4. Steam mass flow rate 𝑚̇𝑠 = 5.42 √∆𝑃. 𝑃2 (kg/h), where ΔP = orifice pressure difference
(mm water)
5. P2 = inlet pressure (kp/cm2 gauge)
6. Specific steam consumption 𝑚̇𝑠 ,𝑠𝑝 = 𝑚̇𝑠 /𝑃 (kg/kW h)
198
J. Experimental Record
Fill up the following table using the values measured in the experiment.
Run no. 1 2 3 4 5
Speed (N), rpm 3500
Inlet pressure (P2), kp/cm2 g
Inlet temperature (T2), °C
Nozzle pressure (P3), kp/cm2 g
Exhaust pressure (P5), kp/cm2 g
Orifice pressure difference(ΔP),
mm water
Torque reading
Actual torque
K. Required Work
Fill up the following table
Mechanical Power (P) kW
Steam mass flow rate (𝒎̇𝒔 ) kg/h
Specific steam consumption (𝒎̇𝒔 ,𝒔𝒑 ) kg/kW h
1. Plot the following graphs:

a. The load (kW) versus the steam mass flow rate 𝑚̇𝑠 (kg/h)
b. The load (kW) versus specific steam consumption 𝑚̇𝑠 ,𝑠𝑝 (kg/kW h)
2. Write down your comments on the readings, results and graphs.
3. Sketch the path of the steam from the point at which it leaves the boiler till the point at
which it leaves the turbine. Show all the safety, control, measurement devices used on this
path.
4. Take photos of the devices between the boiler exit and the turbine exit, present them in
order, and label them
5. What is the type of boiler used to supply the steam to this turbine? What are the safety
devices on it?
6. What are the devices used to remove moisture from the steam before it enters the turbine?
7. Is this turbine axial or radial?
8. How many stages are there in this turbine?
9. Is there a condenser downstream of the turbine? If not, what happens to the exit steam?
10. How is the generated mechanical power dissipated?
11. What are the safety precautions used in the boiler and in the turbine?
12. How is the RPM regulated in this turbine? Why is this important?
13. Plot the expansion of the steam on the Mollier chart when the RPM is 3500 RPM. Obtain
the isentropic efficiency of the turbine from the chart
14. When you increase the water flow rate in the water dynamometer at a constant input steam
flow rate, what happens to the turbine RPM? And why?
Task: In a table form, define each of the following technical terms – State the units, give
199
Terminology related to steam turbines
Mollier chart
Steam dryness fraction
Isentropic process
Isentropic efficiency
Pure impulse turbine
Pure reaction turbine
Mixed impulse/reaction turbine
Axial flow turbine
Radial flow turbine
Mixed flow turbine
Rated speed
Trip speed
Governing of turbine speed
Safety devices in the boiler
Relief valve
Level gage
Low/high water level alarm
Purging
Safety devices in the turbine
Steam trap
Over speed tripping
Measuring devices
Torque meter
Tachometer
Orifice meter
Pressure gage
Thermocouple
Control Devices
Three-hand valve
Oil relay governor
Derived Variables
Mechanical power
Steam consumption
Specific steam consumption
L. Further Reading
1. https://www.mcraeeng.com/files/single-stage-turbine-686140.pdf
2. https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/single-stage-steam-turbine
200
22.Performance Test of a Pelton Turbine
A. Objectives
1. Recognize the different configurations of turbines: impulse/mixed/reaction; axial/mixed
flow/radial
2. Recognize the different parts of the Pelton’s hydraulic turbines
3. Measure and document the Pelton turbine's performance
4. Reduce the collected data to dimensionless groups
5. Draw the velocity diagram at the inlet and outlet of the turbine’s blade
6. Compare the measured discharge and power to those obtained from analyzing the velocity
diagrams
B. Introduction
The Pelton wheel turbine is one kind of an impulse turbine utilized in hydraulic applications
and was invented by an American Engineer, Lester Allan Pelton.
The Pelton turbine is the most famous type of impulse turbine. It is a hydraulic turbine, and
its primary application is in the hydropower plant for producing electricity downstream of water
dams.
This type of turbine is the preferred turbine for hydropower generation where the available
water source has relatively high hydraulic head at low flow rates.
The turbine consists of fixed nozzles that direct high-speed jets of liquid water into a series
of spoon-shaped buckets mounted around a runner (rotor). As the water jet hits the blades, the
direction of the water velocity is changed to follow the contours of the blades. The impulse energy
of the water jet exerts torque on the bucket-and-rotor system, causing the rotor to rotate while the
water jet follows a "u-turn" path and exits at the outer sides of the bucket, at a lower velocity.
In the process, the water jet's momentum is transferred to the rotor and hence to the turbine
shaft. The turbine’s rotor drives the turbine’s generator, which in turn converts the mechanical work
electrical energy.
As an impulse turbine, there is no pressure variation of the fluid across the bucket and all
the pressure drops occurs in the stationary nozzle. Therefore, the input energy to the rotor is only
kinetic and the pressure is atmospheric at the inlet and outlet of the rotor.
At the exit, a very small percentage of the water jet's original kinetic energy remains in the
water, which causes the bucket to be emptied at the same rate it is filled, and thereby allows the
high-pressure input flow to continue without interruption.
As the water jet passes through the nozzle, its flow rate can be adjusted by a spear or needle
installed inside the nozzle.
As liquid water is incompressible, almost all the available energy is extracted in the first
stage of the hydraulic turbine. Therefore, Pelton turbines have only one stage, unlike gas turbines
that operate with compressible fluids and may have multiple stages.
Theoretically the maximum power is obtained when the water changes its direction by 180
degrees, but as this is practically impossible, the change in direction is implemented as close as
possible to the 180o value.
201
H. Concept of operation and terminology
Figure 22.1: Inlet and outlet of the water jet across the bucket
202
Figure 22.2: Concept of operation of the Pelton’s turbine and its different parts, including
the penstock, the spear, the tail stock, the runner, the buckets, the casing and the breaking jet
203
Figure 22.3: Schematic and images of the Pelton turbine
I. Main parts of the Pelton wheel turbine
1. Nozzle: Is used to increase the kinetic energy of the water jet before it strikes the buckets
connected to the runner. The amount of water hitting the runner’s buckets is controlled by a
the spear (needle) in the nozzle. When the spear is pushed forward, the water flow rate striking
the runner is reduced and when it is pushed back, the water flow rate striking the runner is
increased.
2. Runner and Bucket: the runner (rotor) is the rotating part. On the periphery of the runner
several buckets are installed. The water jet hits the bucket causing the runner to rotate. The
bucket is formed so that the jet gets deflected through 160 degrees or 170 degrees before
leaving.
3. Casing: In impulse turbines, there is no pressure difference along the rotor and the only
function of the casing is to inhibit the splashing of the water and to protect against accidents
4. Breaking Jet: Even if the input water flow rate is set to zero by entirely pushing the spear in
the forward direction, the runner keeps running due to its large inertia. The breaking jet directs
the water jet at the back of the vanes to stop the runner in a short period of time.
204
J. Experimental Setup
Figure 22.4: Experimental setup of the Pelton turbine experiment showing the centrifugal pump
and its motor, the pressure gage that reads the outlet pressure from the pump, the pressure gage
that reads the water pressure at the turbine inlet, the Pelton turbine, the coupling with the
dynamometer, the dynamometer, the point gage reading (used to estimate the discharge), the
water basin (contains stones in a cage to make flow non turbulent to ease the measurement of
discharge), The V-notch (a device used to measure the height of the water in order to obtain the
flow rate), and the measuring instruments for the turbine torque. The RPM is measured by a
separate speedometer.
Image of the Pelton’s turbine experimental setup showing the Pelton turbine, the coupling with
the dynamometer, the dynamometer, the pressure gage reading the input pressure to the turbine
205
Centrifugal pump used to increase the water pressure Throttling valve with two pressure gages around it
Turbine, coupler and dyanmaometer Close up of the Pelton turbine
206
Coupler and dynamometer Load control board and torque meter
Tachometer to measure the turbine RPM V-notch used to measure the flow rate
Torque meter Calibration equation of the torque meter

Figure 22.5: Details of the Pelton turbine setup
207
K. Equations
1. HPI = ρ*Q* g* Htot (W)
2. Hs = (P2/ρg) - 0.24 (meter of water)
3. Vf = Q/A = Q/10.92*10-4 (m/s)
4. A_jet = (π/4)dj2
5. Hd = Vf2/2g (meter of water)
6. Htot = Hs +Hd (meter of water)
7. ω = 2ᴨN/60 (rad/s)
8. U = ω * Dp/2 (m/s)
9. P = T*ω (W)
10. ηT = Turbine output power/hydraulic power input
√𝛈𝐓∗𝐇𝐏𝐈∗𝟏.𝟑𝟔
11. At the point of maximum efficiency, 𝐍𝐬 = 𝑵 ∗ 𝟓
𝐇𝟒
𝛑𝐃𝐍
𝑼
12. runner tip speed ratio:  = 𝑪𝟏 = 𝟔𝟎
𝐂𝐯√𝟐𝒈𝑯
where:
HPI: hydraulic power input (kW)
ρ: water density (Kg/m3)
Q: discharge (m3/s)
dj: jet diameter (m)
g: gravitational acceleration (m/s2)
Htot: total head (meter of water)
Hs: static head (m)
P2: pressure gauge reading (Pa)
Vf: flow velocity at gauge (m/s)
Hd: dynamic head (m)
Htot: total head (m)
N: shaft rotational speed (RPM)
T: torque on turbine shaft (Nm)
ω: angular velocity of turbine shaft (rad/s)
Dp: pitch circle diameter
ηT : turbine’s efficiency
Cv: velocity coefficient of the nozzle
Ns: specific speed
: runner tip speed ratio
2 : Bucket’s deflection angle
208
L. Velocity Diagrams
As shown in the figure below, the inlet water stream hits the bucket at the center and the
water is discharged from both sides of the bucket
Figure 22.6: Velocity diagram in the Pelton’s turbine
At the inlet of the blade:
C1: Absolute nozzle exit velocity = Cv √2𝑔𝐻, where Cv is the velocity coefficient
U1: Blade velocity = NDp/60
Vr1: Relative velocity of the water jet with respect to the blade at the inlet
As vectors:
C1 = Vr1 + U1
which leads to the following scalar equation:
C1 = Vr1 + U1
Note that:
U1 = U2 = U
Hence:
C1 = Vr1 + U1
Tangential (whirl) velocity at inlet = Cu1 = C1; where the subscript u denotes the horizontal
(tangential) component of the velocity
209
At the exit of the blade:
C2: Absolute velocity at the nozzle exit

U2: Blade velocity = NDp/60 = U1 = U
Vr2: Relative velocity of the jet with respect to the blade at the exit, which is equal to Vr1
if the friction can be neglected (from Bernoulli’s equation); otherwise Vr2 = K Vr1,
where K is the blade friction coefficient
As vectors:
C2 = Vr2 + U2,
which leads to the following scalar equation:
Cu2 = Vr2 cos(2) – U2 = KVr1 cos(2) – U ,
Tangential (whirl) velocity at outlet is Cu2

Cu2 = Vr2 cos(2) – U2 = KVr1 cos(2) – U;
However, as:
Vr1 = C1- U;
hence:
Cu2 = K(C1- U) cos(2) – U
M. Degree of reaction
𝐕𝐫𝟐𝟐 −𝐕𝐫𝟏𝟐
(R) = ,
𝐕𝐫𝟐𝟐 −𝐕𝐫𝟏𝟐 +𝑪𝟏 𝟐
where the degree of reaction is the ratio of pressure energy change in the rotor blades to total
energy change of the fluid
N. Impulse force acting by the water jet on the blade in the tangential direction, Fx:
Fx = m_dot * [Cu1-(-Cu2)]
as Cu2 is in opposite direction to Cu1
Fx = C1A (Cu1+ Cu2)
O. Power developed by the turbine = Fx U
Fx U = C1A (Cu1+ Cu2) U
P. Kinetic energy per unit time of the jet at inlet:
KE/time = 0.5*m_dot C12 = 0.5*(C1A)*C12 = 0.5*C13A
Q. Hydraulic efficiency, H:

Ratio of power produced by the runner of the turbine to the water-energy supplied to the bucket of
the runner = Power developed by the turbine/ kinetic energy per unit time of the jet at inlet
H = [2U(C1-U) (1+cos (B2)]/[C12]
R. Optimum hydraulic efficiency:
210
The best bucket velocity, U, to optimize the hydraulic efficiency is obtained by setting d(H) / dU
= 0, which yields:
Umax H = C1/2;
at which case the maximum H
H, max = (1+cos B2)/2
Figure 22.7: Optimum hydraulic efficiency occurs when the bucket velocity U is set to be
half the absolute value of the water jet velocity at the exit of the nozzle C1
S. Overall Efficiency:
The overall efficiency in a Pelton wheel turbine is defined as a ratio of the power available at the
shaft to the net power available at the base of the nozzle. In other words:
ηo = Power available at the turbine shaft / Power supplied at the turbine inlet = Pshaft /ρQgH
T. Specific speed of a Pelton wheel, Ns:
Ns = NP0.5 / [0.5 (gH)5/4],

Where N is the revolution per minute, P is the developed power, H is the total water head and  is
the water density.
U. Given Data:
Relative velocity ratio (K) = 0.95
Bucket’s deflection angle () = 165o
Pitch circle diameter (Dp) = 8.25 cm
Nozzle jet diameter (dj) = 13 mm
Velocity coefficient (Cv) = 0.95
V. Required Measurements
Table (1): speed range for different values of (P2)
P2 Speed Range (RPM) Number of readings
80 160 to 910 10
120 260 to 1400 10
160 355 to 2000 10
200 470 to 2250 10
211
Record the following variables:
P2 = Pressure gauge reading at the turbine’s inlet
N = Speed of rotation of the turbine
T = Torque
h = Point gauge reading
W. Experimental Procedure
1. Adjust the pump speed until you get a pressure reading on gauge (P2) according to Table
(l)
2. Adjust the field voltage control of the dynamometer to obtain ten different turbine RPMs
at the same inlet water flow rate and the same inlet pressure
3. Calculate the total dynamic head available at the turbine nozzle, taking into account the
turbine and pressure gauge elevation relative to each other, the velocity of the water in the
pipe at the point where the pressure gauge is attached
4. Estimate the measured flow rate (discharge) according to: 𝑄 = 0.014 ∗ ℎ2.5, where Q is
the discharge (lit/s) and h is the point gauge reading (cm)
5. Use the dynamometer to determine the torque in N.m.
6. Use the speedometer to determine the rotational speed (N)
7. Obtain another set of readings at this head by adjusting the field voltage control of the
dynamometer.
8. For each data point calculate the following:
a. Hydraulic power input
b. Angular velocity of the turbine shaft
c. Turbine output power
d. Turbine efficiency
e. Specific speed, evaluated at the largest turbine efficiency
f. Runner speed ratio
9. Repeat the previous steps for the different heads at the speed range indicated in Table 1.
212
X. Experimental Records
First Set of Readings
P2 = constant = kPa
H = constant = m of water
Q = constant = lit/s
Vf = constant = m/s
HPI = constant = W
N (RPM)
T (N.m)
ω (rad/sec)
P (W)
ηT, %
Ns
(estimated only at
the max. efficiency
point)

213
Second Set of Readings
P2 = constant = kPa
Vf = constant = m/s
HPI = constant = W
N (RPM)
T (N.m)
Calculated Values:
ω (rad/sec)
P (W)
ηT, %
Ns (estimated
only at the
max.
efficiency
point)

214
Third Set of Readings
P2 = constant = kPa
Vf = constant = m/s
HPI = constant = W
N (RPM)
T (N.m)
Calculated Values:
ω (rad/sec)
P (kW)
ηT, %
Ns
(estimated
only at the
max.
efficiency
point)

215
Fourth Set of Readings
P2 = constant = kPa
Vf = constant = m/s
HPI = constant = W
N (RPM)
T (N.m)
Calculated Values:
ω (rad/sec)
P (kW)
ηT, %
Ns
(estimated
only at the
max.
efficiency
point)

216
Y. Required Work
1. Plot four curves of the efficiency, output torque, turbine output power and specific speed
versus the runner tip speed ratio (one curve for each set). Note that theoretically, the
maximum efficiency occurs at a certain value of the runner tip speed ratio. Comment
2. Plot one graph showing the turbine power output at the best efficiency point and the
efficiency of the point versus the head. This graph has four points, one for each set
3. For the best efficiency point in each set, plot the velocity diagram at the blade inlet relating
the absolute inlet velocity of the water jet (C1), the blade velocity (U) and the relative
velocity of the jet with respect to the blade at the inlet Vr1
4. For the best efficiency point in each set, plot the velocity diagram at the blade outlet relating
the absolute outlet velocity of the water jet (C2), the blade velocity (U) and the relative
5. For each run, estimate the turbine discharge from the nozzle jet diameter and the absolute
inlet velocity of the water jet (C1)
6. Do the largest turbine power/efficiency occur at the maximum RPM or the maximum
torque?
7. Compare the efficiency curves at different heads. What is the observed relationship between
the turbine efficiency and the head? Why?
8. For the point of your choice, compare the measured discharge and power to those obtained
from analyzing the velocity diagrams
9. Comment on all result
10. Task: In a table form, define each of the following technical terms – State the units, give
Terminology related to Pelton’s turbine
Pure impulse turbine
Penstock
Tail stock
Runner
Buckets
Spear
Casing
Breaking jet
Discharge
Head
Measurement devices
Pressure gage
Torque meter
Tachometer
Control devices
Throttling valve
Safety devices
Derived Variables
Hydraulic power input
Angular velocity of the turbine shaft
Turbine output power
Turbine efficiency
217
Specific speed, evaluated at the largest turbine
efficiency
Runner speed ratio
218
23.Performance Test of a Francis Turbine
A. Objectives
1. Recognize the different configurations of turbines: impulse/mixed/reaction; axial/mixed
flow/radial
2. Recognize the different parts of the Francis turbine
3. Measure and document the Francis turbine's performance
5. Draw the velocity diagram at the inlet and exit of the turbine’s blade at the best efficiency
point
6. Compare the measured discharge and power to those obtained from analyzing the velocity
diagrams
B. Introduction
Francis turbines are the most common hydraulic turbine in use today. The turbine typically
is located between a high-pressure water source inlet and a low-pressure water exit, usually at the
base of a dam. It can achieve an efficiency of over 90%. Francis turbine operates under the mixed
impulse/reaction type, as opposed to the pure impulse type (Pelton turbine) or the pure reaction type
(Kaplan turbine).
In Francis turbine, only part of the overall pressure drop occurs in the stator while the
remaining pressure drop occurs in the runner (the rotating blades). Therefore, the pressure of the
water gradually decreases as it flows through the runner giving a reaction it. The pressure difference
between the entrance and exit points in the runner is known as the reaction pressure.
In this kind of turbines, the flow completely fills all the passages in the runner, unlike the
Pelton turbine where, for each jet only one or two of the buckets at a time are in contact with the
water.
A draft tube is normally added to the turbine exit; to reduce the kinetic energy at the turbine
exit. This reduction in the kinetic energy causes more pressure drop in the turbine which increase
the produced work from the turbine, so the draft tube works as a recovery element in this turbine.
Most of Francis turbines are mounted with a vertical shaft, to isolate the water from the generator
and to facilitate installation and maintenance.
As a mixed impulse/reaction turbine, there is a gradual reduction of pressure from inlet to

outlet across the rotor. Therefore, the casing must seal the rotor from the atmospheric pressure,
which was not necessary in the Pelton wheel turbine.
219
220
Figure 23.1: Concept of operation and main parts of a Francis turbine
Ref: https://image1.slideserve.com/1799723/francis-turbine-l.jpg
https://www.mdpi.com/energies/energies-15-05523/article_deploy/html/images/energies-15-
05523-g001.png
221
Figure 23.2: Parts of the Francis turbine
C. Characteristics of Francis Turbines
1. The water enters the runner vanes radially and exits the turbine axially; therefore, Francis
turbines can be described as a mixed flow turbine.
2. The Francis turbine combines both the concepts of impulse and reaction turbines as the
blades rotate using both impulse and reaction forces.
3. As a mixed impulse/reaction turbine, the casing is essential since the pressure at the
turbine’s inlet is much higher than the outlet pressure and thus the rotor must be sealed
from the atmospheric pressure.
4. The number of moving parts in this kind of turbine is considerable. The runner is not
available commonly since it has a standard spiral casing.
5. Francis turbines face the hazard of cavitation.
6. Reaction turbine needs costly and complicated maintenance work. In contrast, the
maintenance work is less in an impulse turbine.
7. Francis turbine can be designed for a wide range of heads and flows. This, along with their
high efficiency, has made them the most widely used hydraulic turbines in the world.
222
8. It is impossible to regulate the flow with no loss in a reaction turbine. On the other hand,
flow regulation without loss is possible in an impulse turbine.
9. The operating speed in reaction turbine is low, while the impulse turbine has a high
working speed.
D. Rotation Rate:
To obtain the proper value for the line frequency, f, the shaft speed has to be set to 120 f/P,
where P is the number of poles in the electric generator. For example, a generator with 16 poles
delivering energy at a line frequency of 50 Hz needs a turbine shaft speed of 375 RPM.
E. Specific Speed:
One of the main turbine parameters is the specific speed, Ns. This is defined as the speed
of a geometrically similar turbine which would produce unit power under unit head (one meter)
when operating at its maximum efficiency. This parameter is an index used to predict the desired
turbine or pump performance. This index predicts the general shape of the turbine’s runner or the
pump's impeller, allowing the designer to select a pump or turbine that is most appropriate for a
particular application. Once the desired specific speed is known, basic dimensions of the unit's
components can be easily calculated.
Ns = N P0.5/H5/4
F. Main parts of the Francis Turbine

Spiral casing: Also known as the volute casing or the scroll case. Throughout its length, the casing
has multiple openings at regular intervals to allow the water to impinge on the blades of the runner.
These openings convert the pressure energy of the fluid into kinetic energy just before the water
impinges on the blades. This maintains a constant velocity as the cross-sectional area of this casing
decreases uniformly along the circumference.
Stay Vanes: Stay and guide vanes guide the water to the runner blades. Stay vanes remain
stationary at their position and reduces the swirling of water due to radial flow, as it enters the runner
blades, thus, making the turbine more efficient.
Guide vanes: Convert the pressure energy of the water into kinetic energy and serve to direct the
flow at proper design angles to the runner blades.
Runner blades: The water impinges on the blades at the runner blades, and the force of the impact
produces torque causing the shaft of the turbine to rotate. The proper design of the blade angles at
inlet and outlet is necessary, as these are major parameters that affect the mechanical power
produced by the turbine. The shape of the runner depends on the specific speed and thus on the flow
rate and the effective head
Draft tube: It is a conduit with an increasing area (diffuser) at the runner exit through which the
water is discharged from the turbine. Its primary function is to reduce the kinetic energy of the
discharged water to minimize the kinetic energy loss at the outlet.
G. Cavitation in Francis turbines:

As the pressure changes across the rotor, there is a possibility that the pressure is reduced
below the saturation pressure corresponding to the operating temperature, causing the water
droplets to evaporate and initiating cavitation. Reaction turbines are prone to cavitation, as
opposed to pure impulse turbines where cavitation is not possible.
223
H. Comparison with Pelton and Kaplan turbines
The best performance of this turbine is seen at medium heads and medium discharges, as
opposed to the Pelton turbine which shows its best performance at large heads and low discharges
and the Kaplan turbine which shows its best performance at low heads and large discharge.
Table (1) below provides a basic comparison between the three most common types of hydraulic
turbines: Pelton turbine, Francis turbine and Kaplan turbine.
Table: Comparison between the three main types of hydraulic turbines

Criteria Pelton Turbine Francis Turbine Kaplan Turbine
Type Pelton turbine is Mixed-type (both reaction Kaplan turbine is a

an impulse type and impulse mechanisms reaction turbine.
water turbine are effective for power
production)
Direction of The flow of Mixed (direction of flow The flow of water is axial
the flow of water is at inlet is mostly radial through the blades
water tangential to the and at exit is mostly axial)
runner. Hence it
is called as
tangential flow
impulse turbines
Head Used for high Used for medium heads Used for low heads
heads (250 m to (40 m to 600 m) (10 m to 70 m)
1000 m)
Discharge Used for low Used for medium Used for high discharges
discharges discharges
Specific Low Medium High

speed
The Figure below shows the types of hydraulic turbines and their operating ranges. Note
the importance of the available head and discharge
224
Figure 23.3: Types of hydraulic turbines and their operating ranges (Reference: left figure:
Korpela; right and bottom figures: Dexon
225
I. Experimental Setup
226
Figure 23.4: Experimental setup of the Francis turbine experiment showing the centrifugal pump
and its motor, the pressure gage that reads the outlet pressure from the pump, the pressure gage
that reads the water pressure at the turbine inlet, the Francis turbine, the coupling with tthe electric
dynamometer, the point gage reading (used to estimate the discharge), the water basin (contains
stones in a cage to make the flow non turbulent to ease the measurement of discharge), the V-
notch (a device used to measure the height of the water in order to obtain the flow rate), and the
measuring instruments for the torque. Note that the turbine RPM is measured via a separate
speedometer.
J. Calculation Procedure
1. HPI = ρ*Q* g* Htot
2. Htot = Hs +Hd (meter of water)
3. Hs = P2/g + 0.076 (meter of water)
4. Q = 0.014 * h2.5, where h is the point gauge reading in cm and Q is the discharge in
lit/s
5. Vf = Q/A
6. Hd = Vf2/2g (meter of water)
7. ω = 2ᴨN/60 (rad/s)
8. P = T*ω
9. ηT = Turbine output power/hydraulic power input
√P;
• At the point of maximum efficiency, in British units: Ns = 𝑁 ∗ 5 where N is the
H4
wheel speed in rpm, P is the power in horsepower and H is the water head in feet
where:
HPI: hydraulic power input (kW)
ρ: water density (kg/m3)
g: gravitational acceleration (m/s2)
Htot: total head (meter of water)
Hs: static head (m)
P2: static pressure gauge reading at the turbine’s inlet (kPa)
Vf: flow velocity at gauge (m/s)
Hd: dynamic head (m)
Htot: total head (m)
N: Shaft rotational speed (RPM)
T: Torque on turbine shaft (Nm)
ω: angular velocity of turbine shaft (rad/s)
P: output turbine power, W
227
ηT: turbine efficiency
d1: rotor inlet diameter
d2: rotor exit diameter
Ns: specific speed
: runner tip speed ratio
C1: absolute velocity of the water at the runner blade inlet
b1: width at rotor inlet
K. Velocity Diagrams
β1
Velocity triangle at inlet Vr1 Cm1
C1
Inlet tip
Cu1
Cu1 – U1
Outlet tip
C2 = Ca2
Velocity triangle at outlet (Cu2 = 0 to minimize exit KE loss)
As vectors at the inlet:

C1 = U1 + Vr1
As vectors at the outlet:
C2 = Ca2 = Vr2 + U2
the subscript u denotes horizontal component, and the subscript a denotes vertical component.
L. Blade geometry:
Stator blade exist angle (α1) = 22.5o
Rotor Blade inlet angle (β1) = 45o
Rotor inlet diameter (d1) = 8.25 cm
Rotor exit diameter (d2) = 3.75 cm
228
M. Calculation Procedure used for the Velocity Diagram
➢ Blade speed at inlet U1 = π d1 N /60
➢ Blade speed at outlet U2 = π d2 N /60
➢ Discharge Q = π d1 b1 Cu1 = 0.25* π d22Ca2
➢ Cm1 = Ca2
➢ Turbine specific work, w (J/kg) = U1*Cu1; where Cu1 is the component of C1 in the direction of
U = C1 cos (α1)
➢ Turbine output power (in Watt) = T **Q*w = T**Q* U1* Cu1 = T**Q* U1 * C1 cos (α1)
➢ Blade efficiency, b = (U1* Cu1)/(U1* Cu1 + Ca22/2) (neglecting friction losses)
➢ The degree of reaction can be estimated from
(𝑈12 − 𝑈22 ) − (𝑉𝑟12
− 𝑉𝑟22)
𝑅= ,
𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 (𝑤)
which indicates the ratio of the static pressure drop in the rotor to the static pressure drop in the
stage
N. Experimental Records
Table (1): speed range for different values of (P2)
P2 Speed Range (RPM) No of readings
80 160-1700 10
120 280-2600 10
160 400-3270 10
Record the following variables:

P2 = pressure gauge reading at the turbine’s inlet
N = Speed of rotation of the turbine
T = Torque
h = point gauge reading
O. Experimental Procedure:
1. Adjust the pump speed until you get a pressure reading on gauge (P2) according to Table
(l)
2. Adjust the field voltage control of the dynamometer to obtain ten different turbine RPMs
at the same inlet water flow rate and the same inlet pressure
3. Calculate the total dynamic head available at the turbine nozzle, taking into account the
turbine and pressure gauge elevation relative to each other, the velocity of the water in the
pipe at the point where the pressure gauge is attached. Note that the pipe area at the point
of pressure gauge is 10.92 cm2.
4. Calculate the flow rate according to: 𝑄 = 0.014 ∗ ℎ2.5 , where Q is the discharge (lit/s) and
h is the point gauge reading (cm)
5. Use the dynamometer to determine the measured torque in N.m.
6. Use the digital tachometer to determine the rotational speed (N)
7. Obtain another set of readings at this head by adjusting the field voltage control of the
dynamometer.
8. For each data point calculate the following:
a. Hydraulic power input
b. Angular velocity of the turbine shaft
c. Turbine output power
d. Turbine efficiency
e. Specific speed, evaluated at the largest turbine efficiency
229
f. Runner tip speed ratio
9. Repeat the previous steps for the different heads at the speed range indicated in Table 1.
230
First Set of Readings
P2 = constant = kPa
Vf = constant = m/s
HPI = constant = W
N (RPM)
T (N.m)
Calculated Values
ω (rad/sec)
P (W)
ηT, %
Ns (estimated
only at the
max.
efficiency
point)

231
Second Set of Readings
P2 = constant = kPa
Vf = constant = m/s
HPI = constant = W
N (RPM)
T (N.m)
Calculated Values:
ω (rad/sec)
P (W)
ηT, %
Ns (estimated
only at the
max.
efficiency
point)

232
Third Set of Readings
P2 = constant = kPa
Vf = constant = m/s
HPI = constant = W
N (RPM)
T (N.m)
Calculated Values:
ω (rad/sec)
P (kW)
ηT, %
Ns
(estimated
only at the
max.
efficiency
point)

233
Now, select the best efficiency point in each set and report the following data:
Variable Best efficiency point Best efficiency point Best efficiency point
in Set #1 in Set #2 in Set #3
P2 (kPa)
H (m of water)
𝑄 = 0.014 ∗ ℎ2.5 (lit/s)
HPI (W)
N (RPM)
T (N.m)
ω (rad/sec)
P = (T* ω) (W)
Ns

U1 (m/s)
U2 (m/s)
C1 (m/s)
C2 (m/s)
Ca1 (m/s)
Ca2 (m/s)
Cu1 (m/s)
Cu2 (m/s)
Vr1 (m/s)
Vr2 (m/s)
π d1 b1 Cu1 (m3/s)
0.25* π d22Ca2 (m3/s)
Specific work (J/kg)
*Q*U1*Cu1 (W)
Degree of reaction
Blade efficiency
P. Required Work
1. Using a velocity diagram at the point in your choice, obtain the inlet flow area at the
runner from the continuity equation, the measured discharge and the estimated radial
component of the inlet flow velocity. Then, estimate the value of b1.
2. Plot three curves of the efficiency, output torque, turbine output power and specific speed
versus the turbine RPM (one curve for each set)
3. Plot one graph showing the turbine power output at the best efficiency point and the
efficiency of the point versus the head. This graph has three points, one for each set
4. For the best efficiency point in each set, plot the velocity diagram at the blade inlet relating
the absolute inlet velocity of the water jet (V1), the blade velocity (u) and the relative
5. For the best efficiency point in each set, plot the velocity diagram at the blade outlet
relating the absolute outlet velocity of the water jet (V2), the blade velocity (u) and the
relative velocity of the jet with respect to the blade at the outlet Vr2
6. For the best efficiency point in each set, fill the table in Section 7.4 above
7. Do the largest turbine power/efficiency occur at the maximum RPM or the maximum
torque?
8. Compare the efficiency curves at different heads. What is the observed relationship
between the turbine efficiency and the head? Why?
234
9. Comment on all result
10. Bonus question: Consider the coupling between the turbine as a load affecting the
characteristics of the operating centrifugal pump. Plot the relationship between the static
pressure reading, P2, and how it changes with the load variation using the dynamometer.
Comment
Terminology related to Francis turbine

Mixed flow turbine
Mixed impulse/reaction turbine
Spiral casing
Stay Vanes
Guide vanes
Runner blades
Draft tube
Cavitation
Discharge
Head
Measurement devices
Pressure gage
Torque meter
Tachometer
Control devices
Throttling valve
Safety devices
Derived Variables
Hydraulic power input
Angular velocity of the turbine shaft
Turbine output power
Turbine efficiency
Specific speed, evaluated at the largest turbine
efficiency
Runner speed ratio
Q. Suggested Reading
1. https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/francis-turbines
235
236
24.Performance Test of a Centrifugal Pump
A. Objectives
1. Recognize the different parts of a centrifugal pump
2. Document the performance characteristics of centrifugal pumps
4. Apply the affinity laws and compare the results to measured values
5. Comprehend the reasons for cavitation and how to avoid it
B. Introduction
Centrifugal pumps are used to do work on a liquid. They can be used to transport and
compress liquids such as water, chemicals, sewage, slurry, food, oil and petrochemical products by
the conversion of rotational kinetic energy to an increased pressure in the flow. The rotational
energy comes from an internal combustion engine, an electric motor, or a turbine.
The rotation of the impeller causes a reduction in pressure at the eye of the impeller. The
fluid enters at the impeller eye is accelerated by the impeller. Then, it exists the impeller and flows
radially outward into a diffuser or a volute casing. The design of the casing causes the velocity of
the liquid to decrease and the pressure energy to increase. The fluid then exits the pump the
discharge pipe.
All centrifugal pumps require liquid in the pump casing to start. The process of filling the
pump with a liquid is called priming. If the pump casing becomes filled with vapor or gases, the
pump impeller becomes incapable of pumping and the pump cannot start. To ensure that a
centrifugal pump remains primed, most centrifugal pumps are located below the level of the source
from which the pump is to take its suction.
237
Figure 24.1: Basic features of centrifugal pumps
C. Cavitation in Centrifugal Pumps

Cavitation is the formation and subsequent collapse of vapor bubbles in the pump. It occurs
because the absolute pressure on the liquid falls below the liquid's vapor pressure. If the pressure in
the eye of the impeller falls below the vapor pressure of the fluid, then cavitation has occurred.
When the vapor bubbles collapse with enough energy, it can remove metal from the impeller blades
and the internal casing wall, leave indent marks in the metal parts, cause premature bearing failure,
premature shaft breakage, premature mechanical seal failure as other fatigue failures.
The system plays an important role in pump cavitation. To avoid cavitation, the net positive
suction head available must always be larger than the net positive suction head required. The former
decreases with:
1. Increased friction losses along the suction side
2. The lower the supply tank is, the lower is the NPSH available
3. Decreased atmospheric pressure
4. Increased fluid temperature, as this makes the fluid more ready to vaporize
The key point in avoiding cavitation is on increasing the external pressure on the fluid or
decreasing its vapor pressure. The former can be increased by increasing the pressure at the pump
suction, reducing the energy losses (friction) at the entrance to the pump, reducing the velocity at
the suction pipe, eliminating any undesirable flow conditions caused by obstructions or sharp
elbows in the suction pipe, or using a larger pump. The latter can be reduced by lowering the
temperature of the fluid and removing aspirated air to vent the pump
238
Figure 24.2: (Top) pressure gradient through a centrifugal pump experiencing cavitation: fluid enters
the pump, then the pressure drops below vapor pressure at the impeller’s eye. As the pressure rises in
the volute, the bubbles collapse causing cavitation
Middle: The system at which the pump operates may cause the pump to cavitate
Bottom: Pressure distribution along the impeller
239
D. Performance Curves
The basic performance curve is that the head decreases as the flow rate increases (top curve
below). However, other parameters are important and usually shown on the graph, mainly the
efficiency, the required brake horse power, and the required net positive suction head (NPSH).
The pump performance chart may also show the performance at different speeds and/or
impeller diameters. Sample performance curves are shown below.
In practice, Variable Frequency Drives (VFD) can be used to regulate the frequency of the
electric power fed to the motor in order to control the speed of the AC motors and hence the RPM
of the pump. VFDs are the most common type of adjustable speed drives and can achieve significant
reductions in energy used by optimize the pump RPM.
It should be noted that the actual operating point of the pump is determined as the
intersection of the pump curve and the curve of the resistance of the system the pump is installed
in.
240
241
Figure 24.3: Sample pump curves showing different details
242
Figure 24.4: Importance of operation at or close to the BEP (Best Efficiency Point) in centrifugal
pumps (Ref: https://www.pumpindustry.com.au/wp-content/uploads/2013/09/Fig-1.jpg)
E. Dimensionless Parameters
The specific speed is the most important parameter in incompressible flows turbomachines.
In pumps it is defined as Ns = N Q0.5/(gH)0.75 and is used to select the pump shape.
The flow coefficient, φ, is a dimensionless quantity used to describe the volume flow rate,
defined as  = Q/(ND3). It indicates the volume flow rate of fluid through a turbomachine of unit
diameter runner, operating at unit speed.
The head coefficient, , is a dimensionless coefficient given as gH/(N2D2). It is the kinetic
energy of the fluid spouting under the head H divided by the kinetic energy of the fluid running at
the rotor tangential speed.
The power coefficient, , is a dimensionless coefficient given as P/(N3D5). It shows the
relationship between power, fluid density, speed and the impeller diameter.
F. Affinity Laws in Centrifugal Pumps

The affinity laws express the relationship between different variables such as head,
volumetric flow rate, shaft speed and power. They apply to pumps, fans, and hydraulic turbines.
These laws are derived from the Buckingham π theorem. The affinity laws are useful as
they allow prediction of the head discharge characteristic of a pump or fan from a known
characteristic measured at a different speed or impeller diameter. The only requirement is that the
two pumps or fans are dynamically similar, that is the ratios of the fluid forced are the same. It is
also required that the two impellers' speed or diameter are running at the same efficiency.
These laws assume that the pump/fan efficiency remains constant, which is rarely exactly
true, but can be a good approximation when used over appropriate RPM or diameter range. The
exact relationship between the variables cannot be estimated from the affinity laws but rather from
actual testing or computational fluid dynamics simulations. The affinity laws are stated below.
243
Figure 24.5:Top figure: Affinity laws at different pump RPM
Bottom figure: Affinity laws at different impellers
244
G. Experimental Procedure
1. Adjust the voltage frequency on the motor to get different values of pump speeds (RPM)
2. At a certain RPM, change the opening of the discharge valve to get different discharges and
different corresponding heads
3. For each point record the RPM, measure the torque, the head difference across the orifice,
the discharge, the suction and delivery pressures
4. Calculate the angular frequency, the discharge, the total head, the input power, the rated
power and the pump efficiency
5. At the largest efficiency point, estimate the specific speed of the pump
6. Repeat for different pump speeds (RPMs)
H. Centrifugal pump start up procedure

1. Open the suction valve.
2. Fully close or partially open the discharge valve, depending on system conditions.
3. Start the driver.
4. Slowly open the discharge valve until the pump reaches the desired flow.
5. Check the pressure gauge to ensure that the pump quickly reaches the correct discharge
pressure.
I. Calculation Procedure
1. ω = 2N/60 (rad/s)
2. P = T* (W)
3. Q = Cd A sqrt(2g∆h) (m3/s)
4. As = (/4) ds2 (m2)
5. Vs = Q/As (m/s)
6. Hs = Ps/(g) + (Vs2/2g) + Zs (m)
7. Output power (Rated Water Power RWP) = ρQgHt (W)
8.  = RWP/P (%)
9. Hd = Pd/(g) + (Vd2/2g) + Zd (m)
10. Ht = Hd – Hs (m)
Where:
P: input power to the pump, W
T: mechanical torque supplied to the pump shaft, N.m
ω: pump angular speed, rad/s
N: rotational speed, RPM
Q: discharge, m3/s
g: gravitational acceleration, m/s2
Cd: discharge coefficient of the orifice used to measure the flow rate (= 0.6)
∆h: head difference across the orifice plate, m
A: orifice area = (π/4)D2, m2; where D is the orifice diameter (D = 0.0685 m)
Vs: velocity in the suction pipe
Ps: pressure gauge at suction, N/m2
ds: pipe diameter at suction, m
Zs: elevation of suction pressure tab above the centerline of the pump
As: suction pipe area, m2
Pd: pressure gauge at delivery, N/m2
Zd: elevation of discharge pressure tab above the centerline of the pump, m
ΣHfs∶ total friction head losses at the suction line
245
ΣHfd: total friction head losses at the delivery line
Ht: total head, m
Hd: total discharge head, m
Hs: total suction head, m
RWP: rated water power, kW
: pump’s efficiency, %
Electric motor driving the pump Inverter with a Variable Frequency Drive
(VFD) used to control the motor frequency
and thus the pump RPM
Centrifugal pump with its suction and delivery Coupling between the electric motor and the
pipes pump
246
Panel used to control the motor starting Digital tachometer to measure the RPM
and frequency, and shows the pressure
gauges and the torque meter
Figure 24.6: Some of the accessories and instrumentation on the centrifugal
pump setup
J. Experimental Records
N = Constant = RPM
T (N.m)
PS (N/m2)
Pd (N/m2)
∆𝒉 (m)
Calculated Values
ω = Constant = rad/s
P (kW)
RWP (kW)
 (%)
H (m)
Q (m3/s)
K. Required Work
1. Plot a graph showing the total head, the input power, the rated water power and the
efficiency versus the discharge at different pump speeds
2. Sketch (not to scale) how the total head versus discharge curve would change when
operating two pumps in series/parallel
3. Check the validity of the affinity laws on two or three points of your choice of the collected
data
247
Terminology in centrifugal pumps
Centrifugal pump
Impeller
Volute
Cavitation
NPSH_Available
NPSH_Required
Affinity laws
Specific speed
Flow coefficient
Head coefficient
Power coefficient
Rated water power
VFD
BEP
Measuring devices
Tachometer
Torque meter
Pressure gage
Orifice meter
Control devices
Dynamometer
Derived Variables
Pump efficiency
Discharge
Total head
L. Suggested Reading
1. https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/centrifugal-pumps
2. https://www.beeindia.gov.in/sites/default/files/3Ch6.pdf
248

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Cairo University

Mechanical Power Engineering Department

1. Function Generator / Oscilloscope / Power Supply / Multi-Meter

1. Heat Engines: Classification and Parts

Sustainable Energy Engineering

Laboratories of Mechanical Measurements and Instrumentation

Figure 1.1: Function generator

Figure 1.2: Digital-storage oscilloscope

Carefully study all the buttons in the oscilloscope to do the following:

Figure 1.3: DC power supply

Figure 1.4: Multi meter

C. Requirements in the Fuels

8) Mixture distribution problems on cylinders: after completing the carburetion or

D. Gasoline Distillation Curve

Figure 3.3: Standard distillation apparatus

Activity #3: Fill-in Table 1 above (10 points)

Figure 4.1: Junker Calorimeter

twi two texh

Vw, condensed time

mof = moa * sqrt (fuel/air)

Fuel Chemical Carbon-to- HHV LHV (HHV-LHV)/HHV

Methane CH4 =1/4

Propane C3H8 =3/8

Butane C4H10 =4/10

➢ Direct display in cP or mPa, % torque, spindle, and speed.

1. Traversing probe: A two-axis traversing mechanism is capable of positioning and reporting

2. Lift/drag balance: A two-component dynamometer that uses restrained cantilever beams,

3. Meter cabinet: A control/readout assembly containing the signal conditioning, the

Figure 6.3: Cutaway view of the pressure transducer

E. Analysis & Discussion

Drag Coefficient: It is a dimensionless coefficient, which is generally defined for a two- or

Figure 6.6: Drag coefficient of a smooth sphere as a function of Reynolds number

𝑉 = 1.126 𝑓 − 5.581 (3)

Part A: Smooth and roughened spheres

Part B: NACA 0012 and NACA 4412 Airfoils

B. Experimental Setup and Instrumentation

D. Analysis & Discussion

Figure 8.4: Pressure distribution around a NACA 0012 airfoil

Part B: Symmetric NACA 0012 Pressure Airfoil

If friction losses is accounted for, the equation is modified to be

Figure 9.1: Schematic of the friction-in-pipe flow experimental setup

The inclination angle of the straight pipe can be changed.

3. Take the reading of the flow rate from the rotameter.

6. Calculate the Reynolds number.

7. Draw the hydraulic grade line and the energy line.

10. Record your results in the following table:

Flow rate (Q) = ……………

h f1−2 + h f 2−3 + h f 3−4

where h is the convection heat transfer coefficient in W/m2 ·

Table 1: Typical values of convection heat transfer coefficient

Table 2: Nominal dimensions (in mm)

Table 5: Dimensionless groups

In a time period (dt) the fall in temperature (dT) is given by:

Combining equations (1) and (2) and eliminating (q):

10% 50% 100%

This experiment introduces two different types of condensation:

1- Flow in the condensate film is laminar.

where, g is the gravitational acceleration, m/s2

E. Effect of Air (and Other Non-Condensable Gases) in Condensers

Figure 11.2: Heat flux for drop-wise versus film-wise

Figure 11.3: Schematic of the experimental setup

G. Visual Demonstration of Film-wise Condensation, Drop-wise Condensation, and

Chamber gauge pressure psat, kPa … … … … … … …