Well Engineering

Chapter Two
Well Engineering
1
Well Engineering Distance Learning Package (The DLP)
1.1 THE DRILL STRING
1.1.1 Drill pipe
Petroleum Engineer: Mohd. Zouhry El-Helu.
E-Mail Address: peteng.mzhelu@gmail.com

Drill pipe is seamless tube, equipped with special threaded couplings

called tool joints. It is used to transmit rotary power from the surface
to the bottom of the hole and to supply fluid at sufficient volume and
pressure to the bit.
Figure 2.1.1 is a picture of 5" DP-the tool joints can be clearly seen at
each end.
Figure: 2.1.1: A stack of drill pipe
• Dimensions and strength

• The tool joint
• Tool joint strength
• DP identification marks
1.1.1.1 Dimensions and strength

1.1.1.1.1 LENGTH

Drill pipe is available in singles or joints which refer to one piece of

tube with a tool joint at each end. "Single" is a term arising from the
frequent use of three joints connected together to form a stand or a
"triple" of drill pipe, thus one joint is referred to as "a single".
Drill pipe singles can be supplied in three length ranges. Ranges I, II

& III. The most commonly used is Range II, this being 9·14 m (30 ft)
in length, not including the tool joint. Actual lengths in all ranges are
normally irregular, Range II can be from 9·1 to 9·2 m long for
example. Uniform lengths can be specified at extra cost, but this is
not normally done.
Range I (6.7 m or 22 ft) is now obsolete and Range III (12.19 m or

40 ft) is not common. However, as Range I drill pipe was the original
standard length supplied by the manufacturers, the nominal weight
for Range I is still quoted when ordering or supplying pipe.
1.1.1.1.2 SIZE (OUTSIDE DIAMETER - OD) AND WEIGHT
When referring to the size of drill pipe we are talking about the
outside diameter (OD) of the drill pipe tube. The sizes most
commonly used are 5" [127mm], 4 1/2" [114·3 mm] (mainly USA)
and 3 1/2" [88·9 mm]. Less frequently used sizes are 6 5/8" [168·2
mm], 5 1/2" [139.7 mm], 2 7/8" [73 mm] and 2 3/8" [60·3 mm]. The

reason for choosing a given size of drill pipe will be explained in

detail later in this Part.
In a number of Operating Companies 6 5/8" (168.2 mm) DP and 5

1/2" (139.7mm) DP are increasingly being used in large and high
angle hole size sections (e.g. 23" [584.2 mm], 17 1/2" [444.5 mm]
etc.) to reduce the pressure loss down the inside of the drill pipe.
This allows an increased annular flow for the same maximum pump
pressure and improves hole cleaning.
In addition to normal drill pipe, heavy wall drill pipe with a reduced
I.D. is available for special purposes. It is used mainly as an
intermediate member of the drill string between the drill collars and
the normal drill pipe. This will be discussed later (see Topic 1.3).
The drill pipe weight per foot is determined by the tube wall
thickness and the dimensions of the tool joint. This weight depends
on the type of tool joint and range of pipe used. It is known as the
approximate weight or adjusted weight and is quoted either in
kg/m or lbs/ft (mass). The name nominal weight per foot refers
to an outmoded standard of drill pipe and is nowadays used only as
an indication of the sort of drill pipe being specified. The nominal
weight per foot should not therefore be used for calculation

purposes.
1.1.1.1.3 GRADE
The grade of drill pipe is a letter code given to drill pipe to indicate
its tensile strength. Drill pipe is available in the four grades given in
Table 2.1.1. In order to understand the relevance of drill pipe grade
an understanding of the response of metal to stress and strain is
required.
• Stress is the total load divided by the original cross-sectional

area of the test piece.
• Strain is the deformation or elongation between two gauge
points marked on a test piece divided by the original gauge
length.

• Elastic strain - The material deforms but returns to its original

shape when the load is removed. Plastic strain - The material
deforms but does not return to its original shape when the
load is removed.
Various load tests can be made to establish the load at which certain
materials will alter shape temporarily, alter shape permanently or
break. The tests are: tension, torsion, compression and shear.
The tension test is the most common and is qualitatively
characteristic of all the other types of tests. The behaviour of a
material under the gradual increase of tension is usually represented
by plotting apparent stress as ordinate (y-axis) against the apparent
strain as abscissa (x-axis). A typical curve for steel is shown in Figure
2.1.2.

Figure 2.1.2 : Stress-Strain Diagram
In Figure 2.1.2 the elastic deformation is approximately a straight

line (as required by Hooke's law), and the slope of this line, or the
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ratio of stress to strain within the elastic range, is called the modulus
of elasticity E (sometimes called Young's modulus).
Beyond the elastic limit (Point A in Figure 2.1.2), permanent or plastic

deformation results. If the stress is relieved in the region between
the elastic limit (A) and the yield strength (B) the material will
contract along a line generally almost straight and parallel to the
original elastic line (to C) leaving a permanent set (from the origin of
the axis to C).
In the harder and stronger steels, and under certain temperature

conditions, the yield phenomenon is less prominent and is
correspondingly harder to measure.
For steels used in manufacturing tubular goods API specifies the yield
strength as the tensile strength required to produce a total
elongation of 0·5%, 0·6% or 0·7% (depending on the type of steel)
of the gauge length. This value corresponds to a permanent set of
0·2 %. However, to determine the acceptability of steel for a
particular purpose, the yield strength value must be between a pre-
determined maximum and minimum value. The lower value is
referred to as "the minimum yield for strength" and is used in
calculations.
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The integer part of the drill pipe (and casing!) 'grade' letter is based
on the minimum yield strength, e.g.:
For drill pipe:
D(55) : minimum yield strength = 379 MPa = 55,000 psi
E(75) : minimum yield strength = 517 MPa = 75,000 psi
X(95) : minimum yield strength = 655 MPa = 95,000 psi
G(105) : minimum yield strength = 724 MPa = 105,000 psi
S(135) : minimum yield strength = 931 MPa = 135,000 psi
For tubing and casing:
H40 : minimum yield strength = 276 MPa = 40,000 psi
K55/J55 : minimum yield strength = 379 MPa = 55,000 psi
N80/L80 : minimum yield strength = 552 MPa = 80,000 psi
P110 : minimum yield strength = 758 MPa = 110,000 psi
For further reference, the mechanical and chemical properties of drill

pipe are described in the API documents listed on page 2/1/3.
The minimum yield stress is the parameter used in design

calculations. To ensure that the tensile stress applied to the pipe
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remains in the elastic behaviour range for steel, a design factor of

1·15 is used during calculations to determine the maximum allowable
load.
One further step can now be taken to find the maximum tension that
can be applied to any grade of drill pipe. The cross-sectional area of
the tube is multiplied by the tensile strength of the steel used in the
tube.
1.1.1.1.4 DIMENSION AND STRENGTH DATA SOURCES
The source of all data concerning the dimensions and strength of drill
string components, including drill pipe, is the API documentation.
These documents form the foundations upon which most other drill
string design manuals, notebooks and handbooks are based. Most
drilling engineering tables and graphs are constructed from the
equations in API RP 7G.
Secondary, and usually more convenient, sources of data are the

Well Engineers Notebook, Section C, the IFP Drilling Data Handbook,
Section B, and, for some data, Service Company handbooks.
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When using data and tables from API RP 7G (or any other API
document) which have been copied in the Well Engineers Notebook ,
the IFP Drilling Data Handbook and/or service company handbooks,
be careful that the latest versions of such data are used. Changes
made in the source document inevitably take some time to be
implemented into such note/handbooks.
API DOCUMENTATION
• API RP 5A5: Recommended practice for field inspection of new

casing, tubing and plain end drill pipe.
• API Bull 5C2: Bulletin on performance properties of casing,
tubing and drill pipe.
• API Bull 5C3: Bulletin on formulae and calculations for casing,
tubing, drill pipe and line pipe properties.
• API Spec 5D: Specification for drill pipe.
• API spec 7: Specification for rotary drill stem elements.
• API RP 7G: Recommended practice for drill stem design and
operating limits.
• API RP 7A1: Recommended practice for testing of thread
compund for rotary shouldered connections.
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1.1.1.1.5 API CLASSIFICATION FOR DRILL PIPE
As drill pipe is used it wears, just like any moving component, and is
also affected by high loads such as those experienced during fishing
operations and by damage inflicted by handling equipment. All this
has an effect on its properties. The rate of deterioration depends on
the severity of the drilling conditions. The API takes this into account
and classifies drill pipe into three different classes -Class 1, Premium
and Class 2 -based on the amount and type of wear/defects. (Class 1
drill pipe is as new with no defects.) For easy recognition in the field
the API also recommends that the different classes should be colour
coded, using bands at the box end of the pipe. The classification and
colour coding are given in API RP 7G. They can also be found in the
Well Engineers Notebook, Section C and the IFP Drilling Data
Handbook, section B. Drill pipe should be inspected regularly during
its use and if necessary reclassified in accordance with API
specification.
Even drill pipe in apparently as-new condition is rarely classed as new

when being used for drilling. It is usually considered as Premium.
This is done for several reasons:
• Once the drill pipe has been in the hole there is no guarantee
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that each connection is still Class 1. It would be very expensive

to re qualify a whole string of pipe before each use.
• By using 'Premium' classification another safety factor is
introduced for tensile yield.
1.1.1.2 THE TOOL JOINT
A tool joint is a heavy coupling element for drill pipe. Tool joints have
coarse, tapered threads and seating shoulders designed to:
• Suspend the weight of the drill string.

• Withstand the strain of frequent makeup and breakout.
• Provide a leak proof seal.
The tool joint is attached to the pipe by welding during the

manufacture of the drill pipe joint. It has two parts, a pin and a box.
Figure 2.1.3a: DP Tool joint - Pin
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Figure 2.1.3b: DP Tool joint - Box
1.1.1.2.1 TYPES OF TOOL JOINT
Tool joints were developed starting with simple screwed-on, welded

and shrunk-on designs, which could be replaced in the field.
Today, these field replaceable tool joints are no longer API standard,
and have largely been replaced by flash-weld and inertia or friction
welded tool joints.
Flash-welding means the pipe and tool joint are held in correct
alignment while the weld zone is heated by a surrounding induction
coil. An arc is struck between the two items, pipe and tool joint, and
at welding temperature they are forced together with a pressure
sufficient to weld them and extrude molten metal from the joint. The
physical properties of the weld area are subsequently restored by
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quenching and tempering (a process of cooling quickly followed by

re-heating and slow cooling).
Inertia friction welding means that the pipe is clamped and the
tool joint is rotated while being pressed against the pipe. The friction
heat increases the temperature of the pipe in a very localised zone
until welding temperature has been achieved. Rotation is then
stopped and the tool joint is pressed onto the pipe.
1.1.1.2.2 DRILL PIPE UPSETS
At each end of the drill pipe tube, where the tool joint is attached,
the wall thickness of the pipe is increased. This is called an "upset".
Upsets increase the strength of the welding areas and change the
transition from pipe to tool joint more gradually. Internal (see Figure
2.1.4a), external (Figure 2.1.4b) or internal/external upsets (Figure
2.1.4c) are used.
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Figure 2.1.4a-c: Drill pipe upset types
Figure 2.1.4d shows a cross section of new drill pipe. The internal
upset can be seen clearly. With this piece of pipe there was a flaw in
the manufacture giving a smooth upset on the left but a sharp
undesirable one on the right. This could cause premature failure.
Figure 2.1.4d: DP Internal Upset
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1.1.1.2.3 API DRILL PIPE CONNECTIONS
During the early days of drilling oil wells drill pipe and drill collars
from different manufacturers often did not match up. Wall thickness,
inside and outside diameters differed for similar weights of pipe. This
lead to confusion and failures. The American Petroleum Institute
(API) took it upon themselves to standardize(s)e threads and fittings
and it is this standard that is used in today's drilling industry. To
understand the API standards it is essential to be familiar with the
terminology used. This section will explain the terminology used and
enable the reader to understand better the standards used in the
industry today.
• Thread connections
The most common API thread connections used to be:
• Regular (Reg).
• Full Hole (FH).
• Internal Flush (IF).
Regular (Reg.) and Full Hole (FH) types of threads have a thread
profile that is V- shaped, the bottom of which is rounded and the top
slightly flattened. However, as their pin length and taper differ, Reg.
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and FH threads are not interchangeable. Internal Flush (IF) thread

also has a V-shaped profile but the thread is flattened both at the
bottom and the top producing a trapezium shape (see Figure 2.1.5).
Figure 2.1.5: API Thread forms
In 1964 the API adopted a new series of rotary shouldered

connections. These connections were designed to improve the
performance of drill collar connections and drill pipe tool joints. The
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new series set new standards, providing connection designs more

suited to the harsher drilling conditions of the day. In 1968 most of
the numbered connections were given "standard" status and all API
"IF" (Internal Flush) and FH (Full Hole) references became
theoretically obsolete.
In the new style of connection reference, the number following the

letters "NC" indicates the pitch diameter for the pin at the gauge
point (see Figure 2.1.1.5). Five of the NC connections correspond to
the same size in the IF style, and one to the 4" FH connection, as
shown below:
• NC 26 replaced 2 3/8" IF NC 40 replaced 4" FH

• NC 31 replaced 2 7/8" IF NC 46 replaced 4 1/4" IF
• NC 38 replaced 3 1/2" IF NC 50 replaced 4 1/2" IF
In Figure 2.1.6, Dp is the pitch diameter at the gauge point,

expressed in inches. The NC number is derived from the first two
figures of the pitch diameter value, as shown in the example below.
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Figure 2.1.6: Tool joint pin dimensions
Note: Drill collars with 81/4" (209·55 mm) and 91/2" (241·3 mm)
outside diameter are shown as having API 65/8" and 75/8" Reg.
connections as standard since there are no NC connections in this
range.
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You may logically think it unnecessary in a learning package to make

reference to, and give details of, connections that became obsolete
thirty years ago. In practice however, the old connections are still
widely used, and you need to be familiar with them. Indeed, the
51/2" FH connection was officially reinstated in 1978 and the 65/8"
FH connection was officially reinstated in 1993 (probably due to its
popularity as the connection for 65/8" DP).
1.1.1.2.4 TOOL JOINT SPECIFICATION
A considerable range of tool joint thread and upset types are

available for a particular pipe size, but tool joints for standard
weights and grades of drill pipe have been established by API,
together with dimensions of the upsets required for weld-on
connections to be applied (IADC Drilling Manual, Section B1, or API
specification RP 7G).
Examples of drill pipe and corresponding tool joint dimensions can be

seen below in Table 2.1.2. This illustrates some of the different tool
joint dimensions that can be attached to the same size tube.
Beware of using API tables if the drill pipe you have has non-
standard tool joints.
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Table 2.1.2: Examples of drill pipe - tool joint combinations
Common types of tool joint design dimensions include those shown in

Table 2.1.3 below. This table illustrates the different dimensions of
the same sized but different type of tool joint. Note that tube size
does not appear in this table.
• Other tool joint dimensions
Almost all weld on tool joint boxes have 18° tapered elevator
shoulders. The equivalent taper on the tool joint pins is usually 35°.
Older non-welded tool joints may have tapered or square (90°)
elevator shoulders, but it is unlikely that any of these are still used in
Shell operations.
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Table 2.1.3: Examples of tool joint dimensions
The drill pipe elevators support the pipe under the elevator shoulder
of the box connection. If the elevator shoulder is tapered the
elevators are heavier design to accept the radial loads generated by
the engaging tapers. Older elevators designed for 90° elevator
shoulders should not be used on welded connections with tapered
elevator shoulders.
1.1.1.3 TOOL JOINT STRENGTH
The strength of tool joints is dependent on a number of factors; the

material used to make the tool joint, the dimensions of the joint and
25

the type of thread used. The strength of the pin may be different
from that of the box.
1.1.1.3.1 MATERIAL STRENGTH
For API tool joints the material yield strength is the same, regardless
of the grade of tube to which it is fitted. All API tool joints have a
minimum yield strength of 120,000 psi.
Bearing in mind the above, one may think fitting a tool joint with a
minimum yield strength of 120,000 psi to a grade S tube with a
minimum yield strength of 135,000 psi may be a bit ridiculous.
However, the minimum tensile yield of new 5", S grade, 19.5 lbs/ft
nominal wt tube is 712 k.lbs. The minimum tensile yield of an NC50
connector is 1,390 k.lbs (2.75" ID, pin weak). The weakest part of
the tool joint has larger cross-sectional area than the tube and is
therefore the stronger.
1.1.1.3.2 PIN WEAK OR BOX WEAK
"Pin weak" means that the pin is weaker than the box. This can mean
a tensile or torsional weakness relative to the box. "Box weak" is the
other way around. The box is weaker than the pin.
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1.1.1.3.3 TOOL JOINT STRENGTH IN TORSION
The main factors which control tool joint torsional strength are the
pin or box metal cross-sectional area and the minimum yield strength
of the metal. Tool joint OD affects the box cross-sectional area, and
tool joint ID controls the pin cross-sectional area.
It is normal for the tool joint OD to wear down during service. If the
box cross-sectional area becomes less than the pin cross-sectional
area there will be a reduction in torsional strength of that joint (box
weak).
The API sets the joint torsional strength at an arbitrary value of

about 80% of the tube torsional strength. It is this 0·8 design factor
that is used to establish the tool joint IDs and ODs for all three
classes of drill pipe.
1.1.1.3.4 TOOL JOINT MAKE-UP
• Sealing
The connection must be able to ensure that the shoulder of the box
and pin will make up together so tightly that they will seal when
exposed to operating conditions in the well bore. Threaded
connections must withstand tensile, pressure and bending forces
27

under normal drilling conditions, without allowing the shoulders of

the connection to separate. The only pressure seal in a tool joint
connection is formed by the shoulder to shoulder contact between
pin and box end (see Figure 2.1.7a). The thread does not form a
pressure seal.
Figure 2.1.7a: Tool joint seal
• Make-up torque
The parameter that governs the contact pressure between the pin
and box shoulders is the make-up torque. This is the torque value
28

used to screw the pin and box connections together. It compresses

the box and stretches the pin. The effect of the two elastic
displacements keeps properly made-up connections from leaking
even when bent around a dogleg.
Figure 2.1.7b: Make-up torque forces
It should be noted that excessive make-up torque decreases the

tensile capacity of a connection pin by pre-loading it. If a tool joint is
over-torqued the tensile capacity changes. Tool joint combined load
curves should be used to determine the acceptability of particular
combinations of tension and torque. See Topic 1.4.2.16
29

Consign to the waste paper basket any tables that show drill pipe
make-up torque as a function of pipe weight and size.
The minimum tensile yield of all API connections is 120,000 psi. Tool
joint make up torque is set at a value that pre-stresses the box and
pin to 60% of their minimum tensile yield, i.e.72,000 psi for all drill
pipe tool joints. The make up torque is therefore determined by the
ID and OD of the tool joint regardless of the pipe weights or
dimensions.
Calculation of make up torques is not recommended as the formula

contains thread dimensions and other tool joint dimensions that are
not readily available in the field. There are tables available in the Well
Engineers Notebook and the IFP Drilling Data Handbook B.
• Bending
As the drill string bends under downhole conditions the opposite

sides of the tool joint are subjected to an additional compression or
tension due to bending. These compressions and tensions are applied
to a different part of the tool joint as the string rotates. As long as
the additional tension does not reach 72,000 psi it will not cause the
connection make-up face to part. If the make-up face were to part
30

during every rotation, fluid would escape and soon cause a washout,
a type of drill string failure (see Topic 1.5).
• Dope friction factor
The substance used to lubricate tool joints when they are being
made-up is called "dope". It is commonly a zinc/copper based
lubricant. When considering the make up torque of any connection,
not just drill pipe, the dope friction factor (ff) must be taken into
account. Dope friction factor (ff) will normally be 1·0 if the dope
conforms to the API specification. However, there are dopes that
have higher or lower friction factors. This leads to the requirement
for a revised makeup torque:
Revised makeup torque = makeup torque x dope friction

factor.
1.1.1.4 DRILL PIPE IDENTIFICATION MARKS
Code marks, which are stencilled on the tool joint pin to identify drill
pipe and drill string, record the following information:
• Manufacturers' symbols.
• Month connections welded on.
• Year connections welded on.
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• Pipe mill code.

• Pipe steel grade.
Sometimes a mill slot plus one circumferential groove, about 3/8"

(9·5mm) wide is milled onto the pin end of drill pipe grades higher
than "E" (see Figure 2.1.3), but be in the habit of checking, as this
can vary from contractor to contractor and rig to rig. A series of letter
and number codes will be present on all API drill pipe giving
manufacturing data such as date of manufacture, manufacturers
code, the grade of steel-see Figure 2.1.8a& b.
Figure 2.1.8 (a & b) : Identification of drill

pipe - markings used
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REFACING MARKS AND LIMITS
API re-facing bench marks show the position of the original shoulder
so an inspector can determine if too much re-facing has taken place -
Figure 2.1.9.
Figure 2.1.9 : API - Refacing benchmarks
The re-facing benchmark is positioned 1/8" from the make up face.

The tolerance on this measurement is ±1/16". Once re-facing has
taken place such that 1/16" of the make-up face has been removed
the joint must be re-cut or belled and split boxes become a risk.
The API benchmark is only present at one location around the

circumference of the tool joint. If re-facing is uneven around the
33

make up face area it will not be shown by the API benchmark.

Proprietary benchmarks are available. Figure 2.1.10 shows the Grant-
TFW benchmark. As it is a continuous line it shows how
perpendicular the re-facing is as well as how much has occurred.
Figure 2.1.10: Grant-TFW refacing benchmarks
1.1.2 Drill collars

1.1.2.1 GENERAL
Drill collars (DCs) are heavy, thick-walled steel tubes with threaded
connections cut (NB not welded) on both ends. They are designed
to withstand down hole conditions while under compression as well
34

as under tension.
Drill collars are manufactured from chrome-molybdenum alloy 4140

(4140 is a code that indicates the chemical makeup of the metal).
They are fully heat treated over their entire length, with a Brinell
hardness range of 255 to 341. The bore of a drill collar is accurately
machined to ensure smooth, balanced rotation. Collars are
manufactured in a wide range of sizes(ODs) and are available in
length ranges 2: 9·15 - 9·76 m (30 - 32 ft); and 3: 12·8 - 13·27 m
(42 ft-43 ft).
Drill collars are used to provide Weight on Bit (WOB) and, in

combination with other components of the BHA, to provide
directional control.
The parameters used to specify drill collars are:
OD: 91/2", 8", 6", 43/4" etc.,
ID: 31/2", 3", 21/2"", 23/8" etc.,
Length: Usually range II
Material: Steel, Monel
Connection: 65/8" REG etc.
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1.1.2.1.1 DIMENSIONS AND WEIGHTS OF DRILL COLLARS
As drill collars are uniform tubes of steel with few upsets (changes in
ID or OD) across their length it is easy to calculate their weight. The
weight of drill collars in kg/m or lbs/ft can be calculated using the
following formulae:
SI units: 6.16 x 10-3 x (D2 - d2)
Field units: 2.67 x (D2 - d2)
Where:
D =Outside diameter in (mm /inches)
d =Inside diameter in (mm /inches)
1.1.2.1.2 SPECIAL TYPES OF DRILL COLLARS
• Spiral drill collars
These are commonly used and have spiral flats or shallow

depressions machined in their surface along the greater part of their
lengths. This reduces their effective weight per unit length by
approximately 4%.
The reduction of wall contact area between the drill collar and the
36

wall of the hole greatly reduces the possibility of differential wall

sticking. Wall sticking occurs when part of the drill string (usually the
drill collars) becomes embedded in the filter cake, resulting in a non-
uniform distribution of pressure around the circumference of the pipe
(see Section 5 Part 1 - Stuck pipe prevention and fishing operations).
Figure 2.1.11: Spiral drill collars
• Square drill collars
These are drill collars with a square section and a diagonal dimension
1.6mm (1/16") less than the bit size, with hard facing material
37

applied to the corners. They are run in the string when drilling
crooked hole formations to provide maximum stabilisation and
prevent deviation from the existing course of the hole. Their use is,
however, not commonplace.
• Non-magnetic drill collars (NMDCs)
These are drill collars manufactured from a non-magnetic steel alloy

and are used to shield directional survey instruments from the
influence of the magnetic field that exists around a normal steel drill
collar.
Special care should be taken when making up NMDCs because the

material is more susceptible to galling of the threads and shoulders
than normal DCs.
1.1.2.2 API DRILL COLLAR CONNECTIONS
Drill collars, like all other drill string components must be connected
together. To do this a threaded connection is cut into each end of the
DC. API connections are precision cut by milling. After the milling
process the connection is protected by a phosphate surface
treatment to minimise galling during makeup. Drill collar connections
should be provided with stress relief grooves on pins, and a "bore-
38

back" feature on boxes to reduce fatigue failures.
Figure 2.1.12: Drill collar connections
Thread roots may also be "cold-rolled". Standard drill collars have

both pin and box connections. The most common types of threads
for ODs larger than 177·8 mm (7") are Regular and H 90, and for
ODs smaller than 177·8 mm (7") the most common are NC and H90.
The only pressure seal is formed by the shoulder to shoulder metal
seal (see Figure 2.1.7) in a similar manner to drill pipe connections.
39

When makeup shoulders are damaged, site repairs, using a

shoulder redressing tool, are usually carried out. This is acceptable
as a single treatment. However, if the dressing is extensive the
treated surface will be removed and galling will become excessive
with increased risk of washouts. Treatment in the machine shop is
then necessary.
1.1.2.2.1 REGULAR CONNECTIONS
For some reason Regular connections remain the most common

choice for BHA components even though an NC connection of the
same bending strength is superior due to its thread having a less
sharp root radius and being therefore more resilient to thread root
cracking.
1.1.2.2.2 H90 CONNECTIONS
These connections were originally a proprietary product of Hughes

Tool Company and are easily recognisable by their shallow 90°
thread angle. They are about equivalent in performance to Regular
connections except that the shallow thread angle causes high box
hoop stresses at high makeup torques. Again NC is a superior thread
in almost all applications but the H-90 type is still in frequent use.
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1.1.2.3 STRESS RELIEF
As the threaded connection of the drill collars is the weakest part,

bending is most likely to occur in the connection. At the bottom of
the box and in the widest part of the pin there are a few threads
which are not engaged. These threads form notches which could
accelerate fatigue failure.
Figure 2.1.13: Stress relief groove Figure 2.1.13: Stress relief groove
on the pin of a crossover. on the pin of a crossover.
As these threads do not strengthen the connection but rather weaken

the joint, they are removed. The grooves that now appear are called
stress relief grooves. In boxes the bottom is often bored out over a
greater length. The length of uniform wall section now distributes
bending stresses over a longer interval.
41

Some suppliers of components have in the past avoided putting

stress relieving grooves on to pins as the number of re-cuts to the
thread are reduced to about three, depending on the component in
question. This reduces the effective commercial life of the
component.
Occasionally BHA components have bore back boxes but no stress

relieving groove. This shows that the manufacturer is aware of the
requirements but chooses to save costs by not cutting a stress
relieving groove. These components should be returned to the
supplier.
Figure 2.1.14: Lack of stress relief groove on the pin of a stabilizer.
42

1.1.2.4 Lifting and Make-Up Facilities For Drill

Collars
Recesses can be machined in the drill collar (Figure 2.1.15) for lifting
and suspending the drill collars by slip and elevator. When handling
flush drill collars a lifting nipple or lifting head has to be used (using
the same torque as for a normal drill collar connection). The threads
and shoulders of the lifting nipples should be treated and inspected
with the same care as the drill collar threads.
To prevent a drill collar from slipping through the slips a safety clamp
is installed around the drill collar above the slips. This clamp is
composed of links with spring loaded inserts/dies with tapered backs
(see Figure 2.1.16a).
Figure 2.1.1.5: Recesses machined Figure 2.1.16a: Drill collar safety

at the box ends of DCs. clamp.
43

Figure 2.1.16b: Drill collar lifting equipment
1.1.2.5 Make-Up Torque
During drilling, drill collars are subject to:
• buckling and bending forces

• torsion
• vibration
44

• Alternating stresses.
If the drill collar connection is a suitable one, and the correct make-
up torque has been applied, the joint should absorb the normal
bending stresses encountered, and the shoulder-to-shoulder seal will
effectively contain the internal pressures.
Drill collar connections are never referred to as tool joints although

thread profiles may be the same as drill pipe tool joints. The OD and
ID are different, so the pin and box areas are larger and therefore
the required make-up torque is greater.
If make-up torque is less than, say 90% of the recommended value,

the tool joint may not develop enough strength to:
• prevent wobbling
• resist bending loads
• form an adequate seal
• Resist excessive makeup due to impact torque while drilling.
On the other hand, over-torquing is likely to distort and weaken the

threaded connection, stretch the pin, or expand the box.
Correct make-up torque is essential for trouble-free performance, and
45

the torque applied should always be measured conscientiously.
As drill collar make-up torques are high it is

especially important to be careful when making up
or breaking out connections. Should a tong slip or
a tong line break the crew not directly involved
could be hurt, so make sure they remain outside
the danger area.
1.1.2.6 Neutral Point
The total weight on the bit is obtained by having the lower section of
drill collars run in compression, leaving the upper section of drill
collars and the drill pipe in tension. The crossover point of zero
tension in the string is called the neutral point.
There should never be less than ten percent of the length of the drill
collars in tension, and the neutral point should never be at a jar.
The design of the bottom hole assembly - including the drill collars -
is covered in Topic 1.4.
46

1.1.3 Other drill string components

This Topic will deal with the following drill string components:
• Heavy-wall drill pipe

• Stabilisers
• Subs
• Thrusters
• Jars and accelerators
• MWD tools
• Downhole motors
1.1.3.1 Heavy Wall Drill Pipe
Heavy-wall drill pipe normally called Hevi-Wate drill pipe and

abbreviated to HWDP, is an intermediate weight drill string member.
It consists of heavy-wall tubes with an upset in the middle, called the

centre wear pad and special long tool joints, up to twice as long as
normal drill pipe. As an example of the difference between standard
drill pipe and heavy-wall drill pipe the Table 2.1.4 below compares
the two using 5" OD pipe.
As can be seen from the table the external dimensions of HWDP are
47

the same as drill pipe dimensions for easy handling. The extra weight
comes from the additional wall thickness of the tube, the wear pad
and the longer tool joints.
Because of its weight and construction, HWDP can be run in

compression in a similar way to drill collars, subject to the normal
constrains for buckling, i.e., except in large diameter vertical holes.
HWDP is used:
• For slim hole drilling because it has less

chance of becoming differentially stuck
than drill collars. The contact area for
unstabilised
• drill collars is the full length of the collars
where as HWDP has a contact area
equal to the length of the tool joints and
the wear pad (normally about 6ft per
joint)
Figure 2.1.17 :
Elements of HWDP
• For high angle drilling because it is less rigid than drill collars
48

and has a much lower wall contact area possibly reducing

torque.
• As a transition between DC's and DP, to make the crossover
gradual.
HWDP is more resilient to fatigue than standard drill pipe, especially

in compression.
Other advantages of HWDP are:
• It permits high speed drilling with less torque which reduces

drill stem wear and tear and simplifies directional control.
• Tripping is faster than with drill collars due to HWDP being
handled the same as normal DP.
• There is no loss of BOP control when handling HWDP, since
pipe rams can be used around it.
• Heavy wall drill pipe can be ordered as spiral or flush wall pipe.
Table 2.1.4: Typical HWDP dimensions
49

1.1.3.2 Stabilizer
Stabilisers are drill string components with blades that protrude from
the body. They are usually almost the same diameter as the bit and
are located in a drill string at various points in the drill collars of the
BHA, including just above the bit.
Near bit stabilisers are recognisable by the box/box connection to

accommodate the pin connection of the bit. The blades are
positioned near the bottom i.e. as close to the bit as possible. The
box on the bottom is provided with "Regular" (Reg.) thread which
corresponds to the thread used on the bits.
The stabilisers in Figure 2.1.18 are all "string type" stabilisers with a
pin/box connection. When new, the blades are halfway up the body.
They are often given a hard coating e.g. sintered tungsten carbide to
increase their endurance, or they are provided with inserts such as
tungsten carbide buttons.
50

Figure 2.1.18: Assorted stabilisers
Stabilisers are available either with fixed blades, with the blades
individually replaceable or with a replaceable sleeve to which the
blades are attached.
51

When a fixed blade type stabiliser wears down it will have to be

returned to base for rebuilding and be replaced by a new one. The
sleeve type and the replaceable blade type stabilisers can be
redressed on site.
Inserting a stabiliser in a string of drill collars can have several

effects.
Figure 2.1.19: Assorted stabiliser
If drilling takes place while one or more stabilisers are still inside the
casing, this must be done carefully with low WOB and rpm.
With a sleeve type stabiliser the tongs should never be placed on the
52

sleeve. A special sleeve breaker is required.
If, when removing the worn blades of a changeable blade stabiliser,

the wrong tools are used, metal chips may splinter off while hitting
the blade, causing serious injuries.
1.1.3.2.1 A DIRECTIONAL EFFECT
As a fulcrum point in directional drilling. A stabiliser or stabilisers

inserted at (a) certain position(s) in the string will affect the
directional performance of the BHA. In the lower 9-36 m (30-120 ft)
[depending on hole size & DC size] of the drilling assembly the
spacing of the stabilisers depends on the directional drilling results
required, such as dropping off, building or maintaining hole
inclination. This subject is covered in Section 2, Part 4 - Directional
drilling.
1.1.3.2.2 A CENTRALISING EFFECT
Stabilisers have the affect of keeping the string central in the well
bore. The centralising affect is dependent on the distance between
stabilisers, the drill collar size and the hole size. Good centralisation
can improve ROP and reduce the chance of differential sticking.
53

Stabiliser placement is discussed in Topic 1.4.2.3.
1.1.3.2.3 PREVENTION OF BUCKLING EFFECT
In vertical holes, stabilisers are placed in the bottom hole assembly

to prevent buckling of the bottom hole assembly. By preventing the
drill collars buckling, stabilisation allows the bit to rotate
perpendicular to the bottom of the hole which improves bit
performance.
1.1.3.2.4 DRAG EFFECT
Stabilisers increase the torque required to rotate a drill string. Thus

four stabilisers is often the maximum that can be comfortably run.
You will have noticed the above conflict between centralisation and
increase torque. In a 6" directional well with 10 collars, 10 stabilisers
are required for good stabilisation, but 10 stabilisers would cause
more torque than acceptable. This is often a dilemma in drill string
design. We will see later how this dilemma can be overcome in
directional wells.
1.1.3.2.5 A ROCK CUTTING EFFECT
Stabilisers are often almost the same OD as the bit. Thus, if the
54

formation round the recently cut hole relaxes slightly and the hole
becomes fractionally smaller than bit size, the stabiliser will act as a
secondary cutting device.
Similarly if the formations continue to relax, as for example in a

squeezing shale, the hole will become significantly under gauge (i.e.
less than original hole size). When removing the drill string from the
hole the uppermost stabiliser in the string, referred to as the top
stabiliser, can be used to cut away the rock (from below) as the
string is removed from the hole. This is called back reaming. Some
stabiliser have special teeth on their upper flutes to assist in the
action of back reaming.
1.1.3.2.6 VIBRATION REDUCING EFFECT
Stabilisation may reduce vibration in bottom hole assemblies.

Unfortunately, stabilisers may also cause an increase in drill string
vibration under certain conditions.
Drill string vibration will depend, among other things, upon the
stabiliser separation, the drill collar and hole dimensions and the
revolutions per minute of the drill string. Critical rotary speeds for a
given BHA and hole can be predicted and should be avoided.
55

1.1.3.2.7 PREVENTION OF STUCK PIPE EFFECT
It was mentioned above that stabiliser are USUALLY placed in the

drill collars of a BHA. There are exceptions to this and placing a
stabiliser in the string above the drill collars (some times at the top of
the collars) may prevent the string being pulled into a key seat and
getting stuck refer to Section 5, Part 1 - "Stuck pipe prevention and
fishing operations" . For this reason, there is always a stabiliser at the
top of the drill collars in deviated wells.
Stabilisers are often blamed for being the reason of getting stuck.
This is seldom the case. They assist in guiding the drill collars past
the key seat. If the key seat is too large the stabiliser can get
caught under the key seat (as is the case with the DC's
themselves and the bit) but will then allow limited upward
reaming of the key seat, thus preventing the drill collars from
getting differentially stuck in the key seat.
Under-gauge stabilisers have also been placed in HWDP when there

has been a history of HWDP becoming differential stuck across
depleted (reduced pressure) zones of a reservoir.
56

1.1.3.3 SUBS
Subs are short pieces of tubular material used to increase the

versatility of the main component of the string. The simplest is a
crossover sub, used to connect two items that have different threads.
Others are:
• float sub
• dart sub
• circulating sub
• bent sub
• orientating sub
• totco ring
1.1.3.3.1 CROSSOVER SUBS
These are short sections of drill collar material 0.6 m (2 ft) or longer,
which provide crossovers between different diameters and types of
threaded connection.
57

Figure 2.1.20 : Cross-sections through a selection of subs
They are available configured with the following connections;

box/box, pin/pin, pin/box and box/pin subs.
58

It may not be obvious that due to

the way the thread is cut onto
connections, a box/pin cannot be
used upside down to form a pin/box!
Because subs have two connections

close to each other, the string is Figure 2.1.21 : A kelly saver
locally weakened in comparison with sub
the rest. This is of particular significance when there are heavy

bending stresses acting on the subs. Special attention should be paid
to rig floor inspection of subs and they should be fully inspected
regularly.
1.1.3.3.2 FLOAT SUB
A float sub is a non-return valve run just above the bit. One of its
functions is to prevent back-flow of drilling fluid into the drill string.
This can occur when cuttings increase the effective density of the
drilling fluid in the annulus, and may result in the bit nozzles being
plugged by cuttings. This problem is very prevalent when drilling top
hole sections because of the large volume of cuttings produced at
high penetration rates.
59

Another reason for running a float sub is prevent the possibility of a

blowout through the string. In top hole, high volume swabbing can
lower the level of fluid in the string very rapidly due to the large
differential between the string and hole capacities.
Figure 2.1.22: A float sub
60

When running in a string that has a float sub installed, the string
has to be filled up while running in. If empty pipe should suddenly
be filled by the annulus (failure of the valve) this would cause a
significant drop of head in the open hole and could possibly induce
a kick. A float sub in the string also increases the surge pressures
created while running in.
1.1.3.3.3 DART SUB
The dart sub is a landing sub for a drop-in and pump-down back
pressure valve. Its function is to prevent a kick through the drill
string in the same way as a float sub. The landing sub is installed
near the drill collars. This provides the driller with a means to land
the valve prior to pulling out. The valve is pumped into the sub and
will latch in place automatically. Dart subs of various types are often
referred to HDIS after one of the main manufactures' of darts subs.
HDIS stands for Hydril Drop In Sub.
61

Figure 2.1.23: A dart sub plus the dart
1.1.3.3.4 CIRCULATING SUB
This sub can be incorporated in the drill string and, if required,

operated while drilling to provide a large opening to circulate
through. When drilling with a directional BHA (see Topic 1.4) it is run
directly above the MWD sub or down-hole motor; in rotary drilling it
is run directly above the bit sub.
62

Figure 2.1.24 : A circulating sub
There are two principal reasons for using a circulating sub.
• When lost circulation material is to be pumped through the

string it could plug up the small nozzles in the bit or jam the
inside of a turbine. A circulating sub in the string could be used
to circulate the coarse material through.
• To allow increased circulation rates for hole cleaning prior to
pulling out of the hole
In order to operate the sub a ball is dropped down the drill string.
The ball will seat on the sleeve and seal off the fluid flow. When the
fluid pressure increases to approximately 20,000 kPa (3,000 psi)
63

the shear bolt will break. Ball and sleeve will then be forced
downwards and uncover the fluid ports. The drilling fluid flow will
then effectively by-pass everything below the circulating sub.
After use a conventional circulation sub will have to be pulled to

recover the ball and re-set the sleeve. To avoid this problem, a
different type of circulating sub is now available. One ball is dropped
to open the sub and a second ball is dropped to close it. This cycle
can be repeated a few times until the ball catcher, installed below the
sub, is full.
1.1.3.3.5 BENT SUB
A bent sub is actually made to have one tool joint set at a pre-
determined offset angle, thereby creating a bend in the drill string
which in turn allows the deflection tool to be faced in a certain
direction. Bent subs can be supplied with angles of 1° - 3º in 1/2º
increments. The angle (1º - 3º) can be positioned in a pre-
determined direction, thus giving a directional BHA (a BHA designed
to drill in a particular direction).
Generally the bent sub is part of a non-rotating drilling assembly and

the effects of fatigue will be considered carefully before the string is
64

rotated whilst it contains a bent sub.
The bent sub includes a mule shoe sleeve with an alignment key to
orient the mule shoe of a survey tool barrel. The mule shoe sleeve is
installed inside the bent sub and is lined up with the tool face by
using the orienting wrench prior to being secured in the sub by Allen
screws.
When the survey tools are run in the hole the mule shoe assembly
will lock in place inside the mule shoe sleeve, creating a positive
positioning of the survey equipment. Alternatively a UBHO can be
used.
1.1.3.3.6 ORIENTING SUB
This sub is used in a directional drilling assembly to align the survey

equipment with the deflection tool as described in the previous
paragraphs. This is done so that the path of the well can be recorded
and observed.
The orienting sub is usually a straight one and is often called a

UBHO, "universal bottom hole orienting" sub.
In some cases the orienting sub is combined with a bent sub. NOTE:
All special-purpose BHA components above the UBHO sub which
65

have a restricted inside diameter (e.g. jars), should be replaced with

ones that have an appropriate inside diameter or removed to allow
passage of the instrument barrel.
1.1.3.3.7 TOTCO RING
A Totco ring is not really a sub, but it is included here for

convenience. It is a small insert that is placed inside the drill string
between a pin and a box connection. It does not interfere with the
connection. It does not significantly restrict the flow of fluid down the
string but it does act as a trap for survey tools that are dropped from
surface and retrieved later when the string is removed from the hole.
1.1.3.4 THRUSTERS
A thruster is a piston device that can be included in the drill string

above the bit or above a motor. It is a specialist tool originally
developed for slim hole drilling and now available in sizes from 1-
11/16" up to 9-1/2" diameter.
As the pressure inside the thruster increases it causes the thruster to

be opened with a greater force. The thruster opens or closes keeping
the WOB constant and thus allows the WOB to be controlled by pump
pressure. A thruster also acts as a shock absorber, decoupling
66

vibrations created by the bit from the drill string above. The principle
of operation is shown in Figure 2.1.25.
Thrusters are designed to have two surface set

WOB settings for a given flow rate. The driller
controls the setting by raising or lowering the
drill string to alter the position of the choke
spear. The pressure drop across the tool is
different for each position of the choke spear,
Figure 2.1.25:
thus by observing the pressure drop the driller Schematic of
can tell which position the tool is in. thruster
In Figure 2.1.26 the choke spear is above the restriction inside the
tool body, giving a low pressure drop, showing the tool is fully
extended.
Figure 2.1.26: Schematic of thruster (extended)
Figure 2.1.27 shows the thrusters choke spear in the high WOB
67

setting, where the pressure drop is highest. The driller can detect the
tool position by observing the pressure gauge.
Figure 2.1.27: Schematic of thruster (partially collapsed)
Were the string to be lowered further the pressure would drop

indicating to the driller that the tool was about to close.
1.1.3.5 JARS AND ACCELERATORS

1.1.3.5.1 BUMPER SUBS
A bumper sub is usually about 2 m in length and of a similar OD to

the collars in the BHA it is being used. The sub has two parts which
slide in and out of each other. The inner mandrel and the outer body.
There is a knocker inside the bumper sub which is the element that
the mandrel strikes in order to create an impact force.
Bumper subs are generally used for fishing operations where only an
up jar and an up accelerator are included in the string. Inclusion of a
68

bumper sub allows the string to be bumped down if required. They

are described more fully in Section 5, Part 1 - Stuck pipe prevention
and fishing.
1.1.3.5.2 JARS
Jars are specially manufactured pieces of equipment of similar

dimensions to drill collars. They are used to convert a constant axial
force applied over a period of time into a much greater impact force.
Such a "hammer blow" will be more effective than a steady force for
several purposes, the most common within drilling operations being
to free stuck pipe.
The two main actions in the operation of a jar are firing and cocking.
A jar is fired by applying an axial force to it (either by applying a
tension at surface or by slackening off and applying part of the string
weight to the jar), then waiting for the jar latch to release. Cocking is
the action of resetting the latch. Some jars can give both up and
down blows, others can only give up blows. A jar is in effect a
bumper sub with a triggering device.
Apart from the difference between being able to jar up only and to
jar in both directions, jars are divided into two groups - drilling jars
and fishing jars. Drilling jars may be incorporated into the drill string
69

during normal drilling operations and are thus immediately available

to assist in freeing the string if it should become stuck. Fishing jars
are used in a special string used to "fish" for a section of the drill
string which has been disconnected (or broken off) after becoming
stuck and was left in the hole when the upper part was pulled out.
They are in fact often incorporated into a fishing string even when
the fish was left in the hole because of a mechanical failure, just in
case it should subsequently become stuck.
The difference between drilling jars and fishing jars is mainly one of
emphasis. A drilling jar achieves its effect by quick action and does
not need to deliver a long series of heavy blows, but it does have to
withstand the rigours of the drilling environment. Jars have a spline
drive mechanism that allows the jar to stroke in and out while still
transmitting rotary torque to the lower connection. On drilling this
drive mechanism is capable of withstanding long periods of high
torque plus shock loading. In a fishing jar the drive mechanism is less
robust but the hammer action is heavier. Fishing jars are usually
single action jars operating on the up direction only.
The subject of stuck pipe, including its prevention, and fishing

operations is a sufficiently important one in the drilling world to have
a complete Part within this WEDLP devoted to it. Fishing equipment,
70

including jars, are described in Section 5, Part 1.
1.1.3.5.3 ACCELERATORS
An accelerator acts like a spring and is used with a jar to supplement

the energy that can be stored in a drill string by stretching or
compression. They are also called jar intensifiers as they intensify the
jar blow. There is no difference between a drilling accelerator and a
fishing accelerator except that the drilling accelerator may be dual
acting (both up and down).
Accelerators perform three functions in a drill string. They:
• Compensate for hole drag.

• De-couple the string above the accelerator from the jar impact.
• Compensate for a short drill string.
They are also described in detail in Section 5.1.
1.1.3.6 MWD, INCLUDING FEWD, TOOLS
A measurement while drilling (MWD) tool is a specialist tool that

measures various parameters while down hole in the drill string
during the drilling process. It is built into a drill collar and run as part
of the BHA. The data resulting from its measurements is either
71

transmitted to surface in real time, usually using a mud pulse

transmission system, or is stored in the tool for later retrieval.
The measurements which can be made fall into three groups:
• Directional information: well bore inclination and azimuth. This

was the original use of MWD (refer also to Section 2, Part 5 -
Bore hole surveying).
• Mechanical information: WOB, torque, vibration shock loading.
The tool measures the compression/tension, and/or torque in
the body of the sub via a set of strain gauges embedded in the
metal of the sub. In certain circumstances in directional and
long reach wells high drag makes it difficult accurately to
determine the amount of weight actually transferred to the bit.
This can lead on one hand to sub-optimal ROP or on the other
to premature bit failure. In these circumstances the downhole
measurement of WOB as provided by an MWD tool allows the
driller to determine and maintain its optimum value.
• Reservoir parameters: Gamma ray, resistivity etc. This variant
of the tool is called FEWD (formation evaluation while drilling) -
initially known as LWD (logging whilst drilling) - and enables
wireline type logs to be taken whilst the well is being drilled.
72

MWD tools are complicated, vulnerable to drill string vibration

damage in the electronics and data transmission packages and
washouts in the mud pulse mechanism, which makes them the most
fragile part of the drill string. Consequently tools often have onboard
shock measuring capabilities which can be used as an indication of
down hole drill string vibration.
They are made from monel, a non magnetic steel. This prevents any
magnetic interference with the parameters being measured. These
tools are made in similar sizes to most common drill collars and
indeed behave in a similar manner when buckling and strength is
considered.
An important feature of such tools is the data transmission

mechanism. The most common system is Mud Pulse Telemetry. This
can be one of a number of designs. However, all designs are such
that there is an obstruction to the internal diameter of the tool, with
two consequences:
• it is impossible to run other tools through an MWD tool

• there is a pressure drop across them which has to be taken
into account.
Given that the data is sent using pressure pulses in the drilling fluid
73

transmitted up (usually) the inside of the drill string, an MWD tool

must be positioned in the drill string above any other tool that may
block or cause interference to the transmitted signal. They are placed
above the near bit stabiliser or above a motor or turbine if present.
1.1.3.7 DOWNHOLE MOTORS
There are two types of downhole motor - turbines and Moineau

motors - both of which are driven by the circulating drilling fluid.
They are both equipped with rotating and stationary sections which
make it possible to drill without rotating the drill string.
This equipment can be used either for drilling straight or directional

holes but their main area of application is in directional drilling. When
changing the inclination or azimuth of the bore hole they make it
possible to drill without changing the alignment of the drill string. In
straight holes it is advisable to rotate the drill string slowly to reduce
the chance of differential sticking.
Given that their main utilisation is for directional drilling these tools,
and their operation, are described in more detail in Section 2, Part 4 -
Directional drilling.
74

1.1.4 Drill string design

1.1.4.1 INTRODUCTION
When designing a drill string the aim is :-
• Keep the maximum stress at any point in the drill string less
than yield strength derated by a design factor.
• Select components and configure assemblies to retard fatigue
as much as economically practical.
• Provide equipment that is resistant to Hydrogen Sulphide
(H2S) if H2S is expected.
This Topic covers simple drill string design steps for vertical and
directional wells, including some considerations for extended reach
drilling. Loads applied by tension, torsion, combined tension and
torsion, burst pressure, collapse pressure, slip crushing and stability
forces are considered. It does not cover techniques for vibration
analysis, torque and drag modeling, hydraulics design, directional
control or jar placement.
Proprietary software programmes for performing the calculations

described in this Topic is now available in most OUs. As always,
however you should be aware of what data they are using and what
75

they are doing with it.
1.1.4.1.1 DESIGN ASSUMPTIONS
For simplicity, the assumptions outlined below are built into the
calculations in this section.
• Tension is approximated using the "Buoyed Weight" method

when doing manual calculations. Although this method ignores
the effects of circulating pressure on tension, it continues to be
very popular for tensile design. This is no doubt due to the
following:
Æ It's the way we've always done it (Tradition!),

Æ It's simpler than the more exact "Pressure-Area"
method, which is used by Torque/Drag software such as
Wellplan for Windows, and
Æ The error that it causes is easily compensated when
selecting the Margin of Overpull (MOP).
• Buckling is assumed to occur only below the point where

buoyed string weight equals weight on bit. This point will be
called the "Neutral Point". This assumption ignores some
pressure forces in order to simplify design calculations. In fact,
76

unless the drill pipe is stuck, the neutral point will never be
above this point except temporarily when pump rate is
increased with the bit on bottom.
• Increasing hole angle at the BHA reduces the fraction of BHA
weight available for bit weight.
• Tension calculations assume the string is hanging vertically.
For high angle and extended reach drilling, this assumption will
be modified as it would otherwise result in too conservative a
design.
• Material yield strength is the specified minimum for the
component being considered.
• Drill pipe tube wall thickness is the minimum for the stated drill
pipe class.
• Connection torsional strength and makeup torque are
calculated using the A.P. Farr formula from API RP 7G.
1.1.4.1.2 DESIGN FACTORS
Design factors are numbers that are used to derate the load
capacities of components and assemblies. Design factors provide an
extra margin of capacity to take care of inexactness in our
assumptions about material properties, loads and hole conditions. For
77

drill strings, the following design factors will be used:
For Tension (DFT): This factor is divided into a component's

maximum tensile load capacity to determine the maximum allowable
load that we're comfortable applying to that component. Design
Factor for tension (DFT) should be 1·15, based on SIEP
recommendations.
Margin of Overpull (MOP): This is excess tensile capacity above

the normal hanging or working load (Pw) to account for factors such
as hole drag. MOPs may vary from 50,000 to 150,000 lbs, depending
on hole conditions.
For excess BHA weight (DFBHA): This factor is multiplied by

desired weight on bit (WOB) to determine minimum buoyed BHA
weight. This excess weight in the BHA provides an extra margin to
keep the neutral point below the top of the BHA. The recommended
value for DFBHA is 1·15.
For Torsion: Applied torsion is limited to tool joint makeup torque.

Standard makeup torque is either 60% or 50% of tool joint torsional
yield strength, according to the Class of the pipe, and tool joints are
almost always weaker in torsion than the tubes to which they're
attached. Therefore a design factor in torsion isn't necessary for drill
78

string design.
For Collapse Pressure (DFC): Collapse pressure capacities are first

derated to account for the effect of any simultaneous tension, then
the derated capacity is further reduced by dividing by the collapse
design factor. DFC should be 1·125.
For Burst Pressure (DFB): Burst pressure loading is rarely a

concern in drill string design because surface pressures rarely
approach the burst capacities of most drill pipe. The design factor for
burst is divided into a component's burst pressure capacity to give
the maximum permissible burst pressure that may be applied to that
component. DFB should be 1·176. Burst capacity is increased by
simultaneous tension, but this benefit is normally ignored in drill
string design.
1.1.4.2 DESIGN PROCEDURE
Design is a multi-step process which usually begins at the bottom of

the hole and works upward. The following is a discussion of a simple
tension and torsion design. These steps and considerations will be
present in most design situations. Special considerations for extended
reach drilling are also included. The following steps in the process are
79

discussed:
• Selection of drill collar diameter

• Selection of BHA connections and features
• Stabiliser and jar placement
• Determine length of drill collar section
• Determine length of the heavy weight drill pipe section
• Other checks to make
• Drill pipe tension design nomenclature
• Calculate allowable load (PA)
• Set margin of overpull (MOP)
• Calculate working load (PW)
• Calculate the maximum length of the first drill pipe section
• Calculate the maximum length of the second drill pipe section
• Calculate the maximum length of the third drill pipe section
• Burst pressure
• Collapse pressure
• Combined loading
• Stability forces and drill pipe buckling
• Slip crushing
• Buoyancy factor for non-steel components
• Special considerations for extended reach wells
80

1.1.4.2.1 SELECT DRILL COLLAR DIAMETER
Unless geometric sticking (see Topic 1.2.1 of Section 5, Part 1 - Stuck

pipe prevention and fishing operations) is a problem, the largest
diameter drill collars consistent with other needs are generally best.
Their increased stiffness means more directional stability. Also, they
will have fewer connections for a desired weight on bit. They allow
shorter BHAs which can lessen the likelihood of differential sticking.
Larger OD collars in a given hole also mean less lateral freedom of
movement in the BHA. This decreases buckling stress and the rate of
connection fatigue. In practice however, drill collar size is often
determined by existing rig stocks. Other factors which come into play
are:
• Fishability considerations.
• Capabilities of the rig handling equipment.
• Directional control requirements.
• Hydraulics.
• Desired exterior features (spiral grooves, elevator groove, or
other features).
1.1.4.2.2 SELECT BHA CONNECTIONS AND FEATURES
The following points apply not only to drill collars and HWDP from the
81

rig inventory, but also to the many specialised tools that find their
way into the hole. Stabilisers, motors, MWD and LWD tools, hole
openers, under-reamers, jars and other tools are all subject to
fatigue.
1.1.4.2.2.1 Bending strength ratio:
The predominant consideration, especially in selecting larger BHA

connections is Bending Strength Ratio (BSR). BSR is a ratio of the
relative stiffness of the box to the pin for a given connection type. If
we select a connection with either a pin or box that is out of balance
with the other member, we tend to increase the stress level and
accelerate fatigue in the weaker member (see Figure 2.1.28)
82

Figure 2.1.28: The effect of BSR of 2.5 on fatigue life.
The traditional target BSR is 2·5, and acceptable BSR ranges centre
on this point. However, BSR ranges are rough guidelines established
by "experience" and should not be used as strict operating limits.
Staying within recommended BSR guidelines does not eliminate
connection fatigue failures, nor does exceeding the recommended
ranges always lead to fatigue failures.
83

In theory, high BSRs should cause accelerated pin failure, and low
BSRs should cause accelerated box failures. A balanced BSR should
provide maximum connection life. However, field experience shows
that larger OD collars (8" and up) suffer predominantly from box
fatigue cracks even when they operate at or near the ideal BSR of
2·5.
This indicates that higher BSRs may be more appropriate for these
sizes. On the other hand, 43/4"collars with BSRs as low as 1·8 are
widely used but rarely experience box fatigue cracks. Therefore, the
suggested BSR ranges in Table 2.1.5 are probably better. In every
case however, experience under given conditions should be a major
factor in BSR selection.
Table 2.1.5: Recommended BSR ranges
One frequently overlooked connection is the one between the top

drill collar and the bottom joint of HWDP. If a straight (non-
84

bottleneck) crossover sub is used, and the collar OD is larger than

the HWDP tool joint OD, the resulting BSR of that one connection will
be exceedingly high. Pin failures in the bottom joint of HWDP are not
uncommon, and this is the probable reason. The problem is helped
by using a bottleneck sub to smooth the change in cross section.
1.1.4.2.2.2 BHA Connection Thread Form
Thread forms with full root radii should be used in all BHA
connections to maximise fatigue resistance. API Regular, NC, and
51/2" Full Hole connections meet this requirement, though the API
NC thread form (V 038R) is superior to the others. The H90 thread
form is also considered acceptable even though it does not have a
full root radius. Remember, all connections that employ a "standard"
V065 thread form, except the PAC, are obsolete. Therefore, you
should specify "NC" instead of the obsolete "IF" or "XH" names. This
eliminates the (very low) probability of receiving the fatigue prone V-
065 thread form in your collars.
85

Figure 2.1.29: BHA thread forms
1.1.4.2.2.3 Stress relief features
Stress relief features as described in API Spec 7, should be specified

on all BHA connections which are NC 38 and larger. These features
include the "stress relief pin" and "bore-back box". They prolong
connection fatigue life by eliminating un-engaged thread roots which
86

act as stress concentrators. Stress relief features are beneficial on

HWDP connections. Pin stress relief grooves are not recommended
for connections smaller than NC 38 because they may weaken the
connection's tensile and torsional strength, and because fatigue is
often less of a problem than static loads on small connections. Bore-
back boxes could be used on smaller connections without weakening
them, and should be considered if box fatigue is occurring.
1.1.4.2.2.4 Cold rolling
Cold rolling BHA thread roots and stress relief surfaces increases
fatigue life by placing a residual compressive stress in the thread
roots. Cold rolling is also beneficial on HWDP threads, though not on
normal weight drill pipe tool joints. Fatigue is rarely a problem on
normal weight drill pipe tool joints owing to the relative stiffness of
the tool joint compared to the tube.
1.1.4.2.2.5 BHA connection torsional strength
Since torsion is transmitted from the top down, BHA connections are
usually subjected to lower torsional loads than the connections
above. However, if "stick/slip" is occurring, or if you are running a
tapered or "slim" assembly, especially one using PAC connections,
torsional strength should be checked to confirm that it is greater than
87

the expected operating torsion at the BHA. Tool joint torsional

strength tables cannot be used directly for this purpose because tool
joint and drill collar materials have different yield strengths.
However, drill collar connection torsional strength can be calculated

by the following equation:
TS = MUT/f [Eq.1]
where:
TS = DC connection torsional strength
MUT = Make up torque
f, is taken from Table 2.1.6
(all in consistent units)
88

Table 2.1.6: Factors for converting drill collar MUT to torsional strength
1.1.4.2.3 STABILISER AND JAR PLACEMENT

1.1.4.2.3.1 Stabilisers
The size and placement of stabilisers is often determined by

directional considerations. However, stabilisers also impact other
important design concerns:
In a vertical hole, the lower part of the BHA will be buckled and
supported by the sides of the hole. Stabilisers reduce connection
stress by restricting the freedom of lateral drill collar movement. This
lengthens connection fatigue life, other things constant.
If mechanical sticking is a concern, more or larger stabilisers may

increase the chance of becoming stuck. On the other hand, stabilisers
can reduce the probability of differential sticking by holding drill
collars away from the side of the hole.
When considering contact between drill collars and the wellbore wall
both the stabiliser spacing and the collar OD should be taken into
account. It is common to use the same stabiliser spacing in BHAs
regardless of the collar size (OD). For example, 90ft stabiliser spacing
in a 17·5" BHA with 9" collars will give much less wall contact than
89

90ft stabiliser spacing in a 6" BHA with 4 3/4" DCs. It is important to

remember this fact when designing BHAs with a low risk of
differential sticking.
Tables 2.1.7 & 2.1.8 give an indication of the stabiliser spacing

required to minimise contact between drill collars and the wellbore
wall. Above 50° inclination the results would be substantially similar
to Table 2.1.8.
Table 2.1.7: Wellbore contact with inclination 0° - 3°
90

Table 2.1.8: Wellbore contact with inclination 30° - 50°
1.1.4.2.3.2 Jars
The two main considerations for jar placement are preventing jar
fatigue failure and maximising jar impact at the probable sticking
location.
For fatigue failure prevention in vertical or near vertical wells, the

"rule of thumb" is to run jars in "tension" (or more precisely, above
the axial neutral point - see Topic 1.3). More recently, jar companies
say that it's acceptable to run jars in "compression" (below the axial
neutral point) but not at the "axial neutral point" itself. To simplify
matters, we should apply the following rule: Don't run jars
buckled at any time. Obviously, this rule prohibits running jars in
compression (below the buckling neutral point) in vertical or near
vertical hole sections. In high angle holes, the compressive load a jar
91

may carry without buckling will depend on many factors, but can be
easily estimated using jar dimensions and the Dawson-Pasley
relationship for drill pipe buckling.
Regarding the prohibition against running jars at the "axial neutral

point", this will not always be practical in high angle holes. For
example, in a recent North Sea extended reach well, with a hole
inclination of 75°, bit weights varied between 5,000 and 25,000 lbs
as stringers were drilled. In the soft formations it was necessary to
limit the ROP to clean the hole, thus the lower bit weight. The higher
bit weight was necessary to drill the harder rock. The upshot was
that the "axial neutral point" was constantly moving over a range of
about 1,800 feet in the string (and past the jars). Although the jars
cycled from open to closed, the change in position occurred at low
energy levels because care was taken not to add bit weight too fast,
and no problem occurred with the jars. If you expect a situation like
the one above, you should discuss the circumstances with your jar
company and develop operating limits to prevent cycling the jar while
too much energy is stored in the drill string.
For maximising jar impact see Section 5, Part 1 - Stuckpipe

prevention and fishing operations.
92

1.1.4.2.4 DETERMINE LENGTH OF DRILL COLLAR SECTION
The length of the drill collar section will be determined in part by

whether or not HWDP is to be used for bit weight and by the BHA
configuration. Three types of BHA configurations are covered in these
design recommendations and are illustrated in Figure 2.1.30.
93

Figure 2.1.30: Types of BHA
• Type A: This configuration uses heavy weight drill pipe above

the drill collars as a transition to smooth the abrupt section
change. Full weight on bit is still applied with drill collars.
• Type B: This configuration has only enough drill collars to
achieve desired directional control or other objective and
applies bit weight with both collars and HWDP. It provides
easier and faster rig floor handling of the BHA, reduces
differential sticking tendency and has apparently reduced drill
collar connection failures.
• Type C: The Type C configuration has more than one drill
collar size but still applies bit weight with both collars and
HWDP.
• Type A BHAs
If the Type A BHA configuration is used, the minimum length of the

drill collar section is calculated as follows:
94

The design factor for excess BHA weight (DFBHA) is chosen to ensure
that the neutral point stays below the top of the BHA. This factor is
assigned a value of 1·15 in most Shell applications. Hard drilling
conditions may require higher values. After the minimum drill collar
section length is calculated, it is usually rounded to the next full
stand of collars for convenience.
• Type B and C BHAs
If a Type B or Type C BHA configuration is used, the number of drill

collars is determined by directional control, equipment availability or
other considerations. The amount of HWDP required to apply the
necessary WOB and keep the neutral point in the BHA can be
determined by Equation 3.
95

1.1.4.2.5 DETERMINE LENGTH OF THE HEAVY WEIGHT DRILL

PIPE SECTION
1.1.4.2.5.1 Type (A) BHAs
For a type A BHA configuration, the amount of HWDP for transition is

determined by past experience. Anywhere from 12 to 30 joints is
common.
1.1.4.2.5.2 Type (B) and (C) BHAs
When HWDP will be used for bit weight, the minimum length of
HWDP to provide the desired weight on bit is calculated as follows:
{eq.3}
Where:
LHWDP = Minimum length of HWDP section
WOB = Maximum weight on bit
DFBHA = Design factor for excess BHA length
WHWDP = HWDP air weight
WDC1 = Air weight of drill collars in first section
LDC1 = Length of first drill collar section
96

WDC2 = Air weight of drill collars in second section
LDC2 = Length of second drill collar section
KB = Buoyancy factor
* = Maximum hole angle at BHA
(all in consistent units)
As hole angle increases, the point is reached when a heavy BHA is

more detrimental due to increased tensile and torsional drag than it
is beneficial for adding weight on the bit. Equations 2 and 3 for
calculating necessary BHA weight will not apply if the hole angle
exceeds the critical angle. Beyond this point, it is customary to apply
bit weight by running the normal weight drill pipe in the high angle
hole section in compression. (These issues are covered in Topic
1.4.2.20).
1.1.4.2.6 OTHER CHECKS TO MAKE

1.1.4.2.6.1 Check tool joint torsional capacity
To prevent downhole makeup and resulting torsional failure,

maximum operating torsion should never exceed tool joint makeup
torque.
API "standard" tool joint dimensions fix tool joint torsional strength at
97

about 80% of the drill pipe tube torsional strength. Therefore, if a

string fails due to simple torsion loading, failure nearly always occurs
in the tool joint. Moreover, all API tool joints employ material of the
same specified strength, so the torsional capacity of a given drill
string is established by its tool joint ID and OD and not by drill pipe
weight and/or grade. Be aware that some tables exist that give
make-up torque as a function of pipe weight and grade. Such tables
cannot be trusted and should not be used.
Drilling contractors and rental companies often order non-API

standard dimensions in tool joints; it is therefore essential to base the
torsional performance limit on measured dimensions and not on an
assumed standard.
Recommended values of tool joint makeup torque are tabulated in

the Well Engineers Notebook (pages C-8 to C-12). These are based
on a tensile stress of 50% of the minimum tensile yield strength for
Class I (new) tool joints and 60% for the other classes.
When high operating torsion is expected, makeup torque may be

increased above the standard recommended value. However, this
must not be done without checking the tool joint combined
tension/torque capacity to ensure that the increased make-up torque
98

doesn't reduce pin tensile strength below an acceptable level. This is

discussed further in Topic 1.4.2.16.
Always be sure to confirm connection dimensions and check the

accuracy of torque gauges, whether or not you plan to exceed
standard makeup torque.
1.1.4.2.6.2 Calculate Stiffness Ratio
The Stiffness Ratio (SR) of the sections above and below each
transition must be compared to help quantify the abruptness of the
section change and determine the need for transition pipe. This is
accomplished by dividing the section modulus (Z) of the lower section
tube by the section modulus of the upper.
The section moduli for tubular elements are given by:
Like BSR, stiffness ratio is not a strictly quantitative performance

limit, and experience should be a major determinant in setting the
desired maximum SR. If drill pipe failures are occurring near the top
99

of the BHA despite adequate drill collar weight for applied WOB,
transition pipe may be needed to smooth the section change. Criteria
for permissible stiffness ratio varies between different operators and
areas. The following maximums are typical:
• For routine drilling or very low failure rate experience, keep SR

below 5.5.
• For severe drilling or for significant failure rate experience,
keep SR below 3.5
1.1.4.2.7 DRILL PIPE TENSION DESIGN NOMENCLATURE
The basis for selecting various pipe grades to make up a drill string is
to always maintain at least the desired Margin of Overpull (MOP) at
all points in the string. This is accomplished by adding the lowest
pipe grade a joint at a time starting from the top of the BHA and
working upward. Each joint must support the BHA weight plus the
drill pipe below that joint. When the working load (PW) is reached for
that grade of drill pipe, the drill pipe is switched to a higher grade.
This process continues until the string is complete. Tensile design

nomenclature is reviewed below and illustrated in Figure 2.1.31.
100

Figure 2.1.31: Drill pipe tension design nomenclature
• Tensile Load Capacity (PT): This is the calculated tensile

pull to yield the pipe body. Values for the different sizes and
grades of drill pipe are given in the Well Engineers Notebook.
• Design Factor in Tension (DFT): The factor used to derate
the tensile load capacity to obtain allowable load (PA).
• Allowable Load (PA): This is the maximum load we are
comfortable placing on the pipe, including an allowance for
possible trouble. It is the tensile capacity derated by the design
factor.
101

• Margin Of Overpull (MOP): The design excess pull capacity

above working load (PW) to compensate for expected drag,
possible sticking, slip crushing and the effect of circulating
pressure on tension.
• Working Load (PW): Working load is the expected maximum
tension that will occur during normal operations.
Drill pipe weight: Like the "IF" connection, the "nominal weight"
of drill pipe is what we call it, not what it is. For example, "19·50
lb/ft" drill pipe doesn't actually weigh 19·50 lb/ft. - its
approximate real weight (in air) is called "adjusted weight" or just
"air weight" and will be something between 20.89 and 22.60
lb/ft, depending on the grade of pipe, the tool joint, and whether
or not the contractor bought standard tool joint diameters. This
"adjusted weight" (estimates of which are available in the IFP
Drilling Data Handbook) is the one to use for design and
displacement calculations. Nominal weights are useful only to
communicate the type of pipe with which we're dealing.
1.1.4.2.8 CALCULATE ALLOWABLE LOAD
102

1.1.4.2.9 SET MARGIN OVERPULL (MOP)
103

Refer to Topic 1.4.2.18 for instructions on how to include slip

crushing forces when setting MOP.
1.1.5 Drill string failures

If a drill string washout or twist-off occurs, the first step toward
preventing a second failure is to understand what caused the first.
This section covers how to identify the most common failure
104

mechanisms - of which there are more than a dozen - and, in broad

terms, what to do about each. For our purposes, we have named
most of them according to common usage or the type of load that
causes the failure. However, many factors other than load type and
magnitude may play a part in failures due to a specific mechanism.
The failure mechanisms covered in this text include:
• Fatigue
• Tension
• Torsion
• Combination tension/torsion
• Burst and collapse pressure failures
• Split box failures
• Weld-related failures
• Sulphide stress cracking
• Stress corrosion cracking
These failure modes account for the vast majority of drill string
failures. In fact, drill pipe tube fatigue and BHA connection fatigue
combined probably account for 80% of all drill string failures. Thus,
any serious attempt at reducing drill string failures must focus on
these two mechanisms.
105

1.1.5.1 FATIGUE
Fatigue is damage caused by repeated cycles of stress at a level

below the tensile strength of the material. In drill strings, this occurs
when the drill string is rotated while it is bent or buckled, or from
vibration. Fatigue can occur at cyclic stresses as low as 20% or less
of the yield strength of the drill string component. Fatigue damage is
cumulative, and almost all drill string components will eventually
succumb to fatigue unless they are first worn out or lost for other
causes. "Washouts", except those caused by connection leaks, are
almost always caused by fatigue cracks. When the crack penetrates
the drill pipe tube wall or drill collar box, drilling fluid leaks through
the crack and eventually erodes it into a hole. The hole is called a
"washout".
Figure 2.1.33: A typical drill pipe tube washout
106

Fatigue damage begins as a microscopic structural change to the

metal crystals at points of highest cyclic stress and progresses until a
minute fatigue crack forms. The crack grows under repeated stress
cycles until it is either detected by inspection or a failure occurs.
Figure 2.3.34 shows the life cycle for any component that
experiences fatigue. The percent of total fatigue life consumed in
getting to point "B" is estimated at between 50% and 90%, and no
reliable method exists for identifying a fatigue-damaged component
until point "C" is reached. Therefore, most of a component's life may
be gone before any indication of fatigue damage can be seen. This
will make fatigue failures difficult to prevent unless we are vigilant.
Figure 2.1.34: The fatigue life of a drill string component
107

1.1.5.1.1 HOW TO RECOGNISE A FATIGUE FAILURE
Recognizing whether or not any washout or twist-off was caused by

fatigue is usually easy. Important indicators can be found in the
appearance, location and orientation of the failure:
• A fatigue crack will be smooth and planar, unless its surfaces

are altered by erosion or mechanical damage. It will be
oriented perpendicular to the axis of the pipe or connection
(Figure 2.1.35). Fatigue related tube washouts will be longer
circumferentially than longitudinally because they follow the
original orientation of the crack (Figure 2.13.33).
Figure 2.1.35: A 91/2" drill collar box that failed in fatigue
• Fatigue cracks will originate at stress concentrators and in
108

highly stressed sections of the metal, especially if these two

conditions occur simultaneously. Typical stress concentrators
are internal upsets, slip cuts and corrosion pits on tubes and
the thread roots of connections. The last engaged pin or box
threads are invariably the starting points for connection fatigue
(Figure 2.1.36).
Figure 2.1.36: Fatigue-prone areas of connection
The fatigue crack surface will often show features that clearly
indicate the mode of attack. "Hatchet marks" occur when multiple
small cracks join to form one large one. The presence of hatchet
marks on the fracture surface positively establishes fatigue as the
failure mechanism. Surface features like these are very important to
the failure analyst. This is why fracture surfaces, once recovered,
must be preserved from further damage until they can be examined.
109

1.1.5.1.2 ENDURANCE LIMIT
In a benign environment, steel exhibits this "endurance limit" (SL) as

shown in figure 2.3.8.6. Endurance limit is the cyclic stress level
below which fatigue will not occur, no matter how many stress cycles
the pipe undergoes. The existence of this endurance limit allows
designers of many rotating and reciprocating machine components to
completely eliminate fatigue simply by lowering stress to below SL.
This idea is even found in API RP7G, which gives design curves
showing regions of "fatigue" and "no fatigue" for drill pipe. In theory
the drilling engineer can use these curves to eliminate fatigue. In
practice and for two reasons, they don't work
• In a corrosive environment, no endurance limit may exist. If

this is the case, fatigue will not be totally eliminated even at
very low cyclic stresses (Figure 2.1.37). A corrosive
environment also accelerates the formation and growth of
fatigue cracks. Most water-based drilling fluids are corrosive to
some extent. Downhole corrosion is complex and difficult to
express in repeatable, quantitative terms, so just how the steel
will behave under all circumstances is impossible to predict.
110

Figure 2.1.37: Endurance limits
• The other problem with using "endurance limit" is that actual

cyclic stress is rarely known with precision. We can calculate
average stress from bending and tension over the bulk of the
cross section with relative accuracy, but local stress at small
points is magnified by stress concentrators such as cuts,
upsets and corrosion pits. Stress concentrators rarely affect the
static load capacity of the string, and so can be safely ignored
in most design calculations. They do, however, dramatically
accelerate fatigue crack formation although their effects are
impossible to quantify accurately. In addition, vibration is
known to raise stress, but vibration is poorly understood and
111

often poorly controlled. These two factors (stress concentrators

and vibration) prevent us from knowing the true stress at
many small points in the drill string. Since we don't know the
actual stress, there is no way we can know if the stress is
below the material's endurance limit at these points. So even in
a non-corrosive drilling fluid, we still can't use the endurance
limit concept with any confidence to eliminate fatigue.
1.1.5.1.3 LIMITING FATIGUE
We don't know enough about the corrosive conditions or stress levels

in our wells to be absolutely certain that we can eliminate fatigue.
We do, however, know in which direction to go, and if we take all
practical and economic measures to move toward our goal, we can
eventually get close enough for practical purposes. Then, with a
properly scheduled and executed inspection programme, we can
identify and throw out cracked components before they can fail
downhole.
To attack fatigue, focus on four areas.
• Cyclic Stresses
• Stress Concentrators
• Corrosion
112

• Fracture Toughness
• Cyclic stress - the cause of fatigue:
Cyclic stresses due to rotating the drill string when it is bent or

buckled, and/or vibration, cause fatigue. Quite simply, if you lower
the magnitudes of these stresses you will reduce the rate of fatigue
attack. The ways to do this are obvious. Other things being equal,
and whenever practical:
• Plan the well trajectory with the lowest dogleg severity.

• Avoid practices that create unplanned doglegs, especially high
in vertical holes.
• Stabilise the BHA, especially if hole enlargement at the BHA is
a problem.
• Keep the neutral point below the top of the BHA in vertical
holes. Keep drill pipe compression in high angle holes less than
the pipe's critical buckling load.
• Monitor vibration. Avoid BHA configurations, bit weights and
RPM combinations that promote vibration. MWD shock logs are
excellent tools for real-time vibration monitoring.
• Consider rotating the string more slowly or not at all if it
contains a down-hole motor, and if hole cleaning, differential
113

sticking and directional objectives allow.
The fastest and most economical hole is frequently the hole with the
lowest trouble cost, not necessarily the one with the highest
instantaneous ROP.
• Stress concentrators - the accelerators of fatigue
Stress concentrators focus and magnify the cyclic stress at local

points. These points become the origins of fatigue cracks, which then
act as their own concentrators to speed crack growth to ultimate
failure. Internal upsets, thread roots, slip cuts and corrosion pits are
the most common stress concentrators.
The API has yet to establish any meaningful control on internal upset
geometry for new drill pipe tubes. Therefore, the purchaser of drill
pipe must include a specification in his purchase order to address this
need. (The requirements for internal upset geometry in SQAIR will
serve nicely for this purpose). To reduce the stress concentration
effects of thread roots, select the thread with the smoothest root
radius, cold roll the thread roots and add stress relief features to the
connections. Once the string has been purchased nothing can be
done about the internal upsets and thread roots, but every effort
should then be made to avoid creating cuts and allowing corrosion
114

pits to form, either during transport, storage or use down-hole.
Figure 2.1.38: Fatigue Crack
• Corrosion - the catalyst of fatigue
We normally think of corrosion as hurting us by removing metal from

something. For drill strings, a far less visible and far more damaging
effect of corrosion is its stimulation of the fatigue mechanism. A
corrosive environment puts fatigue into overdrive, so monitoring
corrosion is highly recommended except when using oil-based drilling
fluid, when it is probably not necessary. To retard fatigue in a given
well, monitor the corrosion rate and reduce its severity. Corrosion
rate monitoring can be accomplished with a meter or by installing
corrosion coupons in the string. The common points for coupons are
115

one in the upper connection of the kelly or top drive saver sub, and
one in the connection at the top of the BHA. The coupons are
periodically removed, weighed to determine corrosion rate and new
ones are installed. Coupons are often provided and analysed free of
charge by the drilling fluid company in the hope of selling you some
chemical should the corrosion rate prove excessive. Fig 2.1.39
illustrates the effect or corrosion on the life of a test component. The
same component was tested (by the API) in air, drilling fluid with 0
ppm oxygen and drilling fluid containing 3ppm oxygen. The reduction
in life cycles in each case was about 50%.
Figure 2.1.39: The effect of corrosion on the number of cycles to failure

of a test component
When we drill a well, we are constrained to drill with a corrosive fluid

because every practical fluid is corrosive to a lesser or greater extent.
116

Since we are thus constrained, the natural question becomes "How

much corrosion is too much?" Here no real quantitative answer
exists, so most companies use an arbitrary rule-of-thumb that
corrosion rates above 1 to 2 lb/ft2 /year should get some corrective
attention. The form the attention takes depends on the causes of the
corrosion, but usually falls into one or more of the areas given
overleaf:
• Oxygen: Reducing dissolved oxygen (O2) is possibly the most

common and most productive form of drilling fluid corrosion
control. Using O2 scavengers and keeping air from entering
around seals in pump suction heads are basic steps in lowering
dissolved oxygen.
• PH: Increasing pH helps retard corrosion by reducing solubility
of corrosive gases such as O2 and carbon dioxide (CO2) Some
benefit also occurs from the increasing pH, though the benefit
is nominal until pH 12. Above this point, fatigue life is
dramatically extended by the effect of pH itself. Other
considerations play parts in the determination of drilling fluid
pH, and levels of 12 and above will no doubt be exceedingly
rare. In no case however, should pH fall below 7-8 as the
drilling fluid will be acidic (below pH 7) and a serious decline in
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drill string fatigue life would be expected.

• CO2 and chlorides: The lower the levels of CO2 and chlorides,
the longer the drill string fatigue life will be other things
constant. The sensitivity of the corrosion rate to these
conditions will probably be less than it is to oxygen
concentration.
• Hydrogen sulphide (H2S): Apart from the safety aspect,
hydrogen sulphide in the drilling fluid is much more dangerous
from the sulphide stress cracking standpoint than from its
effect on general corrosion and fatigue. If H2S is present in the
formations being drilled, every effort must be made to
minimise its concentration in the drilling fluid and its effect on
the drill string steel. NACE MR-01-75 is the document that
addresses drill string material in sour service. Its
recommendations could be summarized as
Æ Drill overbalanced
Æ Keep pH elevated to at least 10
Æ Use H2S scavengers
Æ Use oil based drilling fluid.
• Barriers and Inhibitors: Plastic coating is often used as a

corrosion barrier inside drill pipe, though it obviously does
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nothing for corrosion on the outside. Chemical inhibitors

available from the drilling fluid company can also retard
corrosion.
• Fracture Toughness -The inhibitor of fatigue
Fracture toughness is a measure of a material's resistance to the

propagation of an existing crack. It is more difficult to extend a crack
in tough material than it is in brittle material. Therefore, if we put
two materials of the same dimensions into our string, and fatigue-
load them the same way in the same environment, the tougher one
will last longer.
Figure 2.1.40 : Tough material is more likely to leak before breaking

when subjected to fatigue
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When final fracture does come in a tough material, it comes with

much tearing and plastic deformation of the remaining area. Contrast
this to a brittle (not tough) material, which has a tendency towards
rapid, brittle catastrophic fracture (like a piece of glass), especially
when it is notched or cracked.
Toughness may quantified by the Charpy test, which measures the

amount of energy absorbed when a bar of the material, with
specified dimensions, is broken by the impact of a swinging mass.
The energy lost by the swinging mass is directly related to the
amount of plastic deformation in the specimen as it fails. The unit of
Charpy impact resistance is energy (joules or ft-lbs).
Washouts are preferable to twist-offs.
Figures 2.1.40 and 2.1.42 compare the fatigue performance of a

tough material with that of a brittle material. Cracks will begin earlier
and grow faster in brittle material. Most importantly, final
catastrophic failure will occur at higher stress intensity levels in tough
material. This means that tough material can sustain larger cracks
without fracture. Thus, tough material will not only last longer than
brittle material in identical service, but its failure mode is also more
likely to be a relatively low cost "washout".
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Brittle material will be more likely to fail without warning by sudden

twist-off. A brittle, grainy "crystallised" appearance to the fracture
surface (Figure 2.1.43), is a sign of material that is lacking in
toughness, especially if a small fatigue crack is also present (Figure
2.1.41). A very large crack, or one that is accompanied by lots of
plastic deformation in the noncracked region of the fracture (Figure
2.1.35) is a sign of good material toughness.
Figure 2.1.41: This 5" 19.5 lbs/ft drill pipe tube twisted off
before the crack could penetrate the wall. Its Charpy impact
resistance was only 10 ft-lbs.
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Figure 2.1.42: The relative fatigue performances of tough and brittle

materials
Figure 2.1.43: Grainy fracture surface
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1.1.5.1.4 FATIGUE SUMMARY
Fatigue damage cannot be prevented. It will be with us for the

foreseeable future because we cannot control cyclic stress in the drill
string to low enough levels, and because we use corrosive drilling
fluid. Fatigue failures, however, can be prevented. Fatigue failure
prevention encompasses three broad steps.
• Begin with tough material.

• Suppress fatigue damage in every economical way. This means
controlling stress levels through proper design, handling and
operation of the drill string, minimising hole dogleg and
vibration, eliminating drill pipe buckling and minimising the
corrosiveness of the drilling fluid.
• Improve the quality of inspection. This means selecting the
proper methods and acceptance criteria. Most importantly, it
means conducting the inspections properly so as to maximise
the probability of detecting fatigue cracks before they reach
critical size.
In the diagram shown in Figure 2.1.44 "A" represents the smallest

crack our inspection can find and "B" represents the point at which
failure occurs because of the crack. The distance between point A
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and point B represents a safety zone within which a routine

inspection schedule will detect a crack before it has caused a failure.
Figure 2.1.44: Fatigue safety zone for inspections
We need to broaden that safety zone as much as is economically

practical. To accomplish this, we must take all three of the following
actions:
• Move point B to the right by using tougher material

• Move point A to the left by improving inspection quality.
• Increase the number of cycles between points A and B by
reducing stress levels and making the environment less
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corrosive.
1.1.5.1.5 DRILL STRING VIBRATION
Vibration of the drill string introduces cyclic loads which can lead to
fatigue failure and MWD/LWD failures. In order to prevent such
failures it is necessary to understand the different types of vibration,
their specific symptoms and their coupling modes.
• Torsional vibrations
When the drill string is rotated from the surface, the drill pipe is
initially wound up like a spring, and the BHA does not rotate at all
until the torque in the drill pipe is sufficient to overcome the static
friction between the BHA and the borehole wall plus the torque
required to rotate the bit. When this torque level in the drill pipe is
reached, the BHA and bit will start to rotate. Given that dynamic
friction is less than static friction, as the BHA starts rotating the
resistance is reduced and the BHA will accelerate rapidly. It can gain
so much angular momentum that it will catch up with and pass the
rotation of the drill pipe, so that the driving torque from the drill pipe
to the BHA actually becomes negative. If this happens, the BHA will
slow or come to a halt again. The effect is, that while the rotary table
or the top drive are rotating at a constant speed of say 100 rpm, the
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BHA can have instantaneous rotation rates of between zero and say
300 rpm. Field measurements have shown that a temporary BHA
rotary speed of 3 times the surface rotary speed is not unusual, and
BHA speeds of up 10 times surface rotary speed occur occasionally.
Torsional vibrations are 'self excited vibrations', which means that

there is no periodic excitation force. The drill string has a natural
period of resonance which depends on its geometry, its mass, the
friction with the bore hole wall, the drilling fluid viscosity etc. and the
energy of the oscillation is derived from the rotary table. The period
of these torsional oscillations in drill strings is generally in between 1
and 10 seconds, and is independent of rotary speed. The vibration
can sometimes be recognised by a "humming" sound in the drive
motor with a period of 1-10 seconds (0.1 - 1 Hz). There is not much
one can do by changing operational parameters. The best cure for
this vibration is the installation of a Soft Torque drive.
• Axial vibrations
This mode of vibration is easily envisaged by thinking of a tri-cone bit

drilling a piece of chert. Every time one of the cones rolls over the
chert, the bit experiences an upward force. A tri-cone bit is therefore
excited at a frequency of three times rotary speed, and if this
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frequency is near a resonant axial frequency of the string, resonance

occurs. As soon as resonance occurs, the bouncing bit can generate a
persistent 'three lobe pattern on the hole bottom. Once established,
the three lobe pattern reinforces the very vibration which caused it in
the first place, and thus tends to be self perpetuating. Axial vibration
can sometimes be identified by kelly bouncing, but in deep and/or
curved holes, the effect of the BHA bounce is often so damped by
friction that it can go undetected at surface.
Useful countermeasures can be changes in rotary speed and the use

of thrusters. Shock subs have been traditionally used with limited
beneficial effect. (The reason is that shock subs have such a small
stroke and such 'flat' spring characteristics that they usually end up
running against their upper or lower stops, rendering their spring
action ineffective).
Computer applications are available for calculating rotary speeds that

may help avoid axial vibration.
• Lateral vibrations
Lateral vibrations are usually the highest energy vibrations. They are
much more complicated to envisage, more difficult to detect and also
much more damaging. Their damaging potential is illustrated by
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measured lateral accelerations of 200 g. The most important lateral

motions are:
• Backward whirl: The BHA rolls along the borehole wall. This
motion is stabilised by the centrifugal force resulting from the
motion itself. The motion is destabilised by gravity in an
inclined hole: Gravity pulls the BHA from the borehole wall on
the high side. If this effect is strong enough, we may get:
• Chaotic whirl: The BHA rolls only along the borehole wall on
the low side of the hole, loses contact around the'01.30'
position and drops back to contact the wall again at'07.00'.
This motion is very regular, with bending effects making it
more complicated.
• Forward whirl: This applies to a stabilised but out of balance
BHA. It can be observed at home in the washing machine.
• Bit whirl: The bit can also be the cause for out of centre
motion of the BHA, if the cutting forces of the bit are not well
balanced. (Refer to Section 4 Part 1, Topic 6.4)
• Bending vibrations: These are the lateral vibrations of a
slender beam.
Frequencies for lateral vibrations are usually higher than 10 Hz.

Direct detection is often difficult, but some MWD tools now have
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accelerometers oriented for these vibrations and can give a signal to

surface if a certain state of vibration is detected. The rig crew can
also contribute by observing the tools pulled out of the hole and
spotting typical lateral damage
Corrective measures for lateral vibration are usually some change of

operating parameters (rotary speed and WOB), calculation and
avoidance of resonant frequencies using computer applications, and
using a Soft Torque rotary drive. The reason for the potentially
positive effect of a Soft Torque drive is that the lateral vibrations are
usually worse at higher rotary speed, hence if the peak in the rotary
speed is contained, the lateral vibration will be alleviated.
• Coupling:
Coupling effects complicate the identification and cure of drill string

vibrations somewhat. For example, axial vibration can be caused by
pump pressure fluctuation, whirl in a curved hole or MWD pressure
pulses. With down-hole motor drilling there is a coupling between
torsional and axial vibrations through the bit; whirl and torque
fluctuations are also coupled.
Finally, as a general solution, if vibration problems cannot be

sufficiently contained in rotary drilling, the use of down-hole motors
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should be considered.
1.1.5.2 TENSILE FAILURES
Tensile failures occur when the tensile load exceeds the capacity of
the weakest component in the drill string. This is almost always a drill
pipe tube in the top portion of the hole. Occasionally, a tool joint pin
will be the tensile failure location if the connection was made up
beyond the recommended torque.
A drill pipe tensile failure may be recognised by the fracture surface

which, in most cases, will be "jagged" and oriented at 45° to the axis
of the pipe. The drill pipe will usually be "necked down" to a smaller
diameter immediately adjacent to the fracture (Figure 2.1.45).
Figure 2.1.45: Tensile failure of a 31/2" 13.30 lbs/ft drill pipe tube.
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Preventing tensile failures is a simple process.
• Select a drill pipe that is capable of carrying the anticipated

loads plus a margin of overpull plus a design factor.
• Use a marking system that shows tube weight and grade.
Check the pin markings to make sure the grade and weight are
correct.
• When using multi-grade strings, employ a groove system to
identify pipe grade. This helps guard against mixing grades.
• Make sure that the rig weight indicator is calibrated correctly
and do not exceed the allowable tensile load.
1.1.5.3 TORSION FAILURES
API "standard" tool joints are about 80% as strong in torsion as the
tube to which they are attached. Therefore, in almost all cases
torsion failures will occur in tool joints.
Torsion failures will show up initially as either a "stretched pin" (pin

with an elongated thread (Figure 2.1.46) or a "belled box", an
example of which is shown in Figure 2.1.47. Which fails first will
depend on whether the pin or box is weaker. In extreme cases, the
box may be split longitudinally or the pin may be pulled apart at the
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first engaged thread nearest the shoulder.
Figure 2.1.46: A failed pin-weak Figure 2.1.47: The belled box of a

connection box-weak connection
Design for torsion is a straightforward process. Tool joint torsion

strength is determined by pin ID and box OD, and the weakest
component will govern. The rules to follow are:
• Select tool joint ID and OD so that recommended tool joint

make up torque exceeds the maximum anticipated torsion.
Allow some tolerance for box OD wear.
• Check the tool joints to ensure that they meet these
dimensional requirements and show no signs of prior torsion
yielding (stretched pins, swelled boxes).
• Make sure that the torque application device is properly
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calibrated and rigged.

• Use API tool joint compound with a friction factor between
0·95 and 1·05, or adjust the applied torque accordingly.
• Make up the connections to the recommended torque.
• Do not exceed makeup torque during drilling (avoid down hole
makeup).
1.1.5.4 COMBINATION TENSION/TORSION

FAILURES
These failures are most likely when fishing or pulling on stuck pipe.
Tension will reduce a component's capacity to carry torsion, and vice-
versa. Refer to Topics 1.4.2.6 and 1.4.2.16.
1.1.5.5 BURST AND COLLAPSE FAILURES
Drill pipe tubes may burst or collapse if pressure loading exceeds

capacity. Burst is most likely to occur high in the hole. Collapse is
most likely deep in the hole when the drill pipe has been evacuated
for drill stem testing. Collapse capacity must be derated for
simultaneous tension. The design recommendations given earlier in
this Part should be followed to prevent these failure mechanisms.
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Figure 2.1.48: Drill pipe tube collapse failure.
1.1.5.6 SPLIT BOX
A split box (Figure 2.1.49) can be

considered a special type of fatigue
failure. If a tool joint is subjected to
bending, as in a severe dogleg,
tensile hoop stress will be created in
the box as the bending tries to force
Figure 2.1.49: A "split box"
the pin sideways out and down, and failure
this can ultimately form a longitudinal fatigue crack in the box if the
loading lasts long enough or is severe enough.
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Any condition which increases the tensile hoop stress in the box can
accelerate this fatigue mechanism. The most likely culprits are:
• Refacing of either box or pin: A new rotary shouldered

connection pin and box are nearly fully engaged radially when
the shoulders come into contact. Refacing sets the shoulders
back from their original positions, which has the same effect as
enlarging the pin or reducing the box pitch diameters. Either or
both of these effects will create undesirable tensile hoop stress
in the box and could contribute to a split box failure.
Figure 2.1.50: Box heat checking (shown here under black-light

inspection)
• Heat checking: Heat checks are fine longitudinal cracks that

can occur when the box is rotated while it is pressed hard
135

against the formation wall. Heat checks, because they're both

sharp and longitudinally oriented, can be stress concentrators
and act as starting points for longitudinal box cracks. The mere
presence of heat checks is evidence that the tool joint box has
been subjected to severe side loads.
• High doglegs: Any dogleg severe enough to create heat
checking or a split box will be extremely detrimental to the
fatigue life of the tube as well.
• Over-torqued connections: Over-torqued connections will also
contribute to a split box failure, since "box swell", a classic
indicator of torsion failure, means that the box has been
stressed past its yield point in the hoop direction.
1.1.5.7 WELD RELATED FAILURES
With the obvious exception of tool joint to tube welds, welded

components in the drill string should be avoided if at all possible.
Most components are made from relatively high carbon steels that
are heat treated to achieve desired mechanical properties. Welding
permanently alters these properties unless the component is re-heat
treated, normally impossibility in the field. Even when strength is not
a major concern, welds and heat affected zones can be extremely
brittle unless the weld process is carefully designed and executed. If
136

it is absolutely necessary to run a welded component, the following

procedure should be followed:
• Have a specialist design a weld procedure that will control all

the essential variables necessary to obtain a weld with the
desired properties. These variables will include weld process,
position, pre-heat, post-heat, feed rates, filler metal
specification and many others.
• Have the procedure qualified by following it, exactly as written,
to weld a test piece, then confirming that all desired properties
are met in the finished product. This almost always requires
destructively testing the test piece.
• If a welder other than the one who made the initial weld is
used, he or she must also be qualified to the specific
procedure. Welder qualification is done by using a test piece in
the same way as procedure qualification.
• Ensure that production welding is done only by qualified
welders and exactly as required by the procedure.
1.1.5.8 SULPHIDE STRESS CRACKING

1.1.5.8.1 THE PROBLEM
Sulphide stress cracking (SSC) may occur in the presence of H2S. In
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this mechanism, H2S reacts with the iron in the drill pipe to form
atomic hydrogen.
Fe + H 2 S → FeS + 2 H
Some of the free atomic hydrogen may diffuse into the steel and
collect at high-stress locations such as inclusions and along grain
boundaries.
Like fatigue, SSC is a complicated failure mechanism. Whether or not

a component will fail depends on a variety of factors, only some
having to do with the metal in the piece. Some metals are "immune"
to SSC, but very few drill string materials are totally immune to SSC
under all circumstances. The one generality that can be made,
however, is that the greater the tensile strength of a steel the more
susceptible it is to SSC.
Figure 2.1.51: Sulphide stress cracks in a mid-body connection of a
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specialised tool
Specialised tools are of particular concern in hydrogen sulphide

service as their designers need to cram a lot of gadgetry into limited
space and still make a tool capable of carrying high loads. This
means that material strength will often be pushed to the limits, which
in turn means that metal will also be highly susceptible to SSC.
The standard reference work on SSC for well engineering is

document MR-01-75 - "Sulphide stress cracking resistant metallic
materials for oilfield equipment" published by the National
Association of Corrosion Engineers (NACE).
Controlling SSC, like controlling fatigue, is a matter of watching and

suppressing as many as possible of the factors that work against us.
The initiatives we can take to reduce the probability of SSC while
drilling H2S bearing formations can be divided into two categories.
• Suppress the reaction between steel and H2S

• Use material that is less susceptible to SSC.
1.1.5.8.2 SUPPRESSING THE REACTION BETWEEN STEEL AND

H2S:
The lower the steel/H2S reaction rate, the less free hydrogen is
139

around to endanger the string. The reaction is suppressed by

following the guidelines in NACE MR-01-75, which requires drilling
overbalanced and at least one of the other three steps listed below:
• Drill overbalanced. This limits the influx of sour formation

fluids and presents fewer H2S molecules to react with the steel
in the string.
• Use H2S scavengers in the drilling mud. These react with
and neutralise some of the free hydrogen sulphide that does
manage to make it into the wellbore.
• Use oil based drilling fluid. OBM will coat the surface of the
steel and retard the corrosion reaction that liberates the
hydrogen.
• Keep pH elevated. The hydroxyl ions in a caustic drilling mud
react with some of the free hydrogen that may be liberated in
the reaction of the H2S with the steel. A minimum pH of 10 is
required by NACE MR-01-75.
1.1.5.8.3 REDUCING SUSCEPTIBILITY TO SSC
• Use G or lower grade pipe if it will carry the loads: The

harder and stronger a material is, the more likely it is to fail,
other things being equal. Since API tool joints are stronger
140

than G-grade pipe, little is probably gained by limiting the pipe

grade to E or X.
• Use quenched and tempered (Q&T) material: Other
things equal, a Q&T microstructure is more resistant to SSC. All
grades may be Q&T or normalised and tempered (N&T). Grade
E is allowed to be normalised (only) as well. Few drill strings
are anything except Q&T, but it is a good idea to ask to see
the material certificates in any case.
• Check specialised equipment material against NACE
MR-01-75: Ask the specialised tool manufacturer to review
his material test reports (MTRs) and compare them against the
NACE document. Demand a detailed report supported by
technical backup. (Don't just settle for a letter saying
"everything is OK".) Ask for a copy of the MTRs and at least
give the impression that you are going to examine them in
detail (this will get them looking at the problem more
intensely). Get Shell expert help in evaluating the answers.
1.1.5.9 STRESS CORROSION CRACKING
Stress Corrosion Cracking (SCC) is a mechanical environmental failure

mechanism that mainly attacks stainless steel (non-magnetic) drill
string components. Low carbon drill string materials, such as API drill
141

pipe and drill collars, are not usually susceptible to SCC in most
drilling environments. SCC, like sulphide stress cracking (SSC) is a
complex mechanism. It is believed that galvanic corrosion cells
between grain boundaries promote rapid inter-granular corrosion in
parts that are experiencing simultaneous tensile stress. This
combined stress and corrosion can rapidly form and extend
intergranular cracks in susceptible material, and thus the mechanism
is given its name. Preventing SCC in drill strings is mainly a matter of
using stainless steels that are not susceptible to attack. Ferritic
stainless steels are generally much more resistant than austenitic
stainless steels; other metallurgical and environmental conditions also
play parts. SCC has become less of a problem in recent years
because specialised tool manufacturers have adopted more resistant
materials.
1.1.6 Care of the drill string

The previous Topic described how a drill string could be damaged by

down hole conditions. This Topic gives an outline of what can be
done on surface to prevent the expensive loss of time caused by
down-hole failures. The measures taken fall into two groups:
142

• Minimising the damage to the individual items during drill

string operations.
• Removing from the string items that are defective but have not
yet failed-in other words, implementing an effective inspection
routine.
We define drill string operations as the entire incidental activities

associated with using the drill string. These activities would normally
include:
• During transport: Loading, unloading and moving the drill

string by truck and vessel.
• In the yard: Storing and handling drill string components.
• At the rig: Handling, picking up, hoisting, stabbing, doping,
tonging, setting and unsetting slips, drilling, tripping, jarring,
jacking, racking, and laying down.
Many of these rig operations involve tools that either apply or

measure loads being applied to the drill string. Such tools may be
pipe handlers, top drives, rotary tables, tongs, torque gauges, slips,
pressure gauges and weight indicators. Proper maintenance,
calibration, and operation of these tools is critical for protecting the
drill string from damage and keeping applied loads below design
143

limits. The accuracy of the gauges is just as important as knowing

the load limits.
The Shell Group has an entire Division devoted to "Procurement and

Transport" (with "storage" and "handling" activities being included
within the term "transport"). They have specialists in virtually all
operating areas and have produced guides and manuals covering all
aspects of the transport, handling and storage of oilfield equipment -
refer to the reports PT 95-030 to 035 which together form the "Guide
to procurement and logistics management". PT 95-033 deals with the
operational issues. This Topic will therefore concentrate on rig
operations; nevertheless a few basic storage and handling principles
are also given that are relevant to rig site handling operations and
storage at the local materials base.
1.1.6.2 RIG OPERATIONS

1.1.6.2.1 PICKING UP AND LAYING DOWN PIPE
• Picking Up
Clean and visually inspect connections for damage when pipe is on

the racks. Re-dope using approved connection thread compound. If
possible, reinstall thread protectors and leave them on when moving
and picking up pipe and drill collars. Use cast-steel thread protectors
144

on drill collars and other very heavy components.
• Laying Down
Install clean thread protectors prior to placing pipe in the V-door for
laying down. Wash residual saltwater drilling fluid from internal and
external surfaces with fresh water. This will significantly reduce
inspection cost when the pipe returns to shore. Clean the
connections, re-dope and install protectors when pipe is back on the
racks.
1.1.6.2.2 TRIPPING PIPE
• Cleaning and Doping Connections
Before each joint is added to the string, the connections must be

cleaned and dried. When the joint is picked up and on each trip, the
threads and shoulders must be doped. The dope and brush must be
kept dean and free from dirt, water, diesel or other contaminants. On
kelly-equipped rigs, the kelly saver sub should be cleaned and
visually inspected every time it is removed from the rat hole.
• Stabbing
Ensure that the pipe stabs into the box without hitting the box
145

shoulder. Don't "roll" the pin into the box, as this can damage the
connection shoulder seal.
• Spinning Up
Before spinning up pipe, the connections should be aligned.
• Makeup
Always use both makeup and back-up tongs. On rigs with kellies,
using the slips and rotary to backup or spin-out a connection is a
popular way to save a few seconds on each connection. This is also
the classical way to introduce slip cuts that concentrate stress and
accelerate fatigue. The driller who is in too much of a hurry to use
two sets of tongs may save a few minutes of rig time on trips, but at
the risk of spending days dealing with the consequences of his haste.
• Torque
As discussed in Topics 1.1.3.4 and 1.4.2.6.1 of this text, make-up

torque is fixed only by actual (not assumed) tool joint dimensions.
There are several torque measuring methods used on rig equipment

Three of the most common are shown on Figure 2.1.52. The outputs
of two of these methods (a) and (b) should be viewed with some
146

scepticism. If one of these is in use in a particular operation we

should ascertain that it is reading correctly before we rely on it,
especially when we are dealing with an extended-reach well in which
torque and drag measurements are likely to be of pressing concern.
The reason that those two methods are unlikely to be accurate is that
they rely upon two relationships which rarely remain constant. These
are first, the electric or hydraulic motor's mechanical output for a
given pressure or current input, and second, how efficiently the
motor's output is transmitted through the gearing that always exists
between the motor and the drill pipe. These relationships are
established by manufacturers for new equipment, but use, wear,
lubrication and environment alter them. For this reason, final torque
output, not just the pressure or amp gauges that read the input,
must be calibrated. In this case, "calibration" is a lot like "inspection".
If we're not specific in what we ask for, we may not get what we
need.
On the other hand, the old method of torque measurement illustrated

in Figure 2.1.52 (c) is much less likely to let us down. Since the
hydraulic cylinder area is unlikely to change and since we can easily
147

Figure 2.1.52: Make up torque measurement.
measure the tong arm length, little other than a bad pressure gauge
is likely to go wrong with this system. All we need to do here is:
148

• Calibrate the gauge.

• Make sure of the cylinder area by confirming model numbers
with the manufacturer, or at worst, having the cylinder
stripped down and measured.
• If the gauge is one that reads directly in torque (not line pull)
make sure that the tong arm length written on the gauge face
matches the length of the tong arm in use.
• Make sure the load cell does not bottom out before full make-
up is achieved.
• Make-up/Break-out tongs
There are an infinite variety of ways to rig up make-up and break-out

tongs. Only one of them is correct if the torque readings are to be
correct. The torque or load sensor should be placed in the load or
backup line and the line must make a right angle with the tong arm
in both the horizontal and vertical planes (See Figure 2.1.53).
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Figure 2.1.53: Tong deadline angles.
Figure 2.1.54: Drill pipe protrusion through the rotary table
In addition to torque measurement errors that are introduced by

improper tong rig-up, applying the tongs to the drill pipe too far
150

above the rotary applies excessive loads which can bend the drill
pipe. The maximum drill pipe height above the slips to prevent
bending of the pipe can be calculated by fusing the equations given
below.
Tongs lines at 90° or more to each other:
Tongs lines pulling in close to the same direction:
Where: Hmax = Maximum height of tool joint above slips (ft)
YM = Minimum yield strength of tube (psi)
LT = Length of tong arm (ft)
Z = Section modulus of pipe (in3)
T = Makeup torque (ft-lbs)
P = Line pull (lbs)
• Breaking Out
Always use both break-out and back-up tongs. Rotate out slowly,
151

keeping just enough tension to avoid threads falling back down their
helix. When the hook spring lifts the pin from the box, the joint must
be pushed to the side to prevent the pin from striking the shoulder
when it rebounds. Break alternate connections when pulling out of
the hole so that every connection can be periodically inspected and
its torque rechecked.
• Standing Back and Jacking Pipe
When standing pipe back, the

set-back area must be clean. If
the desired position of a stand is
not achieved, a pipe jack with a
Figure 2.1.55 : Make-up face
soft metal face, and not a wrench
damage
or other sharp-edged tool, should be used to move the pipe into

position. Figure 2.1.55 illustrates the startling and artistic effect that
can be achieved by jacking a stand of drill pipe using a pipe wrench
with the lower jaw removed.
• Setting Slips
Do not allow slips to "ride" the pipe while it is being pulled out of the
hole. Stop pipe completely before setting slips. Ensure slips never set
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on a tool joint taper.
• Calibrating Other Load Indicators
The primary load indicator on a rig is of course the weight indicator.

We have a continuous indication of the weight indicator's accuracy by
comparing its reading to the weight of the travelling assembly plus
string weight while the string is rotating off bottom:
The standpipe pressure gauge may be calibrated by applying a

known pressure and verifying or adjusting its reading. For field
calibration, dead-weight testers are more reliable standards than
master pressure gauges.
1.1.6.3 YARD STORAGE AND TRANSPORTATION
When storing pipe in the yard, the following precautions are

recommended;
• Clean and dope connections, and fit them with metal thread
protectors.
• Make sure pipe bores are free of debris such as cement and
drilling fluid.
• If pipe is stored in high humidity conditions, especially if it is
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near salt spray, coat the inside and outside surfaces with
corrosion inhibitor.
• Store pipe in stripped layers with the lowest layer at least 18
inches above the ground.
• Metal thread protectors must be in place prior to any
movement. Do not insert hooks in end connections to pick up
equipment. Use a fork lift or crane to load and unload pipe.
1.1.6.4 DRILL STRING INSPECTION

1.1.6.4.1 WHY DO WE INSPECT DRILL STRINGS?
The movement toward TQM, Ql, ISO 9000, SQAIR for oilfield
equipment is improving the quality of new drill string products. This
does not guarantee that used products still conform to a
specification. That is why we inspect drill string components. Rarely
do we even look for those attributes that we looked for when the
pipe was new. Rather, we look for damage caused by wear, corrosion
and most important, fatigue.
There is no such thing as an API drill string inspection. API RP7G

gives many useful performance properties for drill pipe and
connections. It tells us what the attributes of a "Premium class" piece
of pipe are. It does not, however, give instructions on how to inspect
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a piece of pipe in order to determine whether or not it meets those

attributes. We must therefore supplement what is available in API RP
7G. In total, inspecting the drill string must include all three of the
following tasks.
• Determine the acceptance criteria: Shell's first

responsibility is to establish the rules governing acceptance
and rejection of material. That is, establish our definition of
acceptable and unacceptable. The type of drilling and potential
failure costs will determine acceptance criteria. In practice we'll
usually specify API "Premium Class". However, the applied
loads may require that the acceptance criteria should be
tighter than premium class.
• Decide the inspection programme to be used: Selecting
the inspection programme means specifying which inspection
methods will be applied to the pipe.
• Ensure the inspection is performed correctly: What is the
probability that our inspection programme will correctly identify
material we don't want in our hole? That depends not only on
what inspections we chose, but also on how we conduct the
inspections. We must have the right process and quality
controls in place to give us the best chance of success.
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1.1.6.4.2 WHEN SHOULD WE INSPECT?
In the past, we scheduled our drill string inspections at arbitrary

intervals based on rotating hours or footage drilled. We set these
intervals using our "experience" in an area or with particular
components. Rarely are these inspection intervals any better than
wild guesses. The need to inspect depends on how severely (not
how long) we have used a component. There are now computer
programmes available that enable us to improve our scheduling by
taking the service history of the string into account.
1.1.6.4.3 DRILL PIPE TUBE INSPECTION
Inspection is simply looking at the drill string equipment with one or

more of the available inspection methods. The inspector uses the
tools at his disposal to estimate whether or not each piece falls within
the acceptance criteria that are in effect. The following is a
description of the parameters that are measured, and some of the
methods used.
1.1.6.4.3.1 OD of the Drill Pipe
The tube body is mechanically gauged from upset to upset to locate

areas of OD variations such as:
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• Dents and mashes

• Slip area diameter variations, crushing, necking
• Diameter reductions from stretch
• Diameter increases from string shots
• Diameter reduction from formation wear
1.1.6.4.3.2 The Wall Thickness of the tube
The hand-held ultrasonic wall thickness gauge is used to measure the

drill pipe wall thickness. It is rugged, easy to calibrate and, if
calibrated and used properly and within its limitations, is capable of
measuring pipe wall in the field to within a few thousandths of an
inch.
1.1.6.4.3.3 Theory of operation
When excited by a high frequency electrical pulse, a crystal within

the transducer vibrates and creates a high frequency sound pulse.
(These frequencies are well above the audible frequency range). In
addition, when a crystal is vibrated (as by sound echoes) it converts
these vibrations to electrical signals. To measure pipe wall thickness,
the unit transmits a sound pulse into the test piece at timed intervals
through a liquid coupling agent. After sending a pulse, the unit waits
for the echo to return, then measures the sound travel time. Knowing
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the sound velocity in the drill pipe (set during calibration) the unit
calculates and displays wall thickness.
Figure 2.1.56: Ultrasonic wall thickness gauge
1.1.6.4.3.4 Calibration
Calibration is accomplished using a wall thickness standard (step

wedge) with precisely machined steps. The standard must have the
same acoustic velocity as the pipe to be tested. Fortunately, all API
carbon and low alloy grades are very close in acoustic velocity. Thus,
ordinary carbon steel calibration standards work for most pipe. Alloy
CRA material and aluminium drill pipe will have significantly different
sound velocities from carbon steel. Thickness gauges must therefore
be calibrated with standards appropriate for these materials. The
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instrument must be calibrated over a range of two thicknesses which

span the wall thickness to be measured. This ensures accurate
measurement within the limitations of the unit's linearity.
1.1.6.4.3.5 Limitation of wall thickness gauges
Wall thickness gauges should not be used to measure remaining wall

under sharp-bottomed pits. Much of the sound is reflected away from
the transducer and lost. Furthermore the echo returns over a longer
time period, resulting in a bias toward indicating more distance (wall
thickness) than is actually present.
1.1.6.4.3.6 Surface defects
• EMI inspection
The most common drill pipe tube inspection method employed in the
oil industry is Electro-Magnetic Inspection (EMI), also known as "flux
leakage" inspection. The drill pipe tube is magnetised with a strong
DC field. If a flaw is present, the sharp geometric change associated
with the flaw disturbs the magnetic field within the tube. This in turn
creates a small magnetic field, called a leakage field, around the flaw.
EMI senses the presence of leakage fields by passing a group of pick-
up coils over the pipe surface. If a pick-up coil passes through a
159

leakage field, it generates a voltage. This voltage is amplified and

displayed by a recording voltmeter or an oscilloscope. If the voltage
level exceeds a certain amount (the threshold level), the inspector
investigates further to see whether a flaw is present. This secondary
inspection, called "prove-up" is accomplished visually and/or by using
a DC coil and magnetic powder.
For used drill pipe inspection, an EMI unit only looks for transverse
flaws. The field is induced in the tube by a DC energising coil. The
pipe is held stationary and the unit moves over the pipe. (Figure
2.1.57)
Figure 2.1.57: Principle of EMI
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• EMI "Calibration"
Calibration in the true sense cannot be performed on EMI units

because there is no way to simulate the infinite number of possible
flux leakage fields that can result from defects. Instead, units are
"standardised" using arbitrary standards. For drill pipe units, the
arbitrary standard usually consists of a length of pipe with eight
holes. Each hole is scanned by a single pick-up coil, and the
galvanometer is set to respond the same way for each pick-up coil.
The response set in this way (or indeed any way) will not
quantitatively represent flaw severity. The EMI unit can only tell the
inspector where on the tube to look.
Once the unit is standardised, the operator must set a threshold level
by inspecting several joints in the lot. The threshold level is the
indication height which would cause the inspector to further
investigate a flaw indication. Since one cannot judge the severity of a
flaw from the height of an EMI indication, a logical question is "How
do I know when to check out an indication?" If every small indication
were checked, inspection rate would be extremely slow. Therefore,
each operator must evaluate enough small indications at the
beginning of each job to establish the threshold level
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• Limitations of EMI inspection
• Pitted and slip-cut pipe
A major limiting factor is that EMI results are highly effected if the
pipe is pitted and slip cut. Pits and slip cuts cause background noise
which can mask actual flaw indications (Figure 2.1.58).
Figure 2.1.58: The effect of pits and slip cuts on the pipe surface
• Wall thickness problems
Reduced sensitivity to internal flaws is another limitation of EMI. In

heavy-wall pipe, high magnetising strength is required to produce an
162

indication from an internal flaw. Unfortunately, this increases the

unit's sensitivity to outer surface irregularities to the point that good
resolution becomes impossible (Figure 2.1.59).
Figure 2.1.59: EMI units will see OD flaws as much larger than ID flaws
of the same size
• MPI and ultrasonic inspection of slip/upset area
Most drill pipe fatigue failures occur in slip and upset areas. Magnetic
Particle Inspection (MPI) of these areas is a simple, low-cost
supplement to EMI inspection and can find OD surface flaws that EMI
misses. The process is illustrated in Figure 2.1.60. MPI, however, has
a serious limitation in that it cannot detect internal flaws. Given that
many drill pipe fatigue cracks originate on the internal pipe surface
163

next to the internal upset, Ultrasonic inspection of the slip/upset area

is often also specified in addition to MPI.
1.1.6.4.4 INSPECTING ROTARY SHOULDERED CONNECTIONS
• Connection Visual Inspection
Visual inspection evaluates a number of important conditions on a

rotary shouldered connection. It includes:
• Visual evaluation of shoulder condition and sealability

• Verification of pipe weight and grade from markings on milled
slots and pin necks (Figure 2.1.62).
• Measurement of box swell for evidence of torsional damage
• Estimation of pin stretch (using a profile gauge) for evidence of
torsional damage
• Checking re-facing benchmarks (if present)
As with all inspections, visual inspection must be conducted according

to a written procedure using written acceptance criteria.
• Connection Dimensional Inspections
There are two types of dimensional inspections performed on rotary

shouldered connections. One on drill pipe tool joints, and one on BHA
164

connections, as shown in Figures 2.1.63/64 and Tables 2.1.11/12.
Figure 2.1.62: Markings and grooves on connections
Figure 2.1.63: Tool joint dimensions
165

Figure 2.1.64: BHA connection dimensions measured during inspection
166

Table 2.1.11 : Parameters measured Table 2.1.12 : Parameters

during measured during
dimensional inspection of DP tool dimensional inspection of BHA
joints connections
167

• Connection inspection by ultraviolet light
As described above under the EMI inspection of drill pipe, if a metallic

body is magnetised with a strong DC field any flaws will result in a
"leakage field" (in this case, a fatigue crack in the thread root). This
leakage field not only affects electrical instruments but also attracts
and holds soft iron particles which are suspended in a liquid carrier
and sprayed onto the test piece. If the iron particles are coated with
a fluorescent material they will glow brightly when the surface is
viewed under ultraviolet (black) light and show vividly the presence
of such a leakage field. In order for black light inspection effectively
to locate cracks, the following conditions must be met:
• The thread roots must be absolutely clean. The high risk area
in the box is the area near where the pin tip rests with the
connection made up (last engaged thread). Unfortunately,
thread roots in this area are most difficult to reach and clean.
• The connection must be magnetised with a continuous DC
field. The iron particles must be applied with the electrical
current on.
• The concentration of particles in the wet MPI suspension must
be between 0.2% and 0.5% by volume.
• The intensity of the ultraviolet light must be at least 800
168

microwatts/cm2.
• The carrier fluid must not be naturally fluorescent.
Figure 2.1.65: Crack detection by ultraviolet light
• Liquid Penetrant Testing
Liquid penetrant testing is a non-destructive testing method used to

locate fatigue cracks in the thread roots of non-magnetic drill collars
and subs. Liquid penetrant testing will only detect indications that are
open to the surface of the test article at the time of testing. The
penetrant is a liquid dye which is spread over the surface of the
threads. Time is allowed for the liquid to seek out and enter
discontinuities. The liquid remaining on the surface is then cleaned
off and a powder (developer) is applied. This powder acts like a
blotter. It draws the liquid remaining in the discontinuities back to
169

the surface, which produces an indication.
Liquid penetrant testing is very time/temperature sensitive and

requires a level of cleanliness far beyond even that required for
ultraviolet light inspection. It is so difficult to properly perform
correctly under field conditions that it should only be used on non-
magnetic material.
Figure 2.1.66: Liquid penetrant testing
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1.2 DRILLING HYDRAULICS
1.2.1 Introduction
The main objectives of circulation during drilling are:
• to clean cuttings from the bottom of the hole and prevent re-
grinding.
• to clean cuttings from the bit and prevent bit balling.
• to carry the cuttings up the annulus and out of the hole.
• to cool the bit
Maximum bottom hole cleaning is important to obtain the highest

penetration rate. It is achieved by either:
171

• maximum hydraulic power at the bit, or

• maximum hydraulic impact force.
In the first case it has been assumed that cutting removal from the
bottom is related to the fluid energy dissipated at the bit (bit
hydraulic power). In the second case it has been assumed that the
cutting removal is optimised when the fluid impact on the bottom is
maximised (impact force on bottom). The parameters that influence
the cleaning effect in both cases are the flow rate and the nozzle
area.
Effective removal of cuttings from the borehole by the drilling fluid is

possible only when an annular velocity that creates an upward
movement exceeding the gravitational settling of the cuttings is
maintained. The parameters that influence the efficiency of cutting
transport are the carrying capacity of the drilling fluid, the annular
clearance (referred to as the hydraulic diameter) and the flow rate.
The power delivered by the rig pump is required to overcome the
total hydraulic friction throughout the circulating system. Only part of
this power can be used for bottom hole cleaning because of the
power losses in the system. These system, or parasitic, pressure
losses are influenced by the drilling fluid properties, the length and
hydraulic diameter of the conduit (e.g. string, annulus and surface
172

lines) and the flow rate.
The hydraulic parameters which will affect drilling operations will be

examined in detail including methods for calculating and measuring
them. Ideas will be extended to consider ways of reducing pressure
losses, how to calculate the surface power needed, the hydraulic
power developed at the bit, the limits of annular velocities and pump
pressure and optimum bit hydraulics.
The focus of concern in this part is the fluid behaviour of the drilling
fluid as it flows through the surface lines, standpipe and hose, down
the drill string, through the nozzles and up the annulus. When the
drilling fluid is circulating it is necessary to consider the mechanics of
the drilling fluid in motion. This is necessary to calculate the pressure
at any depth in pipe or annulus, or the pressure on bottom. The
hydraulic parameters to be considered in this Part are summarised in
the accompanying figure.
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Figure 2.2.1 : Important parameters in drilling hydraulics
No matter what the nature or stage of the project, there are three
effects resulting directly from local pressure control that must be
considered. These are shown in Figure 2.2.2 . In this context local
pressure means the pressure at the place under consideration, be it
at the bottom of the hole or at any intermediate depth inside the drill
string or annulus. Of these three effects it is the influence of pressure
on achieving an efficient penetration rate that is the prime interest in
this Part. The prevention and control of formation fluid inflow are
considered in Part 2.3. A knowledge of downhole pressure on
174

formation damage and fluid flow from and to the formation are
examined in detail in the EP00 and G180 courses.
Figure 2.2.2: Important considerations relating to pressure
Efficient penetration occurs when proper control is exercised over a

number of conditions. Drilling rate increases in direct proportion to
weight on bit only when the cuttings are effectively removed from
beneath the bit. The drilling fluid stream provides the energy needed
to clean both the bottom of the hole and the bit, and hydraulic
conditions have to be selected to achieve this with the greatest
effect. It must be stressed that the objective is to optimise the
penetration rate. The limiting factors are on the one hand the
hydrostatic head and the necessity to clean the hole (lower
175

boundaries), and on the other the prevention of losses and possibly

the pump capacity (upper boundaries). There are a number of
variables over which you have direct control, the more important
ones in drilling hydraulics are as follows.
• flow rate
• pump pressure
• nozzle size
• drilling fluid gradient
• drilling fluid viscosity
The main concern in this Part is with the first three of these; flow
rate, pump pressure and nozzle size.
In Topic 2.2.2 we look in detail at each of the hydraulic parameters

shown in Figure 2.2.1.
1.2.2 The hydraulic parameters

In this Topic each of nine hydraulic parameters which must be
considered are separately introduced.
• Pump volumetric output and circulation pressure (Pt )

• Flow rate
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• Bit nozzle jet velocity

• Annular velocity
• Pressure losses in the system
• Pump hydraulic power output
• Pressure drop across the bit nozzles
• Hydraulic power developed at the bit
• Jet impact force
Some can be measured directly at the surface. Most have to be

calculated. All relate to the operational activities. The well is
considered as a closed system in which energy and power are
conserved. Therefore the total hydraulic power developed by the
pump is either dissipated within the system or is used at the bit.
1.2.2.1 PUMP VOLUMETRIC OUTPUT AND

CIRCULATING PRESSURE
1.2.2.1.1 PUMP OUTPUT
The pump volumetric output or "pump output" depends on the type

of pump and the size of the liners installed. The equations for the
pump output will be discussed in Part 3.3.
The volume output for double acting pumps is obtained with the
177

following equation:
The value of factor K in this equation is:
0·0257 when the flow rate Q is in dm3/min (l/min).
0·00679 when the flow rate Q is in gals/min.
0·000162 when the flow rate Q is in bbl/min.
0·000909 when the flow rate Q is in ft3/min.
For single acting triplex pumps the equation to be used is:
Where the value of K is:
• 0·0386 when the flow rate Q is in dm3/min (l/min).

• 0·010199 when the flow rate Q is in gals/min.
• 0·000243 when the flow rate Q is in bbl/min.
• 0·001364 when the flow rate Q is in ft3/min.
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In both the equations:
• L = stroke in inches.
• D = inside diameter of liner in inches.
• d = outside diameter of piston rod in inches.
• spm = strokes per minute.
• nvol = volumetric efficiency as percentage.
The pump or circulating pressure (Pt) is usually measured directly at

the surface with a standpipe gauge. It can also be estimated using
the following:
• The dimensions of the hole and drill string.

• Rheological drilling fluid properties.
• Nozzle area.
• Flow rate.
The units for Pt are kPa or psi.
1.2.2.1.2 CIRCULATING PRESSURE AND PRESSURE DROP IN THE

HYDRAULIC SYSTEM
Since the drilling fluid returns to the surface at atmospheric pressure

(in normal drilling operations), all the pressure developed by the
179

pump is used between it and the flowline.
Thus Pt = Ps + Pb
Where:
• Pt is the pump or circulating pressure (kPa or psi)

• Ps is the total of all pressure losses except at the bit (kPa or
psi)
• Pb is the pressure drop across bit nozzles (kPa or psi)
1.2.2.2 FLOW RATE (Q)
The flow rate is the volume of drilling fluid passing any point in unit
time. It is usually expressed in m3/s or m3/min (m3/sec will be used
throughout this Part). In oilfield units it is expressed in bbls/min or
gals/min (gpm).
The flow rate can be measured directly with a flow meter in the
surface lines, usually between pump and standpipe. It can also be
calculated using other known quantities as discussed in Topic 2.2.1.
1.2.2.3 BIT NOZZLE JET VELOCITY (Vn)
The jet velocity is the governing parameter in the impact-force
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method of maximised bottom-hole cleaning. The higher the jet

velocity the better the cleaning effect. The accepted minimum value
for optimised bottom hole cleaning is approximately 100 m/s (350
ft/s).
The jet velocity is calculated from the jet nozzle area and the flow
rate:
1.2.2.4 ANNULAR VELOCITY (Van)
The annular velocity is the speed with which the drilling fluid rises in
the annulus and is expressed in m/min (ft/min).
The annular drilling fluid velocity is confined by an upper and a lower

limit.
1.2.2.4.1 MAXIMUM ANNULAR VELOCITY
The upper velocity limit is determined by the effects of erosion on

soft formations (or maximum possible pump output volume). Wash-
181

outs can easily be created in such situations.
The maximum annular velocity in sensitive formations is often limited

to 30 m/min (100 ft/min) to prevent wash-outs.
1.2.2.4.2 MINIMUM ANNULAR VELOCITY
The lower limit is always governed by the cuttings transport capacity

of the drilling fluid.
Too much build-up of cuttings in the drilling fluid will result in an

increase in the density of the fluid in the annulus. The consequent
increase in hydrostatic head against exposed weak formations could
cause formation break-down and loss of circulation. It could also
cause stuck pipe in a deviated well (building up of cuttings bed).
The annular velocity should therefore, in relation to the cuttings

generated, be sufficient to maintain densities within formation
strength limits.
However, the minimum annular velocity is also dependent on the slip

velocity (rate of settling of the cuttings). As a result of gravity the
cuttings tend to drop through the drilling fluid. Therefore when the
slip velocity exceeds the annular velocity the particles will not be
carried out of the well. There will be insufficient returns of large
182

cuttings over the shale shaker and, due to regrinding, erosion and
deterioration, the solid content and density of the drilling fluid will
increase.
1.2.2.4.3 APPLIED ANNULAR VELOCITY
The annular velocity depends on the flow rate and the flow area, the
latter of which is not constant. The drill-pipe open-hole area must be
considered when determining the maximum or minimum value for
the velocity. This means that the actual velocity in the drill-collar
open-hole annulus may be higher than the recommended value.
However, that often has to be accepted. The DC-OH section is
comparatively short so that the wellbore wall in soft formations will
be exposed only briefly to these higher erosive effects. In harder
formations erosion often becomes negligible.
The annular velocity at a given flow rate can be calculated by the

following equations, derived from the general equation Q = V.A.
183

When drilling hard formations where penetration rates are low, lower
annular velocities can be used. In soft formations with high
penetration rate, often encountered in top-hole drilling, higher
annular velocities will be required to remove the cuttings from the
well.
Because the total pump capacity is limited, sometimes it is not

possible to obtain sufficient annular velocity, especially in drilling
large hole sizes. If the fluid density is critical because weak
formations are exposed, the drilling rate may have to be adjusted to
reduce the amount of cuttings generated.
Generally speaking the minimum practical annular velocity is

maintained above a value of approximately 17 m/min (50 ft/min) in
the very large hole sizes. In the smaller holes the more common
value of 30 - 40 m/min (90 - 120 ft/min) usually applies (the smaller
184

hole size is usually at greater depth where the formations are more
consolidated).
Selection of an appropriate annular velocity is one of the first

decisions to be taken when considering hydraulic conditions.
Actual annular velocities are uncertain due to the irregularity of the

hole size and configuration. During drilling the actual hole size is not
known; for this reason the bit size is taken as the internal diameter of
the hole, or the last measured average caliper hole size obtained
from logs, for calculation purposes.
Between the maximum annular velocity and the minimum annular

velocity is an annular velocity which, under the given circumstances,
is the best annular velocity to be used. This is called the optimum
annular velocity.
1.2.2.4.4 OPTIMUM ANNULAR VELOCITY
The optimum annular velocity is that velocity which is obtained

through a flow rate which gives an annular velocity sufficiently high
to effectively remove cuttings from the hole and having the lowest
possible erosion effect on the borehole.
Over time, any flow results in erosion. It is therefore advisable to

185

obtain the minimum flow rate required to effectively remove

cuttings from the hole and to avoid circulating any faster than is
required to obtain this flow rate. If this rate is a calculated rate,
actual hole cleaning should be monitored to confirm the hole cleaning
ability of this flow rate.
You should be able to distinguish clearly between flow rate and

annular velocity.
1.2.2.5 PRESSURE LOSSES IN THE SYSTEM (Ps)

(PARASITIC PRESSURE LOSSES)
What is the 'system'?
The system is made up of all parts between the pump and the
flowlines with the exception of the bit nozzles. These are excluded
because pressure drop across the nozzles is considered a useful loss
of pressure. It represents the change in kinetic energy used to clean
the bottom of the hole. Pressure losses in the system represent
wasted energy used in overcoming friction. These pressure losses are
called parasitic losses.
The main sections of the circulating system which contribute to the
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system losses may be summarised as follows:
• The surface lines (from pump to kelly saver sub).

• The drill string (drill pipe and drill collars).
• The annulus (open hole and cased hole).
In addition we will look at;
• Causes of changes in circulating pressures.

• Flow regimes.
1.2.2.5.1 PRESSURE LOSSES IN SURFACE EQUIPMENT
Surface equipment consists of surface lines, stand pipe, kelly hose,

swivel and kelly.
The pressure loss occurring in this equipment depends on the length

and the internal diameters of each of the items mentioned. A simple
practical method to find the surface equipment pressure losses is to
hang the kelly or top drive open ended in the rotary table and pump
at different rates.
Table 2.2.1 shows four common combinations of surface equipment.

The case numbers in this table (No.1 to No.4) were originally
intended for use with hydraulic slide rules. They are now also used to
187

identify different surface pressure loss situations to be used in

calculations.
1.2.2.5.2 PRESSURE LOSSES IN THE DRILL STRING (PFD)
The pressure loss in the drill string represents the major portion of
the parasitic losses. The fluid velocities are usually high and therefore
friction loss is significant as the flow regime in most cases is
turbulent. The losses calculated across the drill pipe and the drill
collars are based on the Bingham Plastic Flow model.
When drilling, the flow pattern in the drill string is normally turbulent.
(With reference to the factors above, consider why this should be
true). There is no exact method of calculating pressure losses in the
188

drill string because there is no exact method of establishing the

degree of turbulence. However, it is possible to estimate pressure
losses in the drill string with sufficient accuracy to select appropriate
bit nozzles for optimizing hydraulic conditions (see Topic 2.2.5).
Pressure losses in the drill string can be calculated by the following

equations:
You should have noticed the introduction of a new term, the friction
factor (f). It can be defined in terms of Reynolds Number (and hence
flow rate) and pipe roughness and has been determined empirically.
If circulating a given drilling fluid at a given depth only V and f can

vary, and both of these are proportional to flow rate. The equations
for pressure losses in the drill string as given above can also be
189

expressed in the equation:
Where c is a constant incorporating the values of all the parameters

which are fixed at a given depth
N is found empirically and is not the same 'n' as in the equations in

the paragraphs on the following pages dealing with pressure losses in
the annulus. The latter is called a 'rheological' 'n'.
C is given, in SI units or API units respectively, by:
Where is the plastic viscosity and the other symbols are as used
before. Note that N is often taken as 1.82
1.2.2.5.3 PRESSURE LOSSES IN THE ANNULUS (PFA )
Since the annular pressure loss acts as an applied pressure on the

formation, this loss should be kept as low as possible to minimise the
risk of formation break down. To monitor the pressure against the
formation during circulation, the equivalent circulation density (ECD)
190

is often used, which is defined as:
Where
ECD = equivalent circulating density (kPa/m, psi/ft)
ρm = density of the drilling fluid (kPa/m, psi/ft)
Pan = total pressure drop in the annulus (kPa, psi)
L = total length of the annulus (m, ft)
The value of the annular pressure loss is relatively small compared to

that developed in the drill string and is often neglected in cases
where the circulation rate is low, e.g. during well killing.
The pressure losses can be calculated accurately with the hydraulic

computer program designed by SIPM (Wellplan for Windows system
or computer programs such as REOMUD, MUCEDI, MUCECI, HYDCAL
91).
It is more difficult to find pressure losses in the annulus because

conditions are less well defined than in the drillpipe.
191

The following uncertainties exist.
• the actual flow condition is not clear, the flow pattern is

commonly near the transitional region
• the hole size and shape are irregular so it is not possible to get
an accurate value for the annular velocity or the hydraulic
diameter
• the downhole viscosity is very uncertain because it varies with
temperature and flow conditions
• pipe rotation and eccentricity effects
For efficient drilling conditions it is found that the power lost in

overcoming friction in the system absorbs approximately 30-50% of
the circulation energy (see Topic 2.2.5). The remainder will be
expended at the bit. It is found that the majority of the system losses
are in the drill string. For medium depth drilling the annular pressure
losses probably total no more than 3 to 7% of the pump output
pressure at normal circulation rates.
Although pressure losses in the annulus are small, they are very
important because of their effect on the exposed formations.
The effects of annular pressure losses are that:
192

• they increase the bottom hole pressure when circulating

• they reduce the initial severity of a kick by providing a 'hidden'
safety margin (see Part 2.3, Topic 3.5.4.2), but they increase
the risks of lost circulation during killing (only while circulating)
• they cause formation damage if the pressure losses are due to
establishing circulation. When establishing circulation, the
pressure drop in the annulus increases significantly due to the
initial high viscosity (gel strength) of the drilling fluid
Much research effort has been devoted to improving knowledge of

the flow characteristics of drilling fluids particularly in order to reduce
pressure losses. This is a complicated and specialised subject
because of the complexity of the fluids.
The following expressions provide values for annular pressure losses.
Where:
Pfa is the annular pressure loss (kPa) Pfa is in psi
L is the pipe length (m) L is in ft
Va is the annular velocity (m/s) Va is in ft/min
193

d is the hydraulic diameter (dh - dp)

d is in inches
(mm)
n is the Power Law index of flow n is

behaviour ( dimensionless) dimensionless
n and K are derived from viscometer data
Note that K here is an approximation to that given for the Power Law
model found in the section on Drilling Fluids. The number 511 results
from using a specific type of viscometer with particular values of
spring constant and cylinder surface speed.
With Pfa, as with Pfd , when drilling at a particular depth with a given
drilling fluid all values in the above equations are effectively constant
except for the annular velocity (Va). But Va is directly proportional to
194

the flow rate (Q). Thus there will be a tendency to assume that all
pressure losses in the system follow the same equation as shown
below.
Where c and N are constants whose values are empirically

determined in particular cases (see under "Pressure losses in the drill
string")
Pressure losses can be calculated for all parts of the system using the
equations given in this Part.
1.2.2.5.4 CAUSES OF CHANGES IN CIRCULATING PRESSURES
According to Pt = Pb + Ps a change in the circulating pressure can be

induced by a change in either Pb, Ps or both.
• Increases in surface pressure
A sudden increase in circulation pressure, although drilling fluid

properties, flow rate, and conduit length are unchanged, can be
caused only by an increase in Pb. This could be caused by one or
more nozzles plugging.
195

A gradual increase in surface pressure could be the result of several

causes (excepting hole problems):
• Increased flow rate.

• Extending the string while deepening the hole.
• Change in drilling fluid rheological properties.
• Decreases in surface pressure
A spontaneous sudden decrease in circulating pressure while

conditions remain unchanged can be caused by:
• Decrease of Pb resulting from the loss of a nozzle.

• A twist-off in the drill string.
A gradual decrease in pressure could signal the following:
• A developing wash-out (leak) in the drill string or in pump

valves.
• Reduction of hydrostatic head in the annulus caused by lighter
substances (e.g. gas or formation water).
• An increase of hydrostatic head in the string.
Caution: Any change of the surface pressure or change in pump

strokes not deliberately instigated should be investigated
196

immediately.
To a limited extent, pressure losses can be measured directly; for

example by pumping through the standpipe and open kelly and
through drill collars. It is also a useful exercise to observe the total
circulating pressure at various flow rates.
Pressure losses in the system can be derived from actual circulating

pressure values by subtracting the pressure drop at the bit, which
can be calculated accurately.
Pressure losses in the system can also be calculated. However,

although the dimensions are known for all parts of the system, the
calculation also depends on knowing the type of fluid flow regime in
the drill string and annulus. The flow may be turbulent or laminar or
of some transitional type between the two. The calculations are also
based on a rheological model. If the drilling fluid in use behaves
slightly variant to the model the calculation results will be less than
accurate.
Pressure losses within the system are minimized by reducing the fluid
friction in each part:
• surface connections: losses are negligible compared with
197

elsewhere but can be reduced by avoiding tight bends and

using large diameter pipes
• drill string: reduce friction by using a larger internal diameter
pipe coated with plastic
• drill collars: increasing the internal diameter will again reduce
friction but only at the expense of decreasing their weight; a
balance has to be made between these opposing effects
• annulus losses: are usually small and only become significant
in deep, small diameter holes; pressure losses depend on the
'hydraulic diameter', found from the difference between the
hole size and the pipe o.d.; it is actually desirable to reduce the
pressure developed against the formations
• Flow regimes
The differences between laminar and turbulent flow are illustrated in

the table overfleaf and described in Section 6, Part 1. The type of
flow is determined by calculating Reynolds number (Re) for the
known well conditions from the following equations
198

The value obtained is compared with those shown in Table 2.2.2

(figures are based on Newtonian fluid properties).
Table 2.2.2: Deciding the flow condition from the Reynolds number
199

Inspection of the equations shows that turbulent flow is more likely

with the conditions below.
denser drilling fluid (r higher)
lower viscosity (µ lower)
higher flow rate (Q higher)
decreased pipe bore or hydraulic (d lower)

diameter
1.2.2.6 PUMP HYDRAULIC POWER OUTPUT
In rig operations the amount of available hydraulic power is

determined by the size, number and types of pump(s) on site.
However, the demand in terms of output volume (Q) and pump
pressure (P) varies considerably with hole size and depth. Once the
pump output or flow rate Q has been selected the available power
200

input determines the maximum circulating pressure (Pt) that can be

achieved.
This circulating pressure Pt (total pressure drop in system) is

consumed partly by friction in the fluid and the system (Ps = system
pressure loss) and partly by the pressure drop across the bit nozzles
(Pb = bit pressure drop). Therefore Pt = Ps + Pb. Pt is normally given
by the pump pressure gauge.
The system pressure drop has no effect on bottom-hole cleaning. It

is unavoidable and is also called the parasitic pressure loss.
The bottom-hole cleaning action is provided by the hydraulic energy

expended at the bit. Therefore the amount of hydraulic power
expended at the bit is a measure for the cleaning effectiveness. (This
assumes that the bit is properly matched to the formation - if a bit
designed for a hard formation is run in a soft formation no amount of
power will keep it clean!)
The hydraulic power available at the surface from the pump is used
to drive the drilling fluid round the system, power the bit and flush
the cuttings to the surface. If you know the pump or circulating
pressure (Pt) and the flow rate (Q), then it is possible to calculate the
201

total power available at the surface.
Since Power = work done in unit time
and Work done = pressure x volume
then Power = pressure x volume pumped in unit time
Therefore the power available at surface is given by:
The power output of the pump is generally assumed to be 85% of

the mechanical or electrical power input of the pump.
1.2.2.7 PRESSURE DROP ACROSS THE BIT NOZZLES

(Pb)
The pressure drop across the bit nozzles Pb depends on:
• The flow rate, Q.

• The total cross-sectional area of the nozzle openings, A.
202

• The drilling fluid density, ρ.
Once the desired (optimum) annular velocity has been determined

the flow rate (Q) and the hydraulic power expended at the bit for a
given nozzle size are fixed.
Since the jet velocity (Vn) is directly related to the flow rate, the
hydraulic power expended at the bit is also fixed. Both jet velocity
and hydraulic power at the bit determine the cleaning action on
bottom.
Pressure losses through the bit nozzles are not frictional but
represent a change in kinetic energy as the drilling fluid changes its
velocity from that above the bit to that leaving the jets. The pressure
expended is therefore dependent only on the drilling fluid density and
the square of the jet velocity.
The pressure drop across the bit nozzles is calculated using the
following equations.
Where:
203

• Pb is the pressure loss across the bit nozzles (kPa)

• ρ is the drilling fluid gradient (kPa/m)
• Q is the flow rate (m3/s)
• A is the total nozzle area (mm2)
• Cn is the nozzle coefficient (dimensionless)
The nozzle coefficient for jet nozzles is usually taken as 0·95
Where:
• Pb is in psi
• ρ is in psi/ft
• Q is in gpm
• A is in inch2
• Cn is dimensionless
1.2.2.8 HYDRAULIC POWER DEVELOPED AT THE BIT
As stated in Topic 2.2, Pt = Ps + Pb where the symbols have their

previous meanings.
204

It was later shown that the total power available is given by
or .
according to the system of units, where the symbols again have their
previous meanings.
Similarly, the power lost in the system is given by or .
But the power generated at the pump must either be lost in the
system or used at the bit, so the hydraulic power developed at the bit
is given, in SI units and oilfield units respectively, by:
Since Pt - Ps = Pb, then the hydraulic power developed at the bit is

also given by:
1.2.2.9 JET IMPACT FORCE (I) BELOW THE BIT
Consideration may also be given to the actual force with which the
drilling fluid jetting from the bit strikes against the formation. This is
205

called the jet impact force (I).
The jet impact force can be calculated using the following equations.
Where
• I is the jet impact force (N)

• ρ is the drilling fluid gradient (kPa/m)
• Q is the flow rate (m3/s)
• Vn is the jet velocity (m/s)
And
Where
• I is in lbf
• ρ is in psi/ft
• Q is in gpm
• Vn is in ft/s
These equations can be modified by substituting for Vn (see Topic
206

2.2.3).
You should note the following points:
• The result obtained does not take into account the extremely
complicated flow conditions at the bottom of the hole.
• Impact force is an important measure of the hole cleaning
effort which is applied on bottom.
•
• Impact force theory is very important in the design and
operation of extended-nozzle and high-impact jet bits
1.2.2.10 SUMMARY
In this topic nine important hydraulic parameters have been

described. The important equations from this section are listed below
and these indicate how the parameters are related. Note in particular
the importance of the flow rate and the nozzle area.
207

208

1.2.3 Evaluation of the parasitic

pressure losses
This Topic will provide some theoretical background information to
explain how the parasitic pressure losses can be related to the flow
rate. It will deal with:
• Aspects of fluid flow.

• Practical application.
• Determination of c and N.
1.2.3.1 ASPECTS OF FLUID FLOW
The movement of fluid through a conduit is caused by an external

force, provided in this case by a pump. This force must overcome the
internal fluid friction and the friction between fluid and conduit which
results in the pressure drop. It, and the pressure drop is a function
of:
• The flow rate.

• The fluid properties:
Æ fluid density
209

Æ viscosity
• The type of conduit and its dimensions:
Æ length
Æ flow area i.e. hydraulic diameter
Æ roughness of the system wall
• The flow regime.
Basically these parameters are related as follows:
(1)
and, since and then (2)
The friction factor f in equations (1) and (2) is a function of the

drilling fluid properties, flow regime and Reynolds number and is
expressed as follows:
(3)
210

where the friction factor coefficients are functions of the plastic

viscosity (PV) and yield point (YP) of the drilling fluid.
The magnitude of the Re number determines the flow regime which,

under most drilling conditions, will be turbulent inside the drill string
and laminar in the annulus. In its most general form the Reynolds
number (Re) is determined by the equations:
(4)
In equations (1) to (4):
P = pressure drop (kPa) (psi).
k1,2,3,4 = conversion factors.
r = drilling fluid gradient (kPa/m) (psi/ft).
V = average fluid velocity (m/s) (ft/s).
Q = flow rate (m3/s) (ft3/s or gall./min).
L = length of conduit (m) (ft).
d = hydraulic diameter of conduit
for the annulus d = ID hole - OD pipe and for pipe d = ID) (mm)
(inch).
f = flow friction factor.
211

h = effective viscosity (Pa-s) (cP).
a,b = friction factor coefficients.
As stated previously, once drilling has started with a particular drilling

assembly and bit, the circulating pressure is composed of two parts:
The bit pressure drop can be calculated accurately as explained in

Topic 2.2.7
The system pressure drop could be calculated by substituting

equations (4) and (3) in equation (2). A rather complicated equation
then evolves which can be simplified to:
The following variables are included in this general expression for the
parasitic pressure losses:
• in c:ρ, η, L, d.
• in N: friction factor coefficient b.
1.2.3.2 PRACTICAL APPLICATION
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The effect of changes in depth, circulating rate and drilling fluid

gradient on the circulating pressure will now be explained.
While drilling a section of hole with one bit (a certain "bit run") the
circulating rate is determined by the annular velocity, which is usually
kept constant. The drilling fluid properties are normally also kept
steady during such a period (as long as no changes are required as a
result of hole condition or formation pressures). The only variable
that changes is the string length L.
For pressure drop calculations the drill string is divided into two
sections, i.e.: drill pipe and drill collars, which are considerably
different in both internal and external diameters. During a bit run the
length of the drill collars does not change.
Depending on the ratio of Ldp/Ldc and the magnitude of the increase

in Ldp the following approximation may be used to determine the
change in Ps:
If, however, the increase in hole depth during one bit run is
considerable, the change in Ps should be determined more accurately
213

by pump tests as described in the following section.
During well control operations, however, a reduced circulating rate is

used, and at the same time the drilling fluid gradient is changed.
The effect of a change in drilling fluid gradient r on Pb is proportional

and, for practical purposes, the same proportional change is applied
to Ps.
Scrutinising the theoretical equations in the previous section, the

change in Ps is not exactly proportional. The friction factor changes
with r via the Re-number. However, from practical experience
neglecting this inaccuracy is justified and therefore the following
proportional relation is used:
1.2.3.3 DETERMINATION OF c AND N
Theoretically the value of the exponent "N" and the factor "c" can be
calculated from two standpipe pressure readings observed at
two different pump rates knowing that:
214

Since the value of "N" can be solved by the

ratio:
Therefore it follows that or
(The value of N is often quoted as 1.82 in literature. Where

insufficient information is available to make the calculation, 1.82 can
be assumed to make an estimate of the pressures which can be
expected. As soon as operations allow pressure readings should be
taken and N calculated.)
c can be determined from the equation
215

As small inaccuracies in pressure readings and pump stroke counts

can result in considerable errors in "N" and "c" it is recommended to
monitor pressures at more than just two pump rates. These readings
should cover the expected range of both drilling and well killing pump
rates.
An example for determining the values of "N" and "c" is given in

Appendix 1.
1.2.4 Operating limits

Decisions regarding hydraulic parameters may be necessary before
the hole is drilled. In this Topic attention is focused upon the annular
velocity, pump pressure and flow rate. A knowledge of their allowable
maximum and minimum values is important in the process of
establishing the optimum values of the variables under your control
at the surface.
When considering the operating limits there are three important
216

processes:
• DECIDING the limits for the annular velocity, pressure and flow
rate
• CONSIDERING special hydraulic conditions. Is the hole
abnormally deep? Is the hole to be of unusual diameter? Will
there be high temperatures? Will it be a deviated hole? What is
the hydraulic capacity of the rig?
• REVIEWING the hydraulic parameters when there are hole
problems.
1.2.4.1 SELECTING THE ANNULAR VELOCITY
As a first step the most suitable annular velocity should be decided.

The purpose here is not to show how a precise value is selected but
to indicate the factors that affect the minimum and maximum values
of the annular velocity that can be selected.
1.2.4.1.1 SELECTING THE PUMP PRESSURE AND FLOW RATE
It is normal practice to operate circulating pumps at a constant

pressure. The pressure used is either the rated delivery pressure
(inclusive of a safety factor) for the size of liner installed or a
217

rate selected to minimise pump maintenance if this still allows good

hole cleaning and adequate power at the bit.
• MAINTENANCE COSTS
These increase sharply above a critical operating pressure. If used

above this pressure, wear on components suddenly increases out of
proportion to the increased output. Additionally maintenance has to
be carried out more frequently increasing rig downtime. Table 2.2.3
lists the maximum normal running pressures for most duplex and
triplex pumps (however the manufacturer's instructions are the
determining factor). These values only apply to rig surface equipment
that is suitably rated.
Table 2.2.4 Maximum normal running pump pressures
• LINER SIZE
This should be selected to minimise the need for changing liners

through the project. They should also be such that they provide both
218

an adequate flow rate for the surface hole and the pressure needed
at depth.
• MINIMUM VALUE OF ANNULAR VELOCITY
The minimum value of the annular velocity is governed by the ability

of the drilling fluid to clean the well. If the well is not efficiently
cleaned there will be cuttings build up leading to increased
hydrostatic and ECD pressures which might cause drilling fluid losses
to the formation. In inclined holes, a significant amount of the
cuttings might drop to the lower side of the hole, and form a cuttings
bed. When the annular velocity is not sufficient, the cuttings bed will
grow, thereby increasing the risk of differential and mechanical
sticking of the drill string.
• Vertical wells
In vertical sections (in practice those with an inclination of up to

±25°), the cuttings suspension will be homogeneously distributed
over the entire cross section of the annulus. Given that cuttings settle
relative to the upward flowing mud, then as long as the fluid velocity
is greater than the cuttings settling velocity, transport will occur.
Figure 2.2.3 shows how the cutting velocity varies with annular
velocity for different drilling fluid thicknesses. Four coloured areas are
219

shown corresponding to different amounts of cuttings being

removed.
Figure 2.2.3: The relationship between annular velocity, drilling fluid

and cuttings velocity.
Thick drilling fluid will lift more than 75% of the cuttings at all
speeds; thin drilling fluid will carry more than 50% if the annular
velocity exceeds about 0.2 m/s (30 ft/min). Water, even at annular
velocities of 0.3 m/s (66 ft/min) will carry away only slightly more
than 25%. In other words drilling fluid thickness (viscosity and gel
strength) is an important factor.
220

A practical method of estimating the minimum annular velocity to

ensure hole cleaning is based on Fullerton's approximation, which
assumes that the diameter of the cuttings is 6·35 mm (0·25"), that
their density is 2,510 kg/m3 (157 lbs/ft3) and that the annular fluid
velocity should be not less than twice the cuttings settling velocity.
The approximation is:
Note: drill string rotation does not benefit transport much in these
221

well sections because it does not effect the distribution of cuttings

over the wellbore cross section.
Penetration rate and hole size must also be considered. In large

diameter shallow holes it may not be possible to achieve the
necessary minimum velocity and special precautions may be
necessary to ensure that the hole is properly cleaned. At such depths
penetration rates are likely to be high anyway so there may be less
emphasis on the need for optimum hydraulics.
• Inclined sections
In intermediate inclined sections (± 25° to ± 50°), cuttings tend to

settle towards the low side of the wellbore and form an unstable
deposit. As the deposit grows, it will avalanche downhole with
increasing velocity. When the velocity becomes too high, the deposit
breaks up and re-suspends in the flow (see also Figure 2.2.4). The
most important factors to enhance transport are:
Annular drilling fluid velocity increase (see also under vertical

sections)
Drill string rotation &endash; faster is better. Drill string rotation

results in a more homogeneous distribution of cuttings over the cross
222

section of the annulus and consequently enhances transport.
Viscosity increase. A viscosity increase will usually enhance transport

in intermediate inclined sections but the effect is less pronounced
compared to the effect in vertical sections.
• Highly inclined sections
223

In highly inclined sections (± 50° to horizontal), a large part of the

cuttings will not stay in suspension, but will settle towards the lower
side of the hole to form a stationary cuttings bed. As the height of
the deposit grows, the area of the annulus open to flow decreases
leading to an increase in the average drilling fluid velocity above the
bed. At a certain bed height, the velocity of the fluid above the bed
(and the associated stresses on the bed surface) will exceed a critical
value above which cuttings are continuously picked up / eroded and
transported upwards. Under these conditions, a "steady state"
constant bed height will develop (See also Figure 2.2.4).
Operational problems can be minimized by setting the operational

variables in such a way that cuttings accumulation is minimized. The
following parameters have the most impact on cuttings transport in
highly inclined well sections:
Æ Annular drilling fluid velocity (flowrate): higher is better.

Æ Drill string rotational velocity: faster is better (see also
above). The impact of rotation on cuttings accumulation
can be very large. In troublesome wells avoid
sliding/orient mode drilling. Consider the use of rotary
steerable systems.
Æ Drilling fluid viscosity. It is difficult to give a general
224

guideline about the level of drilling fluid viscosity. In

horizontal well sections, transport is obtained by erosion
of the bed surface. Erosion can be optimized by a high
shear stress at the surface of the deposit (which
requires a high viscosity) or by increasing turbulence
intensity (turbulence is intensified by a viscosity
decrease). Furthermore, the resistance to erosion of a
cuttings bed depends on the consistency of the
(stationary) drilling fluid in the pores between the
cuttings. A high gel strength or yield point tends to
'glue' the particles together. High yield points should
therefore be avoided.
These conflicting mechanisms usually mean that "medium" viscosity

fluids should preferably be avoided. It is usually better to choose
either a high or a low viscosity drilling fluid. Which one is preferable
depends on the specific case and can only be evaluated using
cuttings transport software (e.g. EzClean developed by SEPTAR).
Note: The optimum viscosity to clean horizontal sections is often not

the optimum viscosity to clean the vertical or intermediate inclined
sections. The viscosity choice will therefore always be a compromise.
225

• MAXIMUM VALUE OF ANNULAR VELOCITY
Erosion of the formation face will occur over time as the drilling fluid
flows over it. However, the rate of erosion is only slightly influenced
by the actual annular velocity. Far more important is the flow type.
Turbulent flow is more erosive than laminar flow, hence the need to
calculate the Reynolds Number. Also important is the formation type:
the softer the formation the faster it erodes.
Once the range of acceptable values for the annular velocity is known
it is then possible to consider the selection of pump pressure and
flow rate.
1.2.5 Optimum bit hydraulics

This Topic discusses optimised optimised drilling performance in
general, and two possible approaches to obtaining optimum
conditions at the bit. These are to maximise the hydraulic power at
the bit, or to maximise the jet impact force.
There is also a short section about hydraulic slide rules
1.2.5.1 OPTIMUM DRILLING PERFORMANCE
226

Opinions vary both as to what the optimum conditions are, and how
they can be achieved. There is agreement that the aim is to achieve
the best penetration rate. All efforts should be made to minimise
costs per foot. The first factor affecting the costs is the rate of
penetration. It is a well known fact that if bottom hole and/or bit
cleaning is inadequate, drilling progress will be jeopardised.
Figure 2.2.5: Cutting action of a roller cone bit
Optimum drilling performance therefore is closely related to optimum

use of the available hydraulic power within the constraints posed by
the drilling fluids and the hole condition. Optimisation can be effected
only when, during drilling, the hydraulic force and energy at the bit
is, in the first place, sufficient to remove cuttings effectively as they
227

are produced by the bit. In roller cone bits, the bit teeth crush the
rock as shown in Figure 2.2.5, and the hydraulic forces have to
remove these cuttings from the hole bottom. Significant fluid forces
are required since the cuttings are pushed against the hole bottom
due to the difference between the borehole pressure BHP and the
pore pressure Po in the formation (BHP > Po). This effect is called the
chip hold-down effect. It causes regrinding of the cuttings, which
greatly reduces the rate of penetration.
Soft formation roller cone bits have therefore been designed not only
to crush the rock, but also to remove the cuttings from the hole
bottom by a dragging action of the teeth (this would cause
mechanical failure of the bit teeth or inserts in harder formations). In
these formations, part of the hydraulic power should therefore be
used to remove the rock from between the teeth and to prevent
clogging of the bit. Penetration rate can be reduced significantly if
the layer of rock cuttings on the cones of the bit is so thick that it can
hamper the penetration of the teeth into the formation. This process
is called bit balling, and can be so severe in some soft and sticky
formations that the rate of penetration reduces to almost zero after
only a few metres of drilling. In large size bits, bit balling can often
be prevented by adding a nozzle into the centre of the bit.
228

PDC bits have a very different cutting action than roller cone bits, as
shown in Figure 2.2.6. The PDC cutters drag through the rock
continuously, the cuttings are therefore immediately removed from
the hole bottom. Hydraulic forces now have to break the cuttings,
and remove them from the bit face.
Figure 2.2.6: Cutting action of a PDC bit
If this is not done properly, the cuttings will be pushed upwards,

towards the bit face, where they might stick to the bit surface. This
will also ball up (part of) the bit, which can again reduce the rate of
penetration significantly. In drag bits, the available hydraulic power
should therefore be used to clean the cutters and the bit surface.
PDC bit designs for soft and sticky formations should achieve high
fluid velocities along all cutters, and along the surface of the bit. Bits
with large waterways have proven to significantly reduce the risk of
229

bit balling.
The remainder of this paragraph will be limited to optimisation of

bottom hole cleaning for roller cone bits.
In general, two theories on the subject of bottom hole cleaning are

supported:
• Bit hydraulic power: It is assumed that chip removal depends

on the fluid energy dissipated at the bit. Therefore the
hydraulic power at the bit should be maximised.
• Jetting (impact) force: It is assumed that the bottom is cleaned
best when the drilling fluid hits the rock at maximum force.
Therefore the hydraulic impact force should be maximised.
The magnitudes of both impact force and hydraulic power expended

at the bit vary according to the following factors:
• Diameter and number of nozzles fitted at the bit.

• Circulating rate through the bit.
• The drilling fluid density or drilling fluid gradient.
There are a number of limitations or constraints for any given

circulating system which directly affect optimisation. These
230

constraints are:
• Upper and lower limits set on annular velocity.

• Maximum pumping speed and therefore circulating rate with
the pumps available on the rig.
• Maximum practical operating pressure, often dictated by the
pump liner size fitted or the pressure rating of the surface
equipment.
The pump output and standpipe pressure can be determined

accurately for any given drilling situation. The standpipe pressure, as
has been explained, is considered to be the sum of all the friction
losses in and around the drill string. The pressure drop at the bit is
included in the total sum.
To simplify a direct approach to optimising drilling hydraulics the

pressure drop at the bit is separated as the only useful pressure
drop. System or parasitic pressure losses in and around the drill
string are, however, unavoidable. The only direct control over the
hydraulic energy expended at the bit is by keeping the system losses
to a minimum or in proper relation to the useful pressure drop across
the bit.
231

This can be achieved by:
• proper selection of nozzle sizes.

• operating at optimum flow rate but within rated pressure.
In the latter case it should be remembered that operating rig pumps

at high pressure ratings will be uneconomical with regard to spare
parts and fuel consumption.
The two approaches will now be considered in more detail. In the

first approach the assumption is that the best penetration rate is
achieved if cuttings are removed efficiently from below the bit. It is
then assumed that the most efficient cutting removal is achieved by
maximising the hydraulic power available at the bit. In the second
approach the assumption is that the formation is best removed by
maximising the jet impact force. These two approaches are
summarised in the following Table.
232

The most popular approach is that of maximising the hydraulic power

developed at the bit although with some formations, notably soft
formations, maximising hydraulic impact force is preferred. There are
other approaches, including maximising the jet velocity and
optimising the fluid energy with respect to the bit diameter. These
approaches are seldom used, hence they are not considered here.
Each of the two main approaches, the maximum hydraulic power at

the bit and the maximum jet impact force, will be examined in turn.
The procedure for optimising drilling hydraulics using the two
approaches is summarised in the flowchart below.
233

1.2.5.2 MAXIMUM HYDRAULIC POWER AT THE BIT
In Topic 2.2.8 an expression was found for the hydraulic power at

the bit in terms of the pump or circulating pressure, the pressure
losses in the system, and the flow rate
234

Thus, in order to maximise the hydraulic power at the bit we have to

ensure that this expression has a maximum value.
It was said that it is normal practice to operate circulating pumps at a

constant pressure. So in the expression for the hydraulic power at
the bit Pt will be effectively constant for a particular well. Thus the
only variable on the right hand side of the expression is Q, the flow
rate. Therefore the maximum hydraulic power will be developed at
the bit when its derivative with respect to the flow rate is zero.
i.e. Maximum hydraulic power at the bit is when
235

differentiating,
Thus maximum hydraulic power at the bit is when
that is, when
But since the hydraulic power at the bit will be a

maximum
when:
To obtain a similar relationship between the power at the bit and the
system losses, Ps from the equation can be substituted in the
above to give:
1.2.5.3 MAXIMUM JET IMPACT FORCE
When maximizing the hydraulic power at the bit the method was as
236

follows.
• Obtain an expression for the hydraulic power at the bit in

terms of one variable, Q (This was possible because the pump
operating pressure was taken to be fixed).
• Differentiate with respect to Q and equate the derivative to
zero
• Obtain an expression for Ps in terms of Pt and N
• Obtain an expression for Pb in terms of Pt and N
By a worked example it was then possible to show that given values

of Pt and , and calculated Q and N led to a value of Pb. The method
is essentially the same for maximising the jet impact force. Thus the
first step is to obtain an expression for the jet impact force in terms
of the flow rate, Q .
In Topic 2.2.9 the jet impact force is given by
If we consider that for a given situation the drilling fluid gradient, , is
237

constant then the expression for the jet impact force can be written
as:
where k is a constant
238

239

It is now possible to obtain an expression for Pb in terms of Pt and N

when the jet impact force is maximised.
1.2.5.4 HYDRAULIC SLIDE RULES
Hydraulic slide rules are supplied by equipment manufacturers in

both metric and field units, and these can be used in the field to
determine the different pressure drops in the system.
The procedure to be followed to determine the various pressure

drops is usually indicated clearly on the slide rule and the values
240

obtained are acceptable for many situations.
It is important to remember that all hydraulic slide rules are based on

equations which are valid only for flow regimes occurring during
normal drilling operations; therefore their accuracy is limited. Values
obtained from slide rules when inputting unusually high or low flow
rates, as could be required for special or abnormal circumstances,
e.g. Slim Hole Drilling, well killing or cementing, should be considered
very carefully indeed.
When more accurate values are required for system pressure losses,
computer packages such as Wellplan for Windows and subsequent
replacements should be used.
1.2.6 Reduced drilling hydraulics

So far in Part 2.2 we have been concerned to achieve optimum
hydraulic conditions in order to drill at the best possible speed,
without reservations. However, sometimes there are factors present
that prevent the use of optimum hydraulics. In such cases 'reduced'
drilling hydraulics are used even though it is known that maximum
penetration rates will not be achieved.
241

The occasions when reduced drilling hydraulics are used include the
following.
• when drilling poorly consolidated formations

• when losses are anticipated
• when large nozzles are being used or nozzles have been
omitted to allow the use of lost circulation material
• when using hydraulic motors
• when using special deviation tools e.g. MWD
The major concern is with poorly consolidated formations.
In these formations erosion by the drilling fluid can occur and the
hole may be enlarged greatly above its nominal size. Once a washout
is started, conditions can deteriorate rapidly and large quantities of
formation slough into the hole. Eventually the hole can collapse and
bridging off results.
Large washouts also contribute to mechanical problems with the drill

string (vibration). They interfere with logging and with running
casing. Large irregular holes make successful primary cementation
difficult if not impossible and therefore reduce isolation between
potentially productive reservoirs. An inadequate cement column in
these situations often later proves very costly since lost production
242

frequently occurs as a result of remedial action. It is better to drill an

in-gauge hole using reduced drilling hydraulics than a hole that was
drilled in record time but which needs some remedial repair work
later in its life time.
Hole enlargement in these cases can be avoided by.
• ensuring that annular flow conditions are kept in the laminar

range
• limiting the annular velocity to a specified value
• limiting jet velocity to a locally determined empirical value
1.2.7 Advanced flow calculations

The accurate prediction of annular pressures is important both for
well control and for the prevention of formation damage. The
calculation of the dynamic contribution to these pressures is more
critical in Slim Hole Drilling (SHD) operations than in conventional
ones, because the annular clearances at the Bottom Hole Assemblies
are small, and the generated pressures can be strongly dependent on
the flow rate and fluid properties. Also the higher temperatures and
pressures in HP/HT drilling operations make these calculations more
demanding and a number of deviations from existing field practice
243

are required.
Firstly it is of greater importance to use a sufficiently flexible flow

model for the description of the drilling fluid rheology. This is
particularly the case for dedicated SHD drilling fluids which are often
designed to have a strongly shear-thinning behaviour. In MODRILL
the three-parameter Herschel-Bulkley model is used to describe the
laminar flow characteristics. It has been shown to provide a near-
optimum description for a wide range of drilling fluids and cements, if
combined with a non-linear data fitting procedure (see the report
RKSR.90.079 by A. A. Draad). This model contains the more familiar
Power Law and Bingham Plastic models as special cases. These are
also available as a user option. The Power Law model remains central
in the determination of the flow regime (laminar, turbulent, or
transitional), and in the calculation of turbulent pressure losses.
It appears to be of even more importance to base the estimation of

the fluid model parameters on a sufficiently representative body of
measured data. In particular, supplied values of the "Plastic Viscosity"
(PV) and "Yield Point" (YP) only (or the 300 and 600 RPM Fann
readings) are insufficient for accurate pressure predictions. They only
allow for the use of limited two-parameter models of which the
parameters then become severely dependent on measurement
244

accuracy. In practice one needs measurements (preferably 6 or

more) taken at a wide range of shear rates (Fann speeds), which
allow the Herschel-Bulkley model to be used and which tend to
average out measurement errors.
Finally, it can be essential to take the pressure and temperature

dependence of the drilling fluid rheology into account in HP/HT
drilling operations (see the report RKAS.91.1 by L. A. Donders). In
MODRILL the fluid model parameters can be based on Fann readings
measured at different pressures and/or temperatures according to
the method recommended by Draad.
1.2.8 Appendix (1): Determining "c"

and "N"
• DATA
Before starting a trip out at 3,150 m (9,460 ft) to change the bit, 311
mm with 3 x 11·1 mm (121/4" with 3 x 14/32") nozzles the following
readings were taken:
Pump rate Circulating pressure
spm kPa psi
245

160 24,000 3,480
135 18,200 2,640
110 12,480 1,810
88 8,480 1,230
Drill string in use:127 mm (5"), 29·0 kg/m (19·5 lb/ft), G105, drill
pipe, and 192 m of 210 mm x 76·2 mm (630' x 81/4" x 3") drill
collars. The 339·7 mm (133/8"), 79·5 daN/m (54·5 lb/ft), N80, casing
is set at 1,524 m (5,000').
Mud pumps: two single-acting triplex pumps, with 6" liner, 10"
stroke, 97·5 % volumetric efficiency.
The drilling fluid gradient in use is: 15·29 kPa/m (0·676 psi/ft), with
of 16 cP and of 11 lbs/100 ft2.
• REQUIRED
Calculate for each circulation rate (Q).
Calculate N and c for a minimum of three combinations and obtain

the average.
• SOLUTIONS
246

The solutions are given in SI units and in Field units
• SOLUTION IN SI UNITS
For a triplex pump:
Therefore = 0·0386 x 10 x 62 x 160 x 0·975 = 2,168 l/min
Similarly = 1,829 l/min
247

248

1.2.9 Appendix (2): Determination of

other parameters
• DATA
Use the data of Appendix 1.
• REQUIRED
• For max. hydraulic horsepower at the bit, calculate and ,

assuming the maximum pump pressure to be used is 22,500
kPa (3,250 psi).
• Determine the size of the nozzles for the next bit, to obtain
optimum hydraulics.
• Calculate bit and total hydraulic horsepower for the next bit
run.
249

• Calculate annular velocity around drill pipe 127 mm (5").

• Calculate nozzle velocity.
• SOLUTION
• FOR MAXIMUM HYDRAULIC POWER AT THE BIT:
We have seen that the optimum flow rate is determined by the

carrying capacity of the drilling fluid and the degree of erosion the
flow will give in the open hole. We have established that the
optimum flow rate is the minimum rate required to clean the hole.
Fullerton's approximation will give us the minimum annular velocity
required to clean the hole (see Topic 2.4). Knowing this velocity, drill
pipe size, and hole size, the optimum flow rate can then be obtained.
The solutions are given in SI units and in Field units
SOLUTION IN SI UNITS
For drilling fluid with gradient 15·29 kPa/m in a 311 mm hole the
minimum flow rate is 1,835 l/min (Table 2.2.3 in Topic 2.4).
It now needs to be checked whether this flow rate will allow us to

obtain the maximum hydraulic power at the bit, which is obtained
when:
250

The best way to find the system pressure loss is by circulating

through the system at the flow rate which will be used; this gives .
can be accurately calculated and thus can be obtained from
A new can also be calculated if a previous system loss is known by

using:
The circulation test gave for N a value of 1á44. The system pressure
loss using the optimum flow rate of 1,835 l/min will be (use figures
obtained from the test with a flow rate closest to the optimum
251

circulation rate, which is = 1,829 l/min):
for optimum circulation will be (1á44 + 1) x 8,713 = 21,260 kPa.
Maximum pump pressure is given as 22,500 kPa. Therefore the

Maximum hydraulic power at the bit method can be used.
3 times 13 nozzles gives the closest match with 250.9 mm2.
The actual pressure drop over the nozzles will be
Bit hydraulic horsepower:
Total hydraulic horsepower:
ANNULAR VELOCITY:
252

SOLUTION IN FIELD UNITS
For drilling fluid density of 0á676 psi/ft and drilling a 121/4" hole the
minimum flow rate is 485 gpm (Table 2.2.3 in Topic 2.4).
for optimum circulation will be (1á44 + 1) x 1,274 = 3,109 psi.
Maximum pump pressure is given as 3250 psi. Therefore the

Maximum hydraulic power at the bit method can be used.
3 times 13 nozzles gives the closest match with 0á3889 inch2.
The actual pressure drop over the nozzles will be
Bit hydraulic horsepower:
253

Total hydraulic horsepower:
ANNULAR VELOCITY:
1.3 WELL CONTROL: PRINCIPLES

AND PRACTICES
254

1.3.1 Introduction
During the majority of operations associated with drilling, completing,
working over and eventually abandoning a well it is necessary to
maintain control over the fluids that occur in the pore-spaces of
formations being penetrated by the well. These fluids can be subject
to extreme pressures and temperatures in-situ although these are
not pre-requisites for the fluids to cause well control problems!
Failure to maintain control over these fluids can result in a

spontaneous and sometimes rapid flow of the fluid into the well bore.
The rate of flow is determined by the degree of imbalance between
the well bore and reservoir pressures combined with the permeability
of the reservoir. In its initial stages, such a flow is called a kick.
When such a flow is not controlled and deteriorates in an
uncontrolled manner it is described as a blow-out.
Blow-outs can have a very visible environmental impact and, for that
reason alone are very damaging for the Operator. The initial stages
of a blow-out can also be very hazardous to personnel and cause
major damage to equipment in the vicinity of the well. Control and
recovery costs can be in the order of $10-$100 million. However, the
blow-out can also cause significant damage to the producing
255

reservoir through depletion and creation of preferential gas and

water flow paths. It can also have a secondary impact on overlying
formations which may become polluted or abnormally pressurised.
These factors impact on operations long after the surface
environmental impact has been resolved.
It is, therefore, critical that Well Engineering staff know how to

manage this hazard through:
• prevention - using primary control techniques and

• control and recovery - if an under-balanced situation does
occur; how to control it and regain primary control.
The procedures associated with regaining primary control are called

secondary control measures. These aim to regain control with
minimum impact to the immediate and long term integrity and
productivity of the well. Should these measures fail then more drastic
tertiary well control measures may be applied.
1.3.2 Formation pressures

1.3.2.1 ORIGINS
Two values are significant during the planning and drilling of a well;
256

the pore pressure gradient and the overburden pressure gradient. To

understand these gradients and the pressures that they can generate
and therefore be encountered whilst drilling it is necessary to
appreciate the origins of the pressures.
The majority of the formations drilled through in hydrocarbon

exploration and production operations is sedimentary. The material
has settled out either in air or water and is subsequently covered by
more material and buried. The majority of this action occurs in water.
Depending on the nature of the material it behaves differently when
compressed. Fine clay particles tend to have little inherent strength
and so deform and compress tightly together, squeezing out the
water around it to form claystones and shales with little or no
porosity or permeability. Coarser and stronger, sand particles tend
to retain some strength and support each other leaving gaps
between, called pores, which will generally be initially filled with
water. Over time, minerals in the water that they are deposited in
can precipitate and cause the grains to become cemented together.
Limestone, originating from calcareous material in the water, tends to
lose porosity under pressure and temperature. However, its friable
nature often causes it to crack or fracture over time and these then
can become filled with water or other fluids.
257

Consequently, under ideal circumstances, a stratigraphic column of

rock formation consists of two phases, a solid and a fluid phase. The
solid phase is formed by the rock material, and the fluid phase by
water, oil, or gas which fills any pore or fracture space between the
grains. The degree to which these pores or fractures are linked such
that fluid can flow through the rock is the permeability.
The total weight of any volume of porous rock (Wt) equals the sum of
the weight of the grains or matrix (Wm) and the weight of the pore
contents (Wo).
Wt = Wm + W o
Considering a column of unit cross-sectional area from surface to a

given depth gives the vertical load per unit area at that depth, i.e.
the vertical stress or pressure in the formation. Wt yields what is
known as the overburden stress denoted by S; Wm yields the vertical
matrix stress *v and Wo yields the fluid pressure or Po
The rates of change of these stresses with depth are called

gradients. in units of psi/ft or kPa/m, which are just a different way
258

of expressing the density of the material. Taking the depth as Z,

which is conventional practice:
the bulk density
the matrix density
and the pore fluid density
A convenient concept is the equivalent gradient which is the total

stress (or pressure) divided by the total depth. The convenience
comes because the only way in which pressure can be applied in a
bore-hole is to fill it with a liquid of a certain density and, if
necessary, apply additional pressure at the top of the column. The
equivalent gradient at any depth is the gradient of the liquid column
which would produce the same stress/pressure as exists in the
formation without the application of additional pressure.
The relationship between pressure and depth can be illustrated using

a graph. Custom is such that these graphs are plotted with pressure
(P) on the horizontal axis and depth (Z) on the vertical axis, with zero
(= datum level) at the top corresponding to the physical system. A
constant gradient is plotted as a straight line (see Figure 2.3.1).
259

For pressure and gradient calculations during day-to-day operations

the datum level is usually derrick floor elevation (dfe), since that is
the top of the column of drilling fluid (in some areas the top of the
kelly bushing is taken as datum but in practice the difference is
negligible). Pressure plots are also frequently used to compare data
from different wells. For this purpose a common datum plane has to
be defined. The datum level is usually mean sea level for offshore
wells; for land wells it can be any convenient level such as the
average elevation of the area above mean sea level (rounded off to a
convenient figure). In the latter case the datum level has usually
been defined during the seismic campaign.
The overburden gradient or bulk density of formations penetrated

can be measured by the bulk density logging tool. When these
densities, measured in a well, are plotted, a step-like function of the
bulk densities versus depth is obtained. Each step represents a
change in lithology. Integrating the bulk density measurements to a
given depth gives the overburden stress at that depth, and averaging
these in an area will give a general trend like the curved line in
Figure 2.3.2b.
If no existing well data exists it is possible to make an estimate of the

overburden gradient. Assuming formation rock has a density of
260

approximately 2650 kg/m3 (26 kPa/m or 1.15 psi/ft):
A clay formation near the sediment/water interface has a porosity of

say 75%. Therefore the gradient of the bulk clay/water mixture is:
0·25 x 26 kPa/m + 0·75 x 9·81 kPa/m = 13·85 kPa/m
or
0·25 x 1·15 psi/ft + 0·75 x 0·433 psi/ft = 0·612 psi/ft
A sand formation near the sediment/water interface has a porosity of

35%. The combined bulk gradient of the mixture in this case is:
0·65 x 26 kPa/m + 0·35 x 9·81 kPa/m = 20·33 kPa/m
or
0·65 x 1·15 psi/ft + 0·35 x 0·433 psi/ft = 0·899 psi/ft
The overburden gradient line (Figure 2.3.2a) is, in actual fact, a

curved line as compaction normally causes the density of rock to
increase with depth. This behaviour depends on rock composition
and porosity. As a rule of thumb the overburden gradient is usually
taken to be 22·6 kPa/m (1·0 psi/ft although it can vary between 13·8
kPa/m (0·6 psi/ft) and 24·86 kPa/m (1·1 psi/ft). In areas where
261

active sedimentation takes place like the Gulf Coast, offshore North
West Borneo and Nigeria a value of 20·6 kPa/m (0·9 psi/ft) is more
accurate due to the amount of water retained in the rock.
Formation pore fluid density can be obtained by using logging tools

which measure the pressure at a series of depths within the
formation. Measured water gradients are usually between 9·81
kPa/m (0·433 psi/ft) for pure fresh water and 10·52 kPa/m (0·465
psi/ft) but may be as high as 11·31 kPa/m (0·5 psi/ft) for saturated
salt water pore fluid. Sea water is assumed to have a gradient of
10·07 kPa/m (0·445 psi/ft).
262

Figure 2.3.2: The relationship between bulk density and overburden

gradient
1.3.2.2 PORE PRESSURE PROFILES
Formations are conventionally classified as normally pressured,

under-pressured or over-pressured.
Any pore pressure of the liquid or gas phase in the formation, as

measured by logging tools, may be plotted on a graph similar to the
263

one shown in Figure 2.3.1, and as indicated on that graph the

position in which it is plotted will indicate into which pressure regime
it falls.
These pressure regimes do not have strictly quantitative definitions,

being based on the practical matter of what drilling fluid gradient is
required to balance the pore pressure. Because of this the boundaries
between them are less well defined than shown in the graph and
may vary according to the context and to local custom.
1.3.2.2.1 NORMAL PRESSURE REGIME
Looking at Figure 2.3.1 it can be seen that two cases of hydrostatic

gradient are shown; these correspond to water with zero salinity and
water with a highish (but not extreme) salinity. In general if a plotted
pressure falls between these two lines the formation is said to be
normally pressured at that depth and a normal unweighted drilling
fluid can be used while drilling through it.
A normally pressured formation will usually have a hydraulic

connection to the water table level although this does not have to be
vertical, i.e. the connection could happen some distance away via
connections with other formations, non-sealing faults etc. In this case
the water table will generally be at approximately the same elevation
264

as the drilling location.
In a region known to have unusually high formation water salinities,

and thus densities, the formation pressure would still be called
"normal" or "hydrostatic" even though the plotted pressure is in the
overpressure region of the chart (as long as it is consistent with the
known pore fluid densities).
1.3.2.2.2 SUB-NORMAL PRESSURE REGIME
Formations with pore pressures which plot below the hydrostatic

region shown in Figure 2.3.1 (or below the locally accepted normal
pressure region) are said to have a Sub-Normal or Sub-
Hydrostatic pressure regime. If a formation in the region mentioned
above has a pore pressure equivalent to a gradient of 10.2 kPa/m
(0.45 psi/ft) it would probably be referred to as under-pressured,
depending on local custom, even though it would be a normal
pressure elsewhere.
Sub-normal pressures can be caused by the following situations:
• Low water table or high drilling location elevation

• Reservoir depletion
• Tectonic extension after compression
265

• Low water table or High Elevation
In mountainous or arid areas it is possible for the water table to be

deep below the surface at the drilling location. The top hole is then
drilled through dry rock. Here the pore pressure is zero and the
matrix stress alone defines the overburden down to the water table.
Below the water table po then plays a part. This situation is illustrated
in Figure 2.3.3.
Figure 2.3.3: The effect of a low water table or high location elevation
For example if the water table is at 1000 m (3,281 ft) bdf and the
formation fluid gradient is 10 kPa/m (0·442 psi/ft) then the pressure
P at a depth D will be given by:
266

P = 10 kPa/m x (D - 1,000) m P = 0·442 psi/ft x (D - 3,281) ft
From surface it is said that the formation pressure is underpressured

by 1,000 m x 10 kPa/m = 10,000 kPa or 3,281 ft x 0·442 psi/ft =
1,450 psi.
• Depleted Reservoirs
It has been stated that a normally pressured reservoir usually has a

hydraulic connection to the local water table level. This connection
can be tenuous and of low permeability, and can sometimes even
have been lost as a result of sealing faults, salt intrusions etc. This
situation is often described by saying that a reservoir has little or no
natural water drive. Consequently, if such a reservoir is produced
the pressure in the reservoir will drop by the process of expansion to
less than that calculated from the normal gradient (unless it is
artificially maintained by gas or water injection).
• Tectonic extension after compression
If a reservoir rock with permeability and porosity becomes sealed

after deposition, and is then extended or expanded due to tectonic
stresses acting on it, the effect can be to expand the fluid in the pore
spaces and so reduce the pressure. The effect will be to reduce the
267

pore pressure to less than that generated by the local hydrostatic

pressure gradient.
1.3.2.2.3 OVER-PRESSURED PRESSURE REGIME
Formations with pore pressures which plot above the hydrostatic

region shown in Figure 2.3.1 (or above the locally accepted normal
pressure region) are said to have an Abnormal or Over-Pressured
pressure regime.
Over-pressures may be the result of:
• High water table or low elevation

• Hydrocarbon bearing formations
• Abnormal sedimentary burial circumstances
• Osmotic action
Whilst sub-normal or sub-hydrostatic formations can cause drilling

problems such as losses or stuck pipe due to the pressure difference
between the well bore and the formation pores (assuming that the
well is kept full with water as a minimum!), over-pressures can cause
more significant problems such as borehole instability, kicks and
blow-outs. Consequently it is important to understand how over-
pressures can occur and how they can be predicted and identified at
268

an early stage.
• High Water Table / Low Elevation
This is the opposite situation to a low water table/high elevation

described above. When the well is drilled from a location below the
water table or into a permeable formation linked to an aquifer at a
higher level, the formation pressure will be greater than that
generated by a hydrostatic gradient from the rig floor. This situation
can lead to artesian flow from shallow aquifers (as used in London
and Paris for drinking water production). Typically, problems can
occur when entering the first porous, permeable formation after
drilling through surface clays, claystones or shales.
• Hydrocarbon Bearing Formations
The permeability of shale to hydrocarbons is extremely low and can

be considered to be zero. Once hydrocarbons are trapped below a
sealing shale the system is closed at the top. Figure 2.3.4 shows the
basic principle.
269

Figure 2.3.4: "Gas effect" over-pressures
As the aquifer is open to the base, the water bearing part of the
reservoir will be hydrostatically pressurised.
Although a normal hydrostatic pressure may exist at the

hydrocarbon-water contact, the column of low density oil, condensate
or gas on top will result in pore pressures above hydrostatic. The
difference between the pore pressure and the hydrostatic pressure
increases with distance from the Oil-Water Contact (OWC) or Gas-
Water Contact (GWC) with the highest over-pressure at the top of
the reservoir (see Figure 2.3.4). This abnormal pressure resulting
from displacement of water by less dense fluids or gas is called
270

genetic pressure.
Often there is a small pressure difference at the OWC as oil is pushed

down through the pore throats replacing the formation water. This
pressure difference can be substantial if pore throats are very small
(e.g. in chalk). The pressure is a result of the gradient required to
produce flow and of working against the capillary effect.
• Abnormal Burial Conditions
The conditions under which the sedimentary material is deposited

and subsequently buried can give rise to abnormally pressurised
formation. A number of these mechanisms are reviewed below.
Undercompaction: Abnormal pressures arising from rapid burial of

water saturated sediments are referred to as geopressures
(sometimes referred to as depopressures or undercompaction
pressures). This phenomenon is the mechanism that has caused the
majority of overpressured formations in existence. Depo-, geo- or
undercompaction pressures are created by the resistance of low
permeability rock to the escape of trapped fluid. The permeability of
clean sandstones, limestones and dolomites is generally too high to
develop overpressures from undercompaction. However, the
permeability of clay or shale decreases with compaction to extremely
271

low values.
As the process of burial proceeds a specific increment of overburden

load normally causes a rock matrix to compact by a specific
corresponding amount, provided that there is enough time available
for the pore fluid to escape from the reducing pore space. Under
such conditions the pore pressure in the rock remains in hydrostatic
equilibrium with that in the overlying formations and remains normal.
If, however, the burial process proceeds too quickly the pore fluid will
not be able to flow out of the formation at a rate which allows the
same matrix compression rate to be achieved. The fluid will then
have to support part of the overburden load and will therefore
become overpressured. The formation is said to be undercompacted.
An alternative way of looking at the situation is that as the rock is put

under compressive stress by the increasing overburden the pore fluid
always supports part of this increasing load. The increasing pore
pressure thus creates a differential which causes the pore fluid to
flow out of the formation. If the ratio of permeability to rate of
increase of load is high enough the system will stabilise with a low
elevation of the pore pressure. If the converse is the case equilibrium
will be reached with a high pore pressure.
272

Significant factors in creating an overpressure under these conditions

are:
• the permeability of the clay or shale which decreases with

compaction.
• the thickness of the shale through which the water must
escape.
• the potential compaction that could occur in the shale at the
applied load.
• the rate of burial.
As mentioned above continuous beds of sandstones, limestones and

dolomites do not become undercompacted because their permeability
is high. If, however, a lens of a high permeability material is
completely enclosed in a compacting clay (later to become shale) the
pore fluid can no more escape from that than from the clay itself.
The pore fluid will thus remain in pressure equilibrium with the fluid
in the clay immediately surrounding it and the lens will become
undercompacted and overpressured
Due to the minimal permeability of shales, drilling into an

undercompacted and therefore overpressured shale will normally only
lead to borehole stability problems. Drilling into an overpressured
273

porous lens can lead to a kick. However, if the lens is only water
filled even a very small expansion of the sealed system will result in a
substantial drop in fluid pressure, given the low compressibility of the
pore water (4·35 x 10-7 kPa-1 or 3 x 10-6 psi-1). If, for example, the
pore space is allowed to expand by as little as 0·1 of a per cent, the
pressure of the pore water will decrease by 0·001/4·35 x 10-7 kPa-1
= 2,299 kPa (0·001/3 x 10-6 psi-1 = 333 psi).
If, on the other hand, the formation has become partially gas filled
due to degradation of material in the surrounding shale, the potential
exists for a high pressure, high volume gas kick.
Diagenesis: Phase changes in the matrix material of the rock can

cause overpressures. Some types of rock under the influence of
pressure and temperature alters their structure and composition,
resulting in a reduction in pore volume and/or an increase in the
amount of formation fluid. Such a change could cause a pore
pressure increase in a sealed system. For example in sand/shale
sequences montmorillonite or smectite clays change to illite at about
220°F. This alteration frees water with a volume in excess of the
reduction in volume of montmorillonite or smectite altered. If
expulsion is inhibited, these liquids will, with continued burial, absorb
increasing load. The effective stress will increase more slowly and
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abnormal pore pressures will result.
Tectonic pressures: Tectonic phenomena such as sliding,

piercements (volcanic), shearing, diaperic movements (salt, clay),
uplifts (mountain building), thrust, etc. can add energy to the
pressure system in a geological area resulting in abnormal pore
pressures in formations from which fluids cannot escape.
• Osmosis:
Two reservoirs separated by an impermeable membrane may

develop a pressure differential across the membrane as a function of
a difference in the salinity of the formation liquid. As clay may act as
such a membrane and because salinity changes occur in the
subsurface, osmosis could have some potential to create abnormal
pressures. Tests have proved that a pressure differential of 21 to 28
kPa (or 3 to 4 psi) could be generated by osmosis across a clay
membrane.
1.3.2.3 PREDICTION
Due to the drilling problems that both abnormally and sub-normally

pressured formations can cause it is important to be able to predict
them. Depending on the nature of the drilling operation this may be
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during the planning stages of a well or whilst actually drilling the

well.
• Prediction whilst planning

• Warning signs while drilling
1.3.2.3.1 PREDICTION WHILST PLANNING

1.3.2.3.1.1 Offset Well Information
When planning a development or appraisal well, information from

offset wells can provide indicators of over-pressure. Key
information is:
• Pore Pressure measurements (e.g. RFT logs)

• Drill-speed logs - drillability should reduce with depth in
shales (see later section on "d" exponent)
• Formation bulk density logs (compaction and thus bulk density
should generally increase with depth in shales)
• Formation Fluid contact levels (OWC, GOC, GWC) - these tend
to remain almost constant across a field (assuming the
absence of sealing faults) and thus their depths, combined
with formation depth estimates, can provide sufficient
information to estimate formation pressure gradients along the
proposed well path. Given that depth prognoses tend to have
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margins of error associated with them, it is normal to make

pore pressure prediction estimates based on the worst
reasonable case scenario (but not on the worst theoretically
possible case). This is generally a combination of a reasonable
estimate of the maximum reservoir height combined with a
reasonable estimate of the maximum hydrostatic pressure.
This data can be used to make a good estimate of the pore pressures
that may be encountered in the new well and so the casing scheme
and drilling fluid program can be designed accordingly. However,
pressure data has to be checked carefully to ensure that field
production operations have not caused changes in the reservoir
characteristics since the source well was drilled. These issues will
be discussed further later in the Part.
1.3.2.3.1.2 Regional Geology
Because the majority of causes of overpressures are related to the

depositional environment or history of the sedimentary rock, the
prediction of overpressures during well planning, in the absence of
any offset well information (e.g. when drilling a wildcat or first well
in an area), relies on either looking for indications of sedimentary
activity that has the potential to generate overpressures or,
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alternatively, extrapolating symptoms of overpressure that are visible

at or near the surface to underlying formations. In common with
hydrocarbons, often the only way to determine if overpressures
actually exist is to drill!
Complex studies of stratigraphic and hydrodynamic features have

been conducted in some areas of the world. These can be useful to
identify shallow overpressures caused by artesian flow conditions etc.
but are less likely to yield information about overpressures in
hydrocarbon bearing formations. Studies into the depositional
environment of an area may indicate the type of rapid burial that
can lead to over-pressures. Mathematical modelling is being applied
to the action of sedimentation and burial with the objective of
simulating the process of compaction and so identify areas where
overpressures may exist.
1.3.2.3.1.3 Geophysics
It is rare that exploration or appraisal drilling is initiated prior to the

completion of seismic profiling of the area. With modern processing
techniques it is possible to identify characteristics in the survey that
suggest the existence of over-pressured formations. Primarily they
identify undercompacted material due to poor response or slow
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transit times. These techniques become more reliable when

combined with log data from wells in the same province. Actual sonic
transit times in these wells can be compared to seismic data to
identify where undercompaction appears to have occurred.
Seismic surveys can show the presence of geological features known

to cause overpressures such as salt domes (causing formation
distortions), growth faults (in areas of rapid burial) etc. In addition,
the presence of gas can increasingly be suggested by seismic data;
bright spots indicating high amplitude reflections from gas filled (and
so relatively low bulk density) formations being identified on the
seismic maps.
1.3.2.3.2 WARNING SIGNS WHILST DRILLING
It is normally possible to identify that the well is entering an area of

overpressure before the latter manifests itself by a kick from a porous
and permeable formation. To exist, an overpressured formation must
be sealed, at least from above, by an impermeable layer.
Consequently a pressure gradient will exist across the impermeable
layer and the effects of this gradient provide the warning signs. The
nature of the impermeable layer is important; a very thin but
extremely impermeable layer (such as salt and limestone) will not
279

provide as many clues as one where the pressure gradient permeates

the formation (e.g. shale). The formation where pressure moves from
normally pressured is called the transition zone.
We will look at the following:
• Drilling Parameters
• Drilling fluid parameters
• Cuttings analysis
• Wireline logs & formation pressure evaluation
• Well seismic evaluation
1.3.2.3.2.1 Drilling Parameters
In general, the onset of abnormally pressured formations is

associated with an increase in the drillability of the formation. This is
a deviation from a general trend of reduced drillability with depth due
to compaction, increased stresses etc. Basically this increase can
manifest itself in two ways. In shale, where this shale is a pressure
transition zone, the increase will be gradual, while, when entering the
overpressured reservoir itself the increase will be more sudden. The
latter is normally called a drilling break. It should be noted that not
all increases in the drilling rate are a result of an increase in
formation pressure. It could simply have been the result of a change
280

in lithology. However, any unexplained increase in drilling rate should

always be investigated.
A number of attempts have been made to link the drilling parameters

to generate a measure of drillability . The best known was by Jorden
and Shirley * who demonstrated empirically that in homogeneous
shale formations, and with all other factors being equal, penetration
rate is proportional to the rotation rate of the bit.
of circumstances)
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d is an exponent which, relating penetration rate to weight on bit per

unit hole diameter, gives a measure of the "drillability" of the
formation
It was shown, still empirically, that combining the two above

equations into one:
gives a good approximation to the behaviour of a real system in

practice.
Given that the utility of such a relationship is to compare the

drillability of similar formations in similar circumstances, rather than
to establish the absolute value of a well defined parameter, the
equation is simplified by dropping the constant. The relative
drillabilities of similar formations in which only the penetration rate,
weight on bit, rotation rate and hole diameter vary is then given by
the value of "d" in the equation
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* Jorden, J.R. and Shirley, O.J., "Application of drilling performance

data to overpressure detection," Journal of Petroleum Technology,
November 1966
Given again that the objective is to make comparisons rather than

establish absolute values, the units in which penetration rate, weight
on bit, rotation rate and hole diameter are expressed do not affect
the final result. When working in oilfield units, in which penetration
rate is measured in ft/hour, weight on bit in lbs, rotation rate in rpm
and hole diameter in inches, the convention has grown to insert
factors to convert diameter to feet, to make the time units consistent
and to convert the weight on bit units into lbs x106.
Conventionally thus
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It has been found that the "d exponent" can additionally be adjusted
for drilling fluid density variations. This gives the compensated d
exponent, "dc" .
Although the connection cannot be

justified mathematically, the use of this
compensated d ("dc") exponent has proved
advantageous. These exponents were
developed for application in homogenous
shale intervals. They are less reliable in
variable lithology, sandstone and limestone.
However, it is very likely that a sealing cap
rock is a shale so it does have relevance.
Additionally, the equation was specifically
developed for Gulf Coast conditions where
drilling shale is the norm; it should therefore
be used with caution in other areas. Figure 2.3.5
Figure 2.3.5 illustrates the indication of

change given by the "d exponent”.
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Other algorithms have been developed that require significant

processing of raw data such as Geoservice's Sigmalog, Baroid's Log
Normalised Drilling Rate (LNDR) and Anadrill's Instantaneous
Drilling Evaluation Log (IDEL) or A-exponent. These and others
may be provided as a standard or additional Mud-Logging service.
1.3.2.3.2.2 Drilling fluid parameters
A number of indications can be observed in the drilling fluid returns.

These, again, have to be assessed in conjunction with the drilling
parameters and the drilling environment. Relevant parameters
include:
• Drilling fluid gas levels
The gas content of the drilling fluid can be measured crudely using
stand- alone methane (CH4) meters or more sophisticated gas
chromatographs (usually in Mud Logging units). The following
parameters may be useful:
• Background gas levels (very small quantities of gas

contained in claystone/shale ) generally increase from ambient
values when drilling into undercompacted shales.
• Gas shows (from the pores of gas-containing reservoir rock
285

being drilled) will be apparent when a hydrocarbon reservoir is

entered. The degree of the shows is dependant on the pore
pressure of the rock. Excessive gas shows suggests a minimal
overbalance on bottom.
• Trip / Connection gas may be observed due to slight
reductions in bottom hole pressure due to a loss of the back
pressure due to fluid friction in the annulus when the pumps
are stopped plus a swabbing effect whilst picking up to make a
connection or when tripping. Again, high readings tend to
suggest that there is minimal overbalance on bottom.
• Gas composition from a gas chromatograph - a service
offered by Mud Logging Units - can also provide indications of
overpressures. The ratio of methane to ethane generally
reduces as levels of ethane increase in transition zones or
overpressured formations.
• H2S levels - The presence of increasing levels of H2S in the
drilling fluid whilst drilling evaporites can also be an indication
of the onset of overpressures
• Drilling fluid density
Reductions in drilling fluid density may be caused by increased gas

content (see earlier) or increasing water content. In low permeability
286

formations this may be observed in place of a higher volume kick.
• Drilling fluid temperature
Temperature gradients (dT/dZ) in undercompacted formations tend

to be greater than in normally compacted formations. Normally, the
flow line temperature of the drilling fluid, under conditions of uniform
cooling etc. should increase regularly with depth. If the increase
deviates from the established pattern it can indicate the onset of
over-pressures. This effect is, however, generally masked by changes
in circulation rate, drilling fluid characteristics, tripping as well as riser
cooling effects, particularly in deep water operations.
• Drilling fluid resistivity
Associated with increased formation water content in the drilling

fluid, this parameter can back up others such as density provided
there is sufficient contrast in the salinity of the drilling fluid and
formation water. Increased levels of sulphur salts in the drilling fluid
whilst drilling evaporites can indicate over-pressures (see H2S).
1.3.2.3.2.3 Cuttings analysis
Careful analysis of cuttings samples can provide warning signs of
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impending overpressures:
• Shale density
Shale density can be measured relatively easily at the well site by

Mud-Loggers. In areas of undercompaction the density will not
increase with depth as fast as in normally pressured formations and
may even decrease. Plotted against depth this is a useful tool in
areas of long shale sections.
• Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC)
Shale is composed of four different clay minerals, kaolinite, illite,

montmorillonite and smectite. The ratios of these minerals change
with depth due to the transformation of smectite into illite with
increased pressure and temperature. A simple test can be performed
to estimate the amount of smectite in a sample of cuttings and this
value, when plotted against depth should show a negative gradient.
Deviation from this trend in a shale formation is indicative of entering
a transition or overpressured zone.
• Cuttings shape, size and abundance
In general, as a transition or over-pressured zone is penetrated,

increased borehole instability caused by a reduced drilling fluid
288

pressure overbalance can lead to increased volumes of larger, more

angular cuttings. This may be associated with other indications of
borehole instability such as over-pulls etc. It is important to realise,
however, that such features are not indicative in isolation as they can
be caused by other factors such as tectonic stress etc.
1.3.2.3.2.4 Wireline logs & formation pressure evaluation
Many logging tools used for petrophysical analysis can give

indications of overpressured formations or transition zones,
predominantly through identifying shale undercompaction.
• Density
Under normal compaction conditions, shale density increases with

depth. Consequently, a change in the density gradient can suggest a
transition zone or overpressures.
• Resistivity
Shale density and therefore resistivity tends to increase with

compaction and depth. Reductions in resistivity can indicate
overpressures.
• Sonic
289

Sonic transit times reduce as density increases. Thus, an increase in

the transit time can indicate overpressures.
• Formation pressure
Ultimately, a series of formation pressure measurements will provide

quantitative evidence of the existence of over-pressures. However,
these require porous, permeable formations and cannot give warning
of the existence of a transition zone.
1.3.2.3.2.5 Well seismic evaluation
Seismic check shots or a Vertical Seismic Profile can be

conducted in the well and the time/depth data used to correct the
original seismic interpretations which may have been based on
assumed velocities in various rock formations. These corrections can
assist in more accurately predicting the depth of deeper sites of
undercompaction and thus possible overpressures.
1.3.2.4 SHALLOW GAS

1.3.2.4.1 INTRODUCTION
Shallow gas deposits account for 41% of all recorded blowouts in the
Gulf of Mexico and the North Sea since 1980. Over 50% of these
blowouts resulted in major damage to the drilling unit and many have
290

resulted in serious injury and death to personnel. Characteristics of

shallow gas blowouts are very little warning, very high flow-rates,
large volumes of abrasive sand, rapid equipment failure, gas leaks,
ignition and fires, all in conjunction with excessive noise. If one
commences it is virtually impossible to recover control until the gas
flow stops naturally, either due to exhaustion of the reservoir or
collapse of the bore hole.
1.3.2.4.2 DEFINITION
Various definitions for shallow gas deposits exist:
EP 88-1000 SIPM Shallow Gas Procedure Guidance Manual:

"gas that is encountered in the well which cannot be closed in,
because well shut-in pressures combined with the hydrostatic head of
the fluid in the well bore will probably result in formation breakdown
and subsequently cratering of the well. If BOP protection and normal
well killing procedures can be applied the gas is not considered to be
shallow gas".
Shell Expro: Well Engineering Information System (1995):

Shallow gas shall be taken to mean:
i. Hydrocarbon Gas accumulations encountered before setting surface
291

casing (first casing on which a BOP is installed)
ii. Hydrocarbon gas accumulations encountered after setting the

surface casing but where the well cannot be closed in.
1.3.2.4.3 ORIGINS OF SHALLOW GAS
Shallow gas can derive from two sources:
• Biogenic Gas: Biogenic gas is formed at shallow depth from

the decomposition of organic material (i.e. "swamp gas"). It is
primarily methane and tends to be found in-situ in the
decomposing material or in a very close reservoir. This type of
shallow gas is particularly prevalent in swampy areas as well as
in areas of rapid sedimentary deposition where there is a
significant amount of organic material being deposited.
• Petrogenic Gas: Petrogenic gas is generated at depth from
the degradation of hydrocarbon source material at elevated
temperature and pressure and has subsequently migrated into
a shallow reservoir rock overlain by a seal. Migration can have
occurred naturally over geological time or may have occurred
recently due to poorly cemented casing strings, internal blow-
outs etc. Alternatively, in rare circumstances, a deeply buried
gas reservoir can become uplifted or exposed near surface by
292

erosion of the original overburden. Petrogenic gas is

predominantly composed of Methane, Ethane and Propane.
Gas of either origin will only form a reservoir if it exists or

subsequently migrates into a permeable and porous formation
overlain by a sealing formation. The gas is commonly found in highly
porous and permeable unconsolidated sands overlain by clay or
claystone. Due to the depth of burial it is unusual for the reservoir to
be overpressured however, the "gas effect" can cause the top of the
reservoir to be abnormally pressured with respect to the local
hydrostatic gradient.
Shallow gas pockets can also form in cold environments without the
presence of an impermeable formation. Migrating gas cools to form
hydrates (solid mixtures of water and gas molecules) which, being
impermeable, trap additional gas. This environment is becoming
increasingly significant in deep water drilling operations where sea
bed temperatures can approach 0°C.
1.3.2.4.4 OPERATIONAL CONSTRAINTS
Given the shallow depth of burial and the very low formation strength
of overlying formations it is not normally possible to drill with
sufficient drilling fluid gradient to control shallow gas formations that
293

are overpressured due to the "gas effect". In addition it is generally

not possible to close in a well in the early stages of a shallow gas
blowout without the risk of breaking down the formation at the
previous casing shoe (if any) and cratering the formation around the
well. Consequently the only well control method available is to divert
the flow away from the rig whilst attempting to regain control of the
well or evacuating the location. The entrained sand and other
material causes significant damage to the diverting equipment and its
subsequent failure has been the primary cause of major shallow gas
incidents, many tragically with fatal consequences.
The plume of a flow of shallow gas has been postulated to cause

stability problems for floating drilling vessels, particularly drill-ships.
The flow of gas can also ignite at surface forming a hazard to the rig
itself as well as to evacuating personnel.
Other characteristics of a shallow gas kick/blowout are:
• difficulty in identifying initial well flow - particularly when

drilling from floating units and there is no return of drilling fluid
to surface.
• a rapid increase in flow - as the well starts to flow additional
gas rapidly reduces the hydrostatic head in the well and so
294

increases the flow rate. Total unloading of the well to gas can
happen in less than a minute leaving very little time for
analysis and reaction and making controlled reaction to a
shallow gas kick extremely difficult. If returns are to surface
the noise levels are exceedingly high, adding to the difficulty of
carrying out emergency procedures.
• whilst control may be held whilst drilling, rapid flow can start
when circulation ceases or when the hole is circulated clean of
drilled cuttings. Swabbing whilst tripping can initiate a shallow
gas kick and is difficult to identify when there are no returns to
surface. For this reason the standard procedure is to pump out
of the hole if there is any possibility of shallow gas.
1.3.2.4.5 PREDICTION
The primary defence against shallow gas is its identification and

avoidance at the well planning stage. As mentioned earlier, certain
depositional environments are more prone to shallow gas, particularly
of the Diagenic origin. However, Petrogenic shallow gas has the
potential to exist wherever a shallow sealing formation exists. In
addition, deep water hydrate formations can exist even in the
absence of a seal. The principle method of identification is through
the use of Seismic Surveys. These can be either analogue or digital
295

Shallow seismic surveys.
• Analogue surveys, combined with bathymetric

measurements and a sea bed sonar survey, provide a very
limited penetration into the sea bed, being primarily of use for
selecting a suitable drilling location.
• Digital surveys can be processed and analysed to identify
bright-spots in formations down to around 3,000 ft (1,000
m) and with thicknesses in excess of 15 ft (5 m)which are
indicative of the presence of shallow deposits of gas. (refer to
EP 88-1000 for additional data on shallow seismic surveys).
Shallow seismic can be augmented by small diameter soil boring

surveys (usually limited to 50 m penetration) and pilot hole drilling
from a conventional drilling rig. Pilot holes can be logged using
conventional petrophysical tools (Induction/SP/Sonic/Gamma
Ray/Caliper) to identify the presence of shallow gas deposits and
evaluate its characteristics.
Additional information on the operational precautions to be taken if

shallow gas is present can be found in Topic 4.3.3.
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1.3.3 Formation strength

In Topic 3.2 the origins and potential for abnormally-pressured

formations was explained. The basic principle of controlling these
pressures , as discussed in Topic 3.4, is to balance or exceed these
pore pressures with the hydrostatic head of the drilling fluid. This
principle defines the minimum drilling fluid gradient that can be
permitted (i.e. so that the formation pore pressure is just equalled or
exceeded. However, another limitation exists on selection of the
drilling fluid gradient; the maximum drilling fluid gradient that
the formation can withstand before fractures occur and develop in
the rock surrounding the well bore, the formation breakdown
gradient. These fractures have a tendency to propagate at a slightly
lower pressure, the fracture propagation pressure, than that
required to initiate them. The propagation opens up an increasingly
large volume of space causing losses of the drilling fluid into the
formation. It is also assumed that once a fracture has occurred in a
formation then the formation strength is reduced to a value
approaching the fracture propagation pressure. The relationship
between these pressures is discussed in the remaining sub-Topics of
297

this Topic.
The formation being drilled may dictate an even lower maximum

drilling fluid gradient.
• In some cases underpressured formations can be encountered

such that a significant differential pressure exists between the
drilling fluid column and pore pressure.
• In some cases fractures and cavities are encountered which
cannot be sealed off by a filter cake built up by the drilling
fluid, even with the addition of very coarse lost circulation
material (LCM), and the drilling fluid itself is then lost to the
formation unless its gradient can be reduced to the formation
gradient. Even if this can be done so that no losses occur in
the static situation there will still be losses while drilling and/or
circulating because of the increased fluid pressure on bottom
due to friction losses in the annulus and the cuttings load in
the annulus.
• In some areas both of these situations occur simultaneously. In
that case even a column of water cannot be supported and
drilling blind (without fluid returns) until an impermeable
zone has been reached may be necessary. Once the loss zone
has been passed and an impermeable zone has been reached
298

a casing string has to be set to improve the bore hole strength

before it is safe to drill deeper.
The procedure of drilling blind requires a good knowledge of the

formations to be penetrated, and is not advisable in exploration
wells.
Information about the anticipated formation strengths are required

for the preliminary casing design during the planning process.
Where this data is based on empirical estimates or extrapolation of
data from offset wells it is sometimes necessary to conduct a
Formation Strength Test (see later) to check the validity of the
information and so the integrity of the casing design.
More information on the subject of formation strength and its

measurement is to be found in the following EP Reports:
• EP 93-1993 the KSEPL Rock Mechanics Manual, Part 1 -

Introduction and Basics by C.A.M. Veeken (Report RKMR.
93.052,).
• EP 92-2000 Casing Design Guide
1.3.3.2 FORMATION STRESSES
299

One of the principle influences on the

strength of a particular formation is
the stress field existing in the rock
prior to drilling through it. It is
important to understand this
phenomena and the effects of drilling
operations on it.
Any element within a confined solid

body can be assumed to have forces
acting on it which can be resolved
into three components, at right
angles to each other. In any
particular case the values of the
components will depend on the
direction in which it is chosen to
Figure 2.3.6: Principal stresses
resolve the forces. If the directions in
which the forces are resolved are
such that one component reaches a
maximum and one reaches a minimum the stresses within the body
are known as the principal stresses, normally known as σ1, σ2 and σ3.
σ1 is the maximum principal stress and σ3 is the minimum
300

principal stress.
1.3.3.2.1 STRESS DISTRIBUTION IN THE FORMATION
In the case of a geological formation one of the forces acting on any

element within the rock is the weight of the rock (plus pore contents)
above it - known as the overburden. This gives the vertical stress σv .
There are also horizontal confining forces σh1 and σh2.
In the majority of sedimentary formations the greatest stress is that

caused by the overburden, and σv is σ1. It follows that σh1 is σ2 and
σh2 is σ3.
The two horizontal components, σh1 and σh2, combine to form a hoop
shaped stress distribution in the horizontal plane. The shape of this
field is dependant on the ratio between the maximum and minimum
horizontal confining stresses. In ideal circumstances these stresses
will be equal (i.e. a uniform horizontal stress) and the stress field
will be circular.
In rocks which have been subjected to folding and/or faulting and/or

other tectonic stresses (which applies to the majority of hydrocarbon
reservoirs, otherwise they would not have formed traps) the
horizontal stresses may not be equal, and in extreme cases one of
301

the maximum horizontal stresses may be greater than the vertical

stress. (In which case σh1 would be σ1.). However such cases are
rare, and extreme cases are very rare, because rock formations are
plastic in a geological time frame and after tectonic events any
abnormally high horizontal stresses will relax and a close
approximation to the usual stress situation will re-establish itself.
1.3.3.2.2 STRESS DISTORTION CAUSED BY THE BOREHOLE
The removal of formation to make a well bore distorts the pre-

existing stress field in the rock. An approximate calculation of this
distortion may be made by assuming that the rock is elastic, the bore
hole smooth and cylindrical, and both the bore hole axis and the
regional principal stress σ1 are vertical. In general, none of these
assumptions are precisely correct, but they will provide a close
approximation to the actual stresses. The stresses will therefore all
be viewed as the effective stresses carried by the rock in addition to
a hydrostatic fluid pressure "Po", which exists, and is assumed equal,
within the well bore as well as in the rock.A calculation of the stress
distribution around such a vertical bore hole could be made from the
solution in elastic theory for the stresses in an infinite plate
containing a circular hole, with its axis perpendicular to the plate,
which was first obtained by Kirsch, and is also given by Timoshenko,
302

and by Miles and Topping.
Figure 2.3.7: The hoop stress around a vertical borehole( 1 is vertical)
Such tangential stress is known as a "hoop stress field" (Figure

2.3.7).
It can be seen (see Figure 2.3.9a) that in every case the stress
concentrations are local and that the stresses rapidly approach the
303

undisturbed regional stresses within a few hole diameters. For the

case in which σ2/σ3 is 1.0, the stress field has radial symmetry and
the tangential stress at the walls of the hole is +2 σ3.
The vertical component of the stress is also distorted in the vicinity of

the bore hole. The initial vertical stress is equal to the effective
pressure of the overburden. However, the magnitude of this
distortion is small in comparison with the concentrations of the
horizontal stresses. In addition it rapidly disappears, with distance,
away from the well bore.
1.3.3.2.3 THE EFFECT OF PRESSURE APPLIED TO THE BOREHOLE
The application within the bore hole of a non-penetrating fluid

pressure, in excess of the original fluid pressure, produces
additional stresses.
The tangential stresses due to an additional pressure P in the well

bore are shown in Figure 2.3.8. The stresses given are those caused
by P alone, and to obtain the complete stress field it is necessary to
superimpose these stresses upon those caused by the pre-existing
regional stresses.
304

Figure 2.3.8: Stresses cause by P within the well bore
This is illustrated in Figures 2.3.9b and 2.3.9c in which a pressure

equal to 1.6 σ3 is applied to the well bore for the case in which σ2/ σ3
= 1.4 . That pressure is just sufficient to reduce σ3 to zero. In all
cases when the σ2/ σ3 ratio is greater than 1, the vertical plane
across which the stress first becomes zero as the well bore pressure
is increased is the plane perpendicular to σ3, the least principal
305

stress.
Figure 2.3.9: Superimposing fluid pressure stresses on the in-situ

stresses round a well bore
• Rupture Pressures (formation Breakdown Pressures)
In sections of a well bore through consolidated rock with any

significant length it is probable that quite a few rock layers have been
intersected. As cementing between layers will be weak if non-
existent. the tensile strength between the layers can be
306

negligible. Each layer, however will have its own unique tensile
strength depending upon its structure, compaction and cementation.
This tensile strength will exist both vertically and horizontally but may
differ in value. Consequently, the tensile strength of the formation
can vary considerably in an interbedded environment.
The hydraulic pressure required to produce a vertical separation

(horizontal fracture) in horizontal formations is that pressure required
to equal or slightly exceed the sum of the vertical compressive stress
and the weakest of any inter-bed tensile strength; to initiate a
vertical fracture it is necessary to exceed the sum of the minimum
horizontal stress and the least of the formation's tensile strengths. As
tectonic effects determine which of these stresses is the greatest
they will also influence whether a fracture will occur horizontally,
vertically or even inclined in the well.
As the pressure is increased, the plane along which a fracture will

commence will be that across which the compressive stress is first
reduced below zero (i.e. it becomes a tensile stress) to such an
extent that it overcomes the tensile strength in that plane. In the
case of a smooth cylindrical well bore in an isotropic formation, this
will be a plane perpendicular to the least principal stress. In cases
where the largest principal stress σ1 is vertical, the down-the-hole
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pressure required to start a vertical fracture may vary from the least
principal (= horizontal) stress to a value of twice that value,
depending upon the σ2/σ3 ratio.
A feature of vertical and inclined fractures is that they have to

overcome a significant tensile strength in the formation before they
initiate. However, once a fracture has occurred, the tensile strength
will have been reduced and subsequent loading of the well bore will
open this pre-existing fracture at a lower pressure. For the same
reason, the formation breakdown pressure of a formation in a
naturally fractured environment will be lower than that in an
unfractured environment.
• Injection pressures
Once a fracture has been started the fluid penetrates it and pressure
is applied to the walls of the fracture. This reduces the stress
concentration that previously existed in the vicinity of the well bore.
The pressure P required to hold the fracture open in case of a non-
penetrating fluid is then equal to the component of the undistorted
stress field normal to the plane of the fracture. A pressure only
slightly greater than this will extend the fracture indefinitely provided
it can be transmitted to the leading edge. This can be seen from an
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ideally elastic solid, as shown in Figure 2.3.10.
Figure 2.3.10: Stresses in the vicinity of a crack in a stressed elastic

material when the pressure acting on the walls of the crack is slightly
greater than the stress within the material
The normal stresses across the plane of a fracture near its leading
edge are shown for the case in which the applied pressure P is
slightly greater than the original undistorted stress field σ3.
The tensile stress, as a result of P in the bore hole, near the edge of
the fracture approaches an infinite magnitude for a perfectly elastic
material. For actual materials this stress will still be so large that a
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pressure P, only slightly greater than s3, will extend the fracture
indefinitely. The minimum down-the-hole injection pressure, required
to hold open and extend a fracture, is therefore slightly in excess of
the original undistorted regional stress normal to the plane of the
fracture. The actual injection pressure will in general be higher than
this minimum because of friction losses along the fracture.
• Pressure behaviour during injection tests
A comparison of the breakdown and injection pressures required,

using non-penetrating fluids and for various values of the σ2/σ3 ratio,
shows that there are in general two possible types of down-the-hole
pressure behaviour during fracturing. These are illustrated in Figure
2.3.11. During a fracture test the pressure P is increased and in one
case (case 'a') the breakdown pressure may be substantially higher
than the injection pressure. This would probably correspond to a
horizontal fracture from a relatively smooth well bore or to a vertical
fracture under conditions in which σ2 and σ3 were nearly equal, again
assuming that σ1 is vertical. In the second case (case 'b') there is no
distinct pressure breakdown during the treatment, indicating that the
pressure required to start the fracture is less than or equal to the
injection pressure. This would correspond to a horizontal or vertical
fracture starting from a pre-existing opening, or to a vertical fracture
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in a situation where σ2/σ3 was greater than 2.0.
Figure 2.3.11: Idealised diagrams of pressure behaviour when creating

a fracture
1.3.3.3 PREDICTION
Whilst it is difficult to estimate the effect of additional tectonic

stresses it is possible to make a rough approximation of the field
around a well bore in "ideal" circumstances. This approximation will
provide an order of magnitude estimate. In-situ stress measurements
(i.e. Mini-frac tests) are required to determine the local stress
distribution and orientation with any accuracy. However, values from
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one well may be extrapolated with some reliability over substantial

distances, particularly the horizontal stress values.
The undisturbed effective vertical stress σv is equal to the total

pressure of the overburden, S, less the original fluid pressure, Po,
existing within the rocks prior to disturbances such as fluid
withdrawals. In algebraic form:
σv = S - Po
Under conditions of incipient normal faulting, the least principal stress

σ3 will be horizontal and will have a value of approximately one-third
the effective vertical stress, σv or σ1. Therefore σ3⎜ (S - Po)/3.
Since the additional fluid pressure differential P required to hold

open and extend a fracture should be slightly larger than the least
principal stress, then: P ⎜ P is given by: P = P + Po.
Therefore: P⎜ (S + 2 Po)/3
Dividing by the depth, Z, then gives: P/Z ⎜ (S/Z + 2 Po/Z)/3, which

is the approximate expression for the minimum injection pressure
required per unit of depth in an area of incipient normal faulting.
The value of S/Z is approximately equal to 22·6 kPa/m (1.0 psi/ft) for
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normal sedimentary rocks in most areas. Under normal hydrostatic

fluid pressure conditions, Po/Z is about 10·4 kPa/m (0·46 psi/ft).
Substituting these values gives
P/Z ⎜ 14·5 kPa/m (0·641 psi/ft)
as the approximate minimum value that should be expected in areas

with incipient normal faulting.
In different areas the σ2/σ3 ratio may have different values and so
maximum drilling fluid density or minimum injection pressures could
differ. In compressional tectonics σh may be three times the effective
vertical stress σv and so
σh ⎜ (S - Po) x 3
The additional fluid pressure P required to hold open a fracture

should equal the least principal stress, which now is the effective
vertical stress:
P = σv
As P = P + Po, P/Z ≡ (σv + Po)/Z ⎜ S/Z ⎜ 22·6 kPa/m (1·0 psi/ft).
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which is just another way of saying that to hold a horizontal fracture

open the pressure has to support the whole of the overburden.
Formation breakdown gradients play an overriding role in maximum

drilling fluid densities, in casing design, in drilling operations and in
injection of liquids in the formation.
1.3.3.4 MEASUREMENT
1.3.3.4.1 PROCEDURE
For the purposes of drilling operations it is sufficient to know the

maximum pressure that may be applied to exposed formations
without causing damage and thus risk the generation of fractures and
associated losses etc. It is not normally relevant in which direction
such a fracture would run and whether it is a vertical, horizontal or
inclined fracture.
The standard operational procedure to ascertain the maximum

pressure it is a Formation Strength Test. Whilst this may take a
number of forms the general procedure remains the same. The test
is normally conducted after drilling out the shoe track of a recently
cemented casing string.
The cement filled pocket is drilled out along with a minimum of about
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20 ft (6m) of new formation. The test is conducted using a low

volume high pressure pump (i.e. the cementing pump) and calibrated
pressure gauges over a variety of ranges. The drilling fluid system
pumps and gauges are not sufficiently accurate enough to
perform the operation. The procedure is:
• Circulate and condition the drilling fluid to a consistent density

• Pull back the bit into the casing shoe
• Ensure the well is full. Close in the well using the BOP pipe
rams around the drill pipe
• Open the annuli between the current and previous casing
strings and monitor for flow
• Slowly pump down the drill string until surface pressure
approaches ca. 100 psi (700 kPa).
• Carefully measure tank levels etc.
• Pump uniform increments of volume - 0·1 to 0·25 bbl (0·016 to
0·4 m3) then stop and wait 2 minutes for pressures to
stabilise. For each increment the following are noted:
Æ cumulative volume pumped,

Æ pressure immediately after pumping ceases (final
pumping pressure)
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Æ static pressure after 2 minutes (final static pressure)
• Plot the cumulative volume pumped against both the dynamic

and static pressures on a graph.
• Continue to pump incremental volumes until one of the
following occurs:
Æ a pre-determined limit pressure has been reached

Æ the static pressure line deviates from a straight line (i.e.
a linear relationship between pressure and volume
pumped)
• Bleed off pressure at surface via the annulus (to prevent bit
plugging!)and monitor the returns. Determine how much fluid
has been lost to the formation.
It should be noted that the objective of a Formation Strength Test is

not to break down the formation and generate/propagate a fracture.
The point at which the pressure/volume plot deviates from a linear
relationship is called the leak off point. It should be taken as the
last measured point on the straight line; no extrapolation
should normally be performed that would yield an increased
formation strength.
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The leak off point is sometimes also called the formation intake
point.
A formation strength test that is terminated when a leak off point is

identified is called a Leak Off Test. This type of test is commonly
performed on Exploration and Appraisal wells below any casing shoe
that will form part of a pressure vessel (i.e. have BOPs attached at
surface). It may also be performed to gain information to aid in the
design of future wells.
A formation strength test that is terminated when a pre-determined

pressure is reached is called a Limit Test. Usually performed on
development wells, these also test the integrity of the cement bond
around the casing shoe. They are sometimes omitted in the absence
of mobile hydrocarbons or over-pressured formations in the interval
to be drilled.
On rare occasions the decision is taken to perform a Formation

Breakdown Test. The pressure is deliberately increased to the point
where a fracture occurs, the Formation Breakdown Pressure
(FBP). This is usually marked by a sudden drop in surface pressure.
Continued pumping now will be possible at a lower pressure - the
Fracture Propagation Pressure (FPP). If pumping is stopped the
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surface pressure will drop rapidly and then stabilise. This final
pressure equates to the Fracture Closure Pressure (FCP). The
relationship of these pressures under ideal circumstances is
illustrated in Figure 2.3.12.
Figure 2.3.12: Typical formation breakdown test result
1.3.3.4.2 INTERPRETATION
The majority of competent formations will display a linear
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relationship between pressure and volume (essentially reflecting an

elastic deformation of the rock). Permeable formations may show
some separation between the final pumping and final static pressures
as slight fluid loss occurs to the formation. The fluid loss control
characteristics normally take effect rapidly however, causing the two
lines to be almost superimposed.
Shallow, unconsolidated formations can, however, display plastic

deformation almost from the start of the test with continued fluid
losses to the formation. This can make interpretation difficult
(although the formation actually does have very little strength!) and
an estimation can be made by identifying where the static pressure
trend deviates from that of the final pumping pressure trend.
The actual Formation Strength Gradient (FSG) is calculated as

follows:
Land:
Offshore:
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For well control calculation purposes the FSG is normally expressed

as an Equivalent Maximum Mud Gradient (EMMG):
1.3.3.4.3 LIMITATIONS
Information obtained from leak-off tests in straight holes is not

applicable to deviated holes in the same field (and vice versa). Only
measurements in the deviated hole themselves should be used.
It is not necessarily true that deeper horizons always have a higher

strength than shallower ones. If less competent formations have
been drilled through, another test can be made immediately upon
penetrating a transition zone or a cap rock which could overlay
higher pressured zones. However, the practice of repeating limit or
leak-off tests needs to be applied with much caution. In general
during kick control the breakdown pressure at the shoe will remain
the critical pressure, unless much weaker zones, close to the shoe,
are penetrated. Also, if known depleted or low pressure zones are
penetrated, the breakdown pressure may be estimated on the
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basis of RFT results. If the zone is expected to be critical during kick

control, it may still be preferable not to subject this 'weak spot' to
breakdown loads during tests.
Data obtained from leak-off tests should be treated with some

caution. It is considered acceptable to use the values obtained to
calculate the maximum pressure to which the formation can be
temporarily subjected, such as while circulating out a kick. The
capability of the formation to support pressure continuously may,
however, be adversely affected by changes in the hole profile or local
damage to the borehole wall. Therefore, it should not be presumed
that a drilling fluid gradient can be increased up to that of the
formation strength, as indicated by a leak-off test. If available,
information on the fracture propagation pressure should be used to
determine the maximum allowable drilling fluid gradient in the hole.
All leak-off tests should be carried out with the lowest drilling fluid
density necessary to overbalance the expected reservoir pressure at
the shoe. Weighting up drilling fluid to combat anticipated higher
pressure gradients further down the hole should be done after the
leak-off test.
When good zonal isolation behind the casing is imperative, the leak-
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off/limit test should be carried out with a retrievable packer to avoid

pressurising the casing which may cause possible permanent damage
to the cement bond by the creation of micro-annuli in the cement.
1.3.3.5 INFLUENCE ON WELL DESIGN AND WELL

CONTROL
The value of formation strength is a principle input into the

preliminary casing design process. The formation strength values
can be expressed as a Formation Breakdown Pressure (FBP) and
plotted against depth for the well being designed. This line forms one
of the limiting values for the drilling fluid pressure gradient at any
depth, the other being the pore pressure gradient. Exceeding the FBP
risks fracturing the formation and initiating losses. Dropping below
the Pore Pressure line gives rise to the likelihood of an influx if
sufficient porosity and permeability exists in the formation.
The gap between these lines varies. Closure of the lines is largely
dependant on the existence of abnormal pore pressures whilst
separation of the lines generally reflects the existence of additional
tectonic stresses.
During preliminary casing design certain assumptions are made about
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pore pressures and realistic influx sizes. As will be discussed in the

secondary pressure control section, the maximum pressure
experienced at the shoe whilst circulating out a gas influx is usually
when the top of the (theoretical) gas bubble reaches the casing shoe.
This is a common design factor in selecting the maximum depth that
may be drilled to below a particular casing shoe given an assumed
formation strength. Conversely it can be used to determine the
minimum formation strength at the shoe required to safely drill into a
formation with a known or worst-case potential pressure gradient,
again using assumptions about the volume of kick that might be
taken. The relationships between bottom hole pressure, drilling fluid
density, influx volume and the pressure at the casing shoe is
contained in Appendix 1. Although these calculations are normally
now automated in well engineering design software, it is essential
that the student is familiar with the manual calculation method so
that the implications of unexpectedly low FST result or a higher
drilling fluid gradient are understood.
These two parameters are used to determine the casing points in a

well. Subsequent FSTs may confirm or disprove the assumptions and
can, under certain circumstances, require the well plan to be altered
following a low strength result.
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1.3.3.6 MAASP
Given a known drilling fluid gradient it is possible to express the

Formation Strength as a Maximum Allowable Annular Surface
Pressure (MAASP) that may be applied in addition to the fluid
column before the formation strength pressure is exceeded. This can
be calculated as:
Given that this value depends on the fluid gradient, ρfluid, from
surface to the casing shoe the recorded MAASP value must be
amended whenever the drilling fluid density is changed. In addition,
when an influx - particularly gas - passes the shoe and enters the
casing the hydrostatic pressure associated with the fluid column to
surface alters dramatically and so negates the previously calculated
MAASP value. Details of how to calculate this are given in Appendix
1.
Limitations of the application of the MAASP are discussed at length in

EP 89-1500 Section 2.3.3.5. This should be reviewed as part of
this Part.
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1.3.4 Primary well control concepts

1.3.4.1 CONCEPT OF OVERBALANCE
Primary Well Control relies on the use of hydrostatic pressure

to control the pore pressure in exposed formations. The hydrostatic
pressure exerted by a column of fluid at any depth is dependant on
• The density (ρf) of the fluid - expressed as a unit weight

(kg/m3 or lbs/bbl etc.) or pressure gradient (kPa/m, psi/ft
etc.).
• The true vertical height of the column of fluid.
By adjusting the specific gravity or density of the drilling fluid the

hydrostatic pressure at a specific depth can be adjusted accordingly.
As mentioned in the following paragraph it is customary to maintain a

hydrostatic column with a pressure slightly exceeding the pore
pressure of the exposed formation. This overbalance, safety margin,
or trip margin, Psf, varies depending on circumstances but is
generally of the order of 1,500 kPa (200 psi) for conventional
operations. The required density to control a formation at a depth, D,
with a pressure, Po, is thus given by:
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1.3.4.2 DRILLING FLUID GRADIENT SELECTION
Merely selecting a drilling fluid that exactly balances the expected

pore pressure is not sufficient. Several factors can act to alter the
pressure exerted by the fluid column down hole. In addition, as
discussed during Topic 3.3, the control of pore pressures is only one
of the two boundary conditions that control the drilling fluid gradient.
Utilising an excessively high density drilling fluid will not only reduce
the penetration rate and increase the likelihood of getting stuck but
may also result in breakdown of an exposed formation. This would
cause, at best, significant losses, and, at worst, a serious well control
incident as, if the hole cannot be kept full of the correct density
drilling fluid any other exposed reservoirs with a higher pressure
and/or at a lesser depth will start to flow - potentially an internal or
total blowout.
• Trip margin
• Riser margin
1.3.4.2.1 TRIP MARGIN
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While pulling or running the drill string during tripping operations

there is a reduction or increase (respectively) in pressure in the bore
hole due to the so-called swab/surge effects, of which there are two
main types varying in degree, indications, and potential hazard. They
are identified as "Low Volume" and "High Volume" effects.
• Low Volume Swab/Surge Effect: In the same way that

fluid friction requires a pressure gradient to be applied to move
fluid along an annulus, when pipe is moved through the same
fluid it creates a pressure gradient. Whilst running pipe into the
well, a surge pressure acts in addition to the hydrostatic
pressure exerted by the fluid column. Conversely, whilst pulling
pipe out of the hole, a swab pressure acts to reduce the
hydrostatic pressure of the fluid column. These effects are
called low volume swab and surge pressures.
• High Volume Swab/Surge Effect: When tripping with full
gauge components in the bottom hole assembly the tools act
like a piston, restricting the flow of drilling fluid past them and
generating substantial pressure differentials. These are known
as high volume swab and surge pressures.
Whilst high volume swabbing cannot be tolerated due to the dramatic

effect it can have on the bottom hole pressure it is also quite easy to
327

identify and react to. Low volume swabbing is more difficult to

identify and so it is common practise to build a safety margin into the
fluid gradient to counteract any minor pressure reductions on bottom
due to swabbing effects. This additional bottom-hole pressure is
called the trip margin. The value of this margin can vary but it is
commonly taken to be +/- 200 psi (+/- 1,400 kPa).
Swab and surge effects are considered further in Topic 3.4.3.2 in

connection with the maintenance of primary control while tripping.
1.3.4.2.2 RISER MARGIN
This subject is treated more fully in Section 7 Part 6 -Sub-sea well

control: principles and practices, Topic 6.3.6 but is mentioned here
for the sake of completeness. Whilst drilling from a semi-submersible
rig or drillship, drilling fluid returns are established via a drilling riser.
An accidental disconnect or a failure of the marine riser close to the
BOP stack will have a considerable effect on the down hole pressure;
the overbalance in the hole may suddenly be reduced by the
difference in hydrostatic pressure between the original drilling fluid
column in the marine riser above the BOP stack and sea water from
sea level to the BOP stack. To prevent this loss of pressure leading to
a kick the drilling fluid density may be increased to generate an
328

additional overbalance equivalent to this additional loss. This margin

is called the 'riser margin'.
1.3.4.3 MAINTENANCE OF PRIMARY CONTROL
Except in special circumstances (i.e. underbalanced drilling) it should

be an overriding objective of drilling and workover operations to
maintain primary control over potentially productive formations.
This is particularly important in remote locations where secondary

control measures may be complicated by logistical constraints, in
hydrogen sulphide environments where materials are more
susceptible to failure, or in top hole drilling operations when
employing a diverter system.
There are four principal causes which may result in or contribute to

the loss of primary well control:
• insufficient fluid density

• losses
• swabbing
• Failure to fill the hole properly.
Insufficient density and losses tend to be related to drilling ahead,

whilst swabbing and a failure to fill the hole properly tend to
329

occur whilst tripping in and out of the hole with the drill string, casing
or other tools.
1.3.4.3.1 PRIMARY CONTROL WHILST DRILLING
Whilst drilling ahead, an underbalanced condition will occur if a

permeable formation is penetrated which has a pore pressure higher
than the hydrostatic pressure of the column of drilling fluid in use,
i.e. the density of the drilling fluid is insufficient. Under these
conditions primary control can no longer be maintained and
secondary control measures will have to be implemented until
drilling fluid with a sufficiently high gradient can be circulated into the
well under controlled conditions.
An underbalanced situation may also result from the dilution of the

drilling fluid (e.g. by rainwater, or errors in opening/closing valves).
Any influx of formation fluids or gas can also result in a reduction of
the hydrostatic head in the hole. Refer to Topic 3.4.3.3.
1.3.4.3.1.1 Insufficient drilling fluid density
True prevention of a loss of primary control due to drilling into an

overpressured formation relies on identifying the presence of that
formation beforehand and reacting accordingly. Topic 3.2.3.2
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discusses the warning signs that indicate the possible onset of an

over-pressured formation. In response to these flags the following
actions can be taken:
• conduct regular flow checks

• control the rate of penetration
• gradually increase the drilling fluid density to combat hole
problems related to undercompacted formations
If the presence of an overpressured formation was not anticipated it

may also be prudent to review the casing design of the well prior to
continuing.
If, while drilling, there is a sudden measurable influx into the well
from a permeable formation there is no doubt that primary control
has been lost; in that case secondary well control procedures
have to be put into operation as described in the next Topic. There
are also however three situations when an overpressured formation
may be penetrated and "effective" primary control is not lost
immediately. In these cases full primary control may be regained (by
an alert crew!) by increasing the drilling fluid density without needing
to initiate secondary well control procedures. These situations are:
• During fast drilling the effective density of the drilling fluid in
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the annulus may increase considerably due to being heavily

loaded with cuttings. Drilling with such heavier drilling fluid
returns could obscure an indication of entering a more highly
pressured formation. Primary control will then only be lost and
an influx will only occur while circulating the hole clean. If it is
seen from the cuttings that a reservoir formation has been
penetrated during a period of fast drilling then the situation
should be checked by circulating bottoms up from time to time
and making flow checks as the clean, lighter, mud rises in the
annulus. If the situation does arise it is only necessary to
weight up the drilling fluid while drilling ahead (assuming that
a large influx was not allowed to occur during the flow check).
• While drilling with a weighted and/or viscous mud the frictional
pressure loss in the annulus whilst drilling/circulating may
obscure an underbalanced situation that has developed. In this
case primary control will be lost as soon as circulation is
stopped and the longer the pump is off, the greater will be the
influx volume. This can be detected by flow checks and the
drilling fluid weighted up while drilling ahead. If the problem is
caused by high viscosity, that should also be dealt with.
• Sometimes an underbalanced drilling fluid can be circulated
safely and operations can proceed temporarily without
332

increasing the drilling fluid gradient and without the need for
secondary control measures. This occurs when drilling into
abnormally pressured zones with low permeability and, hence,
low productivity. In such cases the well will not flow
measurably, but hydrocarbons or salt water will be seeping
constantly into the well.
To prevent such an inflow completely, a substantial increase in

drilling fluid density may be necessary. This will decrease the
penetration rate and lead to other undesirable effects such as
differential sticking, losses in other formations, etc. It is frequently
better to accept the seepage inflows and continue to the next casing
setting point before re-establishing overbalance. However the
underbalanced condition must be recognised and crews alerted in
case a formation with a higher permeability is encountered within the
same pressure regime.
• Surface monitoring
Should loss of primary control occur it is desirable to identify it as

soon as possible and thus initiate secondary control measures to
restrict the size of the influx. Two pieces of instrumentation are
available to assist the Driller in this respect (refer to Part 3.4):
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• Flow-Show meter: A device positioned in the flow-line,

usually a flapper deflected by the drilling fluid flow, with a read
out on the drill floor. This usually is graded from 0 - 100% of
total "flow" or deflection. The Driller can usually set high and
low alarm points around the normal meter reading for the
current flow rate. With proper setting and maintenance it can
detect an increase in flow indicating an influx given otherwise
constant conditions.
• Pit Volume/Level Totaliser (PVT): A device that measures
the volumes in selected drilling fluid tanks (normally those
comprising the active drilling fluid system) and gives a read out
plus recording of the total. It can be set with high and low
level visual and audible alarms to alert the Driller to changes in
the volume in the closed circuit.
It should be ensured that the high and low level alarms on the pit
level recorder (and flow line sensor) are operative and set as closely
together as practicable. The objective should be to restrict the
volume of an influx to less than a certain volume prior to closing in
the well. That volume will vary according to circumstances, which
include the hole depth and diameter, the length of the open hole
section, the accuracy and reliability of the available kick detection
334

system and, not least, the experience of the crew.
If a mud logging unit is operating, optimum use should be made of

its facilities and it should be ensured that there are good
communications between the unit and the Driller. However, the
presence of a mud-logging unit in no way reduces the driller's
responsibility to use the flow and drilling fluid volume instrumentation
carefully.
The Driller and mud logger should be advised of any proposed

change in the volume of active drilling fluid system. They should also
be informed as soon as such a change in volume has been completed
so that alarm settings can be revised.
• Cautionary signals
Whilst drilling, the following cautionary signals can indicate the

possibility of foreign fluid entry to the well bore. In particular:
• gas cut or contaminated fluid at the flow line (this indicates

that a hydrocarbon-bearing formation has been penetrated);
• a gradual or sudden increase in penetration rate (although this
may be due to various factors, it could indicate that an
overpressured formation has been penetrated. When a drilling
335

break occurs, a flow check should be made as quickly as

possible);
• an increase in salinity;
• a decrease in circulating pressure.
Gas cut drilling fluid will often occur when circulation has stopped
for a considerable period of time (e.g. after logging, a round trip,
etc.). This situation is not normally considered dangerous if the
drilling fluid readily returns to its normal density immediately after
having circulated bottoms up. Increasing the drilling fluid density to
prevent this type of gas cutting is unnecessary and expensive if a
normal overbalance of 1400-2750 kPa (200-400 psi) is used, because
the reduction in bottom hole pressure due to gas cutting is generally
small. However, when the overbalance is small (usually in top-hole
drilling operations), it is very important to minimise the reduction in
BHP in order to avoid the well to become underbalanced. The effect
on bottom hole pressure due to gas cut drilling fluid can be
calculated as follows:
336

Where:
ρ1 = original drilling fluid gradient
ρ2 = gas cut drilling fluid gradient
P = bottom hole pressure with ρ1

fluid
Pa = atmospheric pressure
P = reduction in BHP
ln = natural logarithm
Gas cut drilling fluid can also occur continuously while drilling as a
result of gas which is present in the drilled cuttings. Increasing the
drilling fluid density does not stop the gas cutting effect. To confirm
that gas cutting is caused by the cuttings only, drilling should be
stopped and the well should be circulated bottoms up. If gas cutting
does not reduce or cease after bottoms up, a potential kick condition
may exist and the drilling fluid density should be increased.
• Flow checks
Unexplained changes in the readings on the Flow Show and PVT

recorders should be investigated promptly. This usually takes the
form of a flow check. Circulation/rotation is stopped and the bit
337

pulled off bottom. The well is then checked for flow. If flow continues
after the circulation has been stopped then Secondary Pressure
Control measures are initiated. Sometimes the flow check may be
replaced by closing in the well immediately, particularly where kick
tolerance (the maximum size of influx that can be safely circulated
out without breaking down the previous casing shoe) is low, or the
PVT or Flow-Show indications are dramatic.
A drilling break is a distinct change in penetration rate which does

not always appear as a sharp change, but may be a gradual increase
over a fairly long interval. A decrease in penetration rate can also be
seen as a drilling break, depending on the type of formation which is
being drilled (e.g. drilling from salt into carbonate).
When a drilling break is encountered, a flow check should be made to

confirm that formation fluids are not entering the well bore. The
duration of the flow check depends on several factors and should be
defined locally.
Following a negative flow check (no flow observed), normal drilling

may be resumed. If the flow check is not conclusive, the hole should
be circulated bottoms-up before deciding to drill ahead.
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• Records
Accurate records of all operations must be maintained, particularly of

any unusual occurrences. These should describe all flow line shows,
including the duration of the occurrence, drilling fluid return
gradients, chloride content, etc.
• Flow-line indications
A kick is generally recognised by an instantaneous increase in the

rate of drilling fluid returns and/or an associated gain in drilling fluid
volume in the active tanks. However a flow line show, observed when
gas cut or liquid contaminated drilling fluid is returning from the well,
does not necessarily mean that the well is kicking.
Flow line shows can also be:
• drilled shows
• swabbed shows
• high pressure - low volume shows
As the bit drills a porous, permeable formation, some of the fluids

contained in the pores of the cuttings will enter the drilling fluid
stream. This drilled show can be characterised by:
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• a constant elevated gas content in the drilling fluid, correlated

with a change in the lithology and penetration rate.
• no peak in gas cutting or contamination of the drilling fluid at
bottoms up
• no increase in the volume of the drilling fluid. However, if
drilling rapidly through a very porous gas containing formation
the gas will have expanded by the time that it approaches the
surface, and a minor tank level rise may be seen.
Gas cutting normally results in a negligible reduction in the

hydrostatic bottom hole pressure. However, when the overbalance is
small (usually in top-hole drilling operations), it is important to keep
the reduction in density of the gas cut drilling fluid to a minimum in
order to avoid the well becoming underbalanced.
When a drilled show occurs, it is not necessary to increase the drilling

fluid density. Degassing of the drilling fluid is, however, required to
prevent its gas content increasing with each successive circulation. If
unchecked, this could result in a progressive reduction of the
hydrostatic pressure at the bottom of the hole.
Swabbed Shows result from the temporary reduction in hydrostatic

head of the drilling fluid column, caused by pulling the drill string up
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while making connections, or during a short trip. Swabbed shows are

characterised by:
• gas cut or oil/water contaminated drilling fluid at the flow line

when bottoms up occurs
• no immediate tank level rise (in the case of gas, a minor rise
will occur later when the gas approaches the surface)
A swabbed show provides a useful indicator that the drilling fluid

overbalance is only just sufficient in static conditions, or that there
may be a need to adjust the drilling fluid rheology.
As mentioned previously High pressure - low volume shows

occurs when drilling in highly pressured formations with low
permeability, or after trips with those formations open. High pressure
- low volume shows are characterised by:
• as the bit penetrates the formation the reading of the drilling

fluid gas content will increase steadily as the flow area
increases, but once the formation has been completely
traversed the gas readings will correlate inversely with the
circulation rate, due to a constant inflow regardless of
circulation rate.
• gas cut or oil/water contaminated drilling fluid at the flow line
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when bottoms-up occurs - this is a special case of the above.

• no immediate tank level rise (in the case of gas, a minor rise
will occur later when the gas approaches the surface)
Hole stability problems (e.g. sloughing, torque, etc.) may also give an
associated indication of this pressure imbalance.
1.3.4.3.1.2 Lost Circulation
The ability to circulate drilling fluid around the well is key to keeping
the well under control and being able to drill ahead. Sometimes a
situation known as lost circulation occurs when some or all of the
drilling fluid which is pumped into the well is lost to the formation. If
loss of circulation occurs in drilling or well servicing operations, the
drilling fluid level may drop and, depending on the severity of the
losses, the hydrostatic overbalance in the well will then be reduced or
eliminated and primary control will be lost.
The consequences of lost circulation vary from mild inconvenience to

a serious threat to the safety of the rig. This mainly depends on the
pressure regime in the well and the fluids contained in the formations
which are exposed in the well bore.
Losses are usually classified as follows:
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• static losses: down hole losses which occur under static hole
condition, e.g. no circulation or string movement
• dynamic losses: down hole losses which occur during
circulation. The difference between drilling fluid volume in/out
will indicate the magnitude of the losses
• total losses or lost circulation: no returns will be observed
• Causes of circulation losses
Lost circulation is the loss of both liquid and solid components of the
mud from the well bore to the formation . For this to occur, two main
conditions must be met ; firstly the hydrostatic pressure of the mud
must exceed that of the fluid in the formation and secondly the
openings in the formation must be larger than the largest particles in
the mud.
A pressure difference sufficient to result in losses may be a result of

pressure-depleted formations, about which nothing can be done, or
by operational practices such as high drilling fluid densities, excessive
pipe running speeds, excessive high annular friction losses, balling up
of bottom hole assemblies or excessive pressures caused by breaking
circulation.
There are a number of formation types that typically have openings
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large enough to allow lost circulation.
• Coarsely permeable unconsolidated formations:
Studies show that these formations only take mud if they have a very
high permeability. Some upper hole sand and gravel beds have this
characteristic and the fluids they contain are rarely abnormally
pressured. In such formations, however, fluid may penetrate from
the mud into the rock matrix leaving behind a wall cake which can
plaster off the formation and prevent further losses.
• Cavernous or vugular zones:
These zones are usually found in carbonaceous rocks such as

limestones. The position and depth of such formations can often be
predicted from geological maps. The size of the cavern or fissure may
vary from the size of a pin up to the size of a large tunnel and usually
it will be filled with water. When you penetrate such a zone the bit
will often descend very rapidly and a sudden and severe loss of mud
may be observed.
• Natural fractures:
A natural fracture may be defined loosely as the interface between

two ayers of rock which have little or no chemical bond between
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them. When critical pressures are reached such fractures may open
and take mud. Once a fracture has started to take mud it can widen
and take more mud at lower pressures. When the layers of rock are
horizontal the over-burden forces them together and the likelihood of
the fracture widening is reduced. Natural fractures are therefore
more frequently encountered as being a problem in steeply dipping
formations.
• Induced fractures:
The major cause of induced losses is mechanically imposed

pressures which may result, for example, from rapidly running or
spudding drill pipe, or rapidly reciprocating casing. Anything which
closes the annulus, or reduces annular clearance, may also cause
pressure build-up. For example sloughing shale may close off the
annulus. In such cases pump pressure is then added to the effective
hydrostatic pressure and formation breakdown may occur. You
should note that if mud was lost to sloughing shales it can flow back
into the hole once it is cleared. This will give the impression of a kick.
There are several other factors which induce fractures. When
excessive gel strengths are present the mud becomes difficult to
move and the annulus behaves as if it is "closed off". Raising the
mud density too rapidly or opening the pumps too rapidly can also
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cause pressure surges which may fracture the formation. Finally, if

the hydrostatic pressure of mud in the annulus is larger than the
formation pressure, fracturing may occur.
• Locating lost circulation zones
Contrary to popular opinion, field investigations of such losses show

that the majority of them are not found at the bottom of the hole. In
fact, almost half of them are found at or near the bottom of the last
string of casing. The way in which the losses started will often give
an indication of their location and first attempts to cure them will
often be based on an assumption of where they are occurring.
However identifying the location of the losses more accurately can
greatly assist attempts to cure them if these first measures fail.
Several methods are available for locating loss zones, including the
spinner survey, the temperature survey, the radioactive survey and
the pressure transducer survey. These all rely on detecting a sudden
change in the properties of the mud column (e.g. it's temperature or
velocity) as a survey tool logs the well, indicating that the loss zone
has been found. The choice of survey type is likely to be governed by
what tools are available and the principles of each type will not be
covered further here. One thing to note, however, is that they all
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require the drill string to be pulled out of hole before they can be
run. As will be seen later in this part, it is much easier to control a
well when the bit is as deep as possible and serious consideration
must be given to the well control issues before pulling out of a well
with losses.
• Restoring circulation
There are a number of ways to go about reducing losses and / or

restoring circulation. The choice of method will depend on the
magnitude of the losses, the material and personnel available and the
urgency i.e. a kick may be likely to occur if the losses continue or
mud stocks at surface may be low.
• "Pull up and wait": Pull up and wait is only used

occasionally. It is applied in cases of seeping losses, i.e. 0·2 to
2 m3/h (1 to 10 bbl/h) or partial losses, i.e. 2 to 8 m3/h (10 to
50 bbl/h). Greater losses or total losses usually require more
positive action. The "pull up and wait" procedure relies on the
loss zone being sealed naturally by mud and cuttings.
Circulation is stopped at the first indication of partial losses and
the bit is pulled to a point of safety within the casing shoe. The
bit should be pulled carefully in order to minimise surge or
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swab pressures which could further damage a thief zone. The

hole is then left static for 4 to 8 hours and mud losses are
made up by filling the annulus. Water may sometimes be used
to fill the annulus (see below) but if so, the fill should not
extend below the casing shoe. After waiting, the bit is returned
to bottom and attempt made to break circulation. If losses
recur other procedures may be used. The facts that rig time
tends to be more expensive than lost circulation material (LCM)
and that the resulting cure is unlikely to be very strong make
this method a poor choice when compared with using LCM
immediately.
• The use of lost circulation material (LCM): This technique
is again used in the case of seeping or partial losses, either
after or instead of the "pull up and wait" technique. After
either making an assumption about the location of the loss
zone or locating it, a quantity of LCM is mixed with 8 to 16 m3
(50 to 100 bbl) of mud. This pill is then displaced rapidly down
hole and spotted opposite the loss zone. The drill string is
immediately pulled back to avoid getting stuck should a bridge
form and the LCM is left to soak for 4 to 8 hours. LCM is
designed to plug the holes in the formation through which the
losses are occurring and thus the type of LCM chosen will
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depend on the formations exposed in the open hole. If large

fractures are thought to exist, it is sometimes a good idea to
pump coarse material to form a bridge and then follow this
with a second pill of fine material to plug the holes in the
bridging material. The concentration of LCM should be 60 to 90
kg/m3 (20 to 30 ppb) if it is to be pumped through the bit
nozzles. The same restriction will apply to the choice of
medium or coarse materials as large calibre LCMs would tend
to block the narrow bit nozzles. They are therefore only used
when pumping through open drill pipe. There is a wide variety
of materials that can be used as LCM, such as mica flakes, nut
shells, graded salt and calcium carbonate. The advantage of
the last two materials is that if they are used when drilling the
reservoir section, they can subsequently be dissolved with
water or acid respectively, thus avoiding impairment. Further
information on LCM pills can be found in Section 6, Part 1 -
Drilling fluids.
• Squeeze cementing: If the use of LCM alone has been
unsuccessful cement squeezing techniques may be tried to seal
off loss (or "thief") zones. All these techniques are similar, the
main difference being in composition of the cement slurry. As
with the use of LCM, the chosen slurry is mixed, pumped down
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hole and spotted opposite the loss zone. If the loss rate is low,
the BOP is then closed and the slurry is squeezed into the zone
by pumping slowly. The surface pressure will be limited to
avoid inducing fractures if possible. Thereafter the string is
pulled back, circulation is broken to ensure that no cement
remains inside the string and the cement is then left to set. It
is often necessary to repeat the squeeze several times before
the formation can be made to withstand high mud gradients. If
the loss rate is high, as with large natural fractures or vugs,
the main consideration will not be trying to push the slurry into
the formation but trying to prevent it being flushed too far
from the well bore to be effective. Assuming that previous LCM
pills have failed to slow the losses, this can only be achieved by
reducing the hydrostatic head of the annular fluids (cement,
mud and water) to a minimum. Alternatively, it is possible to
use a packer such as the Halliburton RTTS combined with a
glass fibre stinger. The packer is set before cementing and the
slurry spotted and allowed to set with the stinger in place. The
packer prevents the full hydrostatic head of the mud column
being transmitted to the loss zone. Once the cement has set,
the stinger is broken and the plug is subsequently drilled out.
The cement slurries used for curing losses in this way are
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generally designed to have a short thickening time and a high

water loss. In addition they may be mixed using thixotropic
chemicals and / or LCM materials. Cement is the first choice for
preparing a slurry as it is generally easily available at the well
site and people are familiar with handling it. Alternative slurries
are sometimes used when the problems are severe. Examples
are high filtrate slurries or gunk slurries. The latter is mixed
from diesel oil and bentonite, sometimes with the addition of
cement. When this mixture comes into contact with water in
the loss zone it rapidly forms a gel with a very high shear
strength. The addition of cement means that this gel with also
develop a high compressive strength. Great care must be taken
when mixing and pumping gunk as if it contacts water in the
surface lines they are easily plugged, compounding the
problems.
• Plugging: Plugs are used to seal off high pressure zones
when losses occur above them, possibly while killing a well that
has kicked. Plugs are covered further in topic 6 of this part,
Tertiary Well Control.
• Reducing the drilling fluid gradient: Whenever losses
occur, the first action should be to check whether the mud
gradient can be reduced. In principle, the lowest mud gradient
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which allows a sufficient trip margin should already be in use

to maximise ROP and minimise the chance of differential
sticking. However, it is possible that the formation which
requires the programmed mud density to control it may not yet
have been penetrated. Alternatively, a high mud gradient may
be in use in order to improve borehole stability. A reduction of
mud density may facilitate subsequent operations with LCM or
cement, or may allow drilling to continue to a suitable casing
point so that a contingency casing string can be set.
• Drilling with aerated fluid or foam: In an area where it is
known that no over pressured zones exist, a hole section could
be drilled with aerated mud or foam. Aerating the mud reduces
the effective mud density and allows drilling with returns to be
resumed. This may be the only way to drill formations with
very low pressures e.g. highly depleted reservoirs, as
otherwise fracturing of differential sticking problems may be
too severe. It is, however, a costly solution to the problem of
lost circulation, not only because of the cost of aerating the
mud, but also because of potential corrosion problems.
Inhibitors should be used to minimise corrosion and the pH of
the mud kept at a minimum value of 12.5.
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Where a complete loss of circulation occurs, the level of fluid in the

annulus will sometimes drop very quickly until the remaining
hydrostatic head of mud in the annulus equalises with the pressure in
the loss zone. This can create a potentially dangerous situation as
other formations may then become under balanced and start to flow.
In such situations it is important to try and maintain at least some
pressure in the top part of the hole. This may be done by filling the
annulus with water. If this is possible, and the well remains quiet, it
may be possible to reduce the mud gradient sufficiently to be able to
resume drilling with mud returns. When sudden and complete losses
occur, drilling is immediately stopped and the kelly pulled back above
the rotary table to facilitate closing the BOP if necessary.
Simultaneously the annulus should be filled with water (or diesel for
oil based drilling fluids). The volume added should be recorded. The
mud gradient that the loss zone can support may then be calculated
by working out the hydrostatic pressure provided by the fluids in the
annulus. With luck, the rate of losses will slow and the well will
become static. If the well remains quiet, the string can be pulled to
the casing shoe while filling the hole with mud through the string. If
the mud gradient that the loss zone supports is feasible, the well can
now be circulated to that mud in stages. The supervisor needs to be
very wary of the chances of getting stuck, since the reduction of
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pressure in the well bore may cause weak formations to cave. Also,
an apparent reduction in losses at surface may merely be an
indication that the well has started to flow.
• Drilling without mud returns
If circulation cannot be established, and well control problems do not

occur, then two methods of drilling ahead without returns may be
considered:
• Blind drilling
In this case, drilling continues at the minimum possible pump rate, to

conserve mud stocks, while the annulus is topped up with water. If
returns begin during drilling this might indicate that the loss zone has
been plugged with drilled cuttings. However, it could also indicate the
onset of a kick.
In some areas blind drilling is common practice as experience has

shown that it is a waste of time to attempt to cure losses. Sometimes
drilling is carried out with water, with occasional viscous pills to aid
hole cleaning, without filling the annulus. It is even possible to do
this when drilling fractured carbonate gas reservoirs by continually
pumping water down the annulus at a flow rate sufficient to prevent
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gas percolation. The water supply is then safety critical !
• Drilling with a floating mud cap
This can be used as a non-conventional alternative to blind drilling

when an abnormally pressured formation occurs above a lost
circulation zone in the same interval of open hole. Mud cap drilling
controls the hydrostatic pressure on the loss zone by using a column
of mud "floating" on a column of water. The mud column is used to
maintain primary control over the abnormal pressure zone. Water is
pumped down the drill pipe to cool the bit and clean the hole.
Simultaneously the annulus is kept full with mud. A delicate pressure
balance is maintained and, if managed correctly, it is possible to keep
the annulus almost static by varying the flow rate of water being
pumped down the string. Prior to any trip the drill pipe is displaced
with mud.
An NRV or Drop In Sub (DIS) should be installed in the string when

drilling with total losses or with a floating drilling fluid cap. The dart
of the DIS should be dropped and pumped down/latched prior to
each trip.
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1.3.4.3.2 PRIMARY CONTROL WHILST TRIPPING

1.3.4.3.2.1 Swabbing
As mentioned under 3.4.2.1 swabbing is a reduction in bottom hole

pressure (BHP) caused by moving the drill string upwards. It can be
categorised into either low volume or high volume swabbing. Low
volume swabbing is relatively easy to prevent and does not usually
create difficulties. High volume swabbing, on the other hand, is one
of the prime causes - if not the major cause - of blowouts.
Whilst tripping out of the hole high volume swabbing is the result of
the BHA acting as a piston within the bore hole. It can cause a
reduction in the bottom-hole hydrostatic pressure both directly or due
to the flow of drilling fluid out of the drill string into the low pressure
zone below the offending component. The annular restriction will
prevent the annular hydrostatic pressure above the component from
being transmitted past it and so the bottom hole hydrostatic pressure
will be determined by the height of the remaining drilling fluid in the
drill string. In large diameter holes, the ratio of open hole to drill
string capacity is very high resulting in a rapid reduction in the fluid
height within the drill string and consequently a rapid reduction in
bottom hole fluid pressure which in turn may allow an influx from any
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porous and permeable formation below the restriction.
Swabbing while tripping is doubly hazardous in as much as there is

not only an influx into the well, but the influx is trapped below the
BHA. If the influx is gas it does not even have to be very large to
create a major hazard as it will only start to expand significantly as it
approaches surface. This means that if the crew is not alert they will
only become aware of the problem as the BHA reaches surface, by
which time it is far too late to be able easily to regain control of the
well. Circulating out a kick with the DP on bottom is never to be
underestimated, but it is a routine operation - regaining control of a
well when the drill string is almost out of the hole is a major exercise
with a high probability of failure.
• Identification
Safety requires continuous monitoring of topping up and return

volumes throughout every round trip. This should be done with a
trip tank and trip tank chart recorder or trip sheet.
A short round trip or check-trip followed by circulating bottoms up

before pulling out of the hole completely will provide the most
reliable information on the swabbing characteristics of the system.
This might indicate whether pulling speeds and/or drilling fluid
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properties should be adjusted.
When partial losses are experienced and a round trip is being made,
the degree of losses should be accounted for in the trip tank
measurements during the round trip, otherwise swabbing may not be
detected.
• Prevention
Three principal factors contribute to a swabbing tendency :
• annular clearance
• pulling speed
• drilling fluid properties
Annular clearance is determined by the drill string and assembly

configuration for a given hole size. However, hole size can be
reduced by excessive mud cake, swelling formations, or an
accumulation of cuttings (i.e. on low side in deviated holes). With a
large annular clearance, the tendency for swabbing to occur is
reduced. The clearance can be dramatically affected by balling of
cuttings around the bit and stabilisers in the string.
Low pipe speeds reduce the possibility of swabbing by reducing the

pressure drops across the pipe length which are proportional to the
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velocity of the fluid relative to the pipe.
Overbalance is the main factor in reducing the possibility of

swabbing. Controlling the yield point of the drilling fluid is also very
important, since the swabbing effect is almost proportional to it.
Minimising the solids content will help maintain a low yield point.
A low water loss assists in obtaining a thin filter cake on the

borehole wall, and in minimising the swelling of shales. This will
reduce the balling-up of bit and stabilisers and thus reduce swabbing
tendencies.
When swabbing is anticipated it is recommended not to pump a

heavy pill prior to commencing a round trip. This permits a more
accurate check for swabbing. The heavy pill can be pumped when it
is certain that swabbing will not occur. If low pipe pulling speeds and
good drilling fluid properties are not sufficient to allow a round trip to
be made safely, consideration should be given to circulating whilst
the string is pulled, or to increasing the overbalance. It is important
to pump at a rate to prevent any loss of overbalance, particularly in
large diameter holes.
1.3.4.3.2.2 Failure to Fill the Hole Properly
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When the drill string is pulled out of the hole it is necessary to

replace the steel volume removed from the well with drilling fluid if
the fluid level in the well (and thus bottom hole pressure) is to be
maintained.
The volume required is equivalent to the open end displacement

volume of the tubular being removed from the well. This volume,
expressed usually in bbl/ft or m3/m, is provided in Drilling Data
books. It is important to use the correct grade of tubular (i.e. wall
thickness) when determining the displacement volume.
Whilst tripping it is standard practise to keep the hole full by

circulating across the bell nipple. A small pump transfers fluid from a
small, calibrated tank, the trip tank, and the flow from the well is
taken back into the tank. As pipe is pulled from the well the volume
of fluid in the tank reduces and accurate measurement of this change
is compared to the theoretical volume of steel removed from the
well. If the reduction in the tank is less than the theoretical volume
then the well is not taking the correct amount of fluid and swabbing
or an influx may be occurring.
If the change exceeds the theoretical volume, then the well is taking
too much and there are losses occurring.
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1.3.4.3.2.3 Tripping Practices
• Trip tank and trip sheets
The hole should be kept full at all times. Consequently, when tripping
the drill string or running the casing both in and out of the well,
the trip tank should always be used for the accurate measurement of
drilling fluid volume changes.
Pulling liquid-filled pipe, a wet trip, should be avoided if possible. If

it is unavoidable a "mud box" should be used to catch the drilling
fluid from the drill pipe and return it to the well or the trip tank.
It is essential that the volume changes in the trip tank equal the
theoretical changes in the steel volume being added or removed from
the well. This is the responsibility of the driller "on the brake" and
must not be delegated to a subordinate.
Whilst tripping, a record, called a trip sheet, should be kept of trip

tank volumes against pipe displacements of each stand, to identify
any discrepancies (e.g. gains or losses) as soon as possible. Ideally,
the trip sheet should be prepared prior to the trip and has the
theoretical volume per stand or 5 stands marked on it. The driller
then only has to add the actual trip tank measurements to get a
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simple check of the hole behaviour.
• Flow checks
Flow checks should be made as a minimum, before pulling out, in the

last casing shoe, and before starting to pull the drill collars. For
exploration wells it is recommended to make a short check trip prior
to pulling out completely to verify that the overbalance is sufficient to
prevent swabbing the well. After the check trip - of perhaps ten
stands - the well is circulated "bottoms-up" to check for gas cut
drilling fluid or other signs of near balance.
• Running speeds
Pipe pulling or running speeds should be controlled to limit pressure

surges which otherwise could cause a kick, losses, or formation
damage. Pressure surges are evaluated by considering the hole
dimensions, string configuration, drilling fluid characteristics and pipe
velocity. For normal hole conditions and pulling speeds, surge
pressures are of a similar order of magnitude to annular friction
losses whilst circulating.
• Critical sections
In order to avoid swabbing effects, the drill string can be circulated
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whilst pulling through critical open hole sections. This is one of the
fundamental advantages of the top-drive system over the
conventional Kelly/Rotary Table system. Circulation can be started at
any time and the string can still be pulled in stands rather than in
singles that have to be laid down and then picked back up again
later.
• Swabbing
In circumstances where it is suspected that swabbing may have

occurred, the pipe should be run back to bottom, bottoms circulated
up and the drilling fluid conditioned if necessary. If the well is flowing
after swabbing, and the influx is above the bit, it should be closed in
and killed at the prevailing bit depth. If the influx is below the bit the
pipe should be stripped back to bottom using the combined
volumetric stripping process.
It must not be attempted to run back to bottom with an open flowing

well.
• Time out of hole
The time out of the hole should be kept to the minimum, consistent
with operational requirements and with regard to the hole stability.
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The hole should be kept full and monitored continuously.
Similarly, if rig equipment has to be repaired, the pipe should be run

or pulled to the shoe of the last casing string before repairs begin. In
well servicing operations, the pipe should be run to sufficient depth
to ensure that the well can be controlled.
• Circulation at intermediate stages
Except for specific reasons (e.g. when retrieving long and tight
formation cores), circulation should preferably not be carried out at
intermediate stages when tripping drill pipe or running casing into the
hole. A flow check is preferred.
• Records
Accurate records of all operations must be maintained, particularly of

any unusual occurrences. These should describe all flow line shows.
The duration of the occurrence, drilling fluid return gradients,
chloride content, etc. should be also noted.
1.3.4.3.3 SHALLOW GAS
Further reference may be made to the SIPM Shallow gas procedures

guidance manual (EP 88-1000).
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Since, by definition, it is not possible to close in a shallow gas flow

and implement true secondary pressure control measures it is
imperative that primary control is maintained.
Common drilling practices which are applicable for top hole drilling in
general and diverter drilling in particular are summarised below.
Recommendations are made with a view to simplify operations,
thereby minimising possible hole problems.
• A pilot hole should be drilled in areas with possible shallow

gas, because the small hole size will facilitate a dynamic well
killing operation.
• The penetration rate should be restricted to avoid an excessive
build-up of solids in the hole which could cause formation
breakdown and losses. Drilling with denser drilling fluid returns
could also obscure indications of drilling through higher
pressured formations. In these circumstances the well could
kick while circulating the hole clean. Restricted drilling rates
also minimise the penetration into the gas bearing formation
which in turn minimises the influx rate. An excessive drilling
rate through a formation containing gas reduces the
hydrostatic head of the drilling fluid, which may eventually
result in a flowing well.
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• Every effort should be made to minimise the possibility of

swabbing. Pumping out of the hole at optimum circulating
rates is recommended for all upward pipe movements (e.g.
making connections and tripping). Especially in larger hole
sizes (i.e. larger than 12") it is important to check that the
circulation rate is sufficiently high and the pulling speed
sufficiently low to ensure that no swabbing will take place. A
Top Drive System or Circulating Drill Pipe Elevator
(based on the Regan Fast Shut-off Coupling) will facilitate
efficient pumping out of hole operations. The use of stabilisers
also increases the risk of swabbing, hence the minimum
required number of stabilisers should be used.
• Accurate measurement and control of drilling fluid is most
important in order to detect gas as early as possible. Properly
calibrated and functioning gas detection equipment and a
differential flow meter are essential in top hole drilling. Flow
checks should be made
Æ before tripping
Æ at any time a sharp penetration rate increase or tank
level anomaly is observed (if returns to surface are
taken)
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Æ when any anomaly appears on the MWD log (if an MWD

data transmission system is used)
Æ at any specific depths referred to in the drilling
programme (taken from the shallow seismic survey).
It is recommended to flow check each connection while drilling the

pilot hole in potential shallow gas areas. Measuring drilling fluid
density in and out, and checking for seepage losses are all important
practices which must be applied continuously.
• A float valve (NRV) must be installed in all bottom hole

assemblies (BHAs) which are used in top hole drilling in order
to prevent uncontrollable flow up the drill string. The float
valve is the only down-hole mechanical barrier available. The
use of two float valves in the BHA may be considered in
potential shallow gas areas.
• Large bit nozzles or no nozzles and large mud pump liners
should be used to allow lost circulation material (LCM) to be
pumped through the bit in case of losses. Large nozzles are
also advantageous during dynamic killing operations, since a
higher pump rate can be achieved. As an example, a pump
rate of approximately 2700 l/min at 20,000 kPa pump pressure
can be obtained using a 1,300-1,600 HP pump with 3 x 14/32"
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nozzles installed in the bit. By using 3 x 18/32" nozzles, the

pump rate can be increased to around 3,800 l/min at 20,000
kPa. (Values will vary slightly depending on drilling fluid
density, hole size, BHA configuration, etc.). The use of a centre
nozzle bit will increase the maximum circulation rate still
further and also reduces the chance of bit balling.
• Shallow kick-offs should be avoided in areas with probable
shallow gas. Top hole drilling operations in these areas should
be simple and quick to minimise possible hole problems. BHAs
used for kick-off operations also have flow restrictions which
will reduce the maximum possible flow through the drill string
considerably. A successful dynamic well killing operation will
then become very unlikely.
1.3.5 Secondary well control

1.3.5.1 PRINCIPLES
Secondary control is the proper use of blow-out prevention (BOP)

or pressure control equipment to regain control of the well in the
event that primary control cannot be properly maintained. The
configuration of such pressure control equipment is covered in
Section 3 Part 5 - "Well control equipment" and Section 7 Part 5 -
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"Sub-sea well control equipment".
Figure 2.3.14: Pressure balance with BOP equipment closed.
The pressure control equipment prevents flow from the well and
allows surface pressure to develop in an underbalanced situation.
The surface casing pressure will rise to the point where it equals the
bottom hole pressure less the hydrostatic head of the fluid in the
annulus (where a string of tubulars are in the well) or the hole
(where there are no tubulars in the well) - see Figure 2.3.14. Where
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a drill string is in the well and pressure control equipment has been
installed on it, the drill string surface pressure will rise until it equals
the bottom hole pressure less the hydrostatic head of the fluid in the
drill string.
Well control equipment permits the well to be closed in and remedial

action to be taken, usually in the form of removing any influx of gas,
oil or water, and restoring primary control. Where the influx has been
caused by the penetration of an overpressured formation this will
entail the controlled displacement of the well to drilling fluid with an
increased gradient. In the case of swabbing where the kick has been
caused by the swabbed-in influx reducing the hydrostatic pressure, it
is only necessary to remove the influx under controlled conditions to
regain primary control of the well.
From the point that the well is closed in until primary control has
been re-established, the first objective of all operations carried out is
to maintain bottom hole pressure at, or only slightly above, the
formation pore pressure, P0. Allowing it to drop below P0 will allow a
second influx. If the bottom hole pressure is any higher than P0 then
there is an unnecessary risk of causing damage to the formation.
This is one of the basic tenets of well control.
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Circulation whilst holding dynamic back pressure via a variable choke

is the most common method for removing an influx in a controlled
manner. The amount of back pressure, measured by a pressure
gauge immediately upstream of the choke (and called the choke
pressure or Pch) is adjusted such that the bottom hole pressure is
maintained at a constant value equal to or just above the formation
pore pressure.
Due to the presence of the bit/nozzles it is rare for an influx to enter

the drill string and so this conduit to the bottom of the hole,
containing a fluid of a known gradient, provides a simple way of
monitoring both the dynamic and static bottom hole pressures whilst
killing the well in a controlled manner.
• recognising a kick
• need for immediate action
• the ballooning effect
1.3.5.1.1 RECOGNISING A KICK
A kick occurs when the hydrostatic pressure of the drilling fluid

column in the well is less than the formation pore pressure (i.e. there
is an underbalance), provided that the formation has the ability to
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produce.
Whereas a drilling break and gas, salt water, or oil contaminated

drilling fluid at the flow line are cautionary signals, a kick provides
definite information that formation fluid is entering the well bore.
When a well kicks, an immediate increase in drilling fluid returns and

volume in the active system will be observed. The size and severity of
the kick depend upon:
• the degree of underbalance;

• the formation permeability;
• the length of time the formation is allowed to remain
underbalanced.
1.3.5.1.2 NEED FOR IMMEDIATE ACTION
When a well kicks, it should be closed in immediately. Large influx

volumes and correspondingly large fluid volume increases at the
surface may be obtained in a very short time. The larger the influx,
the higher will be the annular pressures, both initially and during
subsequent well control operations. It is therefore imperative that a
kick is contained as early as possible.
Since the reaction time is critical, equipment should be suitable and

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crews should be trained to detect small changes in the active drilling

fluid volume immediately the changes occur. The proper method of
closing the well should be rehearsed so often that it can be done
quickly and without mistakes. This exercise is called the well control
drill.
Increased drilling fluid returns are not always conclusive evidence

that the well is kicking. However, there should always be a flow
check and if necessary THERE SHOULD BE NO HESITATION IN
CLOSING THE WELL IN. The decision to take immediate corrective
action is the responsibility of the driller.
1.3.5.1.3 THE "BALLOONING" EFFECT
The plastic behaviour of shales in the overbalanced mode, so-called

"borehole ballooning" can cause similar symptoms to those of a kick
in overpressured formations. Major manifestations of ballooning are:
• initial high gas shows from recently drilled sand layers,

regardless of their much lower original natural pressures;
• initial loss of drilling fluid when circulation is started, followed
by an equivalent gain of fluid after circulation is stopped;
• CIDPP equal to the ECD effect on BHP, immediately after
circulation is stopped and the well is closed-in;
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• high penetration rates with very low WOB.
Genuine symptoms of underbalance may also be caused by nearby

wells which have been drilled with a large overbalance. Side-tracked
holes often behave quite differently from the original hole for the
same reason.
Reducing or stopping the ballooning effect is probably best achieved

by bleeding off pre-existing charged shales as drilling progresses,
sticking close to the natural pore pressures of the formation. It will
result in temporary shows and brittle sloughing.
"Borehole ballooning" is explained in the Oil & Gas Journal, 13 March

1989.
1.3.5.2 PLANNING
A loss of primary pressure control that requires the implementation of

secondary pressure control can be a stressful situation. Whilst the
procedures for restoring primary control are straightforward they
involve the use of several sets of data, much of which can be
prepared in advance; reducing the risk of errors made under stress.
These include;
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• kick control worksheet

• MAASP determination
• kick tolerance
• slow circulating rates
• rig mixing capabilities
• contingency stock levels
1.3.5.2.1 KICK CONTROL WORKSHEET
A Kick Control Worksheet is used to pre-record data relating to the

well required for secondary control. The sheet allows the calculation
of all volumetric data needed during the killing of a well. It provides
an easy to follow method of reacting to a kick, taking the user
through the calculations required after a kick to plan and then
implement the recovery operation. An example of this sheet can be
found in Appendix 8 of EP 89-1500, the Pressure Control Manual for
Drilling and Workover Operations.
During drilling operations, the Kick Control Worksheet should be

updated regularly to correct depth-dependent data and additionally
whenever significant changes occur in parameters such as casing and
hole sizes, drilling fluid gradient, drill string configuration, nozzle
sizes, formation characteristics, etc.
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The frequency of revisions should be determined to suit local

conditions and the extent of knowledge regarding pore pressures. For
exploration or appraisal wells, kick control worksheets should be
available at all times that BOPs are installed and in use. They should
be updated at least daily or every 150 m (500 ft), whichever is the
sooner.
1.3.5.2.2 MAASP DETERMINATION
During well control operations the maximum allowable borehole fluid

pressure at the casing shoe is normally considered to be the critical
factor, based on the assumption that the weakest formation is at the
shoe. For practical purposes, the corresponding pressure at the
surface is calculated and used during operations since it can be
measured directly. This value, the Maximum Allowable Annular
Surface Pressure (MAASP), was discussed in Topic 3.3.6. Data from
leak-off tests is combined with the current drilling fluid gradient to
generate the MAASP value.
Some control panels of remotely controlled chokes have an automatic

MAASP control feature which does not allow the choke pressure Pch to
exceed the pre-set MAASP. When this feature is used in situations
whereby MAASP should be exceeded, for instance when top influx is
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already inside the casing shoe, more influx is allowed to enter the
hole unnecessarily which may lead to worsening situations. It is
recommended not to use this feature, but to adjust the
remotely controlled choke(s) manually from the control
panel.
1.3.5.2.3 KICK TOLERANCE
The kick tolerance is the maximum size of influx that can be safely
circulated out without breaking down the formation just below the
previous casing shoe (see also the discussion of maximum safe
drilling depth in Topic 3.3.5). An assumption has to be made about
the kick tolerance during the design of a well, based on the following
variables:
• the hole size

• geological control,
• any known PVT characteristics of reservoir fluids.
• the accuracy and reliability of the available kick detection
system
• the type of rig (floater/bottom supported rigs)
• the experience of the crew
Likely influx volumes for the drilling and reservoir conditions
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prevailing can be calculated/determined from equations given in the

Casing Design Guide. However, results largely depend on realistic
values of kick detection threshold volumes for the rig used to drill the
well. Experience indicates that well-trained crews can perform BOP
drills in three to four minutes. BOP drills should be carried out to
achieve and maintain this performance standard.
Whilst drilling the well periodic checks should be made to establish

the magnitude of the influx which can still be safely handled with the
drilling fluid currently in the hole without causing formation failure
(i.e. kick tolerance). Two design cases may be considered:
• maximum swab kick (assuming gas) that can be taken using

the existing drilling fluid density
• maximum gas influx volume assuming different degrees of
overpressure relative to the current drilling fluid density.
These checks will indicate the extent to which the density can be
increased to control formation pressure or whether casing should be
set prior to drilling deeper. New calculations should be made
whenever any of the parameters have, or will be, changed.
1.3.5.2.4 SLOW CIRCULATING RATES
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Well control operations are performed at reduced pump speeds in

order to:
• allow weighting up and degassing of the drilling fluid

• reduce loads on surface equipment
• increase reaction time for correct choke adjustments.
Operation of the pump at a pressure too close to the setting of its

relief valve is dangerous. If the relief valve opens, drilling fluid will
flow back through the drill pipe and standpipe manifold.
Circulation pressures at the reduced pump speeds must be known in

advance of a well killing operation. Before starting to drill with a new
bit and at the beginning of each shift, the driller should therefore
observe pump pressures at selected slow circulation rates and record
the results in the daily drilling report and kick control worksheet.
Circulation pressures may differ considerably when using a different

equipment hook-up (e.g. circulating head/chicksans vs. kelly or top
drive). Slow circulation rates should be taken with the equipment
hook-up which is planned, or most likely to be used during the well
killing operation.
Slow circulation rates and pressures can be plotted as a straight line
379

on a graph using log-log paper. Appropriate pump pressures for any

pump rate can then be estimated using this graph, provided the
drilling fluid properties and drill string configuration do not change.
When using different drilling fluid properties, the slow circulation

rates should be repeated. If necessary, provided the rheology has not
changed too greatly, pressure losses may be approximated using the
original figures as follows:
where:
P1 = circulating pressure with original drilling fluid
P2 = circulating pressure with new drilling fluid
ρ1 = original drilling fluid gradient
ρ2 = new drilling fluid gradient
1.3.5.2.5 RIG MIXING CAPABILITIES
When killing a well using the balanced drilling fluid or "Wait &
Weight" method, it is necessary to increase the density of the drilling
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fluid returning into the active system from the degasser prior to it
being pumped into the well. Thus the maximum circulating rate can
be determined by the rate at which weighting agent, normally
barytes, can be added to the system. The weighting up capacity
depends on the maximum rate at which barytes can be added over
prolonged periods. It is recommended that this rate is established for
drilling fluid gradients in normal use.
An important advantage of the balanced drilling fluid method is that a

well can be controlled in one circulation. This is done by employing a
constant pump speed whilst circulating a drilling fluid which has been
weighted up. If fluid mixing facilities cannot achieve the required
increase in gradient, it will not be possible to control the well in one
circulation. Several circulations may be required, the gradient being
raised in stages during each circulation, or on a gradual continuous
basis while pumping.
One option to obtain the required drilling fluid density quickly is to

prepare kill fluid prior to drilling ahead in possibly overpressured
formations. This practice will facilitate speedy well killing operations.
Preparing kill fluid in advance is recommended for wells in which
increased densities are expected to be used. The recommended kill
fluid gradient depends on the expected formation pressures to be
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encountered, but as a general rule may be 10-20% higher than the

actual drilling fluid density in use. The correct density can be
obtained quickly by diluting the kill fluid with the original drilling fluid.
1.3.5.2.6 CONTINGENCY STOCK LEVELS
Minimum stock requirements for weighting materials, chemicals, lost

circulation materials, cement, drilling fluid and water (supply) on the
well site depend on the well prognosis, severity of potential drilling
problems, rig load capacity (offshore), remoteness and accessibility
of the well site, and availability of materials.
Proper stocks to allow well control operations to be carried out

should be provided in all cases. Particular attention to this aspect
should be given on remote onshore and all offshore locations. The
following should be included:
• adequate liquid storage;

• adequate dry drilling fluid chemicals, barytes or weighting
material and drill water storage;
• sufficient on-site cement storage (sufficient for at least 3 x 150
m open hole cement plugs).
When there is no water directly available, water may be trucked or
382

(a) water well(s) may be drilled. In both cases, ample water storage
should be available with a minimum recommended water delivery to
the rig site of at least 30 m3 /hour. The minimum required water
storage capacity should be based on the reliability of a continuous
water supply. A 500 m3 spare water pit is sufficient to allow for a 24-
hour supply interruption.
Properties of reserve drilling fluid should be checked and maintained

daily. The inventory of materials on site should be reviewed daily and
replenishment arranged immediately when stock levels approach the
specified minimum requirement.
1.3.5.3 REGAINING CONTROL
• shallow gas
• closing in the well
• situation assessment
1.3.5.3.1 SHALLOW GAS
By definition it is not possible to close in a shallow gas kick as the

formation strength of the previous casing / conductor shoe does not
provide sufficient strength. Consequently there remain two actions
that can be taken, generally in tandem:
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• Diversion of the flow either at surface or sea bed as

appropriate to protect personnel and equipment from the flow
of gas
• Attempt to dynamically kill the well
• Diversion
The flow of water and gas is normally diverted either at surface or

sea bed using an annular preventer mounted on a spool with one or
more side outlets. (Refer to Section 3, Part 5 and EP 88-1000, the
SIPM Shallow Gas Procedures Guidance Manual) .
It is essential to realise that these assemblies are not yet designed to

withstand the highly erosive flow of shallow gas for prolonged
periods of time. The diverter assembly merely buys time to attempt a
dynamic kill and/or for abandonment of the installation.
• Dynamic kill
A dynamic kill is a technique for controlling a blowout utilising the

flowing frictional pressure to supplement the hydrostatic pressure of
the kill fluid being pumped into the blowing well. The flow rate must
be high enough and maintained such that the sum of the frictional
and hydrostatic pressure exceeds the static formation pressure and
384

the well ceases to produce.
Critical features of a shallow gas kick are the speed of events linked
to a rapid increase in flow rate as the drilling fluid in the well is
expelled by the expanding gas column. The earlier that a dynamic kill
attempt can be initiated the greater the chances of success.
The probability of success of the kill attempt is governed by:
• the residual hydrostatic pressure of whatever fluid is in the well

• the amount of back pressure that can be generated
The remaining hydrostatic pressure is determined by the size of the

influx when killing starts. Due to the massive permeability and
porosity of the shallow formations the flow rates, even at low draw
down pressures, can be very large. Consequently, it is not unusual
for the well to unload entirely before any reaction can be taken. This
situation is exacerbated by the difficulty in identifying that the well is
starting to flow, particularly when drilling riserless.
The amount of dynamic back pressure that can be generated is

determined by:
• hole geometry (annular clearance between drill string/BHA and

the hole)
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• flow-rate of the kill fluid

• kill fluid density and rheological properties
1.3.5.3.2 CLOSING IN THE WELL
• Initial actions
Close-in procedure drills should be regularly practiced by the crew.
When a well kicks, it should be closed in immediately.
Large influx volumes and correspondingly large drilling fluid volume

increases at the surface may be obtained in a very short time. The
larger the influx, the higher will be the annular pressures, both
initially and during subsequent well control operations. It is therefore
imperative that a kick is contained as early as possible. Special
considerations apply when an oil based drilling fluid is in use.
The decision to close in the well is the responsibility of the driller.

This should be initiated immediately and without recourse to a
supervisor!
Immediately an increase of flow from the flow line, or an

unaccounted for increase in the level in the active tanks, is noticed
the ongoing operations should be discontinued, the kelly (if drilling)
386

raised until the first drill pipe tool joint is above the rotary table (for
platform and land drilling) and the pump stopped. A flow check
should be made and, if there is flow, the well should be closed in -
the different methods that can be used to do this are described in
Topic 3.5.3.2.3 below. If the kelly is not installed then a kelly cock
or Inside BOP (IBOP) should be installed on the drill string (with a
suitable cross-over if required) prior to closing in the annulus.
Whenever the drill string is being pulled or run in hole there should
be suitable crossovers available on the drill floor to allow a kelly-
cock to be installed on any component in the drill string with the
minimum of delay. Ideally, the crossover should already be made up
to the kelly-cock. The key for the kelly cock, which is used to close
it, must also be available. The key is frequently modified by the rig
crew in order to make it easier to handle in a hurry.
Having closed in the well the kelly or a suitable circulating head

should be installed (if not drilling) and the string positioned such that
no tool joint is opposite the pipe rams. One set of pipe rams should
then be closed. On most BOP stack configurations this is the set of
pipe rams above the blind / shear rams. Although the annular
preventer will often have a pressure rating well in excess of the
387

closed in annulus pressure; this may change rapidly in the case of

circulating out a gas influx. Of all the BOP's installed the annular
preventer is the weakest and most often gives problems. Therefore,
closing a pipe ram at this early stage prevents the necessity of doing
it later when pressures are much higher.
• Drilling with oil based fluid (OBM)
In principle, liquid hydrocarbons (such as diesel oil or base oil) can

dissolve large quantities of hydrocarbon gases (methane), CO2, and
H2S. If conditions (temperature, formation pressure) are such that
gas has been dissolved in OBM and the influx is being circulated
upwards, gas will begin to separate out when the bubble point of this
mixture is reached. This means that a gas kick in OBM can initially
behave like a water kick with spontaneous expansion of the gas close
to surface when the dissolved gas comes out of solution.
The most important aspect, when drilling with OBM, is to be aware of

the unpredictable behaviour of gas expansion near surface, especially
when circulating bottoms up after a round-trip or any circulation after
long static periods, because gas may have entered the well before
circulation started.
Although the solubility of gas in OBM makes drilling with OBM more
388

hazardous with regard to a possible sudden gas breakout near

surface during normal circulation, well control with OBM is not
jeopardised, because the principle of kick detection (pit gain,
increased flow during the time of taking the kick, etc.) remains the
same for all drilling fluid types. However, increased flow due to the
expansion effect of gas rising in water based fluid is not seen in OBM
in the early stages of taking the kick and small gas quantities (tight
formation) will probably only be detected when the influx is close to
surface. This means that gas breakout and sudden unloading is a
definite possibility. Drilling crews have to be made aware of this
problem.
Standard well killing procedures apply for OBM. However, gas

present in gas cut OBM may be difficult to remove completely due to
the solubility of the gas. If the presence of dissolved gas in OBM is
suspected and it is expected to cause splash problems at surface, the
well may be closed-in prior to reaching bottoms-up, after which
circulation can be completed via the choke manifold.
Wells drilled with a sub sea BOP stack need to be closed-in before
the suspected influx has reached the BOPs.
• Close-In methods
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A number of different close-in techniques are used within the drilling

industry. Much confusion is caused by different names being applied
to different (or the same!) methods. Discussions into the benefits and
limitations of the various methods persist. The preferred method of
closing in wells within Shell Operating Units is the Hard Close-In
method.
The following methods are as defined in API RP 59 (Recommended

Practices for Well Control Operations).
Hard close-In
For a hard close-in the choke remains closed at all times other than
during a well control operation. The choke line valves are aligned
such that a flow path is open to the choking system with the
exception of the choke(s) itself and one choke line valve located near
the blow-out preventer stack. When the hard close-in procedure is
selected for closing in the well the blow-out preventer is closed.
If the casing pressure cannot be measured at the wellhead the choke

line valve is opened with the choke or adjacent high pressure valve
remaining closed so that pressure can be measured at the choke
manifold.
390

Soft close-in
For a soft close in a choke is left open at all times other than during a
well control operation. The choke line valves are aligned such that a
flow path is open through the choking system with the exception of
one choke line valve located near the blow-out preventer stack.
When the soft close-in procedure is selected for closing in the well
• the choke line valve is opened

• the blowout preventer is closed
• the choke is closed
Fast close-in
Fast close-in is a sub-set of the hard close-in and is sometimes used

to differentiate between the use of the annular preventer (fast) and a
pipe ram (hard) to initially close in the well. This is by no means a
universal definition and both "hard" and "fast" can be used to
describe the use of either!!
Hard (/fast) vs. soft close-In
API Position:
API takes a noncommittal position in API RP 59. It advises that the
391

hard close-in procedure allows the well to be closed-in in the shortest

possible time thereby minimising the amount of additional influx of
kicking fluid to enter the well bore. It further advises that the use of
the hard close-in procedure be limited to well conditions in which the
maximum allowable casing pressure is greater than the anticipated
initial close-in pressure and a well fracture would not be expected to
broach to surface on initial closure.
The API states that the soft close-in procedure allows the choke to be
closed in such a manner to permit sensitive control and monitoring of
casing pressure build-up during closure. This is especially important if
formation fracturing is likely to occur if the well is closed in without
regard to the possibility of excessive initial closed-in casing pressure.
Shell Position:
In almost all Shell Operating Companies the hard shut-in has been
adopted as the preferred method of closing in a well. Reasons for this
are
• The influx volume and height is smaller than when a soft shut
in (i.e. closing in the well on the choke after the BOP is closed)
is used.
• The pressure at the casing shoe due to the "water hammer"
392

effect during a hard shut-in is less than that due to circulating

out the larger kick which would be taken were a soft shut in to
be used (KSEPL research).
• Close-in procedures
To summarise the discussion above, if the well is to be closed in

using the hard close-in method following a kick while drilling, the
procedure is as follow.
• Stop rotary.
• Raise the kelly or top drive until the first tool joint is above the
rotary table (this ensures that a tool joint is not opposite the
pipe rams).
• Stop circulation.
• Close the BOP
If the kick occurs while tripping, the procedure is more complicated

due to the necessity to install an internal blowout preventer on the
drill string. The procedure is the same whether tripping into or out of
the hole.
• Lower string so that the top of the stand is at the rotary table.
• Set the string in the slips.
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• Install a full opening ball valve, commonly referred to as a kelly

cock, and close it.
• Close the BOP.
• Drills
As discussed above, it is important that the close-in procedures are

executed in the shortest possible time. It is therefore essential that
the crew have regular practice in such procedures. Such exercises
are called kick drills and trip drills.
A kick or pit drill is aimed at ensuring the alertness of the driller and
is generally initiated by that persons supervisor. The latter will may
give a verbal instruction to initiate the drill. Alternatively the
supervisor may manually move either the return flow meter (Flo-Sho)
or one of the pit volume totaliser transducers to simulate indications
of a kick on the driller's instrumentation. The reaction time of the
driller will then be measured.
The objective of the trip drill is to reduce the reaction time of the
crew to a kick while tripping. The drill is initiated verbally by the
driller and the crew must follow the procedure above.
• Monitoring surface pressures and volumes
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After closing in the well and lining the annulus up to the choke
manifold, the pressure should be monitored on both the annulus and
DP gauges until it stabilises (first build up). The time required for the
pressures to stabilise will depend on the permeability of the
producing formation. The stabilised pressures are required for
subsequent calculations prior to killing the well.
If the influx is a gas, or contains gas, this gas will migrate up the
well. With the well closed in the gas can not expand and will retain
approximately its original pressure. The column of fluid above the gas
will become smaller as the gas rises and therefore the hydrostatic
pressure due this fluid column will reduce. This will result in an
increase in surface pressure on the annulus. Similarly, the column of
fluid below the gas will increase with a resultant increase in bottom
hole pressure and therefore also the drill pipe pressure (Pdp). A crew
member must continue to observe the gauges to check for further
pressure increases as a result of the influx migrating up the annulus
(second build up).
As pointed out in Topic 3.5.1, the aim throughout is to keep the

bottom hole pressure equal to P0. Thus, if the pressure increase due
to a second build up becomes significant, fluid must be bled off from
the annulus to allow the gas to expand as it migrates and thus keep
395

the bottom hole pressure constant. An accurate measurement of the

volume gained in the tank(s) must also be made at this point as this
gives the volume of the influx in the well. This value is also necessary
for subsequent calculations.
1.3.5.3.3 SITUATION ASSESSMENT
Once the well has been closed in and control regained, there is time
to assess the nature and severity of the influx.
• Position of influx
Before commencing any calculations it is important to have a clear

idea of what the physical situation is in the well and, in particular,
what the position of the influx is. It is strongly recommended that the
first step in response planning is to make a well sketch if this does
not already form part of the kick control worksheet.
If the kick occurred while drilling, the situation is generally

considered to be as depicted in Figure 2.3.15 and this forms the
starting point for most standard calculations. It should be realised,
however, that in reality the influx will be more spread out since it will
have begun while the drilling fluid was still in circulation.
Furthermore, as stated above, a gas influx will tend to migrate
396

upwards and, though generally considered as a single bubble for

calculation purposes, will actually break up into a stream of bubbles
or slugs.
If the kick occurred while tripping then the situation is more difficult
to assess. Whereas a kick during drilling may reasonably be assumed
to have come from the bottom of the hole, a swab kick could
originate from any point in the open hole, probably but not
necessarily from below the bit. If the formation fluid is gas, there
may be two influxes. The first smaller influx enters the well when the
well bore pressure is temporarily reduced as the drill string is
momentarily pulled too fast or the bottom hole assembly is pulled
through a tight spot. This influx then begins to migrate upwards and,
since the well is still open, will expand as the pressure of the drilling
fluid reduces. As it expands it occupies a greater height in the well
displacing drilling fluid from the hole. As a result the hydrostatic
pressure at the depth of the producing formation reduces at an
increasing rate until the pressure in the well bore falls below P0 and
the formation starts to produce causing a second influx. A careful
examination of the trip sheet together with the prognosed open hole
pressure profile will be required in order to estimate what the
situation is.
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Figure 2.3.15: Influx while drilling
398

• Establishing formation pressure
Since the drill string is filled with drilling fluid of a known density (see
Topic 3.5.1 ), the formation pressure at the bottom of the hole can
be calculated using the closed in drill pipe pressure, known as Pdp.
This must be the Pdp recorded after the first build up and not a higher
value that might result from a secondary build up; i.e. we assume
that bottom hole pressure is equal to the formation pressure. Thus :
(1)
where
Note that the right hand side of equation (1) will always give the
bottom hole pressure but that this may not be equal to the formation
pressure. A similar equation can be written for the annulus as well.
This contains one unknown, the density of the influx, thus:
(2)
where
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Equations 1 and 2 can be combined and rearranged to give
• Influx type
Although the type of influx does not change the killing procedure, a
gas influx normally increases the difficulty of killing a well because
temperature and pressure changes have much greater effects on
gasses than on liquids. In consequence, for the same initial closed in
pressure, a gas kick will cause higher surface pressures during the
killing process and will also cause higher pressures at the casing shoe
until the top of the influx reaches it. For these reasons it is good to
know what to expect.
The influx type is determined by calculating the density of the fluid

that has entered the well bore. Referring to Figure 2.3.15, the
procedure is as follows:
• Determine the volume of the influx Vinfl (see above).
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• Calculate the true vertical height the influx occupies in the

annulus hinfl. (to calculate the height it is necessary to know
the DC/OH and DP/OH capacities)
• Calculate the gradient of the influx infl from the equation (3)
above.
• Compare the calculated *infl with typical gradients for gas, oil
and water.
Typical ranges of gradients are:
gas / condensate : 1·5 - 3·0 kPa/m (0·075 - 0·15 psi/ft)
mixture of salt water and

: 3·0 - 9·7 kPa/m (0·15 - 0·47 psi/ft)
gas or oil
salt water : 9·7 - 10·7 kPa/m (0·47 - 0·52 psi/ft)
• Selection of new drilling fluid gradient
The eventual goal of all secondary well control operations is to regain

primary control. In the case of a kick caused by drilling into an over
pressured formation, this will require that the well is circulated to a
drilling fluid of a higher density. Again, the closed in drill pipe
pressure is used to calculate the minimum density that will be
required, as follows :
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where :
This will be the fluid gradient first used to kill the well. Once the well
has been killed, the density of the drilling fluid will be raised further
to allow for a trip margin.
1.3.5.3.4 REMOVAL OF INFLUX

1.3.5.3.4.1 REVIEW OF METHODS
• Circulation
Provided there is a string of pipe in the hole and the influx is above
the bit then the easiest and fastest way to remove the influx is to
circulate it out via the choke or back pressure manifold (see Figure
2.3.16). A variable choke is used to exert back pressure on the
drilling fluid as it leaves the annulus and in this way BHP is
maintained at or slightly above Po.
There are two main methods for circulating out the influx. These are
known as the "Wait & Weight” method and the Driller's method.
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In the "Wait & Weight" method, the well is killed in one circulation as
drilling fluid of the new required density (see above) is mixed before
starting and is used to displace the influx. In the Driller's method, the
influx is first circulated from the well using the original drilling fluid. A
second circulation is then carried out to displace the well to fluid of
sufficient density to balance the formation pressure.
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Figure 2.3.16: Choke and kill manifold
The advantages and disadvantages of the "Weight and Wait" method

compared to the driller's method are summarised in Table 3.5.1. Both
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methods will be discussed in detail later.
• Migration
Sometimes it is not possible to circulate the influx out of the well. An

example of this is an influx which occurs when cementing a casing
string in place. Another example is an influx which occurs when the
drill string is not in the hole. When the influx is gas, one choice is to
allow the influx to migrate up the annulus while controlling the
surface pressure (and allowing the influx to expand) to prevent a
further influx or formation breakdown from occurring. Once the gas
reaches surface it is bled off and replaced with drilling fluid. This is
generally known as the Volumetric method. If the influx is a liquid
this method is not applicable as the influx will only migrate very
slowly, if at all.
A variant of the volumetric method is the Combined Volumetric

and Stripping Method. This can be applied when the bit is above
the influx (or even when the string is completely out of the hole) as
is usually the case when a kick occurs while tripping. In this case,
simultaneously with controlling surface pressures according to the
principles of the volumetric method, the string is stripped back into
the well through the closed BOP. Once the bit is back on bottom, the
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influx can be circulated out.
• Injection
Sometimes it may not be possible to apply the other standard

techniques or it may be preferable not to allow the influx to come to
surface at all. Examples of such situations are when the influx
contains a high concentration of hydrogen sulphide or when a gas
kick is taken in a deep high pressure well which would result in
excessively high surface pressures. In these cases it may be
attempted to inject or bullhead the influx into the weakest exposed
formation. Whether this is possible or not will depend on what
additional pressure is required to inject the influx, especially if it is
first necessary to squeeze drilling fluid into the recipient formation.
Great attention must be paid to checking that the squeeze pressures
are within the burst and collapse ratings of the well equipment and
that formation fractures which cause additional problems will not
result. Bullheading is, for these reasons, usually only considered in
special circumstances.
1.3.5.3.4.2 CIRCULATION
The following discussion will be based on the "Wait & Weight"

method. The differences for the Driller's method will be discussed
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separately together with the circumstances when it may be

preferable to apply it. Furthermore we will initially discuss vertical
wells only. Deviated wells require the application of the same
principles but the calculations are somewhat more complicated due
to the necessity to differentiate between true vertical depths and
along hole depths. Pressures are calculated mainly with the former
while the latter are used to calculate volumes.
• Phases
There are several critical stages during a well killing process. Four of
these are recognised in particular and are referred to as the four
phases in well control. These phases (see Figure 2.3.17) are as
follows for the "Wait & Weight" method:
• Phase I = the time to displace the contents of the drill string to

*2 drilling fluid.
• Phase II = the time from end of phase I until the top of the
influx is at the choke.
• Phase III = the time from the end of phase II until all the
influx is out of the hole.
• Phase IV = the time from end of phase III until all the *1
drilling fluid, which was originally in the string and is behind
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the influx, has been removed from the well bore.
The length of these phases is often measured in pump strokes rather

than volume directly or time. This is convenient since when killing the
well the pump stroke counter will be used to determine how far the
kill has proceeded.
The stage where the volume pumped places the influx inside the
casing shoe (the shoe line), is important as well but has not been
included in these basic phases in well control. The reason for this is
that the occurrence of this stage could happen before or after the
end of phase I depending on the distance the influx has to travel
before it enters the casing shoe.
408

409

Figure 2.3.17: Four phases in well control (Wait & Weight method)
• Circulating pressures
While proceeding through the four phases just described, the well
killing process is controlled by reference to the static drill pipe
pressure (Pdp) and dynamic standpipe pressure (Pst) at the top of the
drill string. The definitions of these terms will become clearer in Topic
3.5.4.2.3. Again (see Topic 3.5.3.3.2) the drill pipe pressures are
used because the contents of the drill string are accurately known
and therefore these pressures provide an easily deduced relationship
for bottom hole pressure.
The slow circulating rates described in Topic 3.5.2.4 will give an

indication of the circulating pressure drop to be expected at the
anticipated killing pump speed. It is nevertheless important to be
able to estimate the effects of a change of circulating rate or a
change of drilling fluid density.
It has been explained (see Topic 2 of Section 2, Part 2 - Hydraulics)

that while pumping through a fixed conduit the pressure drop (Pc)
depends on the fluid rheology and the volume per unit time pumped
(Pc = CQn). If all factors remain constant except the volume Q
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pumped then:
Where:
In drilling operations it has been found that the power 'n' varies.
However, a value of 1.86 for an overall water based system is a
generally accepted approximation.
In addition it has been explained that if the density of the fluid

changes but all other factors remain constant the pressure drop
changes approximately as per the following relationship:
Pumping rates during killing jobs are normally maintained at almost

half the volume used during normal circulation. At such rates and in
conventional wells i.e. not slim hole wells, the pressure drop over the
annulus is so small (¾ 10% of total pressure loss) that it is negligible
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and therefore the pressure drop to move the fluid through the
system is mainly used to overcome the internal string friction losses.
The three pressures mentioned here are related thus:
In words this simply states that the overall circulating pressure or

standpipe pressure equals the sum of the drill pipe pressure (due to
the underbalance of the fluid column with respect to bottom
hole/formation pressure) and the circulating pressure drop in the
system at that circulating rate.
• Static and dynamic pressure plots
The concepts of the four phases and the circulating pressures are
combined to prepare a pressure v/s volume schedule to monitor the
killing process. The simplest way of representing that schedule is on
a graph.
Phase I of the kill is the only phase where Pst will vary, due to the
combined effects of the higher density kill fluid reducing the
underbalance with respect to the formation pressure and
simultaneously causing an increase in the circulating pressure drop.
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At the beginning of phase I just after starting the pump, and

providing that the choke is properly handled (see later in Topic
3.5.4.2.5, where the start up of the pump is described), the initial
standpipe pressure will be given by:
Pdp is the initial closed in drill pipe pressure measured at the end of
the first build up.
Is the circulating pressure drop at the pump speed employed for

the kill with the original drilling fluid density.
At the end of phase I, the new standpipe pressure will be equal to

the circulating pressure drop with the new drilling fluid density only,
.
Thus,
Pdp no longer appears as it is now zero since the new drilling fluid
density is sufficient to balance the formation pressure. The standpipe
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pressure should remain constant at during the remainder of the

well kill (phases II, III and IV) since the conditions in the drill string
should not change and BHP should stay constant if the procedures
are properly performed.
and can now be plotted on a graph of pressure vs. strokes

pumped. This is sometimes known as a kill graph and is shown in
Figure 2.3.18. In a vertical or near vertical well, such as is considered
here, the two points are usually joined with a straight line when the
graph is drawn. Note, however, that this is a simplification as will be
explained later. is held constant from the end of Phase I to the
end of Phase IV as explained.
A similar graph of pressure vs. strokes can be plotted for the choke
pressure.
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Figure 2.3.18: Standpipe pressure graph
Since the annular circulating pressure drop is generally negligible, the

choke pressure will depend only on the difference between the
combined hydrostatic heads of the fluids in the annulus and the
required bottom hole pressure (i.e. BHP equal to formation pressure).
For the same reason, Pann, which is the (static) pressure measured on
the annulus when no circulation is occurring, is usually virtually equal
to Pch, which is the (dynamic) pressure measured just up stream of
the choke during circulation. The choke pressure graph is more
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complicated to draw despite the fact that the circulating pressure

drop is neglected because of two factors :
The geometry of the annulus changes several times throughout its

length. This means that the height which a given volume of fluid
occupies changes as that volume moves up the annulus. An example
of this is that the height occupied by a liquid influx initially is quite
great since it occupies the space between the drill collars and the
borehole. As soon as circulation commences, the influx will move into
the space between the drill pipe and the borehole which has a
greater capacity. The influence of the influx on the choke pressure is
therefore reduced.
In the case of a gas influx, the volume of the influx changes as it is

circulated to surface. The influx must be allowed to expand,
otherwise the gas pressure would remain equal to that at which it
entered the well bore. This follows from the laws of Boyle and Gay
Lussac which can be combined to give
where:
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P = the pressure of the gas
V = the volume of the gas
T = the temperature (absolute) of the gas
and it is assumed that the compressibility is unchanged
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Figure 2.3.19: Choke pressure graph with gas influx
An example of a choke pressure graph is given as Figure 2.3.19. In

general such a graph would not usually be manually constructed
during a real well killing situation due to the time taken to do the
calculations. Many well control software packages can however
produce such a graph very rapidly in which case it forms a useful
additional reference to check that the kill is proceeding according to
plan. The general equation for calculating Pann at any point is as
follows:
Where:
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The compressibility effects of gas mean that calculating the height of

the influx once it has moved up the annulus is not straightforward.
Formulae for approximating the pressures in gas influxes once they
have moved up the annulus are covered in section 2.3.4.16 of EP 89-
1500, the Pressure Control Manual for Drilling and Workover
Operations. They will not be covered further in this part.
• Selection of circulating rate
Pump rates selected for well killing operations are normally half or
less than the rate used for drilling. This is for a number of reasons
but the most important is that the slower pump speed facilitates
operation of the choke to follow the standpipe kill graph. This is
especially the case when it is necessary to cope with wildly
fluctuating pressures when a gas influx reaches the choke manifold.
A higher pump speed can mean that things happen too fast for the
person operating the choke to react in time.
Secondary limits on pump rate are ensuring that neither the surface
gas handling capability of the mud gas separator nor the barytes
adding capability of the equipment on site are exceeded (see
3.5.2.5). The following example demonstrates how the amount of
barytes to be added to the drilling fluid can be calculated and thence
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the maximum pump rate determined for a given rig mixing capability.
Density of the drilling fluid in use: 11·00 kPa/m (0.486 psi/ft)
Required fluid density to kill well: 13·00 kPa/m (0.575 psi/ft)
Weighting material mixing 350 kg/min (772 lbs/min)

capacity:
Double acting duplex pump 30 l/stroke (0.1887

capacity: bbls/stroke)
The amount of weighting material per unit volume of 1 drilling fluid

is given by:
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The addition of large quantities of barites to the drilling fluid will

cause an increase in the total volume of the active system and
sufficient room must be made available in the tanks to accommodate
this.
• Circulating out the influx
Following the steps outlined above to select the well killing

parameters, it is time to apply them. The procedure for the first
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circulation is as follows;
• Before starting the killing operations, bleed off at the choke

any increase in Pdp pressure resulting from a second build up
(see "monitoring surface pressure and volume" in 3.5.3.2.6) to,
or near, the initial stabilised closed in pressure. (i.e. the closed
in pressure after the first build up):
• Open the choke and simultaneously start pumping the ρ2
drilling fluid, bringing the pump rate to the selected killing
pump speed.
• While reaching and maintaining the pre-selected pump speed
adjust the choke opening until the choke pressure Pch equals
the closed-in annulus pressure Pann immediately before starting
the pump. (Record the choke pressure throughout the first
circulation.)
• Read the standpipe pressure . It should agree with the
calculated value, i.e. the normal pre-kick circulating pressure
drop at the selected pump speed plus the closed-in drill pipe
pressure Pdp. If the observed standpipe pressure does not
agree with the calculated value, consider the observed
pressure to be "correct" and calculate the actual . The
revised should then be used to calculate a corrected and
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the standpipe kill graph then redrawn.

• Continue pumping at the pre-selected killing speed and keep
the standpipe pressure in line with the calculated pressure (the
sloping line of phase I on the kill graph and thereafter the
horizontal line of the ρ2 drilling fluid circulating pressure drop
) by opening and closing the choke as required.
• Continue pumping with Pst equal to until the influx is
circulated out. Be prepared to cope with a substantial increase
in total surface volume of drilling fluid due to a gas influx
expanding.
• When all the influx and the original *1 drilling fluid from the
string has been circulated out i.e. at the end of phase IV, stop
the pump and close the choke. Check for pressures on the drill
pipe and annulus gauges. They should both read zero. If not
and if Pdp = Pann, the choke may have been closed a little too
quickly trapping pressure from the pump. Bleed off a little
pressure from the annulus, checking that both pressures drop
and do not rise again once the choke is closed.
• Open the BOP and make a flow check. Some imbalance
between the annulus and drill string is likely, but a definitive
flow can usually be confirmed. If a positive flow is still
apparent, close the BOP and continue circulation under
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controlled conditions i.e. via the choke.

• If there is no flow, start the pump and check whether the
string is free. If free the string should be moved at regular
intervals until ready to pull out.
• Make a second circulation raising the drilling fluid gradient
again to include a trip margin and conditioning the fluid to
remove the effects of any contamination from the influx.
While circulating during the well kill, the following actions should also
be carried out:
• Maintain and record the density of the drilling fluid pumped

into the drill string. Ensure that it has the correct value
• Measure and record the properties of the drilling fluid returns
• De-gas, treat, or separate for disposal, any contaminated
drilling fluid returns.
• Driller's method
There will be situations in well control where the "Wait & Weight"
method can not be used or where there may be a good reason to
first circulate out the influx with the drilling fluid in use before then
killing the well with a higher drilling fluid gradient. This method is
called the driller's method and, as with the "Wait & Weight" method,
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requires that circulation at or near the source of the influx, is

possible. In the driller's method the well is killed in two circulations.
In the first circulation the influx is circulated out using the original
drilling fluid. In the second circulation, when weighted-up drilling
fluid is circulated into the well, primary control is restored.
The driller's method may be preferred if there are reasons for

circulating out the influx as soon as possible or if it will take too long
/ be difficult to mix kill fluid (e.g. insufficient barytes on site). The
advantages and disadvantages of the two circulation methods are
contrasted in Table 3.5.1. As stated there, one factor in deciding
whether to use the "Wait & Weight" method or the Driller's method
will be whether or not the top of the influx enters the casing shoe
before the contents of the drill string has been displaced. If it
happens before the end of phase I there is no difference between the
two methods where the maximum pressure exerted on the casing
shoe is concerned and this is normally the most critical point in the
well kill. If ρ2 drilling fluid enters the annulus before the top of a gas
influx has reached the shoe it is possible that the moment of highest
pressure at the shoe during killing does not coincide with the top of
the influx being at the casing shoe. This is because the denser fluid in
the annulus below the influx will allow BHP to be maintained at P0
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with lower surface pressures.
First circulation.
The need to reduce pump rate to accommodate the weighting

material mixing capacity of the rig is no longer valid. However, to
prevent unwanted pressure surges due to choke blockages and gas
surges it is common practice to circulate with approximately 50% of
the usual circulation rate applied for drilling operations (just as in the
"Wait & Weight" method).
The standpipe pressure at the start of the first circulation is the same
as with the "Wait & Weight" method. The standpipe pressure should
then be approximately equal to the normal pre-kick circulation
pressure at the selected pump speed, plus the closed-in drill pipe
pressure. Since there is no change in the gradient of the fluid being
pumped in, however, the initial standpipe pressure must be held
constant throughout the first circulation to ensure that the bottom
hole pressure is also kept constant at, or slightly above P0.
The procedure for the first circulation is as follows:
• Open the choke and simultaneously start pumping the ρ1

drilling fluid at the selected pump rate.
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• Whilst reaching and maintaining the selected pump rate adjust

the choke opening until the choke pressure equals the closed-
in annulus pressure.Record the choke pressure throughout the
first circulation.
• Read standpipe pressure. It should equal the normal pre-kick
pump test circulation pressure at the selected pump speed plus
the closed-in drill pipe pressure. If the observed standpipe
pressure does not agree with the calculated value, consider the
observed pressure to be correct.
• Maintain constant standpipe pressure and pump rate whilst the
influx is circulated out.
• When all influx has been circulated out, stop the pump and
close in the well to check the closed-in drill pipe and annulus
pressures. At the end of the first circulation the closed-in
pressures of the annulus and drill pipe should be the same and
equal to the initial closed-in drill pipe pressure. The well is
controlled but not killed.
• Weight up spare drilling fluid to the required density
Second circulation.
Once the drilling fluid has been weighed up to the correct density the
second circulation can begin. This is carried out in exactly the same
427

way, including construction of the standpipe kill graph, as the first

circulation of the "Wait & Weight" method. However, since the influx
has been displaced with r1 drilling fluid during the first circulation,
large fluctuations in fluid returns and, therefore, choke position are
not expected. Thus, if possible, the density of the drilling fluid in the
well is raised directly to that required to resume normal operations
including a trip margin. During circulation the choke pressure Pch can
be expected to remain constant until r2 fluid reaches the bit, and will
fall thereafter as the new fluid rises in the annulus. If all goes well
the choke pressure will be zero at the time when the r2 fluid reaches
the choke.
• Deliberate safety margins during circulation
The principle of keeping bottom hole pressure equal to the formation

pressure rather than higher is usually not adhered to in practice.
Additional deliberate safety margins are often employed, such as
including an overbalance when calculating the gradient of the kill
fluid and / or applying extra back pressure with the choke.
Overbalance
Ideally, when killing a well, the new drilling fluid density should be
such that the pressure it exerts at the bottom of the hole exactly
428

equals the formation pressure. In practice, a drilling fluid density

fractionally higher than the one calculated is often used. This
provides an overbalance on the formation pressure. This overbalance
can reduce the time needed to achieve an uncontaminated drilling
fluid column, but should only be included when the formations
exposed are known to be strong enough to support the additional
pressure.
The effect of the overbalance is shown graphically in Figure 2.3.20.

To have the correct pressure in phases 2, 3 and 4, the stand pipe
pressure Pst2, which is equal to Pc2, would have to be reduced by the
amount of this negative pressure. This is not usually done, thus
pressures on stand pipe and annulus are too high by this amount.
When a small amount of overbalance is used this will not greatly
increase the risk of a formation breakdown. However, it should be
realised that at a depth of 3,000 m (10,000 ft) even an overbalance
as small as 0·35 kPa/m ( 0·015 psi/ft) in fluid density would make a
difference of 1,000 kPa (150 psi) in bottom hole pressure.
429

Figure 2.3.20: Overbalance during well killing
Extra back pressure
In some situations an extra back pressure on the choke is applied as

a further insurance against additional inflow into the well bore. This
procedure is not generally recommended. Any additional choke
pressure applied must take into account the total pressure applied to
the open hole and the known strength of the exposed formations. In
general, the pressure applied to the hole should be limited to the
essential minimum.
When extra back pressure is used the calculated value of the
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standpipe pressure is raised by the size of that back pressure. To

achieve the back pressure desired, the standpipe pressure is often
reduced in steps rather than as one continual gradual change. This is
illustrated in Figure 2.3.21. Whether to step down or follow the line
will be a matter for personal preference. Stepping down can be more
difficult to accomplish requiring more manipulation of the choke.
Often, once the correct choke opening is established the standpipe
pressure will decrease as per the kill graph with little further
intervention.
Figure 2.3.21: Stepping down of standpipe pressure with extra

backpressure but without overbalance
The method of applying extra back pressure to add a safety margin is

431

preferred to that of using a higher fluid density. This is because extra

back pressure can easily be reduced at any time during the well kill.
• Hidden safety margins In the circulation pressure
In addition to the deliberate measures mentioned above, there are

hidden safety margins that result from simplifications made when
constructing the standpipe kill graph. Circulation pressure losses can
be divided into three parts :
• annular friction loss

• drill string friction loss
• pressure drop over the bit
For simplicity during construction of the kill graph, these losses are
assumed to increase proportionally with increasing drilling fluid
density. This estimation is conservative: the increase in circulation
pressure loss proves to be less than expected on the basis of direct
proportionality with increasing drilling fluid density. This assumption
thus leads to a hidden safety margin.
Annular friction loss
During well killing, circulation rates are decreased and therefore the
flow in the annulus is often laminar. In the case of laminar flow, an
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increase in density will actually have no influence on the circulating

pressure drop. A typical 3,000 m well with a surface wellhead might
produce an annular friction loss of the order of a few hundred kPa.
Thus if the drilling fluid density for killing the well is 10 or 20%
higher than the original density, the increase in annular circulating
pressure drop will be over estimated by 50 to 100 kPa and this will
produce a safety margin of that magnitude. This is illustrated in
Figure 2.3.22.
Figure 2.3.22: Safety margin in the annulus under laminar flow

conditions
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Note: In offshore wells with sub sea wellheads, the line between the
BOP stack and the choke manifold is sometimes very long. This can
have a significant effect on annular pressure losses and must be
considered carefully. The techniques involved for dealing with long
choke lines are dealt with in Section 7 - the offshore section - of the
distance learning package.
Drill string friction loss
The flow regime inside the drill string is generally turbulent. In the
case of turbulent flow the pressure losses increase with increasing
drilling fluid density but less than predicted by assuming the increase
is proportional to the increase in fluid density. This leads to a second
hidden safety margin of a similar magnitude i.e. 100 kPa in a 3000 m
well with 5" drill pipe and a fluid density increase of 10%. This safety
margin is illustrated in Figure 2.3.23
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Figure 2.3.23: Safety margin in the drill string
Bit pressure drop
The difference in bit pressure drop caused by the drilling fluid density
increase, is taken into account when calculating , prior to
constructing the standpipe kill graph. On the graph the transition
from to takes place at the same rate throughout phase I. In
reality, this extra pressure drop only occurs at the end of Phase I
when the denser fluid actually reaches the bit. The calculated extra
pressure drop across the bit, caused by the heavy fluid, causes an
extra safety margin which increases proportionately during Phase I is
lost at the very moment the heavy fluid reaches the nozzles. This is
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illustrated in Figure 2.3.24. Again, its magnitude is usually low at a

few hundred kPa.
Figure 2.3.24: Safety margin at the bit
• Pressure differential due to non-proportional change In

hydrostatic head
The drill pipe pressure is assumed to decrease proportionally with the

pumped volume until its value is zero at the end of Phase I. This is
only true if the inside of the drill string has a constant diameter.
Usually there is a decrease in diameter from the drill pipe to the
heavy wall drill pipe to the drill collars. The practical result of the
simplification is that the denser drilling fluid initially progresses more
436

slowly down the drill string, with a corresponding effect on bottom

hole pressure, than is predicted by the kill graph. Thus, to follow the
graph, the choke pressure is decreased more than it actually should
be. This could result in an under balanced situation (as illustrated in
Figure 2.3.25) but fortunately the pressure differential is of a similar
size as the safety margins already discussed and they tend to cancel
each other out.
Figure 2.3.25: Pressure differential due to non-proportional change in
437

hydrostatic head
In practice the hidden safety margins and the pressure differential

due to the non-proportional change in hydrostatic head can usually
be ignored due to their small size and self-compensating nature. Well
engineers must be aware of these effects, however, and understand
them in order to recognise when they ought to be considered. A
particularly important example is when a tapered drill string, which
uses more than one size of drill pipe (a combination of 5" and 31/2"
drill pipe for example) is in use. The non-uniform internal diameter
may then be significant enough to cause a second influx if not
accounted for when constructing the kill graph.
Kill graph for tapered drill string
To construct the static condition Pdp graph, at any point of

interest, 'x', is calculated using the following equation:
To address the dynamic situation, a simple modification to the Phase

I Pst kill graph has been devised. The only extra information required
is the depth of the crossover from large to small drill pipe. The two
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calculations required are:
• the drill string volume, and

• the dynamic standpipe pressure when the interface is at
the crossover point.
Derivation of the dynamic situation equation is as follows:
For well control purposes the dynamic pressures are assumed to be

the circulating pressure losses in the drill string only. In the Phase I
Pst kill graph calculations we assume a linear relationship between
and :
- = the total dynamic circulating pressure increase due to the

drilling fluid.
In the larger drill pipe at the top of the drill string, the friction losses
per unit length are less than that in the smaller drill pipe at the
bottom (see Part 2.2 - Drilling Hydraulics). It is therefore assumed
that a proportional amount of circulating pressure increase occurs per
volume of *2 drilling fluid pumped :
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A proportional string volume at depth 'x' can be written as
Note: While the last two assumptions are not strictly true, the
adjustment is simple and sufficiently accurate for the situation, that
is, appropriate for field practice.
Therefore the dynamic pressure at depth 'x' can be written as:
Substituting the above in the equation for for depth 'x' equal to
the crossover depth gives:
440

441

Figure 2.3.26: Kill graph for a string with two sizes of drill pipe and
BHA
• Deviated wells
Until this point we have considered vertical wells only. However,
442

many wells are now drilled with considerable deviation. When well
control situations are encountered in these wells it is important to
differentiate between along hole and true vertical depths to produce
an accurate standpipe kill graph.
The equation used for a tapered string is suitable and can be very
easily adapted to be used to calculate at any point of interest,

x, in a deviated well. The equation in its general form is:
If only one size of drill pipe is used, then becomes
. Since drill string volume is a product of length times

capacity and if the capacity is constant for the whole string
(neglecting the small error made by omitting the drill collar capacity
difference and the pressure drop over the bit), the equation then
becomes:
Several values at various points of interest can be calculated for a

443

deviated well. These points would most logically be:
• the kick-off point,

• end of the build-up section,
• the start of drop-off section, and
• the end of drop-off section.
The kill graph is constructed in a similar fashion as for the tapered
drill string graph. The corresponding volume of drilling fluid, the
static and at the various points of interest are calculated. These

points are plotted and the appropriate straight lines connecting them
are drawn.
The error in incurred by neglecting the true dimensional nature of

the well results (depending on the well design) in an overbalance or
an underbalance to the formation pressure until the kill density
drilling fluid has reached the bit at the end of Phase 1 (see Figure
2.3.27). For highly deviated wells, this additional balance can be
large enough to cause lost circulation or stuck pipe. The
underbalance could lead to a second influx.
In the graph for a vertical well, a straight line is drawn from to .

This is however not a correct representation of the deviated well.
444

Consider the situation for a simple single build and tangent section
well. If the vertical well straight line was followed instead of the
actual deviated well line, an overbalance to formation pressures
would occur in the vertical, the build and the tangent sections of the
well. The overbalance occurs beginning from surface, increases
through the vertical section to the kick-off point and continues, but
decreases steadily, through the build-up and tangent section of the
well (see Figure 2.3.26). The slope of the deviated well Pst line
(actual calculated well path) is here steeper owing to the fact that
the effect of the kill density fluid is more dominant in the vertical
section compared with that of the remainder of the well path. At the
start of the build-up section this overbalance reaches its maximum.
Different types of deviated well are possible (e.g. a long vertical
section following a drop-off section) and for each one the graph will
therefore have the critical and maximum under/over-balance
situation at different points of Phase I.
Work has been carried out to quantify the result of ignoring the true
deviated nature of a well and instead following a straight Pst line
drawn between the two points and for Phase I of the "Wait
and Weight" method. In low angle wells (< 45°) and when pressures
seen at surface for Pdp are low (< 7,000 kPa/1,000 psi), the
445

consequences of neglecting the true directional nature is essentially

of little significance. The largest possible overbalance increase
applied in a 45° well is 9 % of the original Pdp. For Pdp values of up to
7,000 kPa/1,000 psi this could lead to a maximum induced
overbalance of 630 kPa/90 psi. In extended reach wells with angles
approaching 90°, the overbalance increase applied could be as high
as 55% of the original Pdp. These created overbalances are on top of
the hidden safety factors (as discussed in Topic 3.5.4.2.8) and any
planned overbalance.
Underbalance will occur in an 'S'-shaped well in the drop-off and the

following tangent section (see again Figure 2.3.27) in a very similar
manner and for comparable reasons as for the tapered drill string
situation described in the previous section. During the drop-off, the
underbalance that would occur if the vertical well assumption Pst line
were followed increases until the maximum underbalance is
experienced at the end of the drop-off section. The slope of the
deviated well Pst line (actual calculated well path) is steeper in the
last tangent section following the drop-off than the vertical well along
hole length assumption line. Eventually the two different Pst lines end
446

up equal to at the end of Phase I (see Figure 2.3.27).
Figure 2.3.27: Kill graph for a deviated ('S'-shaped) well
• Horizontal wells
In principle, well control calculations for deviated wells also apply for
horizontal wells. However, a bottom hole angle of 90° for the
horizontal section cannot be used in the calculations, because of
practical arithmetical reasons. An assumed bottom hole angle of 89°
should be used instead. For hydrostatic pressure-related calculations
447

the TVD of the "deepest" part of the horizontal section should be

used. Most well control methods are also applicable to horizontal
wells. However, when the string is off bottom, or when circulation at
bottom is not possible, well control options become limited, because
the volumetric method or bullheading are unlikely to be successful or
very effective in the horizontal section.
Other kick control considerations for horizontal wells are:
• When a kick is encountered, the influx will take place over the
entire exposed horizontal reservoir section at once.
• The overbalance at the "beginning" of the horizontal reservoir
is the same as the "end" of the horizontal reservoir.
• Possible dispersion effect in the horizontal section will take
place (depending on hole and flow conditions) which may
result in long circulating times to get the fluid in the well gas
free and with a homogeneous density.
• Lower than expected annular pressures will occur due to the
dispersion effect.
• A proper standpipe kill graph for a deviated well should be
used to ensure that the correct bottom hole pressure is applied
during the well killing process.
• If well programming is done correctly, the most likely kicks
448

which may occur are swab kicks, since formation pressures are
known.
• In principle, well control situations should not be critical since
the casing is set directly above the production zone.
• Troubleshooting
There are a number of events that can occur during a well killing
operation which can cause an unexpected change in surface
indications. The supervisor must be able to recognise the symptoms
caused by different events and respond accordingly.
Pump failure.
Pump failure (or a problem with surface lines) is characterised by an

unexpected and sudden loss of standpipe pressure which will quickly
be mirrored by the choke pressure. An alert choke operator will
quickly close the choke to ensure that bottom hole pressure is
maintained but it will still be necessary to restart the kill with either
the same pump once it has been repaired or a different pump, the
cement pump for instance. In the latter case, it is likely that pumping
will be resumed at a different rate and this must be accounted for on
the standpipe kill graph. One possible approach is to calculate what
the expected system pressure loss will be with the new circulating
449

rate (see under "Circulation" in this Topic 3.5.4). It is more common,

however, to use the new observed circulating pressure as is done
when first starting circulation with the "Wait & Weight" method. The
procedure to restart circulation is therefore very similar i.e.
• Before starting the killing operations, bleed off at the choke

any increase in Pdp pressure resulting from a second build up.
• Open the choke and simultaneously start pumping, bringing
the pump rate to the selected killing pump speed.
• While achieving and maintaining the pre-selected pump speed
adjust the choke opening until the choke pressure Pch equals
the closed-in annulus pressure Pann immediately before starting
the pump.
• Read the standpipe pressure Pst. The revised Pc1 should then
be used to calculate a corrected Pc2 and the standpipe kill
graph redrawn. In doing so the effects of a tapered string and
/ or deviation must be accounted for as above.
Losses
Another mechanism that can cause both standpipe and choke

pressures to fall simultaneously is the onset of losses. This is a very
serious situation as it is likely to occur when the influx is in the open
450

hole (as pressures on the open hole tend to reduce after the influx
enters the casing) and the situation can rapidly degenerate into an
internal blowout. The speed with which the pressures drop will give
an indication of the severity of the losses, but the first action would
normally be to stop the killing operation and close the well in. If Pdp
and Pann continue to fall quickly then a surface problem can be ruled
out and the situation must be regarded as very serious. The best
option may now be to attempt to bullhead the influx away without
allowing the open hole section to be displaced to the reservoir fluid.
Alternatively, tertiary well control techniques may be necessary.
Well geometry
A drop in Pst and Pch does not necessarily signal problems. Despite
the serious situation described above the pressures may change
merely because of the effects of well geometry. When drilling small
hole sizes, and after a liner has been set, the height of any influx will
reduce considerably as it passes the BHA and moves above the top of
the liner. Therefore, before assuming that something is going wrong,
check your Pst against the kill graph to see if it is as expected.
Plugged choke
Plugging of the choke is characterised by an unexpected
451

simultaneous rise in both the standpipe and choke pressures, which

responds only slowly or not at all to opening the choke further.
Plugging of the choke can be due to cuttings that were in the
annulus when the kick occurred. This situation demands immediate
action if formation damage is to be avoided as the pressures in the
well will rise rapidly. The pump must be stopped and the well closed
in. The choke can then be isolated to enable it to be cleared. The
well kill operation can be re-started via the spare choke using the
procedure given above for pump failure. It would be extremely ill
advised to attempt to swap from one choke to the other without
stopping !
Plugged bit nozzle
A sudden increase in standpipe pressure with no corresponding

increase in choke pressure indicates that plugging has occurred
somewhere upstream of the choke. In a sub sea well this may have
occurred in the choke line and the implications are the same as for a
plugged choke. However, aside from with the long choke lines
sometimes used in sub sea wells, sudden plugging of the annulus is
very unlikely due to the relatively large clearances. It is much more
likely that plugging will occur inside the string, the most likely
location being a bit nozzle. In the event that one of three nozzles
452

becomes blocked in this way it should be possible to continue the kill

in the same way but with a re-drawn standpipe pressure graph. This
will be one occasion when the effects of the bit pressure drop might
need to be considered separately since it will now be a bigger
proportion of the circulating pressure drop. The normal course of
action on observing the pressure increase would therefore be to stop
the pump and close the well in to allow the situation to be re-
assessed. Circulation can then be re-started in the same way as for a
changed pump rate.
Lost bit nozzle or string washout
In practice neither of these events is likely to occur during a well kill

operation since the circulating rates are usually considerably lower
than those used during drilling. The loss of a nozzle would be
recognised by a sudden drop in standpipe pressure without a
corresponding change in the choke pressure. A washout would,
however, be much harder to spot since the change in circulating
pressure would be more gradual. Since the choke operator would
likely react to maintain the standpipe pressure required by the kill
graph, the net effect would be a higher choke pressure than
necessary and thus BHP would be too great. Since it is quite rare to
have a choke pressure graph available during a well kill, the higher
453

choke pressure would probably go unnoticed.
Contaminated returns
It is important when monitoring the density of drilling fluid returns to

check for contamination by the influx. In practice this means water,
oil or gas. The effects of gas cutting in drilling fluid were mentioned
in Topic 4 and it is important that it is recognised. Gas cutting can
result in the measured density of the fluid being somewhat less than
it's true density and excess weighting material being added.
Whenever a gas kick is being circulated out it is common and good
practice for returns to be routed via both the Poor Boy and vacuum
degassers. However a pressurised fluid balance should also always be
used to avoid this mistake.
1.3.5.3.4.3 MIGRATION
As mentioned previously, circumstances do not always permit the

influx to be circulated out. Alternative well control techniques must
then be employed:
• volumetric method
• combined volumetric stripping procedure
454

• Volumetric method
If a gas or gaseous influx can not be circulated out it will be

necessary to control the migration, expansion and removal of the gas
from the well by the volumetric method. In this method the aim is to
maintain bottom hole pressure slightly in excess of the pore pressure
whilst the gas is allowed to expand as it migrates to the surface.
Unfortunately, controlling bottom hole pressure is made more
complicated by the absence of a means of measuring it directly as is
possible when the drill string is in the hole and filled with drilling
fluid. When the gas reaches surface it is bled off from the well and
drilling fluid is pumped into the annulus, in a process known as
lubrication, in order to allow the annulus pressure to be reduced.
This is done in stages and pressures are determined by formation
pressure and MAASP. Note that the volumetric method does not kill
the well, it only removes the influx via a very lengthy process. If the
influx occurred because of an over-pressure rather than swabbing, it
will still be necessary to circulate the well to a fluid with a higher
density to regain primary control. The method itself, however, is
relatively safe and, if done with due regard to the minimum amount
of overbalance required and given a sufficient formation strength,
should not damage the formation.
455

Procedure with string out of hole.
• Close-in the well and record Pann. If possible determine the

volume of the influx and try to work out how / why it entered
the well bore.
• By letting the gas migrate upwards, let become (Pann + Pw +
Ps)
where:
Pann = initial closed-in annulus pressure before second build-up.
working pressure increment (750 kPa or 50 psi; this can be

any reasonable pressure value that fits with an easily
Pw =
measurable volume to bleed off in stages with consideration
for MAASP).
Ps = A safety margin of ca. 1500 - 3000 kPa (100 - 200 psi).
• Bleed off drilling fluid (V1) from the well, whilst maintaining
Pann constant.
Note that this equation is conservative since it uses the open hole
456

capacity throughout the process. Once the influx has moved into the
cased hole (and thus would normally require a greater volume to be
bled off for a given pressure increase), continuing with the same
value of V1 will result in an additional overbalance building up. If a
liner has been set, this additional overbalance can be significant and
consideration should be given to using a new V once the influx is
known to be above TOL.
• Let Pann increase by one increment of Pw, so that

• Repeat steps 3 and 4 until gas reaches surface.
• Pump drilling fluid (V2) into the annulus.
where CSGcap is the capacity of the casing in m3/m

(bbls/ft)
Allow the gas to migrate to surface again.
Bleed off gas only, until the choke pressure (i.e. the pressure prior to
pumping the next volume V2 of drilling fluid) is reduced by one
increment of Pw.
Repeat the last three steps until all the gas has been replaced with
drilling fluid.
457

Note: Construct Pw/V1 increment line on graph paper and plot the
observed choke pressures against V1 steps. When gas is at surface,
construct Pw/V2 increment line and plot choke pressures against V2
steps as in Figure 2.3.28.
Procedure with bit off bottom:
If the string is not in the hole but bit is off bottom the procedure is
virtually identical. In this case, however, Ps, the safety margin, must
be calculated to ensure that it is sufficient to allow for the loss of
bottom hole pressure that will occur when the influx migrates up past
the bit and its annular height increases due to the reduced annular
capacity around the drill collars/pipe. The equation used for
calculating Ps in this case is as follows :
Under some circumstances more accurate calculations may be

required and consideration given to how Ps can be reduced. In slim
hole drilling the Ps calculated above may be much higher than
458

necessary if the bit is above the top of a liner. This will be important
if pressures are close to MAASP.
Figure 2.3.28: Gas influx removal by lubricating drilling fluid into well
• Combined volumetric stripping procedure
The combined stripping and volumetric method is a variation of the

volumetric method. It is used when the drill string is partially or
459

completely out of the hole at the point when a kick is experienced.

The objective is to safely return the bit to bottom whilst at the same
time maintaining well control. This is done by "stripping" the string
into the well through the closed BOP. This is preferably done through
the annular preventer. The well can then be most effectively killed
with the bit on bottom. Thus, this method is only used when
circulation through the string is possible.
460

Figure 2.3.29: Evolution of choke pressure during Volumetric Stripping

Procedure
The method uses the basic calculations and procedures of the

volumetric method i.e. allowing a gas bubble to expand as it migrates
in order to keep the bottom hole pressure constant. At the same
time, however, the string is stripped into the well and therefore
allowance must be made for the increased displacement of the drill
pipe.
This requires the supervisor to differentiate between drilling fluid that

he has bled off to allow the gas to expand and drilling fluid that has
been bled off for the drill pipe. To make this task easier during the
operation, an extra small tank is installed on most of the rigs working
under contract to Shell. It is connected to the trip tank and is known
as the "strip(ping)" tank.
With bit off bottom
Assuming that the kick has occurred while tripping and that the string
is not completely out of the hole, the procedures will be similar to
those for the volumetric method. Indeed, the volumetric method
should be implemented while preparations are made to strip into the
461

well as this can sometimes take quite a long time.
• Close-in the well and record Pann. If possible determine the

volume of the influx and try to work out how / why it entered
the well bore.
• By letting the gas migrate upwards, let become (Pann + Pw +
Ps). The value of Ps should be as calculated in the volumetric
method with the bit off bottom. Meanwhile, once preparations
are complete, stripping can commence. As the string is
stripped into the well it should be filled with drilling fluid from
the active tank (not from the trip tank).
Note: In theory, in order to be sure that no second influx occurs,

stripping should not begin before has been reached and thus Ps
applied. This is in case the bit encounters the influx, so that the
annular height of gas increases, and the bottom hole pressure
decreases. In practice, the influx is usually some way below the bit
and this is not a concern It does highlight, however, that the
supervisor must be aware of what is happening down hole and
compensate if necessary. Blind application of the equations is not
sufficient.
• Once the required has been reached, it is kept constant
462

whilst drill pipe is stripped in the hole. Excess pressure is bled

off via the choke manifold into the trip tank. The closed-end
pipe displacement of each stripped-in stand of drill pipe is
drained from the trip tank into the stripping tank. The string is
stripped in the hole until a volume V1 has accumulated in the
trip tank. This V1 is calculated in the same way as in the
volumetric method with the bit off bottom above.
• The choke is then closed and the choke pressure allowed to
build up, while stripping pipe into the hole, by another working
increment to . Thus :
• The last two steps are repeated as often as necessary until the
bit is back on bottom, the gas has reached surface or stripping
is no longer possible (excessive surface pressures, problems
with the BOP etc.). At this point the well is killed conventionally
by circulation. This will most probably involve using the Driller's
method as most stripping operations occur following a
swabbing incident.
String out of hole
If the string is not in the hole when the influx is detected and the
well closed in, then stripping will only be possible if the first stand
has sufficient weight to overcome the closed in surface pressure.
463

Ignoring the effects of friction in the BOP, this can be calculated

simply as follows ;
Max. surface pressure = (weight of first stand in drilling fluid) /

(cross-sectional area of the stand)
If necessary, the kelly or top drive can sometimes be used to help

push the first singles into the well.
Preparations for stripping.
The combined stripping and volumetric method described in the

preceding paragraphs is not simple to apply in the field, especially
from the perspective of co-ordinating the different personnel who
must act together. Drills are necessary to ensure that personnel are
familiar with the principles, procedures and the operation of the
equipment. In particular, the required closing pressure for the
annular preventer can be established. Detailed preparations for
stripping can be found in Section 2.3.9 of EP 89-1500.
1.3.5.3.4.4 INJECTION (OR BULLHEADING)
Bullheading involves applying pressure at surface to re-inject an

influx either into the formation from which it came or another more
permeable/weaker formation. Application of this technique can help
464

in circumstances which do not lend themselves to normal methods.

Examples are;
• The influx contains H2S which will cause a safety hazard if

brought to surface.
• A combined kick and losses has arisen (see 3.5.4.2).
• The MAASP is likely to be exceeded by a large margin before
the influx enters the shoe. This can be the case in high
pressure high temperature wells where there is only a small
margin between the drilling fluid gradient and the formation
strength and where a high degree of expansion (and thus high
surface pressures) is required to bring a gas influx to surface.
Unfortunately, bullheading is not a routine method during drilling

operations (although it is often used when killing a well for workover
using brine). A considerable amount of whole drilling fluid may have
to be squeezed away in order to remove a migrating gas influx from
the well. This might well result in considerable formation damage and
a permanent loss situation, jeopardising the hole section and the
objectives of the well. Bullheading can only be used if hole conditions
permit and each case must be judged on its own merits. Factors
which will affect the success of the operation are formation
permeability, the type of influx, contamination of the influx with
465

drilling fluid and its position relative to the weakest formation

exposed, the burst strength of the casing and the pressure rating of
the BOP. These are discussed further in Section 2.3.10 of EP 89-
1500.
1.3.6 Tertiary well control

1.3.6.1 OBJECTIVES
If secondary well control procedures cannot be followed due to

equipment failure or hole conditions, certain emergency procedures
can be implemented to avoid a total loss of control. In practice this
means an internal or external blowout ! Such measures, which are
usually referred to as Tertiary Well Control have the objective of
plugging the open hole section which is the cause of the problem.
They therefore generally lead to a partial or complete abandonment
of that hole section.
1.3.6.2 METHODOLOGY
• BARYTES PLUGS
A barites plug is a slurry of barites in fresh water or diesel oil which is

displaced through the drill string. If possible, the string is then pulled
466

above it. The barites settle out rapidly and should form an
impermeable mass capable of isolating the producing zone. The
effectiveness of a barites plug derives from the high density and fine
particle size of the material and its ability to form a tough
impermeable barrier. It has the advantages that it can be pumped
through the bit and offers a reasonable chance of recovering the drill
string. In addition, the plug can be drilled up easily if required.
To be effective, a barites slurry must:
• be made with good quality barytes with a low clay content

• have a high density, a minimum of 3.5 kPa/m greater than the
drilling fluid density
• have a high settling rate and water loss.
The main disadvantage is the risk of settlement and consequent

plugging in the string if pumping has to be stopped before the slurry
has been completely displaced. The risk of settlement means that
they need to be agitated constantly during mixing. It is preferable to
batch mix them and pump them with the cement unit for accurate
volume control.
Note: Guidance on recipes for both diesel and water barytes plugs
467

can be found in Section 2.4.2 of EP 89-1500.
• CEMENT PLUGS
A cement plug can also be used to shut off a downhole flow. This is
really a measure of last resort as it often results in plugging of the
string and a subsequent loss of most of the drilling tools. In addition,
any cement job is unlikely to be perfect and this can lead to long
term problems with cross flow. Once a drill string has been cemented
in to a hole section this can be very difficult to remedy.
This method involves displacing a quantity of quick setting

(accelerated) cement down the string and into the annulus. The use
of quick setting cement reduces the possibility of gas cutting taking
place. The cement is usually displaced until pump and choke
pressures indicate that a bridge has formed but this will be, to a large
extent, guesswork.
468

1.3.7 Appendix
1.3.7.1 Appendix 1: Relationship between
bottomhole pressure, formation strength at the
casing shoe, drilling fluid density and influx
volume
The minimum required formation strength to drill to the next casing

point with a particular drilling fluid density, maximum allowable kick
volume (kick tolerance), and estimated pore pressure gradient, can
be calculated for the following possible well control situations:
• Kick whilst drilling:
Æ influx on bottom
Æ influx circulated to the casing shoe
• Swab kick
These calculations are to be made for well control design purposes

and are an integral part of well design. The following assumptions
are made:
• All calculations are based on the "Drillers' method" to circulate
469

out the influx and to control the well.

• Pore pressure gradients to be used in the calculations depend
on the probability of encountering higher than expected pore
pressures. They should be selected as follows:
Note: The above assumptions shall be used for "well control design"
purposes only. The philosophy of not drilling for a kick whilst still
applying the lowest possible drilling fluid density (minimum
overbalance 200-400 psi) shall always be followed.
Results of the above mentioned calculation method are shown

graphically in Figure 2.3.30, as an example. The highest required
leak-off test (L.O.T.) values for specific influx volumes are plotted for
470

the following kick situations:
• influx on bottom;
• influx at shoe
• worst case swab situation (top influx at shoe with the bit at the
bottom of the influx).
The kick tolerance for the given conditions and a specific L.O.T. result
can be found as follows:
• 1) Follow L.O.T. line until it intersects with the worst case kick
situation.
• 2) Follow dotted line to determine the kick tolerance (e.g. 35
bbl).
471

Figure 2.3.30 : Kick tolerance - influx volume versus required formation

strength
Equations to calculate the minimum required formation strength of

vertical and deviated wells are shown on the following pages:
I) INFLUX ON BOTTOM
472

Where:
II) INFLUX CIRCULATED TO THE CASING SHOE
Where:
473

Note:
Use the *fs value obtained in I) above to calculate and .
Recalculate the final and values using in the

equations.
474

Nomenclature
475

Note: This Appendix has been taken from Appendix 13 of EP 89-

1500, the Pressure Control Manual for Drilling and Workover
Operations. The following nomenclature has been taken from the
same source and differs from the nomenclature of the remainder of
this Part which is given in Appendix 5.
476

1.3.7.2 Appendix 2: Worked example for killing a

well by the "Wait & Weight" method.
The "Wait and Weight" method was outlined in Topic 5. In this

477

Appendix a worked out example of that method for a gas influx is

presented. It is assumed here that the well is vertical.
DATA
SI Units Field Units
Well & pressure data

Hole diameter, d2 = 216 mm 8·5 inch
Depth to bit, D = 3,000 m 10,000 ft
Volume of influx, Vinf =4 m3 25 bbl
Tank volume = 64 m3 400 bbl
Closed in drill pipe pressure, Pdp = 10,980 kPa 1,610 psi
Closed in annulus pressure, Pann = 13,140 kPa 1,920 psi
Initial drilling fluid gradient, = 11·78 kPa/m 0·519 psi/ft
Formation strength gradient, F = 19·23 kPa/m 0·850 psi/ft
Pump output, Q at 30 strokes/min = 500 l/min 125 gpm
= 2,345 kPa 340 psi
Casing (grade K55)
weight (nominal) = 59·53 kg/m 40 lbs/ft
I.D. = 224·4 mm 8·835 inch
478

O.D. = 244·48 mm 9·625 inch
length, Ds = 2,070 m 6,800 ft
Drill pipe (grade E)
weight
= 29.02 kg/m 19.5 lbs/ft
(nominal)
I.D. = 108.6 mm 4.276 inch
O.D. = 127 mm 5 inch
HWDP (grade E)
weight
= 74.4 kg/m 50 lbs/ft
(nominal)
I.D. = 76.2 mm 3 inch
O.D. = 127 mm 5 inch
length, Ds = 335 m 1,100 ft
Drill collars
weight = 130·1 kg/m 96·02 lbs/ft
I.D. = 71·4 mm 213/16 inch
O.D. = 161·9 mm 63/8 inch
479

length = 183 m 600 ft
CALCULATING THE FORMATION PRESSURE WHEN THE BIT

IS AT THE BOTTOM OF THE HOLE
See Figure 2.3.31
closed in
Hydrostatic head
drill
Formation = of fluid in drill +
pipe
pressure string
pressure
480

THE LINEAR CAPACITIES IN THE Figure 2.3.31 : Pressure with the well
DRILL STRING closed in
Drill pipe:
The capacity, which includes an

allowance for internal upsets and tool
joints, is taken from the Well Engineers
Notebook, page C-5:
0·00915 m3/m 0·0175 bbls/ft
HWDP:
The capacity, which includes an

allowance for internal upsets and tool
joints, is taken from the Well Engineers
Notebook, page C-13:
0·00453 m3/m 0·0087 bbls/ft
CALCULATING THE LINEAR CAPACITIES IN THE ANNULUS
481

482

483

1.3.7.3 Appendix 3: Derivation of the equation to

calculate top gas pressures:
484

PRESSURE AT TOP OF GAS IN PHASE I
For simplicity the following equations are

those applicable to a vertical hole. If that is
not the case, corrections have to be made
to the terms involving column heights.
Referring to Figure 2.3.32, the pressure at

the top of the gas influx is given by:
P = Po - D1ρ1 - hinfρ'inf
But D1 = D - X - hinf
So P = P0 - (D - X - hinf)ρ1 - hinfρ'inf
By rearranging, this becomes:
P = P0 - (D - X)ρ1 - hinf ρ'inf
Then P = A + hinfρ1
where
A = P0 - (D - X)ρ1 - Pf
Pf = hinfρ'inf = hbρinf)
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We now want to find an expression for hinf,
the height of Engineer:
Petroleum the gas influx in theZouhry
Mohd. annulus El-Helu.
as
it is circulated towards the surface, in terms
of h'b, the height of the influx when the gas
is at the bottom of the hole, hb, corrected
for the change in linear capacity up hole.
Where:
Po* is the pressure at the top of the gas when the gas is at the
bottom of the hole
V1 is the volume of the gas when at the bottom
T1 is the temperature when at bottom
Z1 is the compressibility when at bottom
P, V2, T2 Z2 refer to the gas at the point of interest
Thus:
But the volume can also be expressed in terms of the height of the
influx and the linear capacity of the annulus
Thus V1 = hbc1
V2= hinfc2
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Then:
or
or
where
i.e. the changed height due to the different linear capacity up hole
As given above P = A + hinfρ1
Thus:
And:
This is a quadratic equation in P and its positive root is:
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This is the expression that is used in Appendices 2 and 3.
PRESSURE AT TOP OF GAS IN PHASE II
The pressure, P, at the top of the gas influx is given by:
P = P0 - D1ρ1 - D2ρ2 - hinfρ'inf
But D2 = D - X - hinf - D1
So P = P0 - D1ρ1 - Dρ2 + X*2 + D1*2 + hinfρ2 - hinfρ'inf
This rearranges to give:
P = P0 - (D - X)ρ2 + D1(ρ2 - ρ1) + hinfρ2 -hinfρ'inf
Then P = A1 + hinfρ2
Where: A1 = P0 - (D - X)ρ2 + D1(ρ2 - ρ1) - Pf
Pf = hinfρ'inf= hbρinf
The procedure is then identical to that for Phase I leading to:
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1.3.7.4 Appendix 4: List of symbols used in this Part
489

Pressures in stages method (kPa, psi)
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closed in drill pipe pressure at start
closed in drill pipe pressure at end of first circulation
closed in drill pipe pressure at end of second circulation
standpipe pressure at the beginning of the first circulation
standpipe pressure at end of phase 1 in first circulation
Volumes (m3, bbl)
ΛV increase in volume of drilling fluid due to weighting material
v1 volume of drilling fluid above kick at end of phase I
V1 original volume of gas
V2 expanded volume of gas
Vann total volume of annulus
Vds volume or capacity of the drill string
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Vkick volume of the kick
Vt total tank volume increase
Xwh volume fraction of gas at the well head (gas cut drilling fluid)
Linear capacities (m3/m, bbl/ft)
c1 linear capacity of drill collar - open hole annulus
c2 linear capacity of drill pipe - open hole annulus
c3 linear capacity of drill pipe - casing annulus
Depths, heights and lengths (m, ft)
D depth from surface to bit
D1 height of drilling fluid below the influx
D2 height of drilling fluid below the influx
Ds depth to casing shoe
h height of drilling fluid column in Strong-White equation for gas cut

drilling fluid
hb height of influx when the influx is at bottom. (Must be true vertical
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height)
h'b equivalent height to height of influx at bottom, based only on

change in capacity up hole
hinf actual height of influx up hole /height of part of drilling fluid in

drill pipe - casing annulus
Lchoke length of choke line
L length of a section of pipe or annulus
Ldc length of drill collars
Ldp length of drill pipe
Ldpoh length of drill pipe in open hole
Lhwdp length of heavy wall drill pipe
X height of drilling fluid above influx
Gradients (kPa/m, psi/ft)
dw gradient of weighting material
drilling fluid gradient
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initial drilling fluid gradient
gradient of weighted drilling fluid (final weight up in stages method)
a/b/c intermediate drilling fluid gradients in well killing by stages with

being the gradient of the final weight up
F formation strength gradient
ρinf gradient of the influx
'inf effective gradient of influx at point of interest
m gradient of drilling fluid in the Strong-White equation for gas cut

drilling fluid
Other symbols
A nozzle area (mm2, in2)
C constant in the power-law equation for Ps
d1 outside diameter of pipe (mm, inch)
d2 diameter of the hole (mm, inch)
f friction factor
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g acceleration due to gravity (9.80665 m/s2)
n index in the power-law equation for Ps
N1 amount of weighting material to weight up 1 m3 or 1 bbl (kg, lbs)
NT amount of weighting material to weight up total volume of drilling

fluid (kg, lbs)
Q flow rate (pump output) (m3/min, gpm)
T1 initial absolute temperature of gas (K)
T2 absolute temperature of gas at point of interest (K)
V drilling fluid velocity (m/s, ft/min)
Vs average drilling fluid velocity when calculating surge and swab

pressures (m/s, ft/min)
Z1 initial compressibility factor of gas
Z2 compressibility factor of gas at point of interest
1.4 DIRECTIONAL DRILLING
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1.4.1 Introduction
Directional drilling is the science of directing a wellbore along a
predetermined trajectory to intersect a designated sub-surface
target.
From its early beginnings in the 1920s when it was regarded as a

"black art", directional drilling has evolved to the point where it can
truly be regarded as a science, although not always an exact science.
The offshore drilling industry is founded on directional drilling.
Without the use of directional drilling techniques, it would not be
economical to produce oil from most offshore fields. Improvements in
directional drilling tools and techniques coupled with advances in
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production techniques have led to a steady increase in the proportion

of wells drilled directionally rather than vertically. As the search for oil
extends into ever more hostile and demanding environments, this
trend will continue.
Topic 2 looks at how a vertical well can be maintained close to the

vertical. Causes of deviation from the vertical are considered as are
the mechanical behaviour of drilling assemblies. Formation effects are
also discussed. Methods of deviation control in vertical wells are then
outlined. Much of the material in this first section anticipates topics
discussed in later sections with reference to directional wells.
Topic 3 briefly outlines some of the many applications of directional

drilling.
Topic 4 covers well planning and includes an explanation of reference

systems and coordinates. The discussion focusses mainly on the
geometrical planning of the well path and deals briefly with subjects
such as "nudging" and collision avoidance.
In Topic 5, downhole drilling motors are described. The operating

principles of both turbine and positive displacement motors are
explained. The major sub-assemblies of both types are described and
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their functions explained; typical output characteristics are given.
Topic 6 provides a brief review of the traditional tools and methods of

deflecting wellbores in a controlled fashion. Whipstocks, the jet
deflection method and the use of bent subs with downhole motors
are all described.
Topic 7 deals with the vital subject of toolface orientation, which is

relevant not only to the traditional deflection tools but also to
steerable motors.
In Topic 8 the principles used to effect directional control of rotary

assemblies are discussed in detail. Typical examples of rotary BHA
design are given and explained.
Topic 9 provides a detailed discussion of "steerable motors" or

"drilling systems", to use the modern terminology. As this is the
modern way to drill directional wells, the topic is discussed in depth.
Finally, Topic 10 deals with BHA weight requirements. There is a

discussion of buckling analysis which is relevant to the subject of
running drill pipe in compression. The section explains how
directional BHAs can be shortened by running drill pipe in
compression, which is consistent with the Group's anti-stick
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philosophy.
1.4.2 Vertical drilling

1.4.2.1 CAUSES OF DEVIATION FROM THE
VERTICAL
The factors which affect the tendency of a drilling assembly to drill in

a direction other than the existing axis of the well remain the same
whether the deviation is an unwanted problem, or the deviation is
deliberate.
It has been observed that a bit is more likely to drill the hole away
from its established path under certain conditions.
Mechanical forces affect the behaviour of the drilling assembly:
• When a more flexible drilling assembly is used.

• When increased weight is applied to the bit.
Various formations act differently on the rock bit:
• When drilling laminated rock, e.g. layers of shale and

sandstone compared with a homogeneous limestone.
• When drilling formations having certain dip angle and hardness
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characteristics.
1.4.2.2 MECHANICAL BEHAVIOUR OF DRILLING

ASSEMBLIES
The principal mechanical forces which cause a bit to deviate are

called the "buckling" and "pendulum" effects, and they are shown
simply in Figure 2.4.1 where the forces illustrated are defined as
follows:
W1 = the total weight-on-bit, acting along the axis of the drill collar.
W2 = one component of W1 which acts along the axis of the hole.
W3 = a component of W1, complementary and normal to W2, acting

at right angles to the hole axis. This force acts laterally at the bit.
W1, W2 and W3 are forces which occur when the centre line of the
drill collars is displaced from the hole axis due to bending of the
assembly.
W4 = the vertical downward force caused by gravity acting on the

length of drill collars below the wall contact point.
W5 = one component of the drill collar weight W4 which acts along
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the axis of the assembly, and contributes to the total weight-on-bit,

W1.
W6 = a component of W4, complementary and normal to W5; it acts

at right angles to the drill collar axis and back towards the vertical.
Part of this force also has a lateral influence at the bit.
The forces W4, W5 and W6 are due to gravity and the inclination of
the hole, and illustrate the pendulum effect.
• BENDING OF DRILL COLLARS
When weight is applied to the bit the lower part of the drill collars will
bend to some extent under the compressive load. The direction of
the force applied at the bit will then no longer coincide exactly with
the centre line of the hole; as the bit drills ahead the lateral
component of the bit weight, W3, will tend to deflect it.
The direction of W3 depends on the direction of bending of the lowest

part of the bottom hole assembly, which in turn depends on the
geometry of the system - in particular the position of the lowest two
stabilisers (which act as fulcrums). In the figure no stabiliser is
present, the BHA is sagging towards the lower side of the hole and
the inclination at the lower end of the collars is greater than that of
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the hole. The inclination of the hole is thus likely to increase.
The amount of inclination change, and the length of the assembly

involved, will depend on:
• The stiffness, i.e. the dimensions, of the drill collars.

• The hole diameter.
• The arrangement of stabilisers in the assembly.
• The compressive load applied
Bending, and the corresponding directional force at the bit, W3, is

increased by:
• Greater clearance between the drill collar assembly and the

hole.
• Smaller, more flexible drill collars.
• More compressive force, i.e. weight-on-bit.
As bending increases, the length of the assembly mainly involved

(from the bit to the first point of drill collar wall contact), tends to
shorten. This is called the "active drill collar length", and in practice
the position of the first stabiliser determines this dimension. Usually
not more than the bottom 50 m (150 ft.) of the assembly is active in
the absence of stabilisers; or at high inclination or with high bit
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weight, perhaps less than 20 m (60 ft.).
• THE PENDULUM EFFECT OF GRAVITY ON THE ASSEMBLY
The effect of gravity on the drill collars below the wall contact point
acts vertically downward. Part of this force is transmitted to the bit
along the axis of the drill collars, and its complementary component,
W6, acts towards the vertical, perpendicular to the axis of the
assembly. This force is supported by the formation at the wall
contact point and at the bit (see Figure 2.4.1).
Considered separately the influence of this lateral force at the bit is

to reduce the inclination of the hole. Its magnitude increases:
• When hole inclination is greater.

• When heavier drill collars are used below the contact point.
• When the active drill string length is increased.
In Figure 2.4.1 each of the above factors will tend to increase the
value of the lateral component (W6) of the drill collar weight (W4)
below the wall contact point.
• CONTROL OF MECHANICAL FACTORS
By changing the make-up of an assembly and altering the drilling
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parameters it is possible to vary the magnitude of the lateral forces

at the bits W3 and W6, which directly influence the tendency of the
bit to deviate from the existing path of the hole in a vertical plane.
Note that, although W3 acts normal to the hole axis, and W6 to that
of the drill collars, for practical purposes these forces can be
considered to act in directly opposite directions.
1.4.2.3 FORMATION EFFECTS ON DEVIATION
Formation characteristics add considerably to the complexity of

deviation problems, and numerous theories have been suggested to
explain observed effects.
FORMATION BIT INTERACTION OR ANISOTROPIC THEORY

OF ROCK FAILURE
In uniform rocks, equal chip volumes are formed on each side of a bit
tooth, and the bit drills straight ahead.
However, in dipping laminated formations, larger chip volumes are

formed on one side of the tooth, causing the bit to be pushed
laterally, with resultant deviation.
The magnitude of this effect varies with the degree of dip angle.
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Normally the direction of deviation generated is up-dip for angles of

dip up to 45° - 60° and down-dip for high angles of formation dip
(over 60°).
There is no completely satisfactory explanation for naturally occurring

deviation. However, theory and practice indicate that uncontrolled
deviation will not exceed an angle perpendicular to, or parallel to, the
formation dip.
Therefore inclination can be expected to increase if the effect of drill

collar buckling is greater than the pendulum tendency, but it should
decrease when the pendulum force predominates.
1.4.2.4 DEVIATION CONTROL IN VERTICAL HOLES
The overall objective in a vertical well is to achieve the most

economical cost per unit length, consistent with keeping the
inclination (among other important factors) within acceptable limits.
This means it is necessary to select a drilling assembly that will

produce an equilibrium of the deviating forces at the bit, while
allowing the maximum weight-on-bit and therefore the optimum
drilling speed.
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The two methods commonly employed to control inclination in

vertical holes use:
• the pendulum technique.

• packed-hole drilling assemblies.
• THE PENDULUM TECHNIQUE
Factors which determine the magnitude of the hole straightening

force are:
• the drill collar weight below the wall contact point.

• the active drill string length.
• weight-on-bit.
The use of heavier drill collars above the bit increases the lateral
corrective force (W6). Larger collars are also stiffer and more
resistant to buckling, and their larger outside diameter allows less
displacement of the assembly from the centre line of the hole.
The logic of this approach has been clearly demonstrated by

experimental work using extra-heavy drill collars above the bit, which
are manufactured from depleted uranium or tungsten. With these
collars, higher bit weights could be used without increased
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inclination.
Raising the wall contact point by including a stabiliser at a specified

distance above the bit increases the active drill string length, and also
therefore the lateral force (W6). This will again reduce the
displacement of the drill collars from the axis of the hole, and the
deviating force (W3). This approach is limited by the possibility of
buckling below the stabiliser if this is placed too high, which would
then necessitate a reduction in bit weight.
Reducing bit weight alone will cause less buckling and encourage the
correcting force (W6) to exceed the inclination building effect (W3),
but less weight-on-bit will produce a lower rate of penetration and
higher cost per meter.
In 1953/1955 Woods and Lubinski published data which

recommended optimum stabiliser positions for the fastest penetration
rate within given deviation limits. For quoted hole sizes and
inclinations, combined with values for formation dip and an index
which represents the severity of the formation effect, the tables
specify:
• drill collar diameter,

• position of the first stabiliser above the bit,
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• allowable weight-on-bit,
all for a condition of zero deviation, i.e. equilibrium of the forces at

the bit, and no increase in inclination.
Modern developments of such research provide computer programs

which evaluate a comprehensive range of forces acting at the bit and
at other points in the assembly. In particular the magnitude of the
transverse forces exerted by the bit on the formation, perpendicular
to the hole axis, can be predicted. A positive transverse force tends
to increase inclination. The value of this force, and the tendency of
the formation influence, together determine whether existing
inclination will remain constant or change. Such predictions can be
very helpful when selecting a drilling assembly, both to control
inclination and obtain the best possible progress.
Further information on this subject is given in Topic 4.8.1.
• PACKED-HOLE DRILLING ASSEMBLIES
This technique seeks to prevent further deviation by preventing

displacement of the assembly from the centre line of the hole.
Progressive application of the principle would involve:
• the use of drill collars with the largest practicable outside

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diameter.
• using a high concentration of stabilisers.
• using square drill collars (the maximum development of the
first two points) having a diagonal dimension equal to the bit
size.
Square drill collars are effective in hard rock when natural deviating
effects are severe, but they can be difficult to trip, liable to stick, and
most difficult to fish.
Packed-hole assemblies minimise deviating (direction) trends, but it

will be difficult to bring inclination back. In addition the minimum
annular clearance substantially increase swabbing risks, overpulls,
and the chances of sticking the tools; also extra handling time is
involved on the rig floor.
• MINOR EFFECT ON INCLINATION
The factors described above consider the composition of the

assembly, formation effects, and weight-on-bit.
Varying the other drilling conditions, particularly rotary speed and bit
hydraulics, may also influence the behaviour of the assembly.
Such effects are difficult to predict or quantify, but in general terms,

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if more hole is made due to increased RPMs or bit hydraulics, then

the same magnitude of directional deflection will be achieved by the
bit over a longer drilled interval. Therefore the rate of inclination
change (dogleg severity) will be reduced. Conversely, reducing the
rate of penetration by using less rotary speed or hydraulics will tend
to increase the deviation rate.
When it is essential to keep the inclination of a vertical hole within

tight limits, and the techniques described are not sufficiently
effective, the only alternative remaining is to employ corrective
directional drilling methods.
1.4.3 APPLICATIONS OF
DIRECTIONAL DRILLING
The following text and sketches illustrate the most common
applications of directional drilling.
1.4.3.1 Multiple wells from offshore structures
A very common application of directional drilling techniques is in

offshore drilling. Many oil and gas deposits in the Gulf of Mexico,
North Sea and other areas are situated beyond the reach of land
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based rigs. To drill a large number of vertical wells from individual

platforms is obviously impractical and would be uneconomical. The
conventional approach for a large oilfield has been to install a fixed
platform on the seabed, from which many directional wells may be
drilled. The bottomhole locations of these wells can be carefully
spaced for optimum recovery.
Figure 2.4.2: Multiple wells from offshore structures
In a conventional development, the wells cannot be drilled until the

platform has been constructed and installed in position. This may
mean a delay of 2 - 3 years before production can begin. This delay
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can be considerably reduced by pre-drilling some of the wells through

a subsea template while the platform is being constructed. These
wells are directionally drilled from a semi-submersible rig or jack-up
and tied back to the platform once it has been installed.
1.4.3.2 Controlling Vertical Wells
Directional techniques are used to straighten crooked holes. In other

words, when deviation occurs in a well which is supposed to be
vertical, various techniques are used to bring the well back to
vertical. This was one of the earliest applications of directional
drilling.
Figure 2.4.3: Controlling vertical wells
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1.4.3.3 Sidetracking
Sidetracking out of an existing wellbore is another application of

directional drilling. This sidetracking may be done to bypass an
obstruction (a "fish") in the original wellbore, to explore the extent of
the producing zone in a certain sector of a field, or to sidetrack a dry
hole to a more promising target. Wells are also sidetracked to access
more reservoir by drilling a horizontal hole section from the existing
well bore.
Figure 2.4.4: Sidetracking
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1.4.3.4 Inaccessible locations
Directional wells are often drilled because the surface location directly
above the reservoir is inaccessible, either because of natural or man-
made obstacles. Examples include reservoirs under cities, mountains,
lakes etc.
Figure 2.4.5: Inaccessible locations
1.4.3.5 Fault Drilling
Directional wells can be used to avoid drilling a vertical well through

a steeply inclined fault plane which could slip and shear the casing.
They are also used to drain, in one well, a staggered series of small
514

accumulations trapped below a fault. This technique is known as

"fault scooping".
Figure 2.4.6: Fault drilling
1.4.3.6 Salt Dome Drilling
Directional drilling programs are sometimes used to overcome the

problems of salt dome drilling. Instead of drilling through the salt, the
well is drilled at one side of the dome and is then deviated around
and underneath the overhanging cap.
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Figure 2.4.7: Salt dome drilling
1.4.3.7 Shoreline Drilling.
In the case where a reservoir lies offshore but quite close to land, the
most economical way to exploit the reservoir may be to drill
directional wells from a land rig on the coast.
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Figure 2.4.8: Shoreline drilling
1.4.3.8 Relief Wells
Directional techniques are used to drill relief wells from a safe

distance in order to "kill" wells which are flowing out of control (blow-
outs).
The relief well(s) is/are designed either to enter the reservoir close to
the blow-out well, for a so-called saturation kill with water, or to
intersect the blow-out well for a direct kill using high density drilling
fluid.
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Figure 2.4.9: Relief wells
The above are only some of the many applications of directional

drilling. Although it is not a new concept, horizontal drilling is the
fastest growing branch of directional drilling, with major advances
occurring in the tools and techniques used. One application which is
specific to horizontal (and almost horizontal) wells is to drill through a
shallow reservoir parallel to the bedding plane, thus allowing one well
to drain an area which would have required several vertical or
medium angle wells.
Horizontal wells also make possible the recovery of liquid

hydrocarbons from an interval between an oil-water contact and a
518

gas-oil contact that is so thin that it could not be produced at all from
a vertical well, because of the coning effect.
1.4.4 Well planning

There are many aspects involved in planning a well and many

individuals from various companies and disciplines are involved in
designing various programs for the well (e.g. drilling fluid program,
casing program, drill string design for each section, bit program,
etc.). The new engineered approach to well planning means that
service contractors become equally involved in areas such as drill
string design which are vitally important in planning a deviated well,
especially horizontal or extended wells.
In this section we shall concentrate on those aspects of well planning

which has always been the province of directional drilling companies.
1.4.4.2 REFERENCE SYSTEMS AND CO-ORDINATES.
With the exception of Inertial Navigation Systems, all survey systems

measure inclination and azimuth at particular measured depths
(depths measured "along hole"). These measurements must be tied
519

to fixed reference systems so that the borehole course may be

calculated and recorded. The reference systems used are:
• Depth references
• Inclination references
• Azimuth references
• Field coordinates
• DEPTH REFERENCES
There are two kinds of depths:
• Measured depth or the depth "along hole" (ahd) is the distance

measured along the actual course of the borehole from the
surface reference point to the survey point. This depth is
always measured in some way, for example, pipe tally, wireline
depth counter, or mud loggers depth counter.
• True vertical depth (TVD) is the vertical distance from the
surface reference point to a point on the borehole course. This
depth is always calculated from the deviation survey data.
In most drilling operations the Rotary Table or Derrick Floor elevation

is used as the working depth reference. The abbreviations "BRT"
(below rotary table) and "BDF" (below derrick floor) are used to
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indicate depths measured from the rotary table. The kelly bushing
(KB) is sometimes also used as a depth reference. For floating drilling
rigs the rotary table elevation is not fixed and hence a mean rotary
table elevation has to be used.
In order to compare individual wells within the same field, a common

reference must be defined and always referred to. Offshore, mean
sea level is sometimes used, in which case the depth is called a sub-
sea depth. Variations in actual sea level from MSL can be read from
tide tables or can be measured.
As an example, the drilling crew would usually refer to the depth of a

casing shoe as being 1,000 m ahbdf, whereas the field development
geologist would prefer to relate it to a formation boundary and would
say that the casing is at 700 m tvss. (There is no significance in these
numbers.)
• INCLINATION REFERENCES
The inclination of a well is the angle (usually expressed in degrees)

between the vertical and the bore hole axis at a particular point. The
vertical reference is the direction of the local gravity vector and
would be indicated by, for example, a plumb bob.
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• AZIMUTH REFERENCE SYSTEMS
For directional surveying there are three azimuth reference systems:
• Magnetic North
• True (Geographic) North
• Grid North
All "magnetic type" tools initially give an azimuth (hole direction)

reading referenced to Magnetic North. However, the final calculated
co-ordinates are always referenced to either True North or Grid
North.
True (Geographic) North
This is the direction of the geographic North Pole which lies on the
axis of rotation of the Earth. The direction is shown on maps by the
meridians of longitude.
Grid North
During drilling operations we are working on a curved surface (i.e.,

the surface of the Earth) but when we calculate horizontal plane co-
ordinates we assume we are working on flat surface. Obviously it is
not possible exactly to represent part of the surface of a sphere on a
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flat well plan. Corrections have to be applied to the measurements.

There are many different projection systems which can be used.
UTM System
As an example of a grid system, let us examine the Universal

Transverse Mercator (UTM) System. In the transverse mercator
projection, the surface of the spheroid chosen to represent the Earth
is wrapped in a cylinder which touches the spheroid along a chosen
meridian. (A meridian is a circle running around the Earth passing
through both geographic North and geographic South Poles.)
The meridians of longitude converge towards the North Pole and

therefore do not produce a rectangular grid system. The grid lines on
a map form a rectangular grid system, the Northerly direction of
which is determined by one specified meridian of longitude. This
direction is called Grid North. It is identical to True North only for the
specified meridian.
The relationship between True North and Grid North is indicated by

the angles 'a' in Figure 2.4.10. Convergence is the difference in angle
between grid north and true north for the location being considered.
The reference meridians used are 6° apart starting at the Greenwich
523

meridian, which means the world is divided into 60 zones. The zones
are numbered 0 to 60 with zone 31 having the 0° meridian
(Greenwich) on the left and 6° East on the right. Each zone is further
divided into grid sectors - a grid sector covering 8° latitude starting
from the equator and ranging from 80° South to 80° North. The
sectors are given letters ranging from C to X (excluding I and O)
Figure 2.4.10: Azimuth references
The reference meridians used are 6° apart starting at the Greenwich

meridian, which means the world is divided into 60 zones. The zones
524

are numbered 0 to 60 with zone 31 having the 0° meridian

(Greenwich) on the left and 6° East on the right. Each zone is further
divided into grid sectors - a grid sector covering 8° latitude starting
from the equator and ranging from 80° South to 80° North. The
sectors are given letters ranging from C to X (excluding I and O).
Therefore each sector is uniquely identified by a number from 0 to 60

(zone number) and a letter. For example, sector 31 U, shown in
Figure 2.4.11, is the Southern North Sea.
Figure 2.4.11: UTM sector 31U Figure 2.4.12: UTM co-ordinates
525

Co-ordinates in the UTM system are measured in meters. North co-

ordinates are measured from the equator. For the Northern
hemisphere, the equator is taken as 0.00 m North whereas for the
Southern hemisphere the equator is 10,000,000 m North (to avoid
negative numbers). The East co-ordinates for each sector are
measured from a line 500,000 m west of the central meridian for that
sector. In other words, the central meridian for each zone is
arbitrarily given the co-ordinate 500,000 m East. Again, this avoids
negative numbers.
So UTM co-ordinates are always Northings and Eastings, and are

always positive numbers. See Figure 2.4.12.
Lambert Projection.
An alternative projection system used in some parts of the world is

the conical projection or LAMBERT system, whereby a cone as
opposed to a cylinder covers the spheroid under consideration. This
produces a representation with meridians as convergent lines and
parallels as arcs of circles.
Further discussion of the co-ordinate systems and map projections is

beyond the scope of this text.
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• FIELD CO-ORDINATES
Although the co-ordinates of points on a well path could be

expressed as UTM co-ordinates, it is not the normal practice. Instead,
a reference point on the platform or rig is chosen as the local origin
and given the co-ordinates 0,0. On offshore platforms this point is
usually the centre of the platform. The Northings and Eastings of
points on all the wells drilled from the platform are referenced to this
single origin. This is important for comparing positions of wells, in
particular for anti-collision analysis.
• DIRECTION MEASUREMENTS
Survey tools measure the direction of the well bore on the horizontal
plane with respect to the North reference, whether it is True or Grid
North. There are two systems used:
The azimuth system
In the azimuth system, directions are expressed as a clockwise angle

from 0° to 359.99°, with North being 0°.
527

Figure 2.4.13
The quadrant system
In the quadrant system (Figure 2.4.14), the directions are expressed

as angles from 0°- 90° measured from North in the two Northern
quadrants and from South in the Southern quadrants.
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Figure 2.4.14
Figure 2.4.15 shows how to convert from the quadrant system to

azimuth, and vice versa, and also shows how to apply the correction
from Magnetic to True North in the two systems. The subjects of
Magnetic Declination Corrections and Grid Convergence Corrections
will be dealt with in detail later, in the Part on surveying.
Figure 2.4.15
1.4.4.3 PLANNING THE WELL TRAJECTORY
One area of well planning in which directional companies are often

closely involved is the planning of the well trajectory. Again, this is
not as simple a task as it might seem at first glance, particularly on a
529

congested multi-well platform. A number of aspects must be carefully

considered before calculating the final well path.
• THE TARGET.
The target is specified by the geologist, who will not merely define a
certain point as the target but also specify the acceptable tolerance
(e.g. a circle of radius 100 feet having the exact target as its centre).
A target zone should be selected as large as possible to achieve the
objective. If multiple zones are to be penetrated, the multiple targets
should be selected so that the planned pattern is reasonable and can
be achieved without causing excessive drilling problems.
• TYPES OF DIRECTIONAL PATTERNS
With the advent of steerable systems, some wells are planned and
drilled with complex paths involving 3-dimensional turns. This
happens particularly in the case of re-drills, where old wells are
sidetracked and drilled to completely new targets.
These complex well paths are, however, harder to drill and the old
adage that "the simplest method is usually the best" holds true.
Therefore, most directional wells are still planned using the
traditional patterns which have been in use for many years. The
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common patterns used for the vertical projection are shown on this
and the following pages
• Build and hold

• S-well
• Deep kick-off and build
A mathematical treatment is given in Appendix 1
Catenary curve well plan
It has been suggested that an efficient well path for many directional
wells would be to plan the well as a continuous, smooth curve all the
way from KOP to target; the so-called catenary method. A catenary
curve is the natural curve that a cable, chain or any other line of
uniform mass per unit length assumes when suspended between two
points. The similar suspension of a drill string would also form a
catenary curve.
Proponents of the catenary method argue that it results in a

smoother drilled wellbore, that drag and torque are reduced and that
there is less chance of key seating and differential sticking than with
traditional well profiles. However, in practice it is hard to pick BHAs
which will continuously give the required gradual rate of build, so it is
531

in reality no easier to follow a catenary curve well plan than a

traditional well plan. Also, the catenary curve method produces a
much higher maximum inclination than would result from the build
and hold or S type patterns.
Three examples of well plans are shown.
Build and Hold
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The features of this trajectory are:
• Shallow kick-off point (KOP)

• Build-up section (which may have
more than one build up rate).
• Tangent section to TD
Its applications are:
• Deep wells with large horizontal

displacements.
• Moderately deep wells with
moderate horizontal displacement,
where intermediate casing is not
required.
Figure 2.4.16: Build & hold
trajectory
S Type Well
• Shallow KOP
• Build-up section
• Tangent section
533

• Drop-off section
There are several variations:
• Build, hold and drop back to

vertical
• Build, hold, drop and hold
(illustrated here)
• Build, hold and continuous
drop through reservoir
• Multiple pay zones.

• To reduce final angle in
reservoir for easier
completions.
• Lease or target limitations.
Figure 2.4.17: S-shape trajectory
• For well spacing

• requirements on multi-well fields.
• Deep wells with a small horizontal displacement.
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The disadvantages of the S-Type well are:
• Increased torque and drag.

• Increased risk of key-seating.
• It may give logging problems due to increased maximum
inclination.
• ALLOCATION OF SLOTS TO TARGETS
Even this is not always as simple as you would think. Obviously, from
a directional driller's viewpoint, slots on the North East of the
platform or pad should be used for wells whose targets are in a North
Easterly direction. However, there are generally other considerations
(e.g. water injection wells may have to be grouped together for
manifolding requirements). Also, as more wells are drilled and the
reservoir model is upgraded, it has been known for targets to be
changed!
The inner slots are used to drill to the innermost targets (i.e., those
targets at the smallest horizontal distances from the platform) and
these wells will be given slightly deeper kick-off points. The outer
slots are used to drill to the targets which are furthest from the
platform. These wells will be given shallow kick-off points and higher
build-up rates to keep the maximum inclination of the well as low as
535

possible.
• KICK-OFF POINT AND BUILD-UP RATE
The selection of both the kick-off point and the build-up rate depend
on many factors including the hole pattern selected, the casing
program, the drilling fluid program, the required horizontal
displacement and the maximum tolerable inclination. Choice of kick-
off point may be severely limited by the requirement to keep the well
path at a safe distance from existing wells. The shallower the KOP
and the higher the build-up rate used, the lower the maximum
inclination to reach a given target.
In practice, the well trajectory may be calculated for several choices

of KOP and build-up rate and the results compared. The optimum
choice is that which gives a safe clearance from all existing wells,
keeps the maximum inclination within desired limits and avoids
unnecessarily high dogleg severities.
• TANGENT SECTION
During the eighties, a number of extended reach drilling projects

were successfully completed. If wells are drilled at inclinations up to
80°, the area which can be covered from a single platform is
536

approximately 8 times that covered if the maximum inclination of the

wells is limited to 60°. However, inclination angles over 65° may
result in excessive torque and drag on the drill string and present
hole cleaning, logging, casing, cementing and production problems.
These problems can all be overcome with today's technology, but
should be avoided whenever there is an economic alternative.
Experience over the years has been that directional control problems
are aggravated when the tangent inclination is less than 15°. This is
because there is more tendency for bit walk to occur (i.e. change in
azimuth) so more time is spent keeping the well on course. To
summarise, most run-of-the-mill directional wells are still planned
with inclinations in the range 15° - 60° whenever possible.
• DROP-OFF SECTION
On S-type wells, the rate of drop off is selected mainly with regard to
ease of running casing and avoidance of completion and production
problems. It is much less critical with regard to drilling because there
is less tension in the drill pipe that is run through this deeper dogleg
and less time will be spent rotating below the dogleg.
• THE HORIZONTAL PROJECTION
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On many well plans, the horizontal projection is just a straight line

drawn from the slot to the target. On multi-well platforms it is
sometimes necessary to start the well in a different direction to avoid
other wells. Once clear of these, the well is turned to aim at the
target. Of course, this is a 3-dimensional turn, but on the horizontal
plan it would typically look like Figure 2.4.19.
The path of the drilled well is plotted on the horizontal projection by

plotting total North/South co-ordinates (Northings) versus total
East/West co-ordinates (Eastings). These co-ordinates are calculated
from surveys.
• LEAD ANGLE
In the old days (pre 1985) it was normal practice to allow a "lead
angle" when kicking off a well. Since roller cone bits used with rotary
assemblies tend to "walk to the right", the wells were generally
kicked off in a direction several degrees to the left of the target
direction. In extreme cases the lead angles could be as large as 20°.
The greatly increased use of steerable motors and the widespread

use of PDC bits for rotary drilling have drastically reduced the need
for wells to be given a "lead angle". Many wells today are deliberately
538

kicked off with no lead angle (i.e. in the target direction).
Deep Kick-off and Build
• Deep KOP
• Build-up section
• Short tangent section
(optional)
• Appraisal wells to assess the

extent of a newly discovered
reservoir.
Figure 2.4.18 :Deep kick-off and
• Repositioning of the bottom
build trajectory
part of the hole or re-drilling.
• Salt dome drilling.
The disadvantages of the Deep Kick-off and Build-Type well are:
• Formations are harder so the initial deflection may be more

difficult to achieve.
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• Harder to achieve desired tool face orientation with downhole

motor deflection assemblies - more reactive torque (see
Subtopic 4.6.3).
• Longer trip time for any BHA changes required.
• On multi-well platforms, only a very few wells may be given
deep kick-off points because of the small separation of the
slots and the difficulty of keeping wells vertical in firmer
formation. Most wells must be given shallow kick-off points to
reduce congestion below the platform and minimise the risk of
collisions.
1.4.4.4 NUDGING
The technique of "nudging" is used on platforms in order to "spread

out" conductors and surface casings and thereby minimise the
chance of a collision when wells are drilled. Basically, when the hole
for surface casing is drilled, some angle is built at a low rate (e.g.
1°/100') in the chosen direction.
As well as the basic reason of "spreading things out", other reasons

for "nudging" are:
• to drill from a slot located on the opposite side of the platform

from the target, when there are other wells in between
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• to keep wells drilled in the same general direction as far apart

as possible
• if the required horizontal displacement of a well is large
compared to the total vertical depth, then it is necessary to
build angle right below the surface conductor to avoid having
to use a high rate of build
541

Figure 2.4.19 : A three-dimensional turn on the horizontal plan
• TECHNIQUES FOR "NUDGING"
• When the formation is suitable (soft), jetting is the best

technique to use.
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• The most common method is to use a mud motor of 91/2" OD

or greater with a 171/2" bit and a 11/2° bent sub. Using a
11/2° bent sub gives a low build rate and hence a low dogleg
severity as required. The hole is opened out to the required
gauge after the mud motor run.
• Occasionally the job is performed with a large mud motor and
26" bit from the start. In this case either a 11/2°or 2° bent sub
might be used.
• PLANNING A NUDGE PROGRAM
The directions in which the wells are "nudged'' should be chosen so

as to achieve maximum separation. The wells will not necessarily be
nudged in their target directions.
The nudges will not only be shown on the individual well plans for
each well, but also a structure plot will be drawn which will show the
well positions at the surface casing point after the nudge.
1.4.4.5 PROXIMITY (ANTI-COLLISION) ANALYSIS
On multi-well projects, particularly offshore, there is only a small

distance between slots. In order to eliminate the risk of collisions
directly beneath the platform, a proposed well path is compared to
543

existing and other proposed wells. The distances between other wells
and the proposal are calculated at frequent intervals in the critical
section. These calculations can be performed using the applications
COMPASS or WELLPLAN
Survey uncertainty must also be computed both for the proposed

well and the critical existing wells. All the major operating companies
have established criteria for the minimum acceptable separation of
wells, which are usually linked to "cone of error" or "ellipse of
uncertainty" calculations. Three examples of well plans are shown.
1.4.5 Downhole motors

The idea of using a downhole motor to directly turn the bit is not a
new one. Indeed, the first commercial motor used was turbine
driven. The first patent for a turbodrill existed in 1873. The USSR
focused efforts in developing downhole motors as far back as the
1920s and has continued to use motors extensively in their drilling
activity. After 1945, the West focused efforts more on rotary drilling
but the field of application for downhole motors increased
spectacularly from about 1980 onwards.
544

Figure 2.4.23: Differences between the turbine motor (left) and

positive displacement motor (right) designs
The turbine consists of a multistage vane type rotor and stator

section, a bearing section, a drive shaft and a bit rotating sub. Each
stage consists of a rotor and stator of identical profile. The stators
are stationary, locked to the turbine body, and deflect the flow of
drilling fluid onto the rotors which are locked to the drive shaft. The
rotors are forced to turn; the drive shaft is thus forced to turn,
causing the bit sub and the bit to rotate.
545

A positive displacement motor is a hydraulically driven downhole

motor that uses the Moineau principle to drive the drilling bit,
independent of drill string rotation.
1.4.5.2 POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT MOTORS

1.4.5.2.1 THE PDM SECTIONS
The PDM is made up of several sections:
• The by-pass valve or dump sub.

• The motor section.
• The universal joint or connecting rod section.
• The bearing section with drive sub.
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Figure 2.4.24: Bypass Valve
• BY-PASS VALVE
A by-pass valve allows fluid to fill the drill string while tripping in the
hole and drain while tripping out. While drilling fluid is being pumped,
the valve closes to cause fluid to move through the tool. Most valves
are of a spring piston type which closes under pressure to seal off
ports to the annulus. When there is no downward pressure, the
spring forces the piston up so fluid can channel through the ports to
547

the annulus. (Figure 2.4.24)
• MOTOR SECTION
548

This is a reverse application of

Rene Moineau's pump principle.
The motor section consists of a
rubber stator and steel rotor. The
simple type is a helical rotor
which is continuous and round.
This is said to be a single lobe
type. The stator is moulded inside
the outer steel housing and is of
an elastomer compound. The
stator will always have one more
lobe than the rotor. Hence
motors will be described as 1/2,
3/4, 5/6 or 9/10 motors. Both the
rotor and stator have a certain
pitch length and the ratio of the
pitch lengths is equal to the ratio
of the number of lobes on the
rotor to the number of lobes on
the stator.
Figure 2.4.25: Motor details
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As drilling fluid is pumped

through the motor, it fills the
cavities between the dissimilar
shapes of the rotor and stator.
The rotor is forced to give way
by turning or, in other words, is
displaced; hence the name
positive displacement motor. It is
the rotation of the rotor shaft
which is eventually transmitted to
the bit.
• CONNECTING ROD ASSEMBLIES
Since the rotor is spiral shaped, it does not rotate concentrically,

rather it traces a back and forth motion.
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Figure 2.4.26: Connecting rods
This motion must be converted back to concentric motion and is

transmitted to the bit via the drive sub. This is achieved by a
connecting rod assembly. There are several possible types.
Universal-joint
U-joint assemblies (Figure 2.4.26a) have been conventionally utilised

by the industry and are still used in most positive displacement
motors presently in the field. The assembly consists of two universal
joints, each grease filled and sealed with oil-resistant reinforced
rubber sleeves which protect them from drilling fluid contamination.
A drawback of the U-joint assembly is the lack of sufficient strength
for higher torque applications such as that encountered with recent
generations of high torque PDMs, particularly when used with PDC
551

bits. This inherent weakness results from the manufacturing process

whereby the U-joint is "flame-cut" rather than machined.
Flex rod
Another development in connecting rod assembly technology has

been the utilisation of flexible steel or titanium flex rods (Figure
2.4.26b). While, in general, flex rods are limited by the degree of
allowable lateral bending, they have the advantage of low
maintenance as they do not require the use of lubricants or rubber
sleeves as with U-joints. Their utilisation has generally been limited to
low offset steerable motors or straight motor applications. One
unique approach has been to mount the flex rod inside the hollow
rotor of a short, high torque steerable PDM rather than connecting it
to the bottom of the rotor. By connecting a long flex rod to the inside
of the top end of the rotor and extending the flex rod through the
rotor to connect to the top of the drive sub assembly, the overall rate
of bend of the flex rod is decreased due to its increased length.
• BEARING SECTION
A typical positive displacement motor utilises three sets of bearings

attached to a drive shaft. These are two sets of radial bearings
552

("upper" and "lower") with one set of axial thrust bearings.
Figure 2.4.27: Bearing sections
The axial thrust bearing section supports the on and off bottom
loading and hydraulic thrust. It consists of a series of ball bearings
stacked one on top of the other, each set being contained in its own
race (or groove). The number of axial thrust bearings will vary,
depending on the size of the tool.
The upper and lower radial bearings are lined with tungsten carbide
inserts.
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The function of these bearings is to support the concentrically

rotating drive shaft against lateral loads. The inherent design of the
upper radial bearing limits the amount of fluid flow diverted to the
annulus to cool and lubricate the bearing package. This diversion of
flow is typically 2 - 10%, depending on motor and bit pressure drop.
The major portion of the drilling fluid is collected by ports in the drive
shaft and exits through the bit. In some motors, diamond bearings
are being used and may need up to 20% of the flow to be diverted,
depending upon conditions. Figure 2.4.27 illustrates typical bearing
sections found in PDMs.
1.4.5.2.2 TYPES OF POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT MOTORS
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PDMs come in various configurations. As

has been mentioned previously, the
stator will have one more lobe than the
rotor. The first types of PDMs, and the
simplest, are 1/2 motors. These
generally give medium to low torque
output and medium to high speed.
Torque output is directly proportional to
pressure drop across the motor. The 1/2
motors have good applications in
performance drilling with a PDC,
diamond, or TSP-type bits. Some shorter Figure 2.4.28 : Navi-Drill
models are used for directional purposes. Mach 1C
The multi-lobe motors have high torque output and relatively slow
speed. Therefore, they have good applications with roller cone bits
and for coring. These motors are also suitable for use with PDC bits,
especially the large cutter types which require a good torque output
to be efficient. These tools, being fairly short, also have good
directional applications with bent subs as a deflection device. These
multi-lobe motors may be constructed with a hollow rotor and a
nozzle or blank will be placed in a holding device at the top. The
555

nozzle allows for high flow rates to be accommodated by by-passing

the excess flow from the motor section and the fluid will exit through
the bit.
Figure 2.4.28 is an illustration of a multi-lobe (5/6) positive

displacement motor
1.4.5.2.3 CHARACTERISTICS
Torque is directly proportional to the motor differential pressure. This

makes the tool very simple to operate. RPM is directly proportional to
flow rate,though somewhat affected by torque output.
Where:
P = the pressure drop across the motor (kPa / psi)
Q = the flow rate (m3/min / gals/min)
556

Where:
T = the torque (Nm / lbs-ft)
N = the bit speed (rpm)
1.4.5.2.4 OBSERVATIONS
Motor stall will be obvious due to an increase of surface pressure.

Motor stalling is best avoided as it erodes the service life of the
motor.
LCM can be pumped safely, though care should be taken that the
material is added slowly and evenly dispersed, and the system is not
slugged.
Sand content in the drilling fluid should be kept to a minimum.
Temperature limits are around 270°F, 130°C, but higher temperature

stators have been developed.
557

Pressure drop through the tool while working is typically in the range
of 50 - 800 psi.
Allowable wear on bearings is of the order of 1- 8mm , depending

upon tool size.
The tool should be flushed out with water prior to laying down.
In general, drilling fluids of a low aniline point may damage the

rubber stator. As a rule, the oil in oil based muds should have an
aniline point of at least 150°F (60°C). Usually, this is related to the
aromatic content which should be equal to or less than 10%. Contact
the local supplier if there is any doubt.
If a by-pass nozzle is fitted to a multi-lobe rotor, then it must be

sized very carefully to allow the motor section to develop the
necessary power, and any variation of the flow for which the nozzle
was inserted will compromise the motor's performance.
1.4.5.2.5 MOTOR ORIENTATION/CONTROL
All directional wells require steering during initial kick-offs, correction

runs, sidetracks, and re-drills. This is discussed in Subtopics 4.6 and
4.9.
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1.4.5.3 TURBINES
The turbine is made up of several sections:
• The drive stages or motor section.

• The axial thrust bearing assembly and radial bearings.
• The bit drive sub.
The drive stages, or motor section, consists of a series of stators and

rotors of a bladed design. One stator and one rotor together form a
stage. Turbines will be referred to as 90 stage, 250 stage, etc. The
number of stages will determine the torque generated. Each stage,
theoretically, applies an equal amount of torque to the control shaft
and it is the sum of those torques which will be output to the bit.
559

Figure 2.4.29: Turbine details
The drive sub is simply the bit connection and bearing shaft. The
radial bearings protect the shaft from lateral loading. The thrust
560

bearings support the downwards hydraulic thrust from drilling fluid

being pumped through the tool and the upward thrust of weight
being applied to the bit. Theoretically, weight on bit should be
applied to equalise the hydraulic thrust and therefore unload the
bearings and prolong their life.
• DRIVE SECTION
This consists of a series of bladed stators, fixed to the outer tool

housing and bladed rotors fixed to the central rotating shaft. Drilling
fluid flow is deflected at a pre-determined angle off the stator blades
to hit the rotor blades and cause the shaft to rotate. The angle of the
blades will affect the torque and speed output of the turbine. (Figure
2.4.29)
• BEARING SECTION
Usually, thrust bearings are made up of rubber discs (Figure 2.4.29)

which are non-rotating, being fixed to the outer housing of the tool,
and rotating steel discs attached to the central rotating shaft. Long
bearing sections known as cartridges are used for long life in tangent
or straight hole drilling sections. These are changeable on the rig. If
the bearings wear past the maximum point, considerable damage can
561

be inflicted as the steel rotors will crash into the stators below.
• DIRECTIONAL TURBINE
This is a short tool which has a set number of stages and its bearing
section entirely within one housing. That is, it is not a sectional tool
and will be typically less than 30 ft (9 m) long. It is designed for
short runs to kick off or correct a directional well, using a bent sub as
the deflection device. Steerable turbodrills do exist and will be
discussed later.
• CHARACTERISTICS
• Torque and RPM are inversely proportional (i.e., as RPM

increases, torque decreases and vice versa).
• RPM is directly proportional to flow rate (at a constant torque).
• Torque is a function of flow rate, drilling fluid density, blade
angle and the number of stages, and is affected by varying
weight on bit.
• Optimum power output takes place when thrust bearings are
balanced.
• Changing the flow rate causes the characteristic curve to shift.
• Off bottom, the turbine RPM will reach "runaway speed" and
torque is zero.
562

• Optimum performance is at half the stall torque and at half the

runaway speed, the turbine then achieves maximum
horsepower.
• A stabilised turbine used in tangent sections will normally
cause the hole to "walk" to the left.
• OBSERVATIONS
• There is minimal surface indication of a turbine stalling.

• Turbines do not readily allow the pumping of LCM.
• Sand content of the drilling fluid should be kept to a minimum.
• Due to minimal rubber components, the turbine is able to
operate in high temperature wells.
• Pressure drop through the tool is typically high and can be
anything from 500 psi to over 2,000 psi.
• Turbines do not require a by-pass valve.
• Usually, the maximum allowable bearing wear is of the order of
4 mm.
1.4.6 Deflection tools and techniques

1.4.6.1 WHIPSTOCKS
The whipstock was the main deflection tool from 1930-1950. The
563

standard whipstock is seldom used nowadays, but it has not

disappeared completely. Whipstocks are also used in coiled tubing
drilling for re-entry work. There are three types of whipstock used in
conventional directional drilling:
• STANDARD REMOVABLE WHIPSTOCK
The standard removable whipstock is used

mainly to kick off wells, but is also used for
sidetracking. It consists of a long inverted steel
wedge which is concave on one side to hold and
guide a whipstock drilling assembly. It is also
provided with a chisel point at the bottom to
prevent the tool from turning, and a heavy
Figure 2.4.30: The
collar at the top to withdraw the tool from the
standard
hole. This whipstock is used with a drilling
removable
assembly consisting of a bit, a spiral stabiliser,
whipstock
and an orientation sub, rigidly attached to the
whipstock by means of a shear pin.
The whipstock assembly is lowered to the bottom of the hole and

orientated. Weight is applied to set the whipstock and shear the pin.
The bit is then drilled down and forced to deflect to one side by the
564

whipstock. A 12 to 16 foot (4-5 m) "rat hole" is drilled below the toe

of the whipstock. The assembly is then pulled out of hole, taking the
whipstock with it. A hole opener run is made to open the rat hole out
to full gauge. The hole opener assembly is then tripped out and a
rapid angle build assembly run in hole to "follow up" the initial
deflection. This whole procedure may have to be repeated several
times in the kick-off.
It is obvious that the major disadvantage of the standard whipstock

is the number of "trips" involved which uses a lot of rig time. The
other important disadvantage is that the whipstock produces a
sudden, sharp deflection - in other words, a severe dogleg - which
may give rise to subsequent problems with the hole. The advantages
are that it is a fairly simple piece of equipment which requires
relatively little maintenance and has no temperature limitations.
• CIRCULATING WHIPSTOCK
The "circulating whipstock" is run, set and drilled like the standard
whipstock. However, in this case the drilling fluid initially flows
through a passage to the bottom of the whipstock which permits
more efficient cleaning of the bottom of the hole and ensures a clean
seat for the tool. It is most efficient for washing out bottom hole fills.
565

• PERMANENT CASING WHIPSTOCK
The "permanent casing whipstock" (Figure 2.4.31) is designed to

remain permanently in the well. It is used where a "window" is to be
cut in casing for a sidetrack. The casing whipstock is set using a
permanent packer. The special stinger at the base of the whipstock
slips into the packer assembly. A stainless steel key within the packer
locks the whipstock's anchor-seal and prohibits any circular
movement of the whipstock during drilling.
566

The normal procedure is to

orientate the packer system and
then set the packer. After this,
the starting mill is pinned to the
casing whipstock and the whole
assembly run slowly in hole and
seated in the packer.
Although the packer has already

been orientated, it is good
practice to orientate the casing
whipstock in the same manner
as the packer. This should
ensure that a faster "latch up"
will take place without
endangering the shear pin.
After the whipstock has been

"seated" in the packer, the pin is
sheared and circulation and
rotation begun. The starting mill
is used to make an initial cut
through the casing and mill Figure 2.4.31: The permanent
approximately 2 ft (50-60 cm) of casing whipstock

567

casing. The lug that held the starting mill to the whipstock must also
be milled off.
This assembly is tripped out and the mill changed. A tungsten carbide
or diamond speed mill is used to cut the rest of the window. Once
the window has been cut, approximately 5 ft (150-160 cm) of
formation is cut before pulling out of hole. Next, a taper mill is run
with a watermelon mill immediately above it. This is done to "clean"
the top and the bottom of the window. Finally, another trip is made
to change over to the drilling assembly which is used to drill ahead.
The advantage of using a casing whipstock, instead of the normal

method of milling a section and side tracking, is that the operation
usually takes less time. The main disadvantage is that it gives a sharp
dogleg, and so the casing whipstock is not recommended if there is a
considerable distance to drill below the sidetrack, so that several trips
in and out through the window may be required. This is because
problems can occur when trying to pull stabilisers, etc. back into the
casing through the window. On the other hand, if there is only a
short distance to be drilled below the sidetrack point, then the casing
whipstock is well worth considering.
In recent years, improvements in the design of casing whipstock
568

systems have eliminated the need for so many trips in and out of
hole.
1.4.6.2 JETTING
Jetting (or badgering) is a

technique used to deviate
wellbores in soft formation. The
technique was developed in the
mid 1950s and superseded the
use of whipstocks as the primary
deflection technique.
Although jetting has subsequently

Figure 2.4.32 : A jetting bit
been supplanted by downhole
motor deflection assemblies (as
the primary deflection method) it is still used frequently and offers

several advantages which make it the preferred method in some
situations.
A special jet bit (like the one shown above) may be used, but it is
also common practice to use a standard soft formation tricone bit,
569

with one very large nozzle and two small nozzles.
• REQUIREMENTS FOR JETTING
• The formations must be soft enough to be eroded by the

drilling fluid emerging from the large jet nozzle. As a rough
rule of thumb, if formations cannot be drilled at penetration
rates of greater than 80 ft/hr using normal drilling parameters,
they are not suitable for jetting. Jetting is most effective in
soft, sandy formations, and of course effectiveness is reduced
as depth increases, since the formations become more
compacted. In the Gulf of Mexico, the maximum depth for
effective jetting is approximately 2500 feet.
• Adequate rig hydraulic horsepower must be available. For
jetting to be successful there must be adequate hydraulic
energy available at the bit to erode the formation. A rule of
thumb for jetting is that drilling fluid velocity through the large
jet should be 500 ft/sec or greater.
• JETTING ASSEMBLIES
A typical jetting assembly used to drill a 121/4" pilot hole is:
• 12 1/4" jet bit
570

• extension sub
• 12 1/4" stab
• UBHO sub
• 3 x 8" DC
• 12 1/4" stab
• DC
• HWDP as required.
This is essentially a strong angle build rotary assembly (see Topic

4.8) with a suitable bit for jetting. The upper stabiliser is optional and
is often omitted.
• NOZZLING THE BIT
There are three alternatives:
a) Use a specialised jet bit with a large extended nozzle in place of

one of the cones.
b) Fit one large and two small nozzles in a conventional tri-cone bit.
c) Blank off one nozzle of a conventional bit to divert the flow

through the other two.
Flow through two jets may be desirable in large hole sizes (e.g.
571

171/2") because of the large washout required to deflect the bit and
near bit stabiliser. Both (a) and (b) work well in most hole sizes
which are commonly jet drilled. (b) is the most common option
because it uses standard bits and nozzles and results in a bit dressed
in such a way as to be suitable for both jetting and drilling.
A 121/4" bit dressed for jetting would typically have the main nozzle
size 26/32" or 28/32" and the other two nozzles 10/32" or 8/32".
• PROCEDURE FOR JETTING
1. The assembly is run to bottom, a survey is taken and the large jet
nozzle (the "toolface") is orientated in the required direction.
2. Maximum circulation is established (e.g. 800 gpm [3,000 l/min] in

121/4" hole) and a controlled washing away of the formation opposite
the large jet is effected, with the kelly in the rotary table and the
table locked.
3. The drill string may be spudded up and down periodically, but not
rotated, until several feet of hole have been made and the bit and
near bit stabiliser have been forced into the washed out pocket. The
technique is to lift the string 5 to 10 feet (2-3 m) off bottom and then
let it fall, catching it with the brake so that the stretch of the string
572

causes it to spud on bottom rather than using the full weight of the
string. Another technique which may improve the effectiveness of
jetting involves turning the rotary table a few degrees (15°) right and
left while jetting.
4. Having jetted 3 to 8 feet (1-3 m) of hole, the exact distance

depending on required build rate and previous results, drilling is
begun. The circulation rate is now reduced to about 50% of that
used for jetting. Hole cleaning considerations are ignored while
drilling the next 10 feet (3 m) or so. High weight on bit (40-45 Klb /
18-22 tons) and low rotary speed (60-70 RPM) should be used to
bend the assembly and force it to follow through the trend
established while jetting. Progress may be difficult at first because of
interference between the stabiliser and the irregularly shaped jetted
hole.
5. After approximately 10 feet (3 m) of hole has been drilled, the

pump rate can be increased to perhaps 60% - 70% of the rate
originally used while jetting. High WOB and low RPM should be
maintained. The hole is drilled down to the next survey point.
6. A survey is taken to evaluate progress. If the dogleg is too severe

the section should be reamed and another survey taken.
573

7. At the start of a kick-off, jetting is repeated every single until

about 3° of angle has been built. After that, it is normal to jet every
"double". After drilling each section, the jet nozzle has to be re-
orientated to the desired tool face setting before jetting again. The
operation is repeated until sufficient angle has been built and the well
is heading in the desired direction.
The principle is that, during the initial spudding and washing process,
a pocket is produced in the formation opposite the jet nozzle. When
high WOB is then applied and the drill string rotated, the bit and near
bit stabiliser work their way into the pocket (the path of least
resistance). The collars above the near-bit stabiliser bend and contact
the low side of the hole. This causes a bending moment about the
near-bit stabiliser which acts as a pivot or fulcrum, and the bit is
pushed harder into the pocket (i.e. the direction in which the large
jet nozzle was originally orientated)
574

Figure 2.4.33: Jetting
• ADVANTAGES OF THE JETTING TECHNIQUE
• It is a simple and cheap method of deflecting well bores in soft

formations. No special equipment is needed except, perhaps, a
jet bit.
• The dogleg severity can be partly controlled from surface by
varying the number of feet "jetted" each time.
• The survey tool is not far behind the bit, so survey depths are
not much less than the corresponding bit depths.
• Orientation of tool face is fairly easy.
• The same assembly can be used for normal rotary drilling as
an angle build assembly.
575

• DISADVANTAGES OF THE JETTING TECHNIQUE
• The technique only works in soft formation and so usually only

at shallow depths. For this reason, jetting is mainly used to
kick wells off at shallow depths.
• In jetting, high dogleg severities are often produced. Deviation
is produced in a series of sudden changes, rather than a
smooth continuous change. For this reason, it is normal
practice to jet drill an undergauge hole and then open it out to
full gauge, which smooths off the worst of the doglegs.
1.4.6.3 DOWNHOLE MOTOR AND BENT SUB
A common method of deflecting wellbores is to use a downhole

motor and a bent sub. As illustrated in Figure 2.4.34, the bent sub is
placed directly above the motor and it is the bent sub which makes
this a deflection assembly. Its lower thread (on the pin) is inclined
1°- 3° from the axis of the sub body.
The bent sub acts as the pivot of a lever and the bit is pushed
sideways as well as downwards. This sideways component of force at
the bit gives the motor a tendency to drill a curved path, provided
there is no rotation of the drill string. The degree of curvature
(dogleg severity) depends on the bent sub angle and the OD of the
576

motor, bent sub and drill collars in relation to the diameter of the
hole. It also depends on the length of the motor.
Figure 2.4.34: Downhole motor and bent subassembly
577

A downhole motor and bent sub

assembly may be used for
kicking off wells, for correction
runs or for sidetracking.
Notice the absence of any

stabilisers in the lower part of
this assembly.
Usually there would be no

stabilisers for at least 90 feet (30
m) above the bent sub. In fact,
it is not uncommon for the entire
BHA to be "slick" when a motor
and bent sub is used for kicking Figure 2.4.34: Downhole motor and
off at shallow depths. bent subassembly
1.4.6.3.1 RUNNING PROCEDURES
The motor is first inspected and then tested using standard

procedures.
Before drilling can begin with a motor and bent sub assembly, the
bent sub (toolface) must be orientated in the desired direction.
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• The pipe is worked until string torque is eliminated. Best

results are obtained by using a moderately fast up and down
pipe movement. It is recommended that the bit be kept a
minimum of 5 feet from the bottom of the hole.
• Make a reference mark on the kelly bushings, lock the rotary
table and take a survey to determine tool face orientation.
• Turn the pipe to achieve the desired tool face orientation. This
orientation should include an allowance for the anticipated left-
hand reactive torque.
• When orienting, turn the pipe to the right unless the turn is
less than 90° left of the present setting. Work the string up
and down so that the turn reaches the bottomhole assembly.
• Lock the rotary table before beginning to drill.
1.4.6.3.2 REACTIVE TORQUE
Reactive torque is created by the drilling fluid pushing against the

stator. The stator is locked to the body of the motor, so the effect of
this force is to twist the motor and, hence, the whole BHA anti-
clockwise. As the weight-on-bit is increased, the drilling torque
created by the motor increases. The reactive torque increases in
direct proportion. Thus a reasonable, although simplistic, way to view
this is that the clockwise drilling torque generated at the bit is the
579

"action" and the counter-clockwise torque on the motor housing is

the "reaction". The reactive torque at the motor is equal to the
drilling torque.
Reactive torque causes a problem for directional drillers when they

are using a motor and bent sub to deflect the well-bore. The twisting
of the BHA caused by reactive torque changes the facing of the bent
sub (i.e. the tool face orientation). If they are obtaining tool face
orientation from single shot surveys, the directional driller has to
estimate how much turn to the left they will get due to reactive
torque. He initially sets the tool face that number of degrees round to
the right of the desired tool face, so that the reactive torque will
bring it back to the setting required while drilling.
Drill string design will affect the extent of "drill string twist." This
concept is important to understand because it can directly affect the
tool face orientation of the downhole motor. This twisting of the drill
string becomes more critical at greater depths, especially when using
smaller OD drillpipe in a high torque environment.
When drilling is in progress, every endeavour must be made to keep

the drilling parameters constant and, hence, obtain constant reactive
torque and a steady tool face setting. Reactive torque occurs with
580

both types of downhole motors. Obviously, high torque motors

produce higher reactive torque.
• Factors affecting reactive torque
The reactive torque which the motor generates will be in direct

proportion to the differential pressure across the motor. This in turn
is influenced by:
• Motor characteristics
• Bit characteristics
• Formation drillability
• Weight on bit
The estimation of reactive torque has always been a problem for the
directional driller. Several charts and rules of thumb have evolved to
give a first estimate in the absence of data. One such rule is that the
reactive torque will produce a rotation of the order of 10-20° / 1000
feet measured depth (30-60°/1,000 m). The lower end of the range
may be used for low torque motors and the higher end for high
torque motors.
• The use of MWD
The problem of reactive torque disappears if MWD tools are used

581

because the orientation of the BHA can be measured, with a surface

read-out, under drilling conditions (see Topic 4.6).
1.4.6.3.3 POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT MOTORS VERSUS TURBINES

FOR USE WITH A BENT SUB
For directional work with a bent sub, Positive Displacement Motors

offer several advantages over turbines. When drilling with a PDM, the
directional driller can use the pump pressure gauge as a weight
indicator. If the pump pressure is constant, the differential pressure
across the PDM is constant, so the torque and WOB are constant. It
is also much easier to tell if a PDM has stalled because there will be
an immediate large increase in surface pressure. PDMs give a longer
bit life than turbines because of the slower rotational speed. They
can tolerate LCM whereas turbines cannot (or only a very limited
amount). Finally, instead of using a bent sub, a PDM with a small
bend at the U-joint housing can be used. As this bend is nearer to
the bit, a smaller angle of bend will have the same effect as a larger
bent sub angle. This reduces the problem of the bit riding the side of
the hole while tripping in and out.
A major advantage of turbines is that they can operate at higher

temperatures than PDMs.
582

1.4.6.3.4 ADVANTAGES OF A DOWNHOLE MOTOR AND BENT SUB

AS A DEFLECTION TOOL
• It drills a smooth, continuous curve.

• Dogleg severity is more predictable than with other deflection
tools.
• It can be used in most formations.
• As there is no rotation from surface, it is possible to use a
wireline "steering tool" for surveying and orientation while
drilling. Alternatively, a Measurement While Drilling system can
be utilised, which would be the normal choice nowadays.
1.4.6.3.5 DISADVANTAGES OF DOWNHOLE MOTOR AND BENT

SUB AS A DEFLECTION TOOL
• Reactive torque changes the tool face when drilling

commences. It may also be difficult to keep a steady tool face
because the assemblies used are often "slick" (no stabilisers) -
stabilisers have an "anchoring" tendency..
• The motors themselves are expensive and require
maintenance. Of course, this is more than offset by the savings
due to good hole condition and the greater degree of control
which motors give.
583

1.4.6.3.6 POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT MOTORS WITH KICK-OFF

SUBS (BENT HOUSING)
An alternative to using a bent sub is to use a PDM with a single bend

in the universal joint housing, described either as a kick-off sub or a
bent housing by different manufacturers. Historically, these "single
tilt" motors were used for difficult deviation jobs such as sidetracking
over a short section of hole into hard formation. Since the bend is
closer to the bit than when a bent sub is used, a smaller tilt angle
can be used while still giving a strong deviation tendency.
A further development of the single tilt motor was the double tilt
motor in which there are two bends in the housing (in the same
plane). The effect of this is to tilt the axis of rotation of the lower
section with the bit, but keep the bit closer to the axis of the hole.
Both single and double tilt motors have been used as steerable
motors. If the drill string is rotated so that the body of the motor
rotates, then a fairly straight path is drilled, whereas if the tilt (tool
face) is orientated in a desired direction and there is no drill string
rotation, then the motor will drill a controlled curve. This subject is
more fully discussed in Topic 4.9.
After having been tried, double tilt motors are being phased out
584

again in favour of the single tilt versions as they slide better and give
better control of the desired inclination change.
1.4.6.3.7 TURBINESS WITH A BENT HOUSING
Currently some operators are using a steerable turbine design which

incorporates a bent housing close to the bit. It has been
demonstrated that they can sustain a dog-leg capability of up to
8°/100 ft. Incorporation of a stalling pressure has also been achieved
with these new designs.
1.4.7 Tool face orientations

The "Toolface" of a deflection tool or steerable motor system, is the

part which is oriented in a particular direction to make a desired
deflection of the wellbore. There are two basic ways of expressing
toolface orientation:
• Magnetic or Gyro Toolface: this is the toolface orientation

measured as a direction on the horizontal plane. If measured
by a "magnetic" type survey tool, this is called a magnetic
toolface; whereas if it is measured by a gyroscopic survey
device, it is called a gyro toolface. Toolface orientation is
585

only measured and expressed in this way at low inclinations,

say less than 5° typically.
• High Side Toolface: this is the toolface orientation measured
from the high side of the hole in a plane perpendicular to the
axis of the hole.
It must also be pointed out that the term toolface is commonly used
by directional drillers and surveyors as a shortened version of
"toolface orientation".
A magnetic or gyro toolface reading can be converted to a high side

toolface reading using the formula:
High side toolface = mag/gyro toolface - hole azimuth
(A negative answer means the angle is measured anti-clockwise or

left of high side). The above formula is based on the fact that the
high side direction is the azimuth of the borehole.
In the remainder of this Topic, methods for selecting the required

toolface orientation are discussed. These methods are also used to
predict the changes in inclination and azimuth which result from
drilling ahead with that toolface setting.
586

1.4.7.2 DEVIATED-WELL GEOMETRY
Before discussing the orientation of deviation tools further it is

important that you can visualise the significance of the values of
azimuth and inclination in deviated wells. This is shown in Figure
2.4.35.
The inclination at any survey point, S, is the angle I between the

tangent to the well bore and the vertical.
Figure 2.4.35: Deviated well geometry
587

By projecting this tangent on to a horizontal plane (as shown in the

figure ), the azimuth (A) can be measured relative to north (true,
magnetic or grid).
In practice, changes in inclination and azimuth usually occur

simultaneously and it is necessary to consider the situation in three
dimensions in order to define the change in course of the well
between two survey points S1 and S2.
If the inclination and azimuth at each survey point are known, vector
diagrams can be constructed enabling:
• the position of S2 to be calculated relative to S1.

• the actual angular change in the path of the well to be
calculated, i.e. the value of the dogleg.
In practice this may be done using a computer program based on

sine and cosine rules or by constructing vector triangles.
1.4.7.3 CONSTRUCTING VECTOR TRIANGLES
Vector triangles may be constructed as shown below.
A change in downhole orientation is achieved between survey point
588

S1 and survey point S2 according to the following data:
Survey point S1 = 1026 m (3365 ft.) AH
Inclination I1 = 8°
Azimuth A1 = 95° Mag.
Survey point S2 = 1056 m (3466 ft.) AH
Inclination I2 = 6°
Azimuth A2 = 87°Mag.
Find the dogleg between the survey points, and the tool-setting angle
employed.
Construct the vector triangles as follows:
589

590

Measure these angles with a protractor and ruler. You may then
confirm them using a computer. You should have found that the tool-
setting angle was 158° (α) and the dogleg was 2.1° (ß).
We will now move on to look at the ways in which these vector

triangles may be practically applied.
1.4.7.4 SETTING THE TOOL

1.4.7.4.1 TOOL SETTING FOR INCLINATION CHANGE ONLY
To change inclination while maintaining a constant azimuth, the tool

must be set at 0° or 180°. Setting the tool at 0° increases the
inclination; setting it at 180° decreases the inclination. This is shown
in the following example.
Given the following data:
Existing inclination I1 = 12°
Existing azimuth A1 = 93°
Tool dogleg potential = 3°/100 ft
What will be the effect over an interval of 100 ft of?
1. Setting the tool at 0°
591

2. Setting the tool at 180°
592

593

1.4.7.4.2 TOOL SETTING FOR AZIMUTH CHANGE ONLY
If the inclination of the well is to be kept constant, the vector

diagram is an isosceles triangle.
To maintain a constant inclination with a tool of given dogleg

potential the resultant azimuth change can be determined as shown
in the example overleaf. You should note that there is only one tool-
setting angle possible when a change in azimuth is required.
You are given the following data:
Existing inclination I1 = 8°
Required inclination I2 = 8°
Existing azimuth A1 = 117° Mag
Tool dogleg potential = 3.5°/100 ft
Assuming that a left-hand change in azimuth is required over a 100 ft

interval, what will be the new azimuth of the bore-hole ( A2) ?
Estimate the tool setting required.
594

The new bore-hole azimuth is thus 91.7° Mag. This is achieved with a
595

tool setting angle of 102.7° left hand side (azimuth = 14.3° Mag).
You require an azimuth change of 20.16° (left) over an interval of

100 ft). What tool-setting angle would be required to achieve this
change given the following data?
Required inclination = 10°
Existing inclination = 10°
Existing azimuth = 198° Mag
Your vector diagram should have looked like Figure 2.4.39.
Figure 2.4.39
596

From your computer program or the vector diagram you should have
the following results:
Tool-setting
= 100.1°
angle
Tool-setting 198° -
=
azimuth 100.1°
= 97.9° Mag
Note that 20.16° is the maximum azimuth change possible without

changing the inclination.
1.4.7.4.3 TOOL SETTING FOR COMBINED INCLINATION AND AZIMUTH

CHANGE
Tools may be set for combined inclination and azimuth change. A

variety of combinations of azimuth and inclination change is possible
depending on the tool-setting angle.
When setting tools for combined inclination and azimuth change

there are always two possible tool settings. The setting you choose
depends on the required inclination. However, as you increase the
azimuthal change, the capacity to change the inclination is reduced
597

(See below).
Consider the following worked example which is illustrated in Figure

2.4.40 below.
You want to change the azimuth of the well over an interval of 100 ft
in accordance with the data below:
Existing inclination = 17°
Existing azimuth = 93° Mag
Azimuth change (ΛA) = 10.5° right
What tool setting is required and what will be the new inclination
The new bore-hole azimuth is thus 91.7° Mag. This is achieved with a
tool setting angle of 102.7° left hand side (azimuth = 14.3° Mag).
598

599

1.4.7.4.4 TOOL SETTING FOR MAXIMUM AZIMUTH CHANGE
To find the tool setting for maximum azimuth change the line
representing the new inclination and azimuth is constructed
tangentially to the dogleg arc as illustrated in Figure 2.4.41.
A deviation tool is commonly run in order to achieve the maximum

possible azimuth correction. In these circumstances a small decrease
in inclination may be expected. However, this effect is only significant
at low angles of inclination.
Figure 2.4.41
1.4.7.4.5 EFFECT OF INCLINATION ON POTENTIAL AZIMUTH CHANGE
For a given dogleg potential the maximum azimuth change rapidly
600

decreases as inclination increases. The effect of inclination on

azimuth change for a dogleg angle of 3° is illustrated in the table
below and in Figure 2.4.42.
Figure 2.4.42
Over a wide range of inclination its effect on potential azimuth

change is more conveniently shown on a graph - see Figure 2.4.43,
601

also for a dogleg angle of 3°.
You can see that there is a big advantage in maintaining a low angle
of inclination. It allows greater azimuthal changes in course direction
to be made for a given tool dogleg potential. However you should
remember that inclination angles below 15° also allow the bore hole
to "wander" more easily.
602

Figure 2.4.43
1.4.8 Directional control with rotary

systems
Another important aspect of a directional driller's job is to design

rotary BHAs which will drill the planned trajectory. In this section we
shall concentrate on the basic principles used in directional control
when drilling with rotary assemblies, and the typical assemblies used
for each section. The effect of drilling parameters such as weight-on-
bit will be considered as will the effect of formation anisotropy.
Historically, it has always been possible to control the angle

(inclination) of directional wells during rotary drilling by correct
design of the assembly and use of suitable drilling parameters.
However, the control of hole direction has traditionally been poor.
Roller cone bits usually walk to the right, and directional control was
formerly limited to using well-stabilised assemblies to reduce this
tendency. Until the eighties it was standard practice to give wells a
lead angle to the left of the required azimuth to compensate for this
603

right hand walk.
1.4.8.2 SIDE FORCE AND TILT ANGLE
Directional trends are accepted to be related to the direction of the

resultant force at the bit. It has also been shown that the bit tilt
angle (i.e. the angle between the bit axis and the hole axis)
influences the direction of drilling. This is because a drill bit is
designed to drill parallel to its axis. In rotary assemblies where there
is a near bit stabiliser, the bit tilt angle is small and the magnitude of
the side force at the bit is the key factor.
604

Figure 2.4.44 : Bit forces and tilt angle
Factors which affect the directional behaviour of rotary assemblies

are:
• Gauge and placement of stabilisers.

• Diameter and length of drill collars.
• Weight-on-bit.
• Rotary speed.
605

• Bit type.
• Formation anisotropy and dip angle of the bedding planes.
• Formation hardness.
• Flow rate
• Rate of penetration.
Of course, some of the above factors are interrelated.
1.4.8.3 BASIC DIRECTIONAL CONTROL PRINCIPLES
• The Fulcrum Principle is used to build angle (i.e. increase

borehole inclination)
• The Stabilisation Principle is used to hold (maintain) angle and
direction.
• The Pendulum Principle is used to reduce the inclination (or to
prevent a vertical well from deviating).
We shall now consider each of these principles in turn and look at

typical assemblies which are used.
1.4.8.3.1 FOUR TYPICAL BUILD ASSEMBLIES
(For clarity only one set of units is shown - in this case oilfield units):
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Figure 2.4.46 shows a 90' Build Assembly:
171/2" bit / 171/2" NB stab / 3 x 91/2" x 30' DCs / 171/2" stab / 91/2" x
30' DCs as needed/ etc. This assembly will build angle rapidly,
typically at 2.0° - 3.5°/100', depending on the inclination and the
drilling parameters.
Figure 2.4.47. Shows a 60' Build Assembly
171/2" bit / 171/2" NB stab / 2 x 91/2" x 30'DCs / 171/2" stab / 91/2" x 30'
DCs as needed / etc. This assembly will build angle at the rate of
1.5° - 2.5°/100', depending on the inclination and the drilling
parameters.
607

Figure 2.4.46 Figure 2.4.47

Rapid angle build assembly - Medium angle build assembly -
171/2" 171/2"
Figure 2.4.48 shows a Gradual Angle Build Assembly
171/2" bit / 171/2" NB stab / 91/2" x 12' DC / 91/2" x 30' DC / 171/2" stab
/ 91/2" x 30'DCs as needed / etc. This assembly will build typically at
0.5° - 1.5°/100', depending on the inclination and the drilling
parameters.
Figure 2.4.49 shows a Gradual Angle Build Assembly
121/4" bit / 121/4" NB stab / 8" x 30' DC / 121/4" stab / 8" x 30' DCs as
needed / etc. This assembly would be used in the tangent section
608

when it is necessary to build angle gradually. It would build typically

at 0.5° - 1.0°/100'.

Gradual angle build assembly - Gradual angle build assembly -
171/2" 121/4"
1.4.8.3.2 THE STABILISATION PRINCIPLE (PACKED HOLE

PRINCIPLE)
This principle is that if there are three stabilisers in quick succession

behind the bit separated by short, stiff drill collar sections, then the
three stabilisers will resist going round a curve and force the bit to
drill a reasonably straight path. The first of the three stabilisers
should be immediately behind the bit (a near-bit stabiliser) and
609

should be full gauge.
Figure 2.4.50: The packed hole principle
Assemblies which utilise this principle are called packed hole

assemblies and are used to drill the tangent sections of directional
wells, maintaining angle and direction. High rotary speed (120 to
160+ RPM) will assist the tendency to drill straight.
Four different packed hole assemblies are illustrated on the opposite

page:
610

Figure 2.4.51: This assembly will give a very slight build or drop rate
of 0.1° - 0.5°/100' depending on various factors such as formation
characteristics, WOB, RPM, bit type, etc.
Figure 2.4.52: This assembly should hold angle or drop very slightly
depending on the exact gauge of the first string stabiliser and hole
inclination.
1.4.8.3.3 THE PENDULUM PRINCIPLE
This was the first directional control principle to be formulated and

was originally analysed for slick assemblies drilling straight holes. We
shall concentrate on pendulum assemblies used in deviated wells.
The portion of the assembly from the bit to the first string stabiliser
hangs like a pendulum and, because of its own weight, presses the
bit to the low side of the hole. The major design feature of a
pendulum assembly is that there is either no near-bit stabiliser or an
undergauge near- bit stabiliser. In most cases where a pendulum
assembly is used, the main factor causing deviation is the component
of force at the bit acting on the low side of the hole. The length of
collars from the bit to the first string stabiliser (the "pendulum") must
not be allowed to bend too much towards the low side of the hole.
611

Figure 2.4.55: The pendulum principle
If the collars make contact with low side as shown in Figure 2.4.56,
then the effective length of the pendulum and the side force on low
side are both reduced. The situation depicted in this figure is also
undesirable because the bit axis has been tilted upwards in relation
to the hole axis which will reduce the dropping tendency. (In itself,
this would produce a build tendency).
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Figure 2.4.56: Reduction of pendulum force
Careful selection of drilling parameters is required to prevent this.

High rotary speed (120 to 160+) helps keep the pendulum straight to
avoid the above situation. Initially, low weight-on-bit should be used
also, again to avoid bending the pendulum towards the low side of
the hole. Once the dropping trend has been established, moderate
weight can be used to achieve a respectable penetration rate.
Some elementary texts on directional drilling depict the pendulum

effect as shown in Figure 2.4.57. The implication is that part of the
dropping tendency is produced by a downward tilting of the bit axis.
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It is interesting to note that if this picture were true then the

dropping tendency would be increased by increasing WOB and
reducing rotary speed, the precise opposite of what was
recommended in the previous paragraph.
Figure 2.4.57: One possible interpretation of the pendulum effect
The example in Figure 2.4.57 is possible for certain lengths of

pendulum when there is no near-bit stabiliser and only one string
stabiliser. The collars above the upper stabiliser are sagging towards
the low side of the hole causing a fulcrum effect about the string
614

stabiliser and tilting the upper portion of the pendulum towards the
high side of the hole as shown. Some experienced directional drillers
recount instances of pendulum assemblies dropping faster with high
WOB and low rotary speed.
It must be emphasised, however, that this is not what would

normally occur. The gauge of the bit is effectively a point of support,
so that for most pendulum assemblies, especially longer pendulums,
the pendulum section is most likely to bend towards the low side of
the hole as described previously.
1.4.8.3.4 SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDED PRACTICES.
The safest approach to designing and using a pendulum assembly is

to concentrate on producing a side force at the bit on the low side of
the hole. This is best achieved by running an assembly where the
pendulum portion will be as stiff and straight as possible. It is also
desirable that the section immediately above the first string stabiliser
is also stiff and straight and so a second string stabiliser within 30 ft
(9 m) of the first is recommended.
• Omit the near-bit stabiliser when azimuth control is not a

concern or when drilling with a PDC bit. When drilling with a
roller cone bit, use an under-gauge near-bit stabiliser if
615

azimuth control is a consideration. Typically, the near-bit

stabiliser need only be 1/4" to 1/2" undergauge in order to
produce a dropping tendency.
• The assembly should have two string stabilisers with the
second stabiliser not more than 30 ft (9 m) above the first.
• Initially use a low WOB until the dropping tendency is
established, then gradually increase bit weight until an
acceptable penetration rate is achieved.
• Use a high rotary speed, depending on bit type.
• If possible, do not plan drop sections in hard formation.
Four different pendulum assemblies are illustratedbelow:
Figure 2.4.58 shows a 30 ft (9 m) pendulum assembly. The rate of

drop depends on the wellbore inclination and the diameter and
weight of the bottom drill collar, as well as the drilling parameters. At
45° inclination, this assembly would typically drop at 1.5° - 2.0° per
100' /30 m.
Figure 2.4.59 shows a 30 ft (9 m) pendulum assembly with under-

gauge near bit stabiliser. This will give a slightly lower rate of drop
than the previous BHA, but should reduce bit walk and thereby give
better azimuth control.
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Figure 2.4.60 shows a gradual angle drop assembly. This short

pendulum hook-up would give a more gradual drop rate
approximately 1° per 100' /30 m depending on inclination, etc.
Figure 2.4.61 shows a 60 ft (18 m) pendulum assembly used to drill

vertical wells. This is too strong a dropping assembly to use on
directional wells, except perhaps low angle wells. It is commonly
used to drill vertical wells through soft to medium hard formations.
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1.4.8.3.5 THE FULCRUM PRINCIPLE
An assembly with a full gauge near-bit stabiliser, followed by 40'-120'

(12-36 m) of drill collars before the first string stabiliser, or no string
stabiliser at all, will build angle when WOB is applied.
As illustrated in Figure 2.4.45, the collars above the near-bit stabiliser

bend, partly due to their own weight and partly because of applied
weight-on-bit. The near-bit stabiliser acts as the pivot, or fulcrum, of
a lever and the bit is pushed to the high side of the hole. The bit
therefore drills a path which is gradually curving upwards (i.e. the
assembly builds angle).
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Figure 2.4.45 : The fulcrum principle
The rate of build will be INCREASED by the following:
• An increase in the distance from the near-bit stabiliser to the

first string stabiliser.
• Increase in hole inclination.
• Reduction of drill collar diameter.
• Increase in weight on bit.
• Reduction in rotary speed.
• Reduction in flow rate (in soft formations).
• Distance from the near-bit stabiliser to the first string stabiliser
The distance from the near-bit stabiliser to the first string stabiliser is
the main design feature of a fulcrum assembly affecting the build
rate. The build rate increases as this distance is increased because a
longer fulcrum section will bend more which will increase the fulcrum
effect and the side force on high side. There is a limit, however. Once
the upper stabiliser is more than 120 ft (36 m) from the near-bit
stabiliser (depending on hole size, collar OD, etc.), the collars are
contacting the low side of the hole and any further increase in this
distance will have no additional effect on build rate.
619

• Increase in hole inclination
The rate of build of a fulcrum assembly increases as the inclination

increases because there is a larger component of the collars own
weight causing them to bend. A simplified picture of the mechanics
involved predicts that the rate of build should increase in direct
proportion to the sine of the inclination. In reality, the situation and
the actual response are more complicated. To take an example, a
strong build assembly which built at a rate of 1.5° per 100ft/30 m
when the inclination was only 15° might build at 4° per 100ft/30 m
when the inclination was 60°.
• Drill collar diameter
As will be discussed later in this Topic (sub-Topic 4.8.5 ), the

stiffness of a drill collar is proportional to the fourth power of the
diameter. So a small reduction in the OD of the drill collars used in
the fulcrum section considerably increases their flexibility and hence
the rate of build. However, it is not common practice to pick drill
collar diameter according to build rate requirements. Usually,
standard collar sizes for the given hole size are used.
• Weight-on-Bit
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Increasing the weight on bit will bend the drill collars behind the
near-bit stabiliser more, so the rate of build will increase.
• Rotary Speed
A higher rotary speed will tend to "straighten" the drill collars and
hence reduce the rate of build. For this reason, low rotary speeds (70
- 100 RPM) are generally used with fulcrum assemblies.
• Flow Rate
In soft formations, a high flow rate can lead to washing out the
formation ahead of the bit which reduces the build tendency.
• Typical Build Asseblies
Typical build assemblies are shown in Figures 2.4.46 - 2.4.47.
621

1.4.8.4 EFFECT OF BIT TYPE ON THE DIRECTIONAL

BEHAVIOUR OF ROTARY ASSEMBLIES
• ROLLER CONE BITS
When rotary drilling with roller cone bits, the type of bit used makes
very little difference to whether an assembly builds, holds or drops
angle; as already discussed, this is determined by the configuration
of stabilisers and collars and by varying the drilling parameters.
However, the type of bit used has a significant influence on walk
622

rates. Conventional tri-cone rock bits cause right-hand walk in normal

rotary drilling. Generally speaking, long tooth bits drilling soft to
medium hardness formation give a greater right walk tendency than
short tooth bits drilling a hard formation. This is mainly because soft
formation bits have a larger cone offset and hence cut rock by a
gouging/scraping action.
• PDC BITS
During the eighties it became common practice to use PDC bits for
rotary drilling, with low WOB and fast rotary speed. When rotary
drilling with PDC bits, it has been found that almost no walk occurs
(the assemblies hold their direction). It has also been found that the
control of the inclination angle is affected by PDC bits, particularly
when an angle drop assembly is used.
The gauge length of a PDC bit may significantly affect the rate of
build in a rotary assembly. A PDC with a short gauge length may
result in a build rate greater than that would be expected with a tri-
cone bit. On the other hand, a longer gauge stabilises the bit,
thereby tending to reduce the rate of build. The low WOB typically
used with PDC bits may also reduce the build rate, as collar flexure
decreases with decreasing WOB. When used with packed assemblies
623

in tangent section drilling, longer gauged PDC bits seem to aid in

maintaining inclination and direction due to the increased stabilisation
at the bit.
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When used with angle drop assemblies, PDC bits may reduce the
drop rate previously obtained with a tricone bit. Generally, the longer
the gauge length of the PDC bit, the lower the rate of drop obtained
because the bit gauge acts similar to a full gauge near-bit stabiliser.
Short gauge length PDCs can be used effectively for dropping angle.
When such a suitable PDC bit is used in a rotary pendulum assembly,
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the low WOB and high RPM, typical to most PDC bit applications,
should assist in dropping angle.
1.4.8.5 STIFFNESS OF DRILL COLLARS
As stated earlier, the behaviour of bottom-hole assemblies,

particularly fulcrum and pendulum assemblies, is affected
considerably by the stiffness of the drill collars used in the lowest
portion of the BHA. It is generally accepted that drill collars may be
considered as thick walled cylinders. Their stiffness depends on the
axial moment of inertia and the modulus of elasticity of the steel.
(See Figure 2.4.62)
Figure 2.4.62
The axial moment of inertia, I, is given by
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The weight per unit length, W, is calculated from
where * is the density of the steel.
Notice that the stiffness is proportional to the difference between the

fourth powers of the diameters whereas collar weight is proportional
to the difference between their squares. This means that the inside
diameter has a much more significant effect on collar weight than on
the stiffness.
The relative weights and inertia of some common drill collar sizes are
listed in the table below.
It is interesting to notice that the moment of inertia of a 91/2" collar is
627

double that of an 8" collar, which in turn is more than double that of
a 61/2" collar.
The component of weight/unit length tending to bend the drill collars

and contributing to the lateral forces at the bit and stabilisers is Wx
where: W = weight/unit length of the drill collar in air,
buoyancy factor of the drilling fluid (Well Engineers

BF =
Notebook, Section A)
J = inclination of the wellbore
All in consistent units
The accompanying table gives the modulus of elasticity and density

of various metals which can be used to manufacture drill collars.
628

The main thing to notice is that most types of steel and monel which
are actually used in drill collars have about the same modulus of
elasticity and density. So in practice the stiffness of a drill collar
depends almost entirely on its outside diameter and is proportional to
the fourth power of the OD. However, aluminium drill collars would
be more limber than steel drill collars of the same dimensions
whereas tungsten collars would be much stiffer.
In general, it is recommended that standard drill collar diameters

should be used for each hole size. However, it is important that
directional drillers understand the effect of changing the drill collar
OD.
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Effects of changing drill collar OD.
With a fulcrum (build) assembly, reducing collar OD will dramatically

increase the build tendency because the collars will be more limber
and will bend more. Another factor here is the clearance between the
outside of the drill collars and the wall of the hole. The greater the
clearance, the more the collars can bend before they contact the low
side of the hole. Once the collars contact the low side of the hole,
further increases in WOB will have only a marginal effect on build
rate by moving the contact point down the hole.
With a packed assembly, reducing collar OD may give a slight build

tendency because the collars can bend more.
With a pendulum assembly, it is best that the pendulum portion be as

stiff as possible so it is preferable to use large diameter collars if
possible. Reducing collar OD increases the likelihood that the collars
will bend towards the low side of the hole which will reduce the
pendulum effect and the rate of drop obtained. Also, of course,
reducing the collar OD reduces the weight of the bottom collars
which reduces the pendulum force and the rate of drop.
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1.4.8.6 THE EFFECTS OF FORMATION ON BIT

TRAJECTORY
In some cases, the nature and hardness of the rock being drilled can
have a pronounced influence on directional tendencies, although in
many cases the importance of formation effects is exaggerated. Of
fundamental importance is whether the rock is isotropic or
anisotropic. An isotropic rock is one which has the same properties,
or behaves in the same way, no matter which direction you approach
it from. Most sandstones are isotropic. Conversely, anisotropic rocks
such as shales do not have the same properties in all directions.
Most oilfield drilling (although not all) is done in sedimentary

formations. Due to the nature of their deposition, sedimentary rocks
have layers or bedding planes and most sedimentary rocks show
some degree of anisotropy. Experience from drilling into dipping
(tilted) formations has shown that the drill bit is forced towards a
preferential direction related to the dip angle and direction of the
bedding. The trends are most prevalent in low angle medium to hard
drilling, notably in formations with pronounced structure.
A number of explanations and models have been proposed over the

years to explain these effects. In their early work on the pendulum
631

theory, Lubinski and Woods proposed a variable drillability model

which related an index of the rock strength when attacked
perpendicular to the bedding planes to the rock strength when
attacked parallel to the formation beds. They produced tables of
anisotropy indices and formation classes which could be used as a
guide in selecting pendulum length, drill collar size or weight on bit.
Another theory proposes that as the bit drills into hard layers, the
hard layer will fracture perpendicular to the dip. This creates a
miniature whipstock which guides the bit to drill into the dip.
Another explanation, proposed by McLamore and others, is that of

preferential chip formation. This considers the mode of chip
formation at a single tooth. Anisotropic formations have preferential
planes of failure. As it impacts the formation, the bit tooth sets up a
compressive stress in a direction perpendicular to the face of the
tooth. Shear failure will occur more readily along the bedding planes
in a sedimentary rock. When the bit is drilling an anisotropic rock,
large chips will be cut rapidly on one side of the bit and small chips
will be cut out more slowly on the other side. Unequal chip volumes
will therefore be generated on each side of a bit tooth as shown
below.
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Figure 2.4.63
The forces between the bit tooth and the rock will be greater on the
right side of the tooth in the diagram. Therefore there will be a
resultant force on the bit acting to the left. This is Fd, the deviation
force. It follows that the deviation force depends on the angle of dip.
1.4.8.6.1 THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE ANGLE OF DIP AND

DEVIATION FORCE.
Based on the preferential chip formation theory explained above, the

graph shown below in Figure 2.4.64 has been derived from
experimental work.
The effective angle of dip is the angle at which the bit strikes the
bedding planes. The graph predicts that when the effective angle of
633

dip is less than 45° the direction of the deviation force is up-dip, but
when the effective dip angle is greater than 45° the direction of the
deviation force is down-dip. The meaning of up-dip and down-dip is
illustrated in Figure 2.4.65. In practice, it has sometimes been
observed that an up-dip tendency is observed at dip angles as high
as 60°.
Figure 2.4.64: Maximum deviation force as a function of formation dip
Experience of unwanted deviation in vertical wells over many years

has borne out the predictions of the graph shown in Figure 2.4.64.
Drilling through alternately hard and soft formations with low dip
angles, using a well stabilised bit and weights high enough to cause
collar flexure, usually results in a course perpendicular to the bedding
planes.
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Figure 2.4.65: Meaning of up-dip and down-dip
Figure 2.4.66 illustrates the tendency of the bit to deviate in the up-
dip direction when the formation dip angle is low.
The formation attitudes will have a similar effect on directional

tendencies. For dip angles less than 45°, if the direction is due up-dip
then the bit will tend to maintain direction but build angle. But if the
borehole direction is left of up-dip, the bit tends to walk to the right;
whereas if the direction is right of up-dip the bit tends to walk to the
left. Both these phenomena are in reality just special cases of the up-
dip tendency.
635

Figure 2.4.66: Up-dip deviation
When the formation dip angle is greater than 60°, the usual tendency
of the bit is to drill parallel to the bedding plane, i.e. down-dip as
For cases where the dip angle is greater than 60°, if the hole
direction (Figure 2.4.67) is right of down-dip direction then the bit
tends to walk to the left. If the hole direction is left of down-dip
direction, then the bit tends to walk to the right. Again, these are
simply special cases of the down-dip tendency.
There will be no deflection of the bit caused by the formation at 0° or
636

90° dip.
This is because the bit is cutting into a structure that is essentially

uniform and is constantly cutting into the same layers at the same
time or constantly drilling between layers.
Figure 2.4.67: Down-dip deviation
1.4.8.6.2 EFFECTIVE ANGLE OF DIP IN A DEVIATED HOLE
In a directional well, the effective angle of dip is the angle at which

the bit strikes the bedding planes.
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Figure 2.4.68
Hole inclination = 30°
Real dip angle = 35°
Effective dip angle = 30° + 35° = 65°;
There will be a down-dip deviation force.
Figure 2.4.69
Effective angle of dip equals real

dip angle (35°).
There will be an up-dip deviation

force.
638

Figure 2.4.70
Real dip angle = 35°
Effective dip angle = 0°
There will be no deviation force.
1.4.8.6.3 FORMATION HARDNESS
The preceding discussion has concentrated on the effects of rock

anisotropy and changes in hardness between layers on directional
response. There are a few general points concerning the effect of
rock hardness on directional behaviour which should be mentioned.
In very soft formations, the formation may be eroded by the drilling

mud exiting from the bit nozzles and an overgauge hole created. This
can make it hard to build angle, even with a strong build assembly. If
this problem is anticipated then fairly large nozzles should be fitted in
the bit. If it occurs while drilling, then the pump rate should be
reduced and prior to making each connection, increase the flow rate
to clean the hole with the bit one joint off bottom. Hole washing or
639

enlargement in soft formations may also cause packed assemblies to

give a dropping tendency at high inclinations. This may be
counteracted by increasing WOB and reducing flow rate. If
anticipated beforehand, a possible solution would be to run a mild
build assembly.
BHAs tend to respond more closely to their theoretical behaviour in

harder formations. This is mainly because the hole is more likely to
be the correct gauge. In medium to hard formations, building
assemblies are more responsive as maximum bit weight may be
applied to produce the required build. The main directional problem
encountered in hard formations is getting a pendulum assembly to
drop angle. Generally speaking, the harder the formation, the longer
it takes a dropping assembly to respond. There may also be a conflict
between the need to reduce weight on bit to get the dropping trend
established and the need for high weight on bit to maintain an
acceptable penetration rate. Where possible, it is best to avoid
planning a drop section in hard formation. When a drop section must
be drilled in hard formation, either large diameter, heavy collars
should be used or a steerable PD motor.
1.4.8.6.4 SUMMARY OF FORMATION EFFECTS
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It should be emphasised that in many formations, the properties of

the rocks have only a minor effect on the directional response of the
BHA.
In soft to medium soft formations and in isotropic formations, the

rock has little influence on directional response and the BHA should
follow its theoretical behaviour.
In medium to hard sedimentary rocks which have an appreciable

degree of anisotropy, directional tendencies can be significantly
affected by formation attitudes and in particular by the effective dip
angle of the bedding planes. If the effective dip angle is less than 45°
- 60°, then the bit tends to drill up-dip. If the effective dip angle is
greater than 60°, then the bit tends to drill down dip. When the
effective dip angle is approximately 0°, the bit has no tendency to
deviate from a straight path.
Unwanted deviation tendencies caused by formation effects can best

be reduced by packed assemblies. The use of a full gauge near-bit
stabiliser definitely reduces bit walk. In cases where strong formation
effects have been observed on previous wells in the same area, the
design of the assembly should be suitably modified to compensate
for the anticipated effect.
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1.4.9 Steerable drilling systems

In conventional directional drilling, extra round trips are sometimes

necessary to change the BHA for directional control. Also, bit
performance may be reduced by conventional deflection techniques.
Several methods exist for continuously controlled directional drilling

using "steerable downhole motors". These methods are based on
tilting the axis of the bit with respect to the axis of the hole and/or
creating a side force at the bit. If the drill string, and hence the body
of the motor, is rotated from surface, then the bit will tend to drill
straight ahead. However, if the drill string is not rotated from surface
then bit will drill a curved path determined by the orientation of the
side force or the tilt of the bit axis.
A steerable turbine exists which has been used successfully in the

North Sea and elsewhere, however most steerable systems presently
being used are based on a positive displacement motor and use the
principle of tilting the axis of the bit with respect to the axis of the
hole. The advantages of steerable drilling systems are that:
• They virtually eliminate trips made for directional assembly
642

changes, thereby saving rig time.

• They permit more complex well paths to be drilled.
• They allow the drilled well to be kept close to the plan at all
times.
• Smaller directional targets can be hit.
1.4.9.2 STEERABLE TURBINES
Early steerable turbines used the side force method by having an

eccentric stabiliser at the lower end of the bearing section, i.e. at the
bottom end of the turbine body, quite close to the bit. One blade is
larger in surface area and is offset by 1/8" as shown in Figure 2.4.71,.
When the drill string is rotated, the offset stabiliser has no effect on
the well path. When it is desired to deflect the well path, the toolface
(the point opposite the centre of the offset blade) is orientated using
an MWD tool.
Figure 2.4.71: Excentric stabiliser
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Drilling continues with no rotation from surface and the turbine drills
a curved path. These are now obsolete. Modern steerable turbines
incorporate a bent housing close to the bit.
Steerable turbines have been used to perform various types of

deflection including kick-offs. Their most successful application has
been tangent section drilling, performing correction runs as required
to keep the well on course.
1.4.9.3 STEERABLE POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT

MOTORS
The tilt in a steerable PDM is created by incorporating a bent U-joint

housing in the assembly. The system can include either a single tilt or
a double tilt.
The advantage of single tilt motors is that they are usually rig-floor
adjustable, enabling the tilt angle to be set at any value between
zero and some maximum.
The advantage of double tilt motors is that they have a small bit
offset that facilitates rotating the string when oriented drilling is not
required.
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1.4.9.3.1 DOUBLE TILT ASSEMBLIES
A double-tilted steerable drilling system consists of the following

components, upwards from the bit:
• a suitable drilling bit

• an upper bearing housing with stabiliser
• a double tilted U-joint housing
• A motor section
• a by-pass valve
• An undergauge string stabiliser
• A survey system, usually MWD.
The double tilt steerable motor assembly is shown in Figure 2.4.72,

and the geometry of the system, compared with a single tilt system is
The concept of the double tilt is that by having the two tilts in the
same plane but opposed (at 180°) to each other, the bit offset is
minimised. This bit offset is the distance (in millimetres or inches)
from the centre of the bit to the axis of the motor section
(extrapolated down to the bit). A small bit offset facilitates rotating
the string when oriented drilling is not required.
645

The double tilted universal joint housing:
• is slightly longer than a straight housing and universal joint.

• is available in various tilt angles and is identified by the tilt
angle, which is the mathematical resultant angle computed
from the two opposing tilt angles.
• is available in various diameters ranging from 43/4" to 111/4".
Each diameter has three standard tilt angles designed to
provide approximately 2°, 3° and 4° per 100 ft/30 m
theoretical dogleg rates.
As mentioned in Topic 4.6.3 the double tilted universal joint housing

was developed from the single tilt housing. However after a period
when it was used it has now been phased out again as most
operators prefer the single tilt housing.
646

Figure 2.4.72: Steerable double tilt mud motor
1.4.9.3.2 ADJUSTABLE SINGLE TILT ASSEMBLIES
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(Sometimes called adjustable kick-off housings)
The advantages of single-tilt adjustable motors are that they:
• incorporate a rig site-adjustable bent housing which can be set

to achieve maximum build rates in the medium radius range
(8°/30m - 20°/30m), varying with tool size and stabiliser
configuration,
• allow a single motor to be used for a variety of build rates on
the same well
• require fewer tools to be transported to and from the rig, a
particular advantage for remote locations.
The variable tilt angle is possible because the internal connections of

the housing feature a tilted pin thread which screws into a tilted box
thread. The relative position of the two tilted angles determines the
tilt angle of the tool and the position of the High Side. This is rig floor
adjustable between 0° and up to 2-3/4° - the maximum angle varies
between tools.
The addition of an alignment bent sub, with a 2° tilt angle, above the
motor section allows the tool to achieve build rates up to 24°/100 ft.
This is the Double Adjustable Motor.
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1.4.9.4 TILT ANGLE AND STABILISER

1.4.9.4.1 THE ORETICAL GEOMETRIC DOGLEG SEVERITY
An essential concept when designing and operating directional drilling

assemblies is that of the Theoretical Geometric Dogleg Severity
(TGDS). It is defined by three points on a drilled arc:
• The bit
• The motor stabiliser or Upper Bearing Housing Stabiliser
(UBHS).
• The first string stabiliser above the motor.
Figure 2.4.74: TGDS
649

degrees/100 ft, or degrees/30 m
Where : a = the tilt angle in degrees
L = the length between the bit and the string stabiliser
(= L1 + L2) in ft(m)
Note: This equation for calculating TGDS is based on a system which

contains full gauge stabilisers.
• TILT ANGLE
The proper tilt angle and steerable motor deflection technique is

usually dependent on the directional requirements and characteristics
of the well plan.
For kicking off or sidetracking, a high tilt steerable motor is

recommended. The tilt angle selected should produce a greater
dogleg severity in the oriented mode than the rate of change
specified in the well plan. By getting higher dogleg severities than
specified, the directional driller can "get ahead" of the well plan build
requirements and begin utilising the practice of drilling intervals of
oriented and rotary modes. The directional driller can reduce a high
build up rate increasing the percentage of footage drilled in the
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rotary mode. Typically, the rate of penetration will increase greatly

when switching from the oriented mode to the rotary mode. As a rule
of thumb, the tilt angle selected should theoretically produce a
minimum of 1.25 times the maximum dogleg severity required for the
well plan. Directional drillers must keep in mind that the TGDS
(Theoretical Geometric Dogleg Severity) assumes that tool face
orientation is constant. In practice this is difficult to do, especially in
high torque applications. As a result of a constantly changing tool
face orientation, the actual rate of change could be less than
expected.
When a choice is available, a tool with a higher dogleg capability can

increase overall efficiency by reducing oriented drilling requirements.
When tangent section or straight hole drilling, a lower tilted tool may
be more desirable to reduce bit wear and increase ROP. However,
this depends on the extent to which orientation may be necessary
and the anticipated ease of oriented drilling.
• FIRST STRING STABILISER.
It is normal practice to run a string stabiliser either directly above the

motor or with a pony drill collar between the motor and the stabiliser.
651

Reasons for using this include:
• It defines the third point of contact in the steerable drilling

assembly.
• It produces a predictable directional response.
• It centralises the drill string.
Placement
Most commonly it is run directly above the motor. According to the 3-

point geometry, increasing "L" by moving the first string stabiliser
higher in the BHA reduces the Theoretical Geometric Dogleg Severity.
This does not always work in practice. It has been found that moving
the stabiliser higher can make it harder to get away from vertical in a
kick-off. However, once some inclination has been achieved, the rate
of build is often greater than the TGDS. For flat turns or for dropping
angle, increasing "L" does reduce the dogleg rate as theory predicts.
Size and design
The diameter of the first string stabiliser must not be greater than
the diameter of the UBHS and is usually less. It should have
preferably the same physical design as the UBHS.
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First string stabiliser size - oriented mode
If the first string stabiliser diameter is decreased to less than the

UBHS and an upward toolface orientation is present, then the
oriented dogleg rate is increased. This is true for both single and
double tilted systems.
Figure 2.4.75: Assembly for increased dogleg rate
If the first string stabiliser diameter is decreased to less than the

UBHS and a downward toolface orientation is present, then the
oriented dogleg rate is reduced.
In either of the above cases, the more undergauge the first string
stabiliser, the greater the effect. Again, the same basic effect is seen
with both the single and double tilted systems.
653

Figure 2.4.76: Assembly for decreased dogleg rate
First string stabiliser size - rotary mode
Field results have shown that an undergauge first string stabiliser is

required to produce a holding tendency when a steerable drilling
assembly is run in the rotary mode.
The required first string stabiliser gauge diameter is a function of

formation trends and hole inclination.
Table 2.4.4 can be used as a general guideline for determining the

required diameter of the first string stabiliser such that inclination is
maintained.
The second table can be used as a general guideline for determining

first string stabiliser changes in diameter to produce a
significant change (minimum of 0.25° per 100ft/30 m) in rotary

inclination reaction.
654

1.4.9.5 KICKING OFF
• BOTTOMHOLE ASSEMBLIES
During kick-off operations, two basic factors will determine general

steerable drilling assembly design:
• Build up rate required.

• Expected length of run.
Four examples of BHAs are presented: two for 171/2" holes (rotary
655

hold and considerable rotary build tendency) and two for 121/4"
(rotary hold and rotary build tendency).
Note that crossovers have not been mentioned but have to be used
where necessary.
• RECOMMENDED GUIDELINES
• When beginning a kick-off, it is recommended to have the first

string stabiliser in new open hole and not up in the casing to
prevent hanging up or any other anomalous assembly
reactions.
• Be aware of the fact that when using a steerable motor
assembly in vertical or near vertical holes, the actual dogleg
may be less than the TGDS calculated.
• Initially, in a kick-off, the directional driller should observe the
actual oriented dogleg severity of the steerable assembly for a
interval of at least 60 feet. Constant monitoring of the actual
oriented dogleg severity is necessary to plan subsequent
oriented/rotary drilling intervals.
• Minimising rotary speed will slightly increase the fulcrum effect.
This practice can reduce oriented drilling intervals and further
optimise the system.
656

• During the initial stage of a kick-off from vertical, stabiliser

hang-up can occur. This problem may exist until the wellbore is
inclined and/or the first string stabiliser enters the curved,
oriented hole.
• Consider beginning the kick-off early; this can reduce oriented
drilling requirements and the maximum inclination of the well
path.
• INTERVAL DRILLING
An estimate of the proportion of the footage which will have to be

drilled in oriented mode can be determined by the following formula.
where : DL = required dogleg (°/unit length)
DLO = actual dogleg when oriented (°/unit length)
DLR = actual dogleg when rotary drilling (°/unit length)
Example:
Planned build-up rate = 2.5°/30 m
657

Build-up rate obtained when oriented = 3.5°/30 m
Build-up rate obtained during rotary drilling = 0.5°/30 m
• FOUR EXAMPLES OF BOTTOMHOLE ASSEMBLIES
The following example assembly for a 171/2" hole is

designed to have a rotary hold tendency.
• 171/2" Bit
• 111/4" Steerable mud motor,
• 171/4" UBHS
• 161/2" First String Stabiliser
• Float Sub
• 91/2" MWD
• 91/2" Drill Collar
• 161/2" Stabiliser
• 2 x 91/2" Drill Collars
• 2 x 8" Drill Collars (increase or decrease if required)
• Jars
• 8" Drill Collar
658

• HWDP
The following example assembly for a 171/2" hole is

designed to have a considerable rotary build tendency. A
good estimate would be 2°/100'.
• 171/2" Bit
• 111/4" Steerable mud motor
• 171/4" UBHS
• 16" First String Stabiliser
• Float Sub
• 91/2" MWD
• 91/2" Drill Collar
• 2 x 91/2" Drill Collars
• 2 x 8" Drill Collars (increase or decrease if required)
• Jars
• 8" Drill Collar
• HWDP
The following example assembly for
659

a 121/4" hole is designed to have a rotary hold tendency.
• 121/4" Bit
• 121/8" UBHS
• 8" MWD
• 8" Drill Collar
• 12" Stabiliser
• 2 x 8" Drill Collars
• Jars
• 8" Drill Collar
• HWDP
The following example assembly for a 12 1/4" hole is

designed to have a rotary build tendency.
• 121/4" Bit
• 121/8" UBHS
• 8" MWD
• 8" Drill Collar
660

• 2 x 8" Drill Collars
• Jars
• 8" Drill Collar
• HWDP
1.4.9.6 TANGENT SECTION DRILLING
Tangent or hold sections can prove to be very economical using

steerable drilling assemblies, although their performance will not
usually match that of straight motor drilling. Long sections of hole
can be drilled faster than with conventional rotary assemblies, and
corrections can be performed, if required, to keep the well on course.
BASIC ASSEMBLY DESIGN PRINCIPLES:
• An undergauge first string stabiliser is required to maintain

inclination when rotary drilling with steerable drilling
assemblies.
• The assembly chosen should be capable of producing an
acceptable dogleg rate to allow for shorter corrective oriented
intervals.
• Decreasing the diameter of the first string stabiliser versus
increasing "L" is preferred because TGDS is affected less.
661

This practice also limits the number of variables to one, the OD

of the first string stabiliser.
STEERABLE DRILLING ASSEMBLY FOR TANGENT SECTION

DRILLING
• A typical BHA for drilling a 121/4" hole tangent section is:

• 121/4" bit
• 91/2" steerable mud motor
• 121/8" UBHS
• 113/4" string stabiliser
• 8" MWD tool
• 8" drill collar
• 113/4" stabiliser
• 3 x 8" drill collars
• Jars
• 8" drill collars as required
• HWDP as required
OPERATIONAL GUIDELINES
• After observing the steerable assembly directional tendencies

over a rotary drilled interval of at least 200' (30 m) , a plan for
drilling long distances between orientations should be
662

established. This plan should minimise the number of

orientation tool-sets and maximise penetration rate.
• Oriented drilling intervals should be minimised. Oriented
drilling in a tangent or hold section is performed to correct the
present well path and to compensate for anticipated trends.
• Never let the drilled well path get too far from the planned
trajectory. Temper this with the fact that "drilling on the line"
can be significantly more expensive than allowing small
deviations. As surveys are obtained, calculate and plot the
position on both horizontal and vertical plans. At all times there
must be a feasible course to drill from the current location to
the intended target.
1.4.9.7 DROP SECTIONS
When a drop section is to be drilled, the gauge of the first string

stabiliser can be increased to produce more of a dropping tendency
in the rotary mode. The recommended diameter, however, is no
larger than the UBHS. Increasing the diameter of this stabiliser can
also increase hole drag and stabiliser hang up.
Typical rotary drop rates are seldom much higher than 1°/100', with
0.5°to 0.75°/100' commonly produced when the angle is less than
663

20°. If higher drop rates are required. then oriented drilling will be
mandatory.
The following is a general design for a drop assembly while rotary

drilling.
• 121/4" bit
• 91/2" steerable mud motor (slick)
• 121/8" first string stabiliser
• 8" MWD tool
• 8" drill collar
• 12" stabiliser
• etc.
The following guidelines should be considered when drilling drop

sections.
• Except in stringent circumstances, the drilled well path can be

positioned "ahead" of the planned path. This will usually
reduce the oriented drilling requirements.
• In hard-to-drill or problem formations, oriented toolsets should
be minimised or avoided.
• Actual dogleg rate when drilling oriented to drop inclination is
usually less than the TGDS.
664

• The steerable drilling assembly should be designed such that

the TGDS is at least 125% of the required drop rate.
• Stabilisers should be selected such that rotary drilling either

assists in achieving the desired dog-leg, or produces a neutral
tendency.
1.4.9.8 AZIMUTH CONTROL
Rotary Mode
• Rotary drilling with steerable drilling assemblies usually exhibits

an azimuth hold tendency.
• The dip and strike of the formation will affect the tendency of
the steerable drilling assembly to walk.
• The conventional directional concept of increasing rotary RPM
to stiffen an assembly is applicable with steerable drilling
assemblies.
Oriented Mode
• Changes in azimuth are most efficiently performed in oriented

mode.
665

• Due to the stabilisation of the steerable motor, the toolface can

be orientated for maximum turn without dropping inclination (a
typical problem with motor and bent sub assemblies in soft
formations).
• A reduction in TGDS can be expected when oriented for a turn
due to the effect of the undergauge first string stabiliser.
1.4.10 BHA weight and weight on bit

An important consideration in designing the bottom-hole assembly is

the total number of drill collars and heavy weight drill pipe required
to provide the desired weight on bit. In drilling vertical wells, it has
long been standard practice to avoid running ordinary drill pipe in
compression. (This was recommended by Lubinski in 1950). This is
achieved by making sure that the buoyed weight of drill collars and
heavy weight pipe exceeds the maximum weight on bit. This practice
was also adopted on low-angle directional wells.
In directional wells it has to be remembered that, since gravity acts

vertically downwards, only the along-hole component of the weight
of BHA elements contributes to the weight on bit. The problem this
creates is that if high WOB is required when drilling a high-angle
666

well, then a long and expensive BHA would be needed in order to

avoid having any drill pipe in compression. It is, however, common
practice to use about the same BHA weight as would be used on a
low-angle well and run the drill pipe in compression. Analysis of drill
pipe buckling in inclined holes by a number of researchers, notably
Dawson and Paslay, has shown that drill pipe can tolerate significant
levels of compression in small-diameter high-angle holes because of
the support provided by the low side of the hole. Drill pipe is
commonly run in compression in drilling horizontal wells, without
apparently causing damage to the pipe.
Additional information about the design of bottom-hole assemblies in

deviated wells is given in Section 2 Part 1 - Drill string design.
1.4.10.2 ALONG-HOLE COMPONENTS OF FORCE
Consider a short element of a BHA which has a weight W.
The effective weight in drilling fluid= W x BF, where BF = the

buoyancy factor of the drilling fluid.
The component of the weight acting along borehole = W x BF x cosq,

where q is the borehole inclination.
667

Note: In this chapter, q is used for inclination and I is used for axial
moment of inertia.
If the BHA is not rotated, the friction force, Ffr, acting up the
borehole on the BHA element is given by Ffr = µN, where µ is the
coefficient of friction and N is the normal reaction force between the
BHA element and the bore hole wall.
If this normal reaction is due only to the weight of the BHA element
itself, then
and hence
The net contribution to the WOB from this BHA element is therefore
668

Figure 2.4.77: Forces on the BHA
1.4.10.3 REQUIRED BHA WEIGHT FOR ROTARY

ASSEMBLIES
When two contacting surfaces are in relative motion, the direction of

the force of sliding friction on each surface acts along the line of
relative motion and in the opposite direction to its motion. Therefore,
when a BHA is rotated, the friction forces mainly act circumferentially
to oppose rotation (torque) with only a very small component acting
along the borehole (drag).
669

Measurements of downhole WOB by MWD tools confirm that when

the BHA is rotated there is only a small reduction in weight on bit due
to drag. This can be allowed for simplistically by using a safety factor.
Neglecting drag, and extending the discussion above to the whole

BHA,
Where:
WBHA = the total air weight of the BHA
Wbit = the weight on bit
Therefore, if no drill pipe is to be run in compression,
Example
Drilling 171/2" hole with a roller cone bit, we want to use 45,000 lbs
WOB in the tangent section at 30° inclination. What air weight of
BHA is required to avoid running any drill pipe in compression? The
drilling fluid density is 10ppg. Use a 10% safety margin.
670

Suppose we have 180' of 91/2" tubulars weighing 220 lbs per foot, a
91/2" MWD tool weighing 3,400 lbs and 90' of 8" tubulars weighing
154 lbs per foot.
How many joints of 5" HWDP would be required?
Total weight of (180 x 220) + 3,400 56,860

= =
DC section + (90 x 154) lbs lbs
Required air 67,500 lbs - 56,860 10,640

= =
weight of HWDP lbs lbs
Weight of 1 joint
= 1,480 lbs
of HWDP
Number of joints
of HWDP = 10,640/1,480 = 7.2
required
Therefore a minimum of 8 joints of HWDP are required.
It must be emphasised that the Safety Factor in the preceding

example is to compensate for loss of weight due to friction while
671

drilling in the deviated section of the well.
1.4.10.4 RUNNING DRILL PIPE IN COMPRESSION
Consider the following example.
We are drilling a 121/4" tangent section in hard formation using an

insert bit. We want to use 50,000lbs WOB. The hole inclination is 60û
and the drilling fluid density is 11 ppg.
What air weight of BHA is required if we are to avoid running any drill
pipe in compression ? Use a 15% safety margin.
Required BHA weight
This is roughly the weight of ten strands of 8" drill collars, or

alternatively, six strands of 8" collars pluss 44 joints of HWDP ! This
is just not practical ! It would be a long, stiff and expensive BHA.
1.4.10.4.1 CRITICAL BUCKLING FORCE
Dawson and Paslay developed the following equation for critical
672

buckling force in drill pipe.
Where:
E is Young's modulus.
I is the axial moment of inertia.
W is the buoyed weight per unit length.
θ is borehole inclination.
r isthe radial clearance between the pipe (tool joint) and the borehole
wall.
Note that consideration must be given to the possibility of an oversize

hole when calculation 'r'
If the compressive load reaches the value Fcr, then sinusoidal

buckling occurs.
The sinusoidal buckling equation given above can be used to develop

graphs and tables of values such as those in Appendix 2. If the
673

compressive load at a given inclination lies below the graph, then the
drill pipe will not buckle.
The reason that pipe in an inclined hole is so resistant to buckling is

that the hole is supporting and constraining the pipe throughout its
length. The low side of the hole forms a trough that resists even a
slight displacement of the pipe from its initial straight configuration.
It follows that this equation is not applicable for vertical holes, for
which other equations are available.
Note that, intuitively, it may seem that the "radial clearance" in the
above equation would be that between the drill-pipe and the hole
rather than between the tool-joint and the hole. However in practice
it appears that a better correlation with theory is obtained if the
radial clearance of the tool-joint is used.
Calculating BHA weight with drill pipe in compression
The conclusion of the previous paragraph is that on high-angle wells

in small hole sizes, a fraction of the weight on bit can safely be
provided by having drill pipe in compression. It is suggested that
90% of the critical buckling force be used as the maximum
contribution to the weight on bit from ordinary drill pipe.
674

Denoting the total air weight of the BHA by W BHA, the weight on bit
by W BIT and the critical bucklingload by Fcr, we have:
Continuing the example at the beginning of this sub-Topic 4.10.4, let

us recalculate the weight of the BHA required assuming some drill
pipe is to be run in compression.
Suppose we are using 5" drill pipe; referring to the table for 5" drill
pipe in 121/4" hole in Appendix 2, we see that the critical buckling
load at 60° inclination is 29,300 lbs. Our equation then gives:
Thus a total air weight of 74,800 lbs is required.This is much more

feasible than the value of 138,000 lbs previously calculated.
The graphs and tables in Appendix 2 are for the particlular drilling
fluid density of 10.68 ppg. However, variations in drilling fluid density
have only a minor effect on the value of critical buckling load and so
675

the graphs could be used for drilling fluid densities of up to 14 ppg

without introducing a significant error. For drilling fluid densities
above 14 ppg, the value of critical buckling load should be re-
calculated.
1.4.10.4.2 SUMMARY OF RUNNING DRILL PIPE IN COMPRESSION
When drilling vertical wells, ordinary drill pipes must NEVER be run in
compression in any hole size. Therefore sufficient BHA weight must
be used to provide all the desired weight on bit with an appropriate
safety margin.
Given that the clearance is in the denominator of the Dawson &

Paslay equation, the critical buckling force will decrease as the hole
size increases, even in high angle holes. In hole sizes of say 16" or
more the drill-pipe should only be run in compression in exceptional
cases.
In smaller hole sizes on high-angle wells (over 45°), drill pipe may be
run in compression to contribute to the weight on bit provided the
maximum compressive load is less than the critical buckling force.
This critical buckling force is the minimum compressive force which
will cause sinusoidal buckling of the drill pipe.
676

A safety margin of at least 10% should be used in the calculation to

allow for some drag (friction) in the hole. However, axial drag is not
a major factor when assemblies are rotated.
The preceding discussion concerned rotary assemblies. However, it

would also apply to steerable motor systems used in the rotary
mode. Provided the steerable system was to be used mainly in the
rotary mode, with only minimal oriented drilling anticipated, then the
required BHA weight could be calculated on the same basis. If a
significant amount of oriented drilling was likely, then the following
Sub-Topic is applicable.
Calculating critical buckling force
A set of graphs and tables is presented in Appendix 2. These are for

specific sets of conditions. The following example illustrates how to
calculate the critical buckling load for other conditions.
Suppose we have 41/2" drill pipe with a nominal weight of 16.6 lbs/ft
in 81/2" hole at 50° inclination with a drilling fluid density of 14 ppg.
Young's modulus, E, for steel is 29 x 106 psi
677

The ID of the drill pipe is 3.826". This information can be found in

API RP7G.
The approximate weights for different sizes of drill pipe can also be
found in API RP7G . In this case it is 17.98 lbs/ft.
In the equation, W is the buoyed weight in lbs/inch.
The air weight = 17.98 lbs/ft = 1.498 lbs/in and the buoyancy factor
for 14ppg drilling fluid = 0.786.
sin 50° = 0.766
Radial clearance:
= 1/2 (Hole OD - Tool joint OD)
= 1/2 (8.5" - 6.375")
= 1.06"
678

The values obtained above may now be substituted in our equation

of the critical buckling force.
1.4.10.5 BHA REQUIREMENTS WHEN THE DRILL

STRING IS NOT ROTATED
As stated earlier, when the drill string is rotated the along-hole

component of sliding friction (drag) is small and may be allowed for
simply by using a safety factor in BHA weight calculations. Drill string
friction for rotary assemblies will mainly affect torque values. When
the drill string is not rotated, as when a steerable motor system is
used in the oriented mode, axial drag can become very significant
and drill string friction may be evaluated taking in more factors by
using computer simulation (WellPlan) .
In practice, BHA weight for steerable assemblies on typical directional

wells is not a problem for two reasons.
• The WOB is usually fairly low, especially when a PDC bit is

used.
679

• When the drill string is not rotated the drill pipe is not
subjected to the cyclical stresses which occur during rotary
drilling. Therefore, sinusoidal buckling can be tolerated when
there is no rotation of the drill string. Helical buckling must,
however, be avoided.
Helical buckling occurs at 1.41 Fcr, where Fcr is the compressive force
at which sinusoidal buckling occurs.
Therefore, if BHA weight requirements are evaluated as for rotary

drilling, the results will be valid for steerable systems in the oriented
mode except for unusual well paths which create exceptionally high
values of axial drag.
The standard practice of minimising BHA length and weight for

steerable assemblies has not created any noticeable increase in the
incidence of drill string failure, even when long sections are drilled in
the oriented mode.
1.4.11 Appendix
1.4.11.1 Appendix 1
BUILD AND HOLD CONFIGURATION
680

The following information is required:
• Surface (slot) coordinates

• TVD of the kick-off point (VD1)
• Build-up rate
• Target coordinates
• TVD of target
In the solution which follows for the vertical projection, the well is
assumed to be vertical to the kick-off point (KOP). The following
values will be calculated:
• Measured depth at end of build section.

• Horizontal displacement at end of build section (H1).
• Vertical depth at end of build section (VD2).
• Inclination of tangent section (a).
• Total measured depth of the target.
• Horizontal displacement of target (H2).
681

Figure 2.4.78: Cross section through a "build and hold" type well
682

In the solution which follows for the vertical projection, the well is
assumed to be vertical to the kick-off point (KOP). The following
values will be calculated:
• Measured depth at end of build section.

• Horizontal displacement at end of build section (H1).
• Vertical depth at end of build section (VD2).
• Total measured depth of the target.
First the horizontal displacement of the target is calculated from the

two sets of horizontal plane coordinates:
where: Ns = Northing of slot
Es = Easting of slot
NT = Northing of target
ET = Easting of target
These Northings and Eastings must all be measured from the
683

platform or rig reference point.
Referring to Figure 2.4.78, the build-up section is assumed to be on

an arc of a circle of radius R. Let the build-up rate be BUR degrees
per 100 ft.
Then
684

Note:
The above solution assumes that the radius of curvature of the build-
up section is less than the horizontal displacement of the target; that,
however, need not be the case. The trainee is invited to sketch a new
trajectory and work through the logic of the solution on the
assumption that the R corresponding to the chosen build-up rate is
greater than the horizontal displacement of the target.
S-TYPE WELL
The following information is required:
• Surface (slot) coordinates.

• Target coordinates.
• TVD of target.
• TVD of kick-off point.
685

• Build-up rate.
• Drop-off rate.
• TVD at the end of the drop-off section.
• Final inclination through the target.
Figure 2.4.79: Cross section through an S-type well
686

The well is assumed to be vertical to KOP. The following values are

calculated:
• Measured depth at end of build.

• TVD at end of build (VD2).
• Horizontal displacement at end of build (H1).
• Measured depth at start of drop.
• TVD at start of drop (VD3).
• Horizontal displacement at start of drop (H2).
• Measured depth at end of drop.
• Horizontal displacement at end of drop (H3).
• Total measured depth to target.
Let BUR be the build-up rate in degrees per 100 ft. and DOR be the
drop-off rate in degrees per 100 ft.
As before, the horizontal displacement of the target, H4, is

determined from slot and target coordinates.
The radius of the build-up curve is calculated, as before, by:
687

Similarly, the radius of curvature of the drop section is calculated by
Now referring to Figure 2.4.79, OF is constructed parallel to BC,

therefore:
Then we have:
688

Hence the inclination of the tangent section can be calculated since:
We can now calculate all the required values:
VD at end of drop, V4, was given
Final note: An S well which drops back to vertical is simply a special

case of the above.
689

1.4.11.2 Appendix 2
Critical buckling forces
The tables and graphs on the following four pages give the critical
buckling forces for specific values of hole inclination when using 5"
S135 drillpipe and 5" Hevi-wate drill-pipe in 121/4" and 81/2" holes,
with a drilling fluid density of 10.68 lbs/gal (1.28 kg/l). These are
common combinations of hole size and drillpipe, and the drilling fluid
density is of the order of magnitude of what will commonly be
required. They provide therefore a quick approximation to the critical
buckling forces which will be applicable when drilling many
conventional wells in normally pressured formations.
For critical cases, or for different conditions, an exact value should be

calculated as explained in Topic 10.4.
These tables and graphs have been made by applying the equations
given in Topic 10.4, and using the dimensions of new drill-pipe.
The lines plotted on the graphs do not start from 0° (where the
equation would indicate a zero critical buckling force) because the
equation is not valid for vertical wells. In that case, where a different
equation applies. Fcr will have a small but non-zero value. The graphs
690

have (arbitrarily) been plotted from 2° to illustrate how sensitive the

critical buckling force is to the inclination in this range.
In practice it is irrelevant whether Fcr is zero or small in vertical wells,

because both emphasize the point that drill-pipe should only be run
in compression in significantly deviated wells.
Critical buckling forces (Fcr)

for new 5" 19.5 lbs/ft S135 drill-pipe in 121/4" hole
Inclination 2 5 10 15 20 25 30
Fcr (KN) 26.20 41.4 58.4 71.3 81.9 91.1 99.1
Fcr (Klbs) 5.90 9.3 13.1 16.0 18.4 20.5 22.3
Inclination 35 40 45 50 55 60
Fcr (KN)) 106.1 112.3 117.8 122.6 126.8 130.4
Fcr (Klbs) 23.9 25.3 26.5 27.6 28.5 29.3
Inclination 65 70 75 80 85 90
Fcr (KN)) 133.4 135.8 137.7 139.0 139.8 140.1
Fcr (Klbs) 30.0 30.5 31.0 31.3 31.4 31.5
691

Figure 2.4.80

for new 5" Hevi-wate drill-pipe in 121/4" hole
Drill pipe 127

5 inch
O.D. mm
Drill pipe 3.00 76.2

I.D. inch mm
692


weight* lbs/ft Kg/m
Tool joint
6.50 165.1
O.D.
inch mm
(NC50)
Hole 12.25 311.15

diameter inch mm
Drilling fluid 10.68 1.28

density ppg Kg/l
* Taken from API RP7G

(August 1991)
Inclination 2 5 10 15 20 25 30
Fcr (KN) 50.60 79.9 112.8 137.7 158.3 176.0 191.4
Fcr (Klbs) 11.40 18.0 25.4 31.0 35.6 39.6 43.0
Inclination 35 40 45 50 55 60
Fcr (KN)) 205.0 217.1 227.7 237.0 245.0 251.9
Fcr (Klbs) 46.1 48.8 51.2 53.3 55.1 56.6
693

Inclination 65 70 75 80 85 90
Fcr (KN)) 257.7 262.4 266.1 268.7 270.2 270.7
Fcr (Klbs) 57.9 59.0 59.8 60.4 60.8 60.9
Figure 2.4.81

for new 5" 19.5 lbs/ft S135 drill-pipe in 81/2" hole
694

Drill pipe 127

5 inch
O.D. mm

I.D. inch mm

weight* lbs/ft Kg/m
Tool joint 6.625 168.3

O.D. (NC50) inch mm
Hole 8.5 215.9

diameter inch mm

density ppg Kg/l

(August 1991)
695

Inclination 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Fcr (KN) 0 71.6 101.1 123.4 141.9 157.7 171.6
Fcr (Klbs) 0 16.1 22.7 27.8 31.9 35.5 38.6
Inclination 35 40 45 50 55 60
Fcr (KN)) 183.8 194.5 204.0 212.4 219.6 225.8
Fcr (Klbs) 41.3 43.7 45.9 47.7 49.4 50.8
Inclination 65 70 75 80 85 90
Fcr (KN)) 231.0 235.2 238.5 240.8 242.2 242.7
Fcr (Klbs) 51.9 52.9 53.6 54.1 54.4 54.6
696

Figure 2.4.82

for new 5" Hevi-wate drill-pipe in 81/2" hole
Drill pipe 127

5 inch
O.D. mm

I.D. inch mm

weight* lbs/ft Kg/m
697

Tool joint 6.50 165.1

O.D. (NC50) inch mm
Hole 8.25 215.9

diameter inch mm

density ppg Kg/l

(August 1991)
Inclination 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Fcr (KN) 0 135.5 191.3 233.5 268.5 298.4 324.6
Fcr (Klbs) 0 30.5 43.0 52.5 60.4 67.1 73.0
Inclination 35 40 45 50 55 60
Fcr (KN)) 347.7 368.0 386.0 401.8 415.5 427.2
Fcr (Klbs) 78.2 82.7 86.8 90.3 93.4 96.0
Inclination 65 70 75 80 85 90
Fcr (KN)) 437.0 445.0 451.2 455.5 458.2 459.0
Fcr (Klbs) 98.2 100.0 101.4 102.4 103.0 103.2
698

Figure 2.4.83
1.5 BOREHOLE SURVEYING
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1.5.1 Introduction
Borehole surveying is the activity of acquiring accurate data on the
course of a borehole and is inextricably linked with directional drilling
(refer to Section 2, Part 4). Accurate data about the course of a
borehole is required in order to monitor and control where a borehole
is, and where it is going, for the following reasons:
• To hit geological targets;

• To provide a better definition of geological and reservoir data
to allow for optimisation of production;
• To avoid collision with other wells;
• To define the target of a relief well for blow-out contingency
planning;
• To provide accurate vertical depths for the purpose of well
control;
• To provide data for operational activities such as running and
cementing casing;
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• To fulfil the requirements of local legislation.
Every survey is only an estimate of the actual well position and has
associated uncertainties which vary greatly in size depending on the
survey tool itself, the deployment technique applied and
environmental conditions in which it operates. Not all uncertainties
will be equally significant, but an uncertainty which seems to be
negligible for a particular application may become significant for
another application. It is essential that these uncertainties are
known, quantified and managed in order to meet the requirements
resulting from the above reasons for surveying.
Stating the absolute accuracy of any survey tool by a single number

is not feasible and should not be accepted. However, a general
ranking of relative tool accuracy on the basis of the measurement
principle applied can be made and is given in Table 2.5.1.
The SIEP Borehole Surveying Manual volume I (EP95-1000) outlines

the Shell Group borehole survey policy, specific responsibilities and
provides details of surveying tools, techniques and recommended
procedures. The specific borehole surveying activities of well path
planning, plotting, survey calculations, uncertainty calculations, anti-
collision monitoring and data storage involve many complicated and
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repetitive calculations. These should be performed by approved

computer applications which have become integrated with the
activities described in the BSM vol I. Many Shell OU's have
established a wellbore surveying focal point to provide expertise
locally.
For terms that are unfamiliar you should refer to the Abbreviations &
Glossary given at the end of the SIEP Borehole Surveying Manual
volume I (EP95-1000).
1.5.2 Borehole representation

The representation of a borehole course starts from the wellhead
location which has been surveyed to provide the wellhead co-
ordinates. The wellpath is defined by a survey which gives the
positions of the well at a number of points along the wellbore.
At each point, or survey station, the position is defined with the co-
ordinates in the North, East and Vertical directions (N,E,V); for
clarification refer to Figure 2.5.1. Additionally, Along-Hole Depth
(AHD), inclination and azimuth of the survey station are included as
most survey tools measure inclination and azimuth to calculate the N,
E, V co-ordinates. To be meaningful, the measurements and co-
702

ordinates must be tied to a fixed reference system for depth,

inclination and azimuth. The orientation of the bottom hole assembly
(BHA) in the cross-borehole plane is defined as toolface (refer below
for clarification).
Figure 2.5.1: Definition of North, East, True vertical depth, Along-hole

depth. Inclination and Azimuth
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To monitor the wellpath while drilling and compare it with the

planned wellpath, the well course is usually projected both onto the
horizontal plane and onto a specific vertical plane. The latter plot is
known as vertical section which is a graph of the vertical co-ordinate
versus the projection of the horizontal displacement onto this plane.
It should be noted that, contrary to other survey tool types, Inertial

Navigation Systems (see Topic 5.8.3) measure the co-ordinates
directly and calculate the inclination and azimuth.
The dogleg angle between consecutive survey stations is the total

change of the wellbore direction between the survey stations and is a
combination of inclination and azimuth changes (for illustration refer
to Figure 2.5.10). The corresponding dogleg severity is the dogleg
angle over a certain length of borehole and is calculated to indicate
excessive dogleg angles that may cause problems either during
drilling or later in the life of the well.
1.5.2.1 WELLHEAD LOCATION
The location of a wellhead is given in terms of co-ordinates. These

can be geographic in terms of degrees of latitude and longitude or in
grid co-ordinates - e.g. Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) co-
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ordinates. Due to the large number of digits in some co-ordinate

systems, a local origin is chosen and given the co-ordinates 0,0. This
could be the location of the well being drilled, or a 'platform centre'
for an offshore well. For comparing positions of wells, and in
particular for anti-collision monitoring, it is important that all co-
ordinate data are referenced to a single point.
Details on the co-ordinate system to be used and about applicable

conversion factors and angles should be available from local
Topographic Departments. The actual grid system to be used may be
defined by national or local legislation.
To avoid potential confusion, all documents referring to surveys

should include a statement defining the reference system and
reference data.
1.5.2.2 SURVEY REFERENCES
Some of the following Topics are also covered in Section 2, Part 4 but
are generally presented here in greater detail and should not be
omitted by the reader.
1.5.2.2.1 DEPTH
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There are two depth parameters:
• Along-Hole Depth (AHD) - This is a measured parameter and is

defined as the distance along the actual course of the borehole
from the surface reference point to the point of interest, e.g.
as measured by wireline or drill pipe, see Figure 2.5.1.
• True Vertical Depth (TVD) - This is a calculated parameter
(except in the case of Inertial Navigation Systems, where TVD
is directly measured) and is defined as the vertical distance
from the depth reference level to a point on the borehole
course, see Figure 2.5.1.
Every depth measurement is expressed with reference to a fixed

point or datum. Note that depths are generally measured along-hole,
but true vertical depths are needed for:
• Geological evaluation;
• Calculation of hydrostatic heads;
• Plotting purposes;
• Collision monitoring.
• Depth reference systems
There are three sets of depth references used during the life of a
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well. Each OU should have a standard diagrammatic report covering

all elevations. At the spud of a well, initial data should be filled in on
this report and it should be maintained. For offshore wells, the
drilling reference must be updated for every change, e.g. after
jacking-up to insert a wellhead spool for a well drilled with a jack-up
rig. Refer to Figures 2.5.2, 2.5.3 and 2.5.4 for clarification of depth
references for land wells and offshore wells with both surface and
sub-sea BOPs respectively.
Figure 2.5.2: Depth references for land wells
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Figure 2.5.3: Depth references for offshore wells drilled with surface
BOPs
Figure 2.5.4: Depth references for offshore wells drilled with sub-sea
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BOPs
• Permanent Datum or common depth reference - This is fixed

during life of well and permits comparison between individual
wells within the same field. The common depth reference is
defined by a permanent datum level that is usually nationally
defined and can always be referenced to. As a common depth
reference on land a chart datum supplied by the local
authorities is often used (e.g. Nieuw Amsterdams Peil (NAP) in
The Netherlands). Offshore, chart datum is often given in
terms of Mean Sea Level (MSL). Variations in actual sea level
from the MSL can be read from tide tables of nearby harbours
or by measuring the local variations in water depth.
• Drilling or working depth reference - This may change during
life of well. In most drilling operations the Rotary Table (RT)
elevation is used as the working depth reference. The elevation
of the RT to the permanent datum is also referred to as Drill
Floor Elevation (DFE). Depths measured from these references
are often called below rotary table (BRT) or below drill floor
(BDF). For floating drilling rigs the rotary table elevation is not
fixed and hence a mean rotary table elevation has to be used.
A heave/tide gauge on the rig floor is useful to check the
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elevation relative to the mean elevation at different states of

the tide. Prior to spudding-in a well, the distance from the
rotary table to the Permanent Datum must be established. For
land wells normally the elevation of the top cellar to the chart
datum is surveyed by the Topographic Department prior to
starting drilling. When the derrick is rigged up, the rotary table
to top cellar distance is measured and then the elevation of the
rotary table to the Permanent Datum can be calculated.
Offshore the distance from the observed sea level to the rotary
table is measured and thereafter corrected for the variation
with respect to the Mean Sea Level (MSL).
• Well reference - This may change during life of well and
provides a means of relating workover and production
operations back to measurements taken from the original
rotary table position. To be able to relate back to the well, a
fixed level should be defined usually to a flange of the
wellhead that remains for the life of the well. Depending on
the type of well, different well reference points are used:
Æ Land wells - Top Casing Head Housing (CHH), also

known as Top of the Bottom Flange (TBF);
Æ Offshore wells with surface BOPs - Top Casing Head
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Housing (CHH) and if a Mud Line Suspension (MLS) is

used, the MLS reference depth;
Æ Offshore wells with sub-sea BOPs - Top of sub-sea
wellhead. This can be related to taggable points such as
the top blind BOP rams, top swab valve, or the wear
bushing by stack-up drawings.
Be wary of any changes to the reference depth during the life of a

well. This has been known to lead to expensive problems over depth
control, e.g. when an second rig of differing drill floor elevation is
used to workover a well all depths measured from the rotary table
should be corrected to those corresponding to the original rig. The
convention is to report all depths below ODFE, i.e. Original DFE.
• INCLINATION
Inclination is defined as the angle between the local vertical and the
tangent to the well bore axis at a particular point, see Figure 2.5.1
for clarification. The convention is that 0° is vertical and 90° is
horizontal. It is recommended that decimal degrees should be used.
The local vertical reference is indicated by a plumb bob in mechanical

survey tools or by accelerometers in a solid state tool, and by
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definition coincides with the direction of the local gravity vector. The
magnitude of gravity varies with latitude and local peculiarities in the
Earth's crust, such as mountains or accumulations of dense materials.
• AZIMUTH
Azimuth is defined as the angle of the horizontal component of the

direction of the wellbore at a particular point, measured in a
clockwise direction, from the reference, refer to Figure 2.5.5 for
clarification.
Figure 2.5.5: Example of relationship between magnetic, true and grid

North
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Azimuths should be expressed as a reading on a 0-360° system.

Quadrant azimuth systems are not recommended.
Azimuth reference systems
For directional surveying, there are three azimuth reference systems.

Refer to Figure 2.5.5 which presents an example (only) of the
relationship between magnetic, true and grid north:
• Magnetic North (MN) - This is the direction of the horizontal

component of the Earth's magnetic field lines at a particular
point on the Earth's surface. A magnetic compass will align
itself to these lines with the positive pole of the compass
indicating North (refer to Topic 5.7.1 for further details).
• True (Geographic) North (TN) - This is the direction of the
geographic North Pole. This lies on the axis of rotation of the
Earth. The direction is shown on maps by the meridians of
longitude. North-Seeking gyroscopic tools and Inertial
Navigation Systems measure to this reference.
• Grid North (GN) - The meridians of longitude converge towards
the North Pole and South Pole and therefore do not produce a
rectangular grid system. The grid lines on a map form a
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rectangular grid system, the Northerly direction of which is

determined by one specified meridian of longitude. The
direction of this meridian is called Grid North. For example, in
the often used Universal Transverse Mercator co-ordinate
system the world is divided into 60 zones of 6 degrees of
latitude, in which the central meridian defines Grid North. Grid
North and True North are only identical for the central
meridian. Comparison of co-ordinates is only valid if they are in
the same grid system.
Ensure the availability of information on the local relationship

between Magnetic North, True North and Grid North. This data is
obtained from the OU Survey Focal Point and should always be
shown with deviation data to avoid confusion (on a diagram).
Azimuth reference system conversions
To be meaningful, all azimuths must be quoted in the same reference

system. This is usually the Grid North system. In practice, azimuths
are often measured in systems other than the Grid North system.
Two conversions normally have to be applied to the measured

azimuths:
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• Grid convergence - This converts azimuth values between the

True North and the specified Grid North systems. The grid
convergence angle is the angle between the meridians of
longitude (TN) and the North of the particular grid system (GN)
at a given point, as shown in Figure 2.5.6. By definition, the
grid convergence is positive when moving clockwise from True
North to Grid North, and negative when moving anti-clockwise
from True North to Grid North. The value of grid convergence
depends upon location. Close to the Equator the convergence
is small and increases with increasing latitude.
Figure 2.5.6: Grid convergence
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Be wary of the term "Grid correction" which is another name for

Grid convergence. However, by definition grid correction is the
negative of grid convergence. In other words Grid correction =-
(Grid convergence). Grid correction was the standard used in Well
Engineering defined in the previous Borehole Survey Manual (EP
59300). To comply with standards used in the survey industry and
Topographic Departments, Grid convergence is the new standard
for Well Engineering.
Declination - This converts azimuth values between the Magnetic

North and True North systems. Declination is the angle between the
horizontal component of the Earth's magnetic field lines and the lines
of longitude see Figure 2.5.7. By definition, the declination is positive
when moving clockwise from True North to Magnetic North, and
negative when moving anti-clockwise from True North to Magnetic
North. Values of declination change with time and location and those
representative of the parameters at the time of drilling should be
used (further details are given in Topic 5.7.1). When magnetic survey
results are stored, the declination and the date must be included.
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Figure 2.5.7: Definition of declination
Not all OUs use the standard convention for grid convergence and
declination. Local convention should be verified in consultation with
the OU Survey Focal Point. Again, to prevent confusion the local
definitions should be stated in wording and drawing on every survey
programme and wellpath plan.
1.5.2.3 CROSS-BOREHOLE REFERENCES
The cross-borehole plane is the plane perpendicular to the along-hole

axis of the wellbore. For steering purposes, the BHA, in particular the
bent sub, needs to be oriented. This requires a means of measuring
the angle between a reference point marked at the outside of the
717

bent sub and a reference direction in the cross-borehole plane (refer

to Figure 2.5.8).
The reference direction in the cross-borehole plane is called the high-

side. The high-side is defined as the upward direction perpendicular
to the borehole axis in the local vertical plane. For vertical wells,
high-side is undefined.
The reference marker of the bent sub is called bent sub scribe line.
To measure the angle between the reference directions, a survey
steering tool is positioned in the BHA. The positioning of the survey
tool is controlled by the key seat or mule shoe on the survey tool
locating into the key of a sleeve in the Universal Bottom Hole
Orienting (UBHO) sub. This allows the tool to land in a fixed
orientation. This orientation is indicated by the scribe line of the
UBHO. The angle difference between the two scribe lines is defined
as the toolface offset - normally set to zero by rotating the UBHO
sleeve.
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Figure 2.5.8: Cross-borehole references
For wells with less than 5° inclination, the high-side, and hence
toolface, cannot be measured reliably. In this situation an alternative
technique is applied using a magnetic or a gyroscopic toolface and
the BHA/bent sub is oriented in a similar as above but with
reference to magnetic or true azimuth respectively rather than the
high-side.
The toolface is defined as the rotation angle of the scribe line of the
bent sub about the borehole axis measured in a clockwise rotation
from high-side of the hole and is the sum of the toolface offset and
angle measured by the survey tool between its fixed orientation and
high-side. Thus when the toolface offset is set to zero, the toolface
719

will equal the angle measured by the survey tool between its fixed
orientation and high-side.
Be wary of different interpretations of the simple word "toolface" as

it is one of those words that can have various meanings to different
individuals.
1.5.2.4 VERTICAL SECTION
For plotting purposes, two-dimensional drawings showing separate

vertical and horizontal views are normally used. The horizontal plot is
a plan view of the North and East co-ordinates of the wellpath, see
Figure 2.5.9. The vertical view of the wellpath represents a graph of
True Vertical Depth (TVD) versus horizontal displacement projected,
known as the Projected Horizontal Displacement (PHD), onto a single
plane, known as the target plane or vertical section. Usually the
direction of the target is used for this vertical representation of the
well. In most cases this is a reasonable representation of the
wellpath, because the well azimuth is predominantly in one direction
with little turn. Where wellpaths have large changes of azimuth, or
where the wellpath direction is more than about 20° from the target
plane, the distortion of the wellpath when projected on to this plane
720

becomes excessive and the plot is difficult to understand.
Figure 2.5.9: Definition of vertical section and projected horizontal

displacement
There are a number of solutions to the problem of graphical

representation. The two most practical are:
• Multiple vertical section views - The simplest solution is to have

a drawing with a number of vertical section views, with the
additional vertical views projected into the planes of the major
hole directions. These can give a good representation of the
vertical plan, but require the different vertical sections to be
calculated and plotted.
• Stretch plot - This plot looks similar to the vertical section plot,
but the horizontal scale is the True Horizontal Displacement.
721

The True Horizontal Displacement is the actual displacement in

the horizontal plane. A stretch plot represents the horizontal
displacement of the wellpath as if it were stretched out along
one constant azimuth. It has the advantage that the plot is
independent of azimuth and the true inclination of the hole can
be seen.
1.5.2.5 WELLPATH CALCULATIONS
A directional survey tool measures inclination and azimuth at a

number of survey stations at specified along-hole depths. The
measured values are used to calculate North, East and True Vertical
Depth co-ordinates within the specified reference systems.
Additionally, the dogleg severity and Projected Horizontal
Displacement (PHD) may be calculated.
There are a number of different calculation methods, however the

Minimum Curvature, which is the same as the Circular Arc method, is
the standard to be used within the Shell Group. Consider the
directional surveys at two consecutive stations AHD1 and AHD2 with
measured values of inclination I1 and I2 and azimuth A1 and A2
respectively (refer to Figure 2.5.10 which presents a directional
survey at two consecutive stations). These values are then
722

substituted into the Minimum Curvature formulae to calculate the

dogleg angle DL between both stations, the increments in North (N),
East (E), True Vertical Depth (DTVD) and Projected Horizontal
Displacement (PHD).
Figure 2.5.10: A directional survey at two consecutive stations
For a description of the Minimum Curvature calculation and the

formulae applied,you should refer to the BSM vol I. The Minimum
Curvature calculation is implemented in COMPASS (refer to Topic
5.3.3.3). The vector triangles presented in Topic 4.7 of Section 2,
Part 4 present a valid means of manually verifying this method.
723

The azimuth and co-ordinate data may be expressed in Magnetic,

True or Grid North but must be consistent throughout the survey.
1.5.2.6 BOREHOLE POSITION UNCERTAINTY
The borehole position uncertainty is the 3-dimensional range that the

actual position of a survey station may be about its calculated
position. It is a result of combining the uncertainties of all individual
data measurements for the survey. The magnitude of the position
uncertainty describes a three-dimensional ellipsoid, see Figure 2.5.11,
defined by the type, quality and uncertainty model of the survey tool
used combined with the uncertainties of the technique used to deploy
the tool and the environment in which it is deployed.
The axes of the ellipsoid are called the lateral, upward and along-hole
axes. The combined ellipsoids of position uncertainty at various
survey points result in an envelope of position uncertainty for the
complete wellpath, which should be used for anti-collision monitoring
(refer to Topic 5.4.3).
724

Figure 2.5.11: The ellipsoid of borehole position uncertainty
The uncertainty of a survey should never be ignored and should be

known in addition to the calculated position. The understanding and
management of this uncertainty is critical to successful and cost-
effective surveying.
1.5.2.7 DEFINITIONS
Before proceeding, it is essential that a few important terms are

defined. If some of the terms used are unclear at this stage, you
should not be concerned as they will become clear as progress is
725

made through this document. This Topic should be used as

reference:
• Survey - A survey is defined as a series of measurements made

while or after drilling the well to determine the borehole
trajectory or a part of it. A survey comprises position (North,
East and True Vertical Depth) and/or direction (along-hole
depth, inclination and azimuth) from which position is
calculated. More than one survey can be obtained in a hole
section or a part of it. A reading consisting of along-hole depth
and inclination-only is not regarded as a survey.
• Definitive survey - A definitive survey is the most accurate
survey of a hole section at any time. The individual surveys
that compose the definitive survey for a well will change over
time as the well in constructed. This survey is stored in the
OU's database.
• Tie-in Point - This is a specific survey station at the bottom of
an existing survey that will be the effective starting point of a
successive survey, e.g. the bottom survey station of a
gyroscopic survey inside a casing would be the tie-in point for
the (less accurate) Measurement While Drilling (MWD) survey
when drilling ahead - for details on MWD systems refer to
726

Topic 5.9.4.
• Independent surveys - Two surveys are defined independent if
the physical principles exploited are independent, e.g.
magnetic versus gyroscopic.
• Survey requirements - Survey requirements are defined as
geometrical targets in space. They originate from geological,
blow-out contingency, anti-collision and local legislative
requirements.
• Survey tool accuracy - The accuracy of a survey tool is defined
as a measure of the potential of a survey tool to determine the
actual borehole position. A highly accurate survey tool means a
tool which can measure the actual borehole position with a
relatively small borehole position uncertainty. The borehole
position uncertainty is the potential difference between the
measured borehole position and actual borehole position.
• Survey tool quality - This is the potential of a survey tool to
measure the actual borehole position as modelled by its tool
uncertainty model. This model represents the average survey
accuracy of a fleet of tools. With this model the theoretical
borehole position uncertainty can be computed. The quality of
a single survey tool from the fleet is a measure for the
deviation of the accuracy of that particular tool with respect to
727

accuracy of the fleet. A high-quality survey tool is a survey tool

which meets the theoretical borehole position uncertainty. The
quality of a survey tool is measured by the value of its quality
assurance and quality control parameters. A highly accurate
survey tool does not imply a high quality survey tool. On the
other hand a low accuracy survey tool may indeed be a high
quality survey tool.
• Check shot - This is a single-shot survey taken for comparison
with MWD data. It is most economical to take this survey at
the end of a bit run prior to pulling out of the hole. A check
shot should not be confused with a rotational shot (refer
below).
• Rotational shot - This is a collection of at least four surveys
taken at constant depth and at various toolface angles. It
permits correction for cross-axial magnetic interference and
toolface dependent misalignment of accelerometers and
magnetometers with SUCOP, as described in Topic 5.7.3. A
rotational shot should be made at the deepest survey station of
a multi-shot survey independent of whether reduced or full
length NMDCs are used.
The rotational shot should be omitted if hole
728

conditions or drill string integrity may be

endangered by the process. Throughout the
operation the pumps should not be used.
• In-run - Refers to measurements taken whilst the survey tool

is travelling from surface to the bottom of the survey interval
(note that surveys may be taken while the tool is stationary or
moving).
• Out-run - Refers to measurements taken whilst the survey tool
is travelling from the bottom of the survey interval to surface
(note that surveys may be taken while the tool is stationary or
moving).
1.5.3 Shell Group policy,

requirements and standards
1.5.3.1 SURVEY POLICY
The borehole survey policy for the Shell Group is to survey all wells
and to apply Shell survey standards in order to guarantee that the
survey accuracy requirements are met.
The objective of the survey policy is to ensure that cost effective, fit
729

for purpose surveys of acceptable accuracy and quality are obtained

in relation to the survey requirements specified.
Inclination-only tools are not regarded as survey tools but as

inclination indicator tools. They can at best only be used to obtain
provisional, intermediate inclination data in between or prior to full
surveys.
1.5.3.2 SURVEY ACCURACY REQUIREMENTS
There are a number of users of survey data who have different

accuracy requirements. These requirements are dictated by:
• Geological targets
• Collision avoidance
• Blow-Out Contingency (BOC)
• Local legislation.
Accuracy requirements can be divided into two groups: absolute and

relative. It is important to appreciate the differences between the
two.
An absolute requirement is a specification of the acceptable borehole

position uncertainty and of the acceptable deviation of the borehole
position from the planned wellpath. A relative requirement is a
730

specification of the acceptable borehole position uncertainty

irrespective of the wellpath. For example geological targets and
collision avoidance are absolute requirements, but BOC is a relative
requirement.
Figure 2.5.12 illustrates the differences between absolute and relative

accuracy requirements. In Figure 2.5.12A the geological target and
BOC requirements are specified and corresponding MWD accuracy
planned to meet the tighter tolerance of BOC. After drilling, the MWD
appears to be less accurate than planned, thereby satisfying neither
the BOC requirement nor the geological target requirement. To meet
both requirements a gyroscopic survey tool is run, as shown in Figure
2.5.12B. The gyroscopic survey confirms the inaccuracy of the MWD
survey. Although meeting the BOC requirement, the gyroscopic
survey shifts the centre of the well outside the geological target
requirement. The result is that the relative BOC requirement is met
but the (absolute) geological target is still missed despite the fact
that the BOC requirement in size is smaller than the geological target.
This shows that not only the size of a survey accuracy requirement is
of importance, but also whether it is an absolute or relative
requirement. To guarantee that absolute accuracy requirements are
met it is necessary to plan on survey data of acceptable quality level
731

(the survey company's "guaranteed" minimum standard) or

alternatively, to run an intermediate verification survey, if actual
survey data do not meet the quality level assumed in the
wellpath/survey planning. This latter option is illustrated in Figure
2.5.12C.
732

733

Figure 2.5.12: Absolute and relative accuracy requirements
• GEOLOGICAL TARGETS
The survey accuracy requirement for geological targets and

constraints should be defined by the OU for each well. Geological
targets should be specified by Petroleum Engineering and accepted
by the Well Engineer. The geological target should be negotiated to
be as large as possible to facilitate cost-effective directional drilling
and surveying procedures.
For drilling purposes a drilling target should be defined. The drilling

target is defined as the geological target minus the expected survey
uncertainties. Drilling targets should be specified by the Well
Engineer and should be included in the survey programme together
with the geological targets.
• COLLISION AVOIDANCE
The survey accuracy requirement for collision avoidance is defined by

the separation factor (SF). This separation factor is the ratio between
the 3D centre to centre well distance and this distance minus the
inter-boundary distance between the envelopes of the borehole
position uncertainty. For further details refer to Topic 5.4.3.
734

• BLOW-OUT CONTINGENCY REQUIREMENT
The combined survey accuracy requirement for BOC is 15 metres

maximum acceptable lateral borehole position uncertainty at the
optimum homing-in depth for any well entering a formation which
could blow-out.
The combined uncertainty should be split equally between the well

concerned and relief well (7·5 m and 7·5 m). However, a larger value
for the well concerned may be planned for if uncertainties in relief
well can be reduced by extensive surveying programmes.
This BOC requirement is derived from the proven performance of

homing-in tools. The proven performance is often much less than the
claimed performance.
1.5.3.3 SHELL GROUP SURVEY STANDARDS
The following are Shell Group survey standards and should be

applied by all OU's and are referred to in the survey policy defined
above:
• SURVEY ACTIVITY MODEL
Surveying is an activity in the drilling process and involves the
735

acquisition and flow of data in all stages. Data acquisition and

application is performed by different people at different times.
A Survey Activity Model (SAM) has been developed to guide OU's on

the activities, data-flow, deliverables and responsibilities associated
with surveying throughout the well life-cycle. The data flow process
described in SAM is intended to ensure the quality of the data by
presenting a clear view of the data flow, the activities to be
performed, the procedures to be followed and the responsibilities for
OU and Survey Company staff. The SAM is presented and described
in full in the BSM vol I and covers the following stages:
• Survey Planning - The planned wellpath and survey tool

selection is determined. An essential part of planning is the
feedback. A survey programme should only be issued if the
expected borehole position uncertainty is within the survey
accuracy requirements. If not, more accurate tools or other
deployment technique should be selected. More detail on
survey planning is given in Topic 5.4.
• Survey Execution - The input data of the survey programme
should be checked against the actual well parameters. Any
changes in the input data may degrade the quality of the
planned survey programme, or in the worst case, give the
736

wrong survey results, which may require a re-run. The values

of the quality assurance parameters should be checked against
the acceptance limits. Except for conventional magnetic single-
shots, operating the survey tool is normally performed by a
Survey Engineer. At the wellsite, quality control parameters for
those tools that produce them while surveying should be
checked. Preliminary survey data can be computed and anti-
collision checks performed using COMPASS (refer to Topic
5.3.3.3). Reporting of the preliminary survey data is the last
step in execution.
• Survey Processing - Most surveys need post-job processing.
Depending on survey tool run, processing is performed either
at the wellsite or the Survey Company office and may involve
re-reading film discs of conventional magnetic survey tools or
applying drift correction to inertial navigation system surveys.
After processing the survey data, post-calibration of the tool
should be performed. Determination of the quality level
(acceptable, good or excellent) is the last step in processing.
• Survey Evaluation - This comprises computing the borehole
position uncertainty and applying it to anti-collision monitoring.
Based on actual borehole position and/or the separation factor
between the wells concerned, a decision should be made
737

whether or not to adjust the initial wellpath plan to ensure that

the borehole position uncertainty for successive hole sections
stays within the defined survey accuracy requirements.
• Production of Definitive Surveys - The definitive survey is
normally the sequential combination of several surveys. A
definitive survey should be defined at each step in the drilling
and completion process of a well and also for all holes drilled
and plugged back, e.g. for fish or geological side-tracks. As a
well is being drilled, the definitive survey should be updated so
that the most accurate surveys are used at all times.
• Input into Database - The definitive survey data should be
entered into the definitive database only after appropriate
approval.
The critical success factors for successful surveying are implied from
experience with some common pitfalls. Special attention should be
paid to ensure that these are correct for your operations:
• Definitions of grid system, declination and grid convergence;

• Actual values of declination and grid convergence;
• Consistency of depth references used;
• Actual well status, i.e. casing sizes and depths, temperature
and pressure;
738

• Inclination range of conventional magnetic and gyroscopic

survey tools;
• Reading of conventional and gyroscopic discs or film.
Sometimes mirror images are used;
• Foresight (refer to Topic 5.8).
• RESPONSIBILITIES
The responsibilities for all parties, both internal and external, involved
in surveying are defined in the BSM vol I. It is essential that, in
addition to knowing their own role, each party appreciates the role
and responsibilities of others so that synergy may prevail through co-
operation.
• COMPUTER APPLICATIONS AND MODELS
The Shell Group is proud that its research and development activities
in the area of borehole surveying has kept it at the leading edge of
technology, including the development of computer applications to
model and process surveys. This is repeatedly demonstrated by the
application of SIEP expertise working with OU's to resolve demanding
problems.
Recent developments with computer applications have been
739

characterised by the following:
• Applications and the BSM have been developed as integrated

tools now utilising common techniques and language.
• There has been a move away from developing applications
solely in-house, towards developing applications in conjunction
with the service industry. The distribution and support for the
applications can then be performed by the partner software
company on a Shell-plus-agents only basis or full commercial
release.
• Applications have been developed to be tools for all engineers
to understand and use rather than expert-type tools.
• Applications provide improved accuracy and consistency as
they are a common set of tools used by all Well Engineers in
every OU.
The specific set of software used in borehole surveying that is

currently provided by SIEP, is introduced below (please check with
your OU focal point to determine the latest approved version).
The main application is available to all OU's under the SIEP Group
Common Software (GCS) project that OU's sponsor on a voluntary
basis. By sponsoring the GCS projects, OU's are entitled to use the
740

industry best commercial applications plus the "Shell specials" that

are maintained and supplied by the vendors.
"COMPASS"
The COMPuterised Analysis and Survey System (COMPASS) is the

Shell Group Common System computer application for borehole
surveying. It is the most significant application used in borehole
surveying and should be used for:
• Wellpath planning and plotting;

• Project-ahead calculations;
• Wellpath calculations;
• Borehole position uncertainty calculations (including back
calculation of Inertial Navigation data);
• Anti-collision monitoring;
• Data storage.
A commercial version (COMPASS) is available that computes survey

uncertainties on the basis of the Wolff and de Wardt systematic error
model. This error model has been extended to accommodate
uncertainty models for non-conventional tools such as solid state
magnetic tools and North-Seeking gyroscopic tools. This extension is
implemented in COMPASS Shell Enhanced (COMPASS-SE) which is
741

available to Shell-plus-agents only. COMPASS is a subset of

COMPASS-SE.
Both COMPASS and COMPASS-SE applications and User Guides are

available to all Shell OU's from Landmark Graphics and run stand-
alone or as part of the Wellplan for Windows suite of applications
(note with easy data availability to other WfW applications).
However, Shell OU's are recommended to implement COMPASS-SE in
preference to COMPASS particularly for advances in borehole
uncertainty calculations and anti-collision monitoring.
In both this document and in the BSM vol I, described functionality

which is only available in COMPASS-SE is identified as such. Where
functionality is stated to be in COMPASS, it should be considered to
be in both versions.
For wellpath calculations, the minimum curvature method to compute

borehole positions (North, East and True Vertical Depth) from
directions (inclination, azimuth and along-hole depth) is a Shell Group
Survey standard which is implemented in COMPASS.
"SUCOP"
SUrvey COrrection Program (SUCOP) is the SIEP developed
742

application that is recommended for azimuth correction for drill string

magnetic interference (refer to Topic 5.7.3.3). This application
provides a preferred alternative to running an adequate length of
non-magnetic drill collars (NMDC) to ensure that the survey tool can
be located in a position where interference from the magnetic
elements of the drill string is insignificant.
This application is maintained and distributed by SIEP and contains

the correction method that is also called SUCOP. The principle of the
correction method has been patented and licensed to all major
Survey Companies who provide this correction method as part of
their survey services. The licensees are able to provide data both in
raw form and corrected according to the SUCOP method (at no extra
charge).
The SIEP SUCOP application is the recommended program and

should be used to process final magnetic surveys where azimuth
correction is used.
SUCOP is a stand-alone application and does not data-share with

other applications. Copies are available to all OU's from SIEP,
together with User Guides.
743

"NMDCL"
In the event that SUCOP is not used for magnetic interference

correction, an adequate NMDC length should be used to negate
interference. The software application NMDC Length (NMDCL) is the
Shell Group Survey standard for computation of the required length
of NMDC and the optimum compass spacing for each location, see
Topic 5.7.3.2.
NMDCL is a simple spreadsheet application, copies of which are

available to all OU's from SIEP, together with User Guides.
"BGGM"
The British geological survey Global Geomagnetic Model (BGGM)

offered by the British Geological Survey (BGS) is the Shell Group
Survey standard for the computation of the Earth's magnetic field
data. The BGGM is a module implemented within COMPASS.
• SURVEY TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES
In this Topic an overview is given of tools, techniques and

frequencies of surveys that should be run/applied to ensure that data
of reliable accuracy and quality are obtained.
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Approved tools & techniques
Only survey tools and techniques that have been approved by SIEP
are to be used by Shell Group OU's. All survey tools and techniques
listed and described in the BSM vol I are approved by SIEP. The
approval of survey tools follows a detailed testing procedure.
Survey tools & techniques during drilling
In each hole section of all well types, magnetic surveys should be

taken during drilling.
Magnetic survey tools which are acceptable during drilling are:
• Conventional magnetic survey tools;

• Solid state magnetic survey tools.
Techniques which are acceptable during drilling are:
• Single and multi-shot surveying;

• Wireline steering;
• MWD.
The survey interval for magnetic surveys for isolated vertical wells
(inclination < 5°) is 100 m. The survey interval for magnetic surveys
745

for other wells is 10-30 m depending on directional drilling

requirements.
In addition to, or to replace the magnetic surveys, gyroscopic surveys

should be taken in the following cases:
• A single-shot at the bottom of the conductor;

• To check magnetic surveys while nudging away from adjacent
wells;
• To check magnetic surveys in case of collision risk;
• To reduce the position uncertainty over the open hole section if
required.
• To replace magnetic surveying when side-tracking out of
casing until clear of magnetic interference for the casing.
Survey intervals for these surveys depend on directional drilling

requirements.
Survey tools & techniques for verification surveys
An independent verification survey should be taken after a hole

section is drilled. The purpose of this survey is to verify previous
survey uncertainties of that hole section. In particular, systematic
uncertainties such as depth, misalignment and declination which
746

cannot be determined from a single survey can be determined from a

verification survey, see Topic 5.5.2.3. Verification surveys include
check-shots.
In addition, verification surveys should also be taken while drilling if

accuracy requirements are most likely not to be met, as discussed in
Topic 5.3.2. Verification surveys should be obtained by gyroscopic
(conventional, North-Seeking or Inertial Navigation) tools in
accordance with the definition of independent as given in Topic 5.2.7.
The survey data frequency for gyroscopic tool (conventional and

North-Seeking) is 25 m. This frequency is chosen to ensure that large
uncertainties introduced by interpolation and minimum curvature
calculations will not occur. For Inertial Navigation surveys the survey
data frequency is 10 m.
The requirements differ according to the well type and are defined
for both isolated vertical wells and 'others':
• Isolated vertical wells - For wells which are both isolated and
vertical (inclination < 5°), verification surveys may be omitted
where it is proven that the well will not penetrate a potential
blow-out zone in the next open hole section and provided:
747

Æ There are gyroscopic or solid state magnetic surveys in

the previous section (if applicable), and
Æ The open hole of that section is 'acceptable' or 'good' if
a conventional magnetic survey tool is used (see Topic
5.5.2.4 for definition of 'good').
• Other wells - For wells which are non-isolated or non-vertical, a

verification survey should be run. For the last hole section of
the well the gyroscopic verification survey may be replaced by
a solid state magnetic survey.
BOREHOLE SURVEYING MANUAL
The Borehole Surveying Manual is a Shell Group survey standard and

is now presented in two volumes: volume I (EP95-1000) and volume
II (EP95-1001). Although confidential, Volume I is intended for use
by Shell and Drilling and Service Contractor Staff. It should be made
available to the latter by OU's under secrecy agreements. BSM vol II
is an "expert" document intended for use by the Shell OU Survey
Focal Point and should be issued during 1998.
748

1.5.4 Well path planning and anti-

collision monitoring
The general outline of the activities involved in wellpath planning and
anti-collision monitoring (ACM) is shown below in Figure 2.5.13. It
can be seen that Planning and Execution both produce a survey. The
survey tool selection stage selects tool type, deployment technique,
environment conditions, tool quality level selection and the
appropriate survey interval. Survey tool selection is followed by
borehole position uncertainty calculations which are compared with
defined survey accuracy requirements such as geological targets or
blow-out contingency (refer to Topic 5.3.2.3). Based on the
uncertainties found, a decision can be made to modify the planned
wellpath, change the tool selection or to continue.
749

Figure 2.5.13: Schematic view of decision trees
When considering the collision risk, the borehole position uncertainty

results are used to compute separation factors. These separation
factors represent the distance between the wells and their
corresponding uncertainties. Separation factors are computed either
in a simplified but conservative way by the radius of uncertainty
approximation or with the full 3D proximity method (refer to Topic
5.4.3). On the basis of the separation factors, decisions can be made
to adjust the planned wellpath, to make changes in tool selection or
750

to continue.
1.5.4.1 WELL TRAJECTORY DESIGN
The notable elements of a well trajectory design are as follows:
• wellhead co-ordinates
• targets
• trajectory options
• WELLHEAD CO-ORDINATES
A planned wellpath starts at a specified surface location. The co-

ordinates of the wellhead location are typically given by the OU's
topographic department. These co-ordinates should be included in
the wellpath plan header, irrespective of the convention used in the
OU for calculating survey co-ordinates.
• TARGETS
A wellpath plan is normally generated by using targets. The prime

targets of a wellpath plan are the survey accuracy requirements, i.e.
drilling targets, blow-out contingency and local legislation (refer to
Topic 5.3.2). The extent and shape of a target should be specified.
751

Other targets, having no petrophysical/drilling significance, may be

introduced to facilitate the planning process. A well may have more
than one geological target. Such targets could be a sequence of
points in a reservoir to ensure a certain trajectory in that reservoir or
to appraise different objectives.
It should be ensured that the wellhead co-ordinates and the target

co-ordinates are given in the same co-ordinate system; i.e. with the
same origin, the same azimuth reference and the same depth
reference.
As geological targets can have a significant impact on the extent

and cost of surveying, they should be developed and agreed in co-
operation with the customer (Reservoir Engineering) in order to
eliminate waste incurred achieving unnecessarily small targets.
The survey co-ordinate calculation procedure can use the wellhead as

the origin or a common origin of a platform/location which will be
offset from the well.
• TRAJECTORY OPTIONS
In 2-dimensional (2D) wellpath planning the wellhead, wellpath and

target are in one plane; i.e. the azimuth of the well does not change
752

along the wellpath. The most common well profiles are J and S
shaped wells, but a planned wellpath could contain many build or
drop sections to meet well targets.
In 3-dimensional (3D) well design, the direction (azimuth) of the hole

changes during the course of the well. In setting up a 3D well
proposal, the Well Engineer can specify curved hole sections by
build/turn rates, parameters associated with a rotary assembly, or
dogleg rates and toolfaces, parameters associated with a steerable
assembly.
For further details and guidance on trajectory design, refer to Topic

4.4.3 of Section 2, Part 4.
The wellpath designer should be aware of the related restrictions that

may impact trajectory options - often a quick-look feasibility needs to
be performed in order to determine the limits of the design envelope:
• Maximum inclinations that can be achieved in unstable

formations (shales);
• Well operability, e.g. the maximum angle that should be
permitted in the specific regions of the well in order to ensure
the possibility of wireline operations.
• Equipment limitations such as maximum drill string torque. The
753

torque required to drill a wellpath is proportional to its

tortuosity, i.e. the number of changes in inclination and/or
azimuth.
At the end of this stage the wellpath plan consists of a sequence of

straight lines and curves, an example of which is given in Table 2.5.2.
In this example the well is vertical to 1000 (AHD), followed by a build
and turn section (3), hold and turn (4), tangent (5), build and turn
(6) and tangent (7).
For further processing, the wellpath plan needs to be interpolated to

generate a quasi-survey. This is the process of "filling in the gaps" in
Table 2.5.2 to generate a survey containing survey points at a
defined regular interval, e.g. every 10 m (AHD).
754

1.5.4.2 BOREHOLE POSITION UNCERTAINTY
The concept of the ellipsoid of borehole position uncertainty was

introduced in Topic 5.2.6 and illustrated in Figure 2.5.11. The effect
of combining all the uncertainties associated with each individual
measurement is an uncertainty at each specific survey station,
resulting in an uncertainty envelope around the calculated borehole
path. Typically, the uncertainty in the lateral direction is larger than
the uncertainties in both the upward direction and measured depth.
Consequently, the resulting uncertainty at a survey station has a
ellipsoidal shape, as shown in Figure 2.5.11. The uncertainty always
accumulates along the wellpath, and will be largest at the last survey
station.
755

In 1981 Wolff and de Wardt introduced a systematic tool error model

that modelled the uncertainties of available tools to calculate the
resulting borehole position uncertainties. This Shell approach has
become the industry standard. The Wolff and de Wardt (W&dW) tool
error model is limited in that it is unable to completely model recently
introduced survey tools such as North-Seeking gyroscopic tools and
solid state magnetic survey tools. Therefore the W&dW tool error
model has been further extended to produce the Shell Extended
Systematic Tool Error Model (SESTEM) which is capable of modelling
such tools and has been implemented in COMPASS-SE.
1.5.4.3 ANTI-COLLISION MONITORING
In this Topic, anti-collision monitoring (ACM) procedures as

performed by COMPASS-SE are described. These are required to
check the proximity of the wellpath plan or survey under
consideration, referred to as the "generic well", and the existing well,
referred to as the "check well". Checking against multiple wells is
merely a repetition of the basic ACM procedures.
• ACM RANGES
In this Topic ACM is discussed, specifically the relationship between
756

the generic well and the check well for the following scenarios:
• Well pairs from the same platform/template or location - In

this case, the platform position uncertainty is disregarded,
because the reference uncertainty is common to the co-
ordinates of both wells.
• Well pairs from different platforms/templates and locations -
This is referred to as Field Level ACM, and the uncertainty of
the individual platform/template centre positions should be
included.
• Field development wells and offset wells (such as exploration
or appraisal wells) - Offset wells are of particular importance
offshore. They are exploration or appraisal wells drilled usually
from a ship, jack-up or semi-sub, at an earlier date of the field.
Due to the 'floating' character of these rigs, the wellhead co-
ordinates are usually known to a lesser accuracy than those
from platform or template wells. These wells may also include
those drilled by competitors.
• COMPUTED QUANTITIES FOR ACM
For anti-collision monitoring purposes three quantities are calculated:
757

Distance to a check well
In anti-collision calculations the basic methods used for calculating

distance from a point on the generic well to the check well are (in
order of increasing computational difficulty):
• Horizontal distance (illustrated in Figure 2.5.14) - This is

defined as the distance between two wells in a horizontal
plane. Consequently, the closest points on the generic well and
the check well are at the same TVD. Problems with this
method arise when the check well is highly inclined.
758

Figure 2.5.14: Illustration of horizontal distance
• Travelling cylinder distance (illustrated in Figure 2.5.15) - This

is defined as the distance from the generic well survey station
to the intercept point of the cross-borehole plane and check
well. Problems with this method arise when the intercept angle
between the generic well and the check well is large.
759

Figure 2.5.15: Illustration of travelling cylinder distance
• 3D distance (illustrated in Figure 2.5.16) - This is defined as

the shortest distance between the generic well survey station
and the check well in any plane, and has neither of the
drawbacks mentioned with the previous two methods.
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Figure 2.5.16: Illustration of 3D distance
Although simpler, both the horizontal distance and travelling cylinder

distance methods have significant limitations that are described
above. For safety reasons, the 3D distance calculation is the
recommended method to be used within the Shell Group.
Minimum distance between uncertainty envelopes
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The minimum distance between uncertainty envelopes, also referred

to as inter-boundary (IB) separation, represents the minimum
distance the wells can possibly have, given their nominal well
positions and the uncertainties at each position.
In the simple radius of uncertainty approximation, the uncertainty at

a survey point is approximated by the radius of the circle, centred at
the nominal survey position, that fully encloses the ellipse (as
illustrated in Figure 2.5.17). Thus, the minimum distance is the
clearance between the circles, along the line representing the 3D
distance. Figure 2.5.18 shows the inter-boundary separation is for
both the radius of uncertainty approximation (Figure 2.5.18A) and for
the full 3D proximity evaluation (Figure 2.5.18B).
In the advanced 3D proximity analysis, the calculated ellipse is used

to model the uncertainty. Therefore, the shortest distance between
the envelopes will in general not be along the line of shortest
distance between the wells.
Because of the elliptical shape, the computational complexity of the

3D proximity method is significantly larger than of the radius of
uncertainty approximation. Therefore, it is only used in those cases
where the requirements on the Separation Factor cannot be met in
762

the radius of uncertainty approximation when applied as a first-pass

estimate.
Figure 2.5.17: Illustration of radius of uncertainty
763

Figure 2.5.18: Illustration of inter-boundary separation
Separation factor
The 3D distance method should always be used to calculate SF's. Do

not confuse 3D distance - which is a method of determining the
distance between wells using any uncertainty modelling - and 3D
proximity - which is the specific application of the 3D distance
method to elliptical uncertainty modelling.
The Separation Factor (SF) is given by the formula:
The SF between two wells will be:
• < 1.0 in the case of a potential collision, i.e. the uncertainty

764

envelopes are overlapping;

• = 1.0 when the uncertainty envelopes touch;
• > 1.0 when the wells have a positive inter-boundary
separation.
It is recommended to perform full 3D proximity analysis for SF<2.5
In order to improve the SF result, the selection of a higher quality

survey can be used, e.g. "Excellent" instead of the default
"Acceptable". However, this should only be applied in cases whereby
such better survey performance can indeed be guaranteed. In
general, this cannot be done for magnetic survey tools due to the
effect of declination uncertainty overruling tool uncertainties.
• ACM WHILE PLANNING
ACM is applied at the planning (design) stage for the generic well in
order to eliminate potential collision risks. However, at many crowded
locations, e.g. a North Sea platform, risk elimination is impossible. In
such cases, risk management must be applied.
The key issue in ACM while planning is to be thorough. At this stage

there is time to perform a check against all wells of the platform and
all relevant offset wells. If the generic well will extend to within the
765

range of wells from another platform then these should also be

included in the check.
While planning, it should be taken into account that a well section is

usually drilled with magnetic MWD, which tends to introduce a larger
uncertainty than a gyroscopic tool that may be run afterwards.
Therefore, it should be verified that sufficient clearance is maintained
between the generic well and the check wells at all stages of drilling.
Minimum acceptable SF's at the planning stage are defined locally by

the OU. The SF may be increased by the following:
• Performing 3D proximity analysis;

• Modifying the geometry of the planned wellpath;
• Changing the survey tools and their running intervals;
• Re-surveying the existing wells to reduce their uncertainty.
Typically, the accumulated uncertainty in upward direction is

significantly smaller than the uncertainty in lateral direction.
Therefore, the benefit from the 3D proximity analysis is largest if the
two wells are in a vertical plane with respect to each other. If two
wells are in lateral relative position, a wellpath plan shift up- or
downward may be very effective in increasing the SF. A typical
example is shifting the generic well to either the high- or low-side in
766

the collision risk interval.
The deliverable of ACM while planning is a well proposal that is

acceptable from the anti-collision point of view and a list of check
wells to which proximity should be monitored while drilling the
proposed well. This list should also indicate the relevant measured
depth intervals for monitoring each check well and should be made
available to the well constructor as part of the drilling programme.
• ACM WHILE DRILLING
During the drilling of the generic well, SF's are calculated in order to
prevent well collisions. While drilling, survey stations should be
recorded as they are received from the MWD. In case of deviations
from the programme, a project ahead plot should be made to check
the proximity to other wells in the interval to be drilled next. This will
indicate the range of play to get back on track. An example of a
project ahead plot is given in Figure 2.5.19.
767

Figure 2.5.19: Illustration of Project Ahead graphics
1.5.5 Survey programme, evaluation

and reporting
This Topic introduces some key issues concerning the Well Engineer
when preparing a survey programme and when evaluating and
reporting an actual survey. The evaluation of a survey is significant
as it is at this stage that a survey is accepted or rejected and, if
accepted, a quality level is assigned to it. The quality level
768

determines the scale of the uncertainty associated with that survey.
1.5.5.1 SURVEY PROGRAMME
A data set is needed in order to prepare the survey programme. The

minimum data set is defined in the BSM vol I and comprises general
well data and tool specific data. Different data is required for
gyroscopic surveys than for magnetic surveys and a clear distinction
is made. Additionally, a plot of the planned well path should
accompany the survey programme.
An example of wellhead data and co-ordinate references is given in

Figure 2.5.20.
769

770

Figure 2.5.20: Example of wellhead data and co-ordination references
It is important to give not only the wellhead co-ordinates but also

the co-ordinate and depth references. It is strongly recommended
that grid convergence, declination and their defini
With reference to the survey policy stated in Topic 5.3.1 and further
defined in Topic 5.3.3.4, examples of survey programmes are
presented in Table 2.5.3 for isolated and vertical wells and in Table
2.5.4 for non-isolated or deviated wells. These tables simply give
examples of tool type and frequency of surveys that should be taken
in wells to ensure that data of reliable quality and accuracy is
obtained.
Casing sizes and depths, pressures, temperatures and drilling fluid

properties should be checked with the actual well status prior to
running a survey tool.
771

772

773

1.5.5.2 SURVEY EVALUATION
The objective of survey evaluation is to determine whether a survey

is acceptable and, if so, determine the quality of a survey. This is
performed by comparing the actual measured borehole uncertainties
against the theoretical uncertainties of the survey tool.
As mentioned in the introduction, survey uncertainties can be divided

into tool, deployment technique and running environment
uncertainties. The magnitude of tool uncertainties can be derived
from quality assurance and quality control parameters. The
magnitude of deployment technique and, in particular, running
environment uncertainties can only be determined if more than one
survey is taken. For example, declination or gyroscopic tool foresight
are running environment uncertainties which cannot be determined
from a single survey but only if an additional independent survey is
taken.
In the following Subtopics, guidelines are given to determine the

quality of a survey. The quality level is stored with the survey in
COMPASS-SE.
• TOOL QUALITY ASSESSMENT
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Tool quality assessment consists of reporting and checking actual

values of quality check parameters with specified tolerances. Quality
data collection and reporting should be performed by the Survey
Engineer (except for conventional magnetic single-shot tools which
are run by the Drilling Contractor). All relevant data regarding quality
parameters is reported by the Survey Engineer and the actual values
of the quality parameters should be checked against the acceptable
values specified. Not all checks can be performed at the wellsite.
The BSM vol I gives details of the tool quality checks for the different
survey tools including the range limits for acceptable values. A
distinction is made between wellsite checks and office checks. If all
data is within the specified acceptable values, then the survey is
accepted. If only one is outside the specified values, then the survey
is rejected. In this case the Survey Focal Point should be contacted.
On the basis of the comparison between actual and acceptable values

the overall quality of the survey is determined. This quality level is
stored and used in COMPASS-SE.
• DEPLOYMENT & RUNNING ENVIRONMENT QUALITY

ASSESSMENT
The BSM vol I gives details of the quality parameters and their
775

acceptable values for various deployment techniques and running

environment. These values are used in COMPASS-SE to determine
the expected differences between gyroscopic and magnetic surveys.
The expected differences should be compared with the actual
differences observed. If the measured differences between surveys
are greater than the acceptable limits of combined uncertainties for
the surveys then a comparison between the surveys should be made
as explained in Topic 5.5.2.3.
• SURVEY DATA COMPARISON
Survey data comparison is the comparison between magnetic survey

data and gyroscopic survey data. The main objective of survey data
comparison is to see whether systematic uncertainties are present.
Systematic uncertainties have the following causes:
Depth difference
Depth differences arise from wireline depth uncertainties, tie-in depth

uncertainties and depth reference uncertainties. Wireline depth
uncertainties and depth corrections are discussed in Topic 5.9.2.2.
Figure 2.5.21A gives an example of a systematic depth difference.

This is a result of a possible depth reference uncertainty or incorrect
776

tie-in point. Wireline depth uncertainties are due to wireline stretch

and will therefore show the trend to increase linearly with depth,
which is not the case here. Systematic depth differences can be
observed by inclination and/or azimuth comparison.
777

778

Figure 2.5.21: Survey data differences
779

Azimuth difference
Azimuth differences arise from tool azimuth uncertainties, azimuth

uncertainties due to magnetic interference and azimuth reference
uncertainties. A constant systematic azimuth difference between a
magnetic and gyroscopic survey is due to an uncertainty in azimuth
reference such as declination or foresight as shown in Figure 2.5.21A.
Such a systematic difference independent of inclination cannot be

caused by incorrect magnetic interference correction, magnetic
interference reduction or gyroscopic tool drift as the effect of these
sources of uncertainty is inclination dependent, see Topics 5.7.3.2
and 5.7.3.3.
An example of an azimuth uncertainty proportional to inclination is

shown in Figure 2.5.21B where divergence between the surveys
increases with the inclination in the build-up section. In a tangent
section where inclination is constant the azimuth difference still can
vary if different BHAs are used hence different grades of magnetic
interference. This is schematically shown in Figure 2.5.21C. Figure
2.5.21D gives an example of the azimuth difference for a typical well.
Inclination difference
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Inclination differences arise from tool inclination uncertainties, tool

misalignments and BHA deflection. Tool inclination uncertainties and
tool misalignment are toolface dependent. These uncertainties can be
determined by in-run/out-run comparison by taking multiple surveys
at the same depth or along a tangent section, refer to Topic 5.9.2.2.
In a tangent section where inclination is constant the inclination
difference still can vary if different BHAs are used.
• SURVEY QUALITY LEVEL
Based on the survey evaluation elements introduced in Topics 5.2.1

and 5.2.2, a survey is accepted or rejected. Every accepted survey
should be given a quality level. The three levels are acceptable, good
and excellent. A survey which is accepted and for which all its tool
quality parameters (explained in Topic 5.5.2.1) are just within its
acceptable values, is an acceptable survey. If all tool quality
parameters are within 66% of their acceptable range then the survey
is a good survey. If one is within acceptable but not within good
quality level but all others are within good quality then the survey is
of acceptable quality level. In other words the overall quality is
determined by the quality of the poorest parameter. If all quality
control parameters and comparison are within 33% of the acceptable
781

values then the survey is an excellent survey.
1.5.5.3 SURVEY REPORTING
In addition to the individual survey station data (AHD, inclination and

azimuth), it is essential that associated data covering general survey
data, tool type data and deployment technique data, is recorded and
reported. The required associated data is defined in the BSM vol I.
The tool data reported depends on the type of survey tool run and a
distinction is made between magnetic and gyroscopic survey tools.
1.5.6 Inclination-only survey tools

Inclination-only survey tools provide values of borehole inclination
but not azimuth which remains unknown. Because of this, inclination-
only tools should only be used to indicate the inclination while drilling
and can at best be used to obtain provisional, intermediate inclination
data between, or prior to, full surveys.
There are two categories of inclination-only survey tools:
• Single-shot;
• Inclination-only MWD.
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The operating principles and running procedures for the single-shot

tool are presented below. The inclination-only MWD is rarely used
and is not dealt with in this document, but details can be found in the
BSM vol I.
Single-shot inclination-only survey tools are mechanical inclination

indicators, often called by the trade name, 'TOTCO', although they
are also made by other manufacturers. They are normally owned and
run by the drilling contractors. The instruments should be properly
maintained and calibrated regularly by their owners, at least every 25
shots.
1.5.6.1 OPERATING PRINCIPLES
All inclination-only tools are similar in design although manufactured

by different companies. They consist of two components:
• An angle unit;
• A timing device, which triggers the instrument after a pre-set
time.
There are two design options, varying by inclination range - see the
examples given in Figures 2.5.22 and 2.5.23 respectively:
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Figure 2.5.22: Sketch of mechanical inclination
• 0-90° instruments - A paper strip is wrapped around a circular

weighted wheel. The low-side weight orients the gimbal
mechanism so that the weighted wheel can rotate in the hole
direction and the paper strip is calibrated to read inclination.
The timing device, when triggered, pushes a needle on to the
chart to record a survey.
• Low angle instruments (typically 0 - 6° or 0 - 30°) - A paper
disc with concentric circles calibrated to show degrees of
inclination is pushed on to the plumb bob needle which
784

makes a perforation. In some units the disc is rotated through

180° after approximately 45 seconds and a second perforation
is made. The latter are known as 'double punch' or 'double
recorder' types. Both perforations should show the same
reading, as in Figure 2.5.23. If they do not agree, the survey is
invalid and the survey should be rejected and re-run.
Figure 2.5.23: Sketch of mechanical inclination-only instrument (BHI's

0-6° instrument)
785

1.5.6.2 PRE-SURVEY CHECKLIST AND RUNNING

PROCEDURES
Single-shot inclination-only survey tools are normally run by the

Drilling Contractor.
As an alternative to dropping the instrument and pulling, it can be

run into and pulled out of the drill string on slick-line. The tool can be
pumped down if drilling fluid viscosity/gels or well deviation are high.
For further general comments and details on deployment, refer to
Topic 5.9 - for a summary refer to Table 2.5.1.
Ensure that the inclination range of the paper is the same range as
for the angle unit and that the range is greater than the expected
inclination of the well.
1.5.6.3 UNCERTAINTIES OF SINGLE-SHOT

INCLINATION-ONLY SURVEY TOOLS
The two major uncertainty sources in the measurement of inclination-

only tools are instrument uncertainty and reading uncertainty which
can add up to give a combined uncertainty of up to ± 4º. Exact
values for specific inclination ranges are given in the BSM vol I.
786

Readings recorded at the maximum on a given scale should be

disregarded as the tool may have reached the limit of travel. The
measurement should be repeated with a larger angle-range unit to
exclude risk of out-of scale readings.
Since azimuth is not determined, the cross-borehole position

uncertainty of inclination-only tools is a circle with a radius R that is
the combination of both the measured inclination and the combined
uncertainty of the tool:
Where R = Radius of uncertainty (m/,000mAHD or ft/,000ft AHD)
AHD = Along hole depth (m or ft)
= Average inclination over the hole section (radians)
= Inclination uncertainty at (radians)
Note that this is a correction to the formula given in the BSM vol I
which contains an error.
787

As an example, consider a well that is nominally vertical but has a

measured average inclination of 3° at 1,000 m AHD with an
estimated inclination uncertainty of 1°. The combined position
uncertainty for the well at 1,000 m is 70 m and far exceeds the
uncertainty requirements for homing-in (refer to Topic 5.3.2.3). In
these circumstances drilling should not be continued into a
formation with the potential for a blow-out.
1.5.7 Magnetic surveying tools

The principle of all magnetic surveys is that the azimuth of the
borehole is determined from the Earth's magnetic field. To permit this
to happen, the tool is located inside a length of Non-Magnetic Drill
Collar (NMDC). The magnetic interference from normal steel drill
string components above and below the NMDC length should be
negated for all magnetic surveys. Methods of doing this vary by tool
category - see below.
Magnetic interference from adjacent wells or objects cannot be

negated and will produce erroneous azimuth readings. For accurate
magnetic surveys, the Earth's magnetic field must be stable during
788

the survey and appropriate values of magnetic field must be known.
1.5.7.1 THE EARTH'S MAGNETIC FIELD
The Earth can be considered to be a magnet surrounded by its

magnetic field as shown in Figure 2.5.24. By definition, the field
vector points into the Earth at the magnetic North pole (i.e. this pole
is negative) and out of the Earth at the magnetic South pole
(positive). Close to the Equator the field lines are parallel to the
Earth's surface and at the magnetic poles they are near vertical.
The Earth's core magnetic field varies slowly with time. Its spatial
and time dependency is modelled in the British Geological Survey
Global Geomagnetism Model (BGGM). This model is included in
COMPASS. Other constituents of the observed magnetic field, such as
local rock magnetisation (crustal anomalies), or short-term
disturbances with periods of seconds to days (e.g. magnetic storms)
are not modelled by the BGGM. If a magnetic survey is taken during
a significant magnetic disturbance this will lead directly to an
uncertainty in azimuth.
789

Figure 2.5.24: The Earth's magnetic field
There are several important parameters associated with the Earth's

magnetic field that are presented in Figure 2.5.24:
• Dip Angle - This is the angle between the Earth's magnetic

field lines and the horizontal. The dip angle ranges from -90°
at the South pole, through zero at the Equator to 90° at the
North pole.
• Magnetic Field Strength - The magnetic field strength of the
Earth is expressed in micro Tesla (mT) and varies from 30 mT
at the magnetic equator to 60 mT at the magnetic poles.
• Declination - This is the angle between the horizontal
790

component of the Earth's magnetic field lines and the lines of

longitude. Its value is needed to convert azimuth values
between the Magnetic North and True North reference systems
(for details refer to Topic 5.2.2.3)
1.5.7.2 CATEGORIES OF MAGNETIC SURVEY TOOLS
The many different designs of magnetic survey instruments are split

into two categories:
• Conventional magnetic survey tools (photo-mechanical) - A

compass card aligns itself to the local magnetic field and is
photographed. The only solution to the drill string interference
is to select an adequate length of NMDC such that the
interference from the steel drill string is reduced to an
acceptable level.
• Solid state magnetic tools - The magnetic field is measured
electronically and the azimuth calculated. A preferred
alternative to the "full" length of NMDC is to use a shorter
length of NMDC and correct the drill string magnetic
interference from the drill string using a computer application.
The recommended magnetic interference correction application
is SUrvey COrrection Program (SUCOP).
791

Both of these categories of tool can be used as either 'single-shot',

where only one reading is recorded, or 'multi-shot' tools, where more
than one reading is recorded. In addition, solid state instruments are
also utilised in wireline steering tools and MWD systems.
1.5.7.2.1 CONVENTIONAL MAGNETIC SURVEY TOOLS
Conventional magnetic survey tools consist of a mechanical

inclinometer (a pendulum) and a compass to determine azimuth.
They can be used as either magnetic single-shot (MSS) or magnetic
multi-shot (MMS) tools to provide values of borehole inclination and
magnetic azimuth. They are also known as film-type magnetic survey
tools. Conventional magnetic survey tools are cheap to run but less
accurate than magnetic solid state tools (refer to Table 2.5.1).
Traditionally, MSS tools are run by the Drilling Contractor and MMS
tools are run by a Survey Engineer. Conventional magnetic survey
tools should be run in a full length of NMDC.
Conventional magnetic surveys should not be used as definitive

surveys except for the case of isolated and vertical wells, i.e.
inclination <5° (refer to Topic 5.3.3.4).
• Principle of conventional magnetic survey tools
792

Conventional magnetic survey tools work according to common

principles and measure inclination, azimuth and toolface. Inclination
is measured with a pendulum as shown in Figure 2.5.26 (single-shot,
low angle tool). As the pendulum aligns itself along the gravity
vector, it will always sit on the low-side. The projection of the cross
hairs of the pendulum on the disc (in the cross-borehole plane) will
indicate low-side. The high-side direction is now determined by the
line through the cross hairs and the centre of the disc, see Figure
2.5.25A.
793

794

Figure 2.5.25: Measuring azimuth and toolface by conventional
795

magnetic survey tools
This high-side is actually the projection of high-side on the disc and

therefore it is called projected high-side. If the tool's azimuth
changes, the position of the pendulum will not change but the
position of the centre of the compass card will rotate around the
pendulum. This effect can be seen in the four graphs presented in
Figure 2.5.25A-D for a fourfold 90° horizontal rotation (i.e. 90°
azimuth increase).
This results in the projected high-side following tool rotations in the

horizontal plane. As the compass card is gimballed, its 0° line is
always aligned to magnetic North. This results in azimuth at the
survey point being the angle between the compass card and
projected high-side, as shown in Figure 2.5.25B.
Toolface is determined in the same way as the pointer fixed to the

tool housing will indicate tool rotation while high-side is invariant to
tool rotations. The angle between the toolface pointer and high-side
is the survey tool toolface (see Figure 2.5.25C and D), which can
then be used to determine the BHA or bent sub toolface.
• Single-shot tools
796

MSS tools are manufactured by different companies, but all designs

have similar components and consist of:
• Activation device (timer, motion sensor or monel sensor) which

activates the tool;
• Angle unit (magnetic compass and inclinometer) which
measures azimuth and inclination;
• Camera section (camera, photographic disc, lens and bulbs),
pre-focused and loaded with film;
• Battery pack to provide power for the timer and the camera.
All angle units are oil filled to dampen shock loads. However, the
instruments must be handled carefully as extreme shock loads will
damage the internals and so cause measurement uncertainties of
inclination and azimuth.
797

Figure 2.5.26: Sketch of magnetic single-shot tool
On some angle units the compass card is presented as a

mirror image. In such units the relative positions of high-
side and toolface are reversed. When reading the disc/film
use the instructions and magnifying reader specified for the
particular angle unit.
• Multi-shot tools
Film-type MMS tools, manufactured and run by different companies,

are also all similar in design. They differ from single-shot instruments
in that a cine camera and associated activation device is used instead
798

of a single-shot camera. A time control device enables the instrument

to record photographs of azimuth and inclination at pre-set times.
• Quality Assurance
For both MSS and MMS tools, it is essential that proper and regular
calibration is performed by the Survey Company.
An uncertainty will occur when the needle magnets are not exactly
aligned with the North as shown by the compass card. Regular
calibration and correct handling of the compass can maintain the
corresponding uncertainty to within ±0·5°.
Each kit box should contain two of each compass unit. The units in
each pair should be used alternately; this gives an additional check
on uncertainties. For MSS tools, a limit of 50 surveys per set ensures
that all compass units are checked prior to any one unit exceeding 25
surveys. All MSS kit boxes should therefore be returned to the
supplier for calibration checks after 50 surveys have been made with
the kit, upon completion of the well or when the field test stand
calibration is outside specifications, whichever occurs first.
• Pre-survey checklist and running procedures
MSS survey tools are normally run by the Drilling Contractor whereas
799

MMS tools are normally run by a Survey Engineer.
Ensure that the range of the angle unit exceeds the expected
inclination of the well.
MSS tools are deployed inside the drill string either by dropping the
tool or running on slick-line. MMS tools may be dropped into drill
string or (less commonly) run with a BHA. For MSS tools, the survey
is taken after a pre-set time and for MMS tools the survey is
subsequently taken whilst pulling out of hole at a controlled rate
stopping as required to take the surveys while the drill string is
stationary.
An MMS tool can also be run in open hole on slick-line, but if the hole
is washed out there will be difficulties obtaining good survey data.
Further general comments and details on tool deployment are given

in Topic 5.9 - for a summary refer to Table 2.5.1.
• Uncertainties of conventional magnetic tools
Any inclination and azimuth value read from a disc or film will have
an associated uncertainty which is the combination of tool, reading
and magnetic interference uncertainties. In addition, uncertainties
800

will be present due to the geomagnetic data and the deployment

technique used for the tool. These uncertainties are dealt with in
Topics 5.7.1 and 5.10.1.2 respectively. The specific tool, reading and
magnetic interference uncertainties are as follows:
• Inclination uncertainties - These are due to tool and reading

uncertainties. For various inclination ranges the tool inclination
uncertainties are typically ± 0·25° and reading uncertainties
are typically between ± 0·25° and ± 0·5°.
• Azimuth uncertainties - These are due to tool, reading and
magnetic interference uncertainties (refer to Topic 5.7.3). The
instrument and reading uncertainties across the inclination
range are typically as follows:
• Instrument uncertainties ± 0·50°;
• Reading uncertainties ± 0·50°;
• Magnetic interference uncertainties of ± 0·25° (provided that
NMDCL selection charts are used with clean NMDC's, the
correct sensor spacing is applied and an acceptable azimuth
uncertainty of 0·25° is used.
1.5.7.2.2 SOLID STATE MAGNETIC SURVEY TOOLS
Solid state magnetic survey tools measure Earth's gravity and
801

magnetic field by using sets of three orthogonal (i.e. mutually

perpendicular) solid state accelerometers and magnetometers,
respectively. Solid state magnetic survey tools can be put to use as
single-shot tools (ESS), multi-shot tools (EMS), wireline steering tools
or Measurement While Drilling (MWD) tools. In this Topic ESS and
EMS tools are discussed. The specific deployment of solid state
magnetic survey tools for surveying while drilling (wireline steering
and MWD) is discussed in Topics 5.9.3 and 5.9.4 respectively.
The survey data is stored in a solid state electronic memory. The

downhole probe is battery-powered and self-contained. A surface
computer is used to initially set up and configure the tool prior to the
survey and also to recover and process the data after the survey.
Solid state magnetic survey tools are more accurate than

conventional magnetic survey tools. ESS and EMS surveys can be
used to confirm MWD surveys and for definitive surveys (refer to
Topic 5.3.3.4). They are run by Survey Engineers and can be used in
a full NMDC length or in combination with SUCOP (refer to Topic
5.7.3.3).
• Principle of solid state magnetic survey tools
In contrast to conventional magnetic survey tools, solid state
802

magnetic survey tools do not measure azimuth using a gimballed

compass card, but derive azimuth from the horizontal components of
the Earth's magnetic field measured with a set of three orthogonal
magnetometers - as shown in Figure 2.5.27. Knowing that the
horizontal component of the Earth's magnetic field is directed to
magnetic North, the ratio of the horizontal magnetic field
components measured is equal to the tangent of the azimuth. This
eliminates a gimballed system and allows magnetic interference
corrections to be applied on the raw measured data.
Inclination and toolface are derived from accelerometer readings. If

required, a magnetic toolface can be obtained from the horizontal
magnetic field components.
Figure 2.5.27: Determining azimuth with solid state magnetic survey

tools
803

• Solid state magnetic survey tool specifications
The details of the physical specifications for approved solid state

magnetic survey tools, including dimensions and
temperature/pressure ratings, are presented in the BSM vol I.
• Quality Assurance
To assure the quality of solid state magnetic survey tools for all
modes of application, the following issues should be given due
attention in addition to the appropriate running procedures:
• Calibration - A full calibration of a solid state magnetic

instrument is performed by either the Survey Company or the
sensor manufacturer. Additionally, before and after each job, a
calibration check is performed by the Survey Company.
Sometimes rig calibration checks are performed but do not
replace a proper calibration check. The calibration check
consists of measuring the Earth's magnetic field strength, dip
angle and gravity field strength, and comparing the results
against known local values. The maximum allowable
differences are:
• Magnetic field strength ± 0·175 mT;
• Dip angle ± 0·3°;
804

• Gravity field strength ± 0·003 g.
The calibration data should accompany the tool on arrival and

should be checked. A tool should be rejected and should be re-
calibrated if the check parameters exceed the quoted maximum
allowable differences or spread.
It should be noted that if local values are unknown then the

maximum allowable spread between measurements is twice the
maximum allowable difference.
• Magnetic interference - ESS and EMS can either be run in a full

length of NMDC or in a reduced length of NMDC in combination
with a magnetic correction technique such as SUCOP (refer to
Topic 5.7.3.3)
• Pre-survey checklist and running procedures
Solid state magnetic survey tools are normally run by a Survey

Engineer. It is recommended to run EMS tools in tandem.
In addition to the data required for conventional magnetic tools, the

magnetic field data (magnetic field strength, dip angle and
declination) is required as input for SUCOP.
805

The tools are deployed inside the drill string either by dropping or
running on slick-line (ESS only). For ESS tools the survey is taken
after a pre-set time and for EMS tools the survey is subsequently
taken whilst pulling out of hole at a controlled rate stopping as
required to take the surveys while the drill string is stationary.
The tools should be made up with the correct running gear to

ensure proper land-off and centralisation in the NMDC. Non-
magnetic centralisers are preferred to rubber fingers, which may
collapse at inclinations over 15°.

• Quality Control
Quality control of solid state magnetic survey tools is mainly

governed by SUCOP. Additional quality control checks which are not
dealt with in SUCOP and which should be verified by the Shell Well
Engineer at the wellsite are:
• Check that the selected shots are assigned the correct depth
from the time/depth record and measurements of the probe
position.
806

• If tandem probes have been run, compare the inclinations and

azimuths between the stacks. The azimuth differences should
be less than 1° for inclinations greater than 10°. If no severe
BHA deflection is present (refer to Topic 5.10.1.2), the
inclination differences should be less than 0.25°. Where
differences exceed these tolerances, one of the data sets
should be rejected.
• Select the definitive survey from either the top or bottom
probe.
• Uncertainties of solid state tools
The uncertainties associated with solid state tools are divided into the
following categories:
• Tool (sensor) uncertainties - These are due to accelerometer

and magnetometer imperfections: scale factor, bias and
misalignment. Excessive sensor uncertainties are eliminated by
proper calibration and calibration checks.
• Geomagnetic data uncertainties - These are input data
uncertainties for local magnetic field strength, dip angle and
declination. Local magnetic field strength uncertainty and dip
angle uncertainty only cause an azimuth uncertainty if raw
807

data is processed by an azimuth correction technique such as

SUCOP.
• Deployment technique uncertainties - These are mainly BHA
deflection uncertainties. They may cause significant TVD
uncertainties in highly inclined wells and may be corrected for
as indicated in Topic 5.10.1.2.
1.5.7.3 MAGNETIC INTERFERENCE
To allow a magnetic survey instrument to measure the Earth's

magnetic field without magnetic interference from the normal steel
drill string components, it should be located inside a length of Non-
Magnetic Drill Collar (NMDC) within the BHA.
Steel drill pipes and drill collars may become magnetised along their
length. An axial magnetic field is thus produced with poles at the
ends of the magnetised object. If an NMDC section is included within
the BHA, the parts of the drill string above and below the NMDC are
magnetically separate and will have their own poles (see Figure
2.5.28).
808

Figure 2.5.28: Magnetic field lines around NMDC due to magnetised

drill string
809

Figure 2.5.29: Orientation of drill string magnetic poles
The magnitude and relative position of the positive and negative

poles is dependent upon the history of the drill string and the
orientation of the drill string with respect to the Earth's magnetic
field. In Figure 2.5.29 the effect of drill string orientation on pole
positions is illustrated. The corresponding magnetic field will cause
azimuth errors in magnetic survey results. There are two possible
solutions to drill string magnetisation effects on surveys:
• Magnetic interference reduction - Use sufficient length of

NMDC to reduce the azimuth errors to an acceptable level -
this is referred to as a "full" length;
• Magnetic interference correction - Where applicable, use a
shorter length of NMDC combined with magnetic azimuth
correction techniques.
The second option is preferable, where possible, for the following

reasons:
• The distance between bit and sensors becomes unacceptably

long, making directional drilling control more difficult;
• NMDC are weaker than steel drill collars;
• The use and potential loss of NMDC is significantly more
810

expensive than steel DC's;

• Use of SUCOP facilitates advanced quality control on survey
data.
Non-magnetic drill string components, however, may also introduce

additional magnetic fields as explained in the following Topics.
It should be noted that magnetic field readings taken close to a

casing shoe will be disturbed by the magnetic field of the casing
which cannot be corrected by SUCOP. It is recommended to take
the first magnetic survey measurement 15 m below a previous
casing shoe.
1.5.7.3.1 DRILL STRING COMPONENTS
Even when running a full length of NMDC's in a BHA, magnetic

interference can be introduced from the following sources. Practices
to limit their significance are included:
• Magnetic field of NMDC
The non-magnetic components of the drill string may become

magnetic due to manufacturing deficiencies, mechanical damage or
embedded magnetic particles. These imperfections are called
811

hotspots and also give rise to azimuth uncertainties on magnetic

surveys. These hotspots can be reduced by regular inspection of the
NMDC's used.
All NMDC's and non-magnetic stabilisers should be tested for

magnetic hot-spots prior to being accepted for use when new. In
addition to regular mechanical inspection they should be tested to
ensure magnetic requirements:
• After a thread is re-cut;

• After suspected (or actual) mechanical damage;
• After prolonged jarring;
• After unexplained magnetic survey uncertainties.
• Magnetic field of connections
Connections of NMDC's and stabilisers tend to exhibit a magnetic

field. Due to this, it is recommended not to locate the survey tool
sensor closer than 1 m (3 ft) from a connection in the NMDCs.
• Magnetic field of stabilisers
Non-magnetic stabilisers whose bodies are wholly made of a non-

magnetic alloy with hard facing elements (normally tungsten carbide)
in the blade surface, exhibit a magnetic field. These stabilisers can be
812

used in the non-magnetic section of the BHA, but magnetic survey

tools should not be located inside the stabiliser.
Non-magnetic stabilisers made up of a normal steel blade section

mounted on a non-magnetic mandrel should not be used as part of
a non-magnetic length.
1.5.7.3.2 MAGNETIC INTERFERENCE REDUCTION
Magnetic interference is reduced by increasing the length of NMDCs

in the BHA. The length of NMDC needed to reduce drill string
magnetic interference, and hence the azimuth uncertainty, to an
acceptable value, can be calculated by the computer application
NMDCL.
NMDCL produces selection charts from which the required length of

NMDCs can be derived. An example of a selection chart is given in
Figure 2.5.30. These NMDC length selection charts are constructed
for specific locations, bottom hole assemblies and an acceptable
azimuth uncertainty. The recommended azimuth uncertainty is 0.25°.
In addition, these charts are only valid if the survey tool is spaced at
the optimum position where the error field has a minimum. Table
2.5.5 presents the optimum spacing required for several types of
813

BHA.
For details on application availability refer to Topic 5.3.3.3.
Figure 2.5.30: Example of NMDC length selection chart
814

1.5.7.3.3 MAGNETIC INTERFERENCE CORRECTION
Magnetic interference from the drill string is corrected by using the

computer application SUCOP to apply correction techniques to the
raw measured data. These correction techniques cannot correct for
magnetic interference from non-drill string components such as
nearby casings or magnetic formation anomalies, but permit the
required length of NMDC to be reduced (compared with the lengths
required as per Topic 5.7.3.2).
815

Magnetic interference correction can only be applied when solid state

tools are used as the individual components of the Earth's magnetic
and gravity field strength are measured using separate
magnetometers and accelerometers.
Due to limitations in the correction techniques, magnetic interference

correction should not be applied to wells that are both of high
inclination (>70°) and in the East/West direction ± 20° (i.e. the
azimuth intervals 70-110° and 250-290°). In these instances the full
recommended length of NMDC should be used. However, SUCOP
may still be used as a quality check on the magnetic survey.
For details on application availability refer to Topic 5.3.3.3.
• SUCOP functionality
The SUCOP method corrects the inclination and azimuth values for
cross-axial and axial magnetic interference of the drill string
(including magnetic hot-spots in NMDCs), bias uncertainties of the
accelerometers and magnetometers of the survey tool and toolface
dependent misalignment. Surveys taken during magnetically unstable
periods, e.g. magnetic storms, are still unreliable.
Magnetic interference correction as implemented in SUCOP consists
816

of three basic elements:
• Axial correction (along the borehole axis) - This is the most

significant correction. This correction requires accurate
knowledge of the local Earth's magnetic field. Axial correction
can be applied at each individual survey station.
• Cross-axial correction (in the cross-borehole plane) - This
compensates for imperfections of the cross-axial measuring
system. The corrections are computed from a 'rotational shot',
which has at least four surveys taken at constant depth and at
various toolface angles. Acceptance criteria for rotational shots
are given in the BSM vol I. Experience shows that six surveys
taken at random toolface angles provide sufficient input data
for calculation of the cross-axial corrections. When an MWD is
being used, it is recommended that at least one rotational shot
for each BHA run is taken. The rotational shot should be taken
in a magnetically undisturbed part of the well, i.e. at least 30
m away from the last casing shoe.
• Quality control (accept/reject survey stations) - This is one of
the key elements of SUCOP as it accepts and rejects survey
stations on the basis of comparing corrected magnetic and
gravity field data with the local expected values. Corrected
817

magnetic and gravity field data is computed from the axial

and/or cross-axial corrected survey data. Survey stations are
accepted if the calculated values are within specified tolerances
(as defined locally by the OU or as given in the BSM vol I).
• SUCOP uncertainties
Uncertainties in local dip angle and total magnetic field strength

(refer to Topic 5.7.1) contribute significantly to uncertainties
associated with axially corrected azimuth values. The actual
magnitude of the uncertainties will depend on the tool attitude (i.e.
the well path) and the sensor calibration uncertainties. SIEP are able
to provide SUCOP azimuth uncertainty charts for a particular
geographical area or OU.
An example of this for the North Sea area is given in Figure 2.5.31 in
which the maximum total expected azimuth uncertainty is plotted as
a result of sensor calibration uncertainties along with uncertainties in
the Earth's magnetic field values, assuming that SUCOP is used to
process the raw data. Figure 2.5.31 illustrates the application limit of
SUCOP for azimuth and inclination combinations as given earlier in
this Topic, which is based on an upper limit of 1·5° azimuth error as
the cut-off for application of SUCOP.
818

Figure 2.5.31: Example of sensitivity of azimuth uncertainties for a

typical magnetic survey tool for the North Sea area (magnetic field
strength = 50±0·22µT, dip angle = 71·9±0·2°).
1.5.8 Gyroscopic surveying tools

Gyroscopic (gyro) tools provide an accurate means of surveying a
borehole in a way that is free from interference from drill string
and/or casing steel. As gyro tools tend to be more accurate than
(conventional) magnetic tools they are generally run after a casing
819

has been cemented as a verification survey that becomes (part of)

the definitive survey for a well.
Gyro tools are run on wireline (slick-line or electric-line) and along

hole depth measurements are taken from the wireline measuring
head. Gyro tools are delicate complicated instruments and are only
run by Survey Engineers. They should not be dropped or pumped
downhole.
There are three categories of gyro tools within which there are
several different design types. The following introduces the principles
of each tool category and presents their relative characteristics and
merits:
• Conventional gyroscopic tools

• North-seeking gyroscopic survey tools
• Inertial navigation systems
1.5.8.1 CONVENTIONAL GYROSCOPIC SURVEY

TOOLS
The term 'conventional' gyro is applied to film-type and surface read-

out gyroscopic survey tools where the tool references azimuth to a
foresight. Conventional gyro tools are used in casing to confirm
820

magnetic surveys and can be used for definitive surveys. However,

their accuracy and quality control is less than that of North-seeking
gyro tools and of solid state magnetic surveys (refer to Table 2.5.1).
1.5.8.1.1 PRINCIPLE OF CONVENTIONAL GYROSCOPIC TOOLS
The heart of a conventional gyro is the gyro wheel, which spins at

high speed about an axis. Due to the gimbals supporting it, a perfect
gyro wheel will maintain its orientation in inertial space for as long as
no external forces act on it to alter the direction of the spin axis. In
conventional gyro tools this principle is used to measure the change
in orientation of the tool when following the wellpath. Consequently
the conventional gyro requires the alignment of its initial orientation
to a known direction. This is called the foresight and is illustrated in
Figure 2.5.32.
821

Figure 2.5.32: Aligning the tool to the foresight
Conventional gyroscopic survey tools measure inclination, azimuth

and toolface. Inclination is measured with a pendulum to indicate the
projected high-side - see Figure 2.5.33A-D. The gyro pointer which is
attached to the gyro wheel will stay oriented to its initial position
(initial azimuth) due to the principle of gyros. This results in the
azimuth change being the angle between the gyro pointer and
projected high-side. In case the gyro pointer is initially not aligned
with True North, an initial azimuth is determined as the angle
between the gyro pointer and True North. Thus the azimuth at the
822

survey station is the sum of the azimuth change plus the initial
azimuth - see Figure 2.5.33D
Gyroscopic toolface is determined in a similar way as a pointer fixed

to the compass card will record tool rotation while the gyro pointer is
invariant to tool rotations. The angle between the toolface pointer
and gyro pointer is the gyroscopic toolface for the tool - see Figure
2.5.33D. When using the gyro tool to orient a drill string, this value is
corrected by the toolface offset (normally set to zero - refer to Topic
5.2.3) to give the gyroscopic toolface of the BHA or bent sub.
For wells with less than 5° inclination where the conventional toolface
(the angle between the bent sub scribe line and high side) which is
unreliable, this gyroscopic toolface can be used to orient the drill
string.
823

Figure 2.5.33: Determination of toolface and azimuth by conventional

gyroscopic survey tools
1.5.8.1.2 BASIC DESIGNS OF CONVENTIONAL GYROSCOPIC

TOOLS
In addition to the tool rotation along the wellpath, the spinning wheel
will sense the rotation of the Earth. This is defined along the spin axis
of the Earth and can be divided into a borehole component and a
cross-borehole component. To allow the spinning wheel to maintain
its original orientation, the tool will rotate about the outer gimbal to
compensate for the Earth's borehole rotation component. This is
824

called drift. Imperfections of the gyro may also cause the gyro wheel
to drift.
The tool will also rotate about the inner gimbal to compensate for the
rotation felt by the spinning wheel due to the cross-borehole
component. This is called tilt. There are two designs of conventional
gyro; Tilt Scale Gyros (TSGs) which accommodate tilt and Level Rotor
Gyros (LRGs) which convert tilt into drift as explained below.
• Tilt scale gyro tool
A schematic of a TSG is given in Figure 2.5.34. The orientation of the

gyroscope is shown by a compass card mounted on the outer gimbal
which yields an apparent azimuth. The semicircular tilt scales
attached to the inner gimbal can be observed through a hole or holes
in the compass card. The reading on the tilt scale indicates the tilt
angle between the inner and outer gimbal, known as the inter-gimbal
angle. By comparing this inter-gimbal angle and the actual inclination
measured with the inclination unit, the tilt angle of the spin axis can
be found. With these parameters of inclination, inter-gimbal and tilt
angle known, errors in the observed azimuth can be corrected for.
The orientation of the gyroscope and the inclination are both

recorded on photographic film. In the multi-shot version separate
825

cameras are used to record azimuth and inclination.
TSGs are more accurate at low inclinations than LRGs.
Figure 2.5.34: Essential elements of a tilt scale gyro tool
• Level rotor gyro tool
A schematic of a LRG is given in Figure 2.5.35 and is similar in

construction to the tilt scale gyro except that the tilt is maintained at
zero by means of a mercury or electrolytic level switch mounted on
the inner gimbal. This switch controls a torque motor which
826

rotates the outer gimbal, maintaining the spin axis horizontal

throughout the survey. This design therefore converts tilt into drift.
This extends the range of the gyro whereby maximum tilting of the
inner gimbal is reached.
In film-type LRGs, the angle unit is mounted directly on top of the

gyro and a single-film records both inclination and gyro azimuth
readings. Only LRGs can be run with surface read-out, in which case
the compass card is replaced by an electrical encoder and the
inclination unit is replaced by accelerometers. These produce a real
time surface display which provides downhole data of the tool.
When run in surface read-out mode, the LRG tools must be run on
electric-line.
827

Figure 2.5.35: Essential elements of a level rotor gyro tool
1.5.8.1.3 CORRECTIONS
When processing a gyro survey, the raw azimuth data of each survey
station should be corrected for drift, inter-gimbal and tilt errors
(TSG's only).
• Drift correction
Drift is the rotation of the outer gimbal due to the Earth's rotation
828

and the imperfections of the tool. Drift is expressed in (°/hr) and can
be in the order of 10 to 100 (°/hr). Drift correction is applied
differently depending whether the survey is a single- or multi-shot.
Drift is not linear with time.
• Gyro single-shot - The initial gyro azimuth recorded when the

gyro is aligned to the foresight is considered as zero. The final
azimuth is recorded when the gyro is realigned to the foresight
after the survey. The difference between the initial and final
azimuth is called the total observed drift. For a gyro single-
shot, drift correction is applied by estimating the drift at the
time the survey was taken. This method should be limited to a
depth of approximately 800 m (2500 ft). For deeper holes, a
surface read-out gyro single-shot or a gyro multi-shot should
be used.
• Gyro multi-shot - The drift in a gyro multi-shot survey is
intermittently sampled during the survey by stopping the tool
for a short time and recording the change in azimuth during
this period due to gyro drift. The calculated drift rates are used
to determine the drift correction at each survey station during
the relevant interval. Closure is the name given to the
difference between the total calculated drift and the total
829

observed drift (the in-run/out-run difference). The closure is a

quality control parameter and in the ideal case should be zero,
as discussed in Topic 5.8.1.4.
Drift checks are usually made for 5 minutes after each 15 minutes
for tilt scale gyros and after every 10 minutes for level rotor gyros,
which have a higher drift rate.
• Inter-gimbal correction
Azimuth observed by the compass card is the azimuth in the cross-

borehole plane. However, the true azimuth is defined in the
horizontal plane. The difference between the observed and true
azimuth depends on inclination. This difference is called the inter-
gimbal error. It is present at every survey station and drift check.
Consequently a correction is applied to the observed azimuth before
applying any other corrections.
• Tilt correction
For TSGs only, the Earth's rate of rotation and imperfections in the
gyro dynamics cause a tilt in the vertical direction which results in a
tilt error which is corrected in a similar way to drift error.
830

1.5.8.1.4 TYPES OF CONVENTIONAL GYROSCOPIC TOOLS
Both designs of conventional gyro tools can be operated as film-type

tools, but only LRGs can be run as surface read-out tools.
• Film-type gyro tools
The survey recording mechanism of film-type gyro tools is a camera

section which operates in exactly the same manner as those
described under conventional magnetic tools (refer to Topic 5.7.2.1).
Inclination is measured by a plumb bob-type angle unit which
attaches on top of the gyro unit. Various survey companies offer film-
type gyro tools and they may be used in either single and multi-shot
modes.
• Surface read-out type gyro tools
Surface read-out gyro (SRG) tools have been designed to replace film
reading gyro tools. Surface read-out gyros are run on electric-line.
Their output is fed to a surface computer and printer which
continuously give the provisional survey data. The provisional data is
corrected at the end of the survey when the drift curve is closed.
The specifications for the approved SRGs are given in the BSM vol I.
831

• Surface read-out versus film-type gyro tools
The advantages of surface read-out over film-type gyro tools are as

follows:
• Tool failure can be recognised immediately, hence reducing the

amount of lost survey (rig) time in case of failure.
• Survey time is less than for film reading gyro surveys;
• The need for survey film (and processing time) is eliminated;
• Data is collected electronically; hence reading uncertainties
and depth interpretation uncertainties are removed; instrument
uncertainties remain and can be quantified;
• Tool position co-ordinates are continuously available;
• All readings are directly printed out at the surface; hence
excessive variations in drift rates can be observed and remedial
action can be taken;
• Instrument temperature is displayed on the surface; hence the
risk of total loss of surveys due to excessive temperature is
eliminated;
In addition, where a magnetic steering tool cannot be used due to a

disturbed magnetic environment, a surface read-out gyro may be
used to orient the drill string.
832

There are only two disadvantages of SRGs, but these can be

significant:
• The survey can be lost if there is a power failure;

• Electric-line deployment is required rather than slick-line.
1.5.8.1.5 PRE-SURVEY CHECKS AND RUNNING PROCEDURES
Conventional gyro single-shot and multi-shot (GSS and GMS) surveys

are always run by a Survey Engineer. They are normally run in cased
hole but can also be run inside a drill string.

Before starting to drill a new well and before every new survey,
ensure that there is a foresight (directional reference) and that the
direction from the wellhead has been determined by the
Topographic Department. It should also be ensured that the Survey
Engineer is using the correct foresight as sometimes there are more
than one in use at the same location.
833

1.5.8.1.6 QUALITY CONTROL
Quality control for conventional gyro surveys by the Shell Well

Engineer is difficult as processing of the survey is heavily operator
dependent. It is recommended to have a second Survey Engineer
(office-based) to independently re-read and re-process the survey.
In addition, the following quality checks are recommended:
GSS tools:
• The observed drift should not exceed 5°.

• The closure rate should not exceed 2° per hour of survey;
• For inclinations over 10°, the azimuth in-run/out-run
comparison should not exceed 1°;
• The inclination in-run/out-run comparison should not exceed
0.25°.
If any one of the quality parameters is not met, the survey should be
rejected.
1.5.8.1.7 UNCERTAINTIES OF CONVENTIONAL GYROSCOPIC

TOOLS
The major sources of uncertainty of conventional gyro surveying are:
834

• Foresight azimuth uncertainties - Any uncertainty in the

foresight azimuth will cause a systematic azimuth uncertainty
throughout the survey. Foresight azimuths should be provided
to an accuracy of 0.05°. In case the foresight is missing or
removed, then a temporary foresight marker should be used
and re-surveyed as soon as possible.
• Reading uncertainties (only film-type gyro tools) - To reduce
reading uncertainties, an angle unit with a range suitable for
the borehole inclination over the interval being surveyed
should be used - possibly necessitating two tool runs. To
reduce human reading uncertainties, two Survey Engineers
should independently read each survey film.
• Uncertainties due to incorrect corrections, i.e. drift, tilt and
inter-gimbal correction.
• Deployment technique uncertainties - These are tool
misalignment and depth uncertainties and are discussed in
Topic 5.9.2.
1.5.8.2 NORTH-SEEKING GYROSCOPIC TOOLS
North-seeking gyro tools provide substantially more accurate survey

data than conventional gyro tools. A North-seeking gyro tool uses a
gyro to reference itself to True North, eliminating the need for a
835

foresight. The foresight reference uncertainty and reading

uncertainties (film-type only) are thereby replaced by an operator-
independent North-seek uncertainty.
This referencing to True North is called gyro-compassing. It is based

on the measurement of the horizontal component of the Earth
rotation vector, which becomes smaller for increasing latitudes.
Hence the application of these tools is limited to a maximum latitude
of 80 degrees North or South.
In addition to the gyro mechanism for measuring azimuth, all North-

seeking gyro tools have a set of accelerometers for measuring Earth's
gravity field, from which toolface and inclination are determined.
North-seeking gyro tools are run by Survey Engineers on electric-line

transmitting survey data to surface in real time. North-seeking gyro
surveys have a high level of quality control and accuracy in
comparison with conventional gyro surveys (refer to Table 2.5.1) and
can be used for definitive surveys. The specific North-seeking gyro
tools that are currently approved and available from Survey
Companies are listed in the BSM vol I.
1.5.8.2.1 MODES OF OPERATION
836

North-seeking gyro tools have two modes of operation and tools tend
to function in either one or the other. For definition of which
approved tools function in what mode, the reader is referred to the
BSM vol I:
• Gyrocompassing Mode
In this mode of operation the tool is held stationary and the azimuth
is calculated independently at each survey station by measuring the
component of the Earth's rate of rotation vector in horizontal plane.
This is shown in Figure 2.5.36. Knowing that the horizontal
component of the Earth's rate of rotation is about an axis directed to
True North, the ratio of the horizontal rotational field components
measured is equal to the tangent of the azimuth. All currently
available North-seeking gyro tools have the sensing axes in the cross-
borehole plane and so to allow determination of the measured
horizontal components, the cross-borehole measurements are
projected into the horizontal plane. This projection becomes
inaccurate above 70° inclination and so tools cannot survey
accurately in the gyrocompassing mode for hole inclinations above
70°.
837

Figure 2.5.36: Determining azimuth applying gyro compassing
1.5.8.2.2 PRE-SURVEY CHECKS AND RUNNING PROCEDURES
North-seeking gyro tools are always run by a Survey Engineer who

should verify system functionality by a pre-survey check list.

838

The Survey Engineer should be given approximately three hour's

notice before running in the hole to allow the tool to be warmed up.
1.5.8.2.3 QUALITY ASSURANCE AND QUALITY CONTROL
Quality assurance of North-seeking gyro tools comprises pre-job,

post-job office and wellsite or downhole calibration checks. The
Survey Engineer should check equipment at the wellsite, perform a
survey according to the running procedures, apply quality checks and
provide the final survey data.
The Shell Well Engineer's task is to perform quality control checks by

ensuring that the calibration parameters specified on the quality
sheet are within the acceptable values as explained in Topic 5.5.2.
The actual quality control parameter values should be checked
against the acceptable limits specified in the BSM vol I.
The actual surveys and limits should be specified by the Survey

Engineer on the survey quality sheet as a vital element of the
survey. Surveys should not be accepted without the corresponding
quality sheet.
1.5.8.2.4 UNCERTAINTIES OF NORTH-SEEKING GYRO TOOLS
839

Uncertainties of North-seeking gyro tools comprise:
• Tool uncertainties - In the gyrocompassing mode, tool

uncertainties are gyro mass unbalances, accelerometer and
gyro scale factor. These uncertainties have to be checked by
the Shell Well Engineer against acceptable values (refer to
Topic 5.8.2.3 and 5.5.2). The contribution of the various tool
uncertainty terms depends on the implementation of the gyro,
i.e. number and orientation of sensing axis. In the continuous
mode, tool uncertainties are gyro mass unbalances and gyro
bias both resulting in a gyro drift. Regular gyro drift checks
should be performed to monitor drift.
• Deployment technique uncertainties - These are toolface
dependent tool misalignment and depth uncertainties which
are discussed in Topic 5.9.2.
1.5.8.2.5 INDIVIDUAL TOOL SPECIFICATIONS
For specific summary data on all approved North-seeking gyro tools,

the reader is referred to the BSM vol I.
1.5.8.3 INERTIAL NAVIGATION SYSTEMS
Inertial Navigation Systems (INSs) provide the greatest available
840

accuracy in measuring the position of boreholes. Currently only two

INSs have been used, the Ferranti Inertial Navigational Directional
Surveyor (FINDS) and the Ring laser Inertial Guidance System
(RIGS).
An INS comprises a triad of orthogonal accelerometers and

gyroscopes respectively. The system is designed to directly measure
tool movement from its reference point. This is achieved by
measuring acceleration with the accelerometers and rotation with the
gyroscopes. Integration of the measured acceleration with respect to
time yields change in velocity, and a second integration gives
displacement (change in position). These 3-dimensional
displacements can be used to calculate inclination, azimuth and along
hole depth of the borehole. FINDS and RIGS can be used for
definitive surveys. Due to the limited available number of both FINDS
and RIGS, their use has been limited to the North Sea area.
FINDS is a stable platform system in which the accelerometers and

gyroscopes are mounted on a gimballed platform. The large diameter
limits its use to 133/8" casings and larger. FINDS is no longer
operational and has been replaced by RIGS (note that they are both
tools of Baker Hughes Inteq).
841

RIGS is a strapdown system, meaning that the accelerometers and

gyroscopes are strapped rigidly to the body of the tool and
consequently have 'mathematical gimbals'. RIGS uses the electric-line
depth and the tool calculated along hole depth to make a 'cable-
aided' drift correction for the tool as it is continuously surveying. The
tool can be run in casings/liners down to 7", however, the laser gyros
have an absolute maximum temperature limit of 100 °C, above which
they suffer irreversible damage.
PRE-SURVEY CHECKS AND RUNNING PROCEDURES
INS tools are always run by a Survey Engineer who should verify
system functionality by a pre-survey check list.
Ensure that the correct fishing equipment is available for the tools -
these are expensive and inconvenient items to land on top of your
cement plugs.
QUALITY CONTROL
For the RIGS tool, the acceptable limits for the three QC parameters
are quoted in the BSM vol I.
UNCERTAINTIES OF INERTIAL NAVIGATION SYSTEMS
842

For the FINDS tool, uncertainties are expressed in directional

uncertainties of 1 per 1000 in each direction.
The main uncertainties of RIGS are alignment heading uncertainty

and wireline depth uncertainty. Alignment heading uncertainty is
controlled by pre- and post-calibration checks and aligning the tool in
a preferred tool face orientation. Significant wireline depth
uncertainties may occur for high inclined wells. RIGS will detect any
significant wireline (>0·001 AHD/AHD) depth uncertainties and the
corresponding survey stations are flagged.
1.5.9 Survey tool deployment

techniques
This Topic discusses the various methods of deploying different
survey tools. The characteristics and relative advantages of each one
are presented. The options available for deployment and recovery per
tool category are summarised in Table 2.5.1.
Correct survey tool preparation and functionality should be verified

by completion of a pre-survey check list by the survey operator with
assistance from the Shell Well Engineer. General examples of these
843

are given by tool category in the BSM vol I, together with typical
running procedures.
Different instruments have varying running procedures. It should be

verified that the correct detailed running procedures are included
with each tool and that the relevant calibration check has been
performed with acceptable results.
• Drop-in surveying techniques

• Wireline surveying techniques
• Wireline steering techniques
• Measurement while drilling
1.5.9.1 DROP-IN SURVEYING TECHNIQUES
This is the technique of dropping the survey tool into the drill string
to locate on a landing plate appropriately positioned in the BHA close
to the bit. The landing plate ensures the correct positioning of the
survey tool with respect to the non-magnetic components of the
BHA. This method of deployment is used for inclination-only tools and
for magnetic survey tools in single- and multi-shot modes (with
appropriate shock absorbers).
Depth control is provided by the drill string tally. Single-shot surveys
844

are taken with the bit just off the bottom of the open-hole section
when triggered either after a pre-set time or by a monel or motion
sensor. Multi-shot surveys are taken across the section of interest
during stationary moments whilst pulling the drill string out of hole at
a controlled rate. Once the survey(s) have been taken, the survey
tool is retrieved either by pulling out of hole or by using slick-line (in
open hole or after pulling back to the casing shoe).
In high inclination holes, tools may be pumped down carefully. In

order to ensure that tools pass through any restrictions (e.g. jars
etc.), the drill string should be rotated slowly (less than 10 RPM)
while the instrument is dropping.
Single-shot surveys may alternatively be deployed using slick-line, in

which case the tool is run and recovered before drilling ahead or
pulling out of hole. However, as the survey tool is landed as if the
tool had been dropped, the deployment uncertainties are also as if
the tool had been dropped.
The use of slick-line introduces various alternatives to the default

method of dropping the tool and recovering by pulling the drill string
out of hole. These are as follows:
845

• Run the tool, take the survey and recover the tool on slick-line
with bit just above TD (single-shot only).
• Drop the tool, take the survey and recover the tool on slick-line
with bit in open hole.
• Drop the tool, take the survey and pull back to the previous
casing shoe to recover the tool on slick-line.
As a general rule of thumb allow 1 minute per 100 m (300 ft) when
running an single-shot tool on slick-line. For the first survey to be run
in a well an extra time safety margin should be used.
The advantages of running and/or recovering the survey tool on

slick-line are:
• If the next operation is to drill ahead, this can be done without

pulling back to the casing shoe or out of hole to recover the
survey tool.
• If the survey is a mis-run, this can quickly be identified and the
survey tool re-run before commencing to pull out of hole or
drill ahead. This would minimise rig-time required to re-survey.
The disadvantages of running and/or recovering the survey tool on

slick-line are:
846

• There is an increased probability of the drill string becoming

stuck if it remains at TD for longer with limited movement and
circulation.
• If the survey is good then more rig-time is required to take the
survey compared with simply dropping the tool and recovering
when pulling out of hole for a bit/BHA change.
To determine which option is preferred, the probability of a mis-run

should be assessed locally, to compare the extra rig-time in using
slick-line with the probable time saved.
Uncertainties of Drop-in Surveying
This deployment technique only applies to inclination-only and

magnetic tools. Uncertainties of individual tools are defined in the
specific Topics that describe them.
Specific deployment technique uncertainties are; toolface dependent

misalignment, drill pipe tally uncertainties and BHA deflection. For
solid-state magnetic tools, toolface dependent misalignment is
corrected for by SUCOP by use of a rotational shot. Drill pipe tally
uncertainties should be minimised by strapping the drill string at the
start of every hole section (as a minimum) and tend to be less
significant than other uncertainties being in the order of 0·00025
847

AHD/AHD. BHA deflection is discussed in Topic 5.10.1.2.
1.5.9.2 WIRELINE SURVEYING TECHNIQUES
This is the technique of running and recovering the survey tool from
surface on a spooled wireline unit. Most multi-shot survey tools take
surveys at discrete survey stations, with manual input of the depth.
When the tool is deployed on wireline, the depth measurement for a
survey station is recorded at the wireline unit.
Within this document, "wireline" is the generic term for the two types
of survey tool deployment unit used in surveying operations:
• Slick-line - This is a solid wire device that is used to run and

recover a self-contained tool that has its own power and data
recording facilities (disc, film or memory). When the survey
tool is located in the drill string, depth control and uncertainties
are as if the tool had been dropped (refer to Topic 5.9.1). In
cases where the survey tool is not landed, the depth control
and uncertainties are related to the wireline deployment (as
presented below).
• Electric-line - This is a braided cable device (either mono- or
multi-conductor) which is used to run survey tools that either
required surface power/control or provide surface read-
848

out. These devices tends to offer much greater depth accuracy

than slick-line units but are more expensive and complex to
rig-up.
In this Topic, the term "wireline" is used to discuss issues relevant to

both types of unit.
1.5.9.2.1 DEPTH MEASUREMENTS
Some of the various methods of measuring depth are as follows:
• Kerr wireline depth measurement systems - These are the

most common systems, two generic designs of which are the
continuous electronic counter system and the magnetic mark
system. Figure 2.5.37 shows a typical electric-line depth
measuring set-up for a continuous electronic counter system.
849

Figure 2.5.37: Typical wireline measurement system
• Continuous electronic counter system - (Electric-line and slick-

lines) - This consists of three parts: the depth counter and line
tension assembly, the measurement panel and the remote load
cell. A mechanical measuring wheel drives an electronic
encoder. The remote load cell is calibrated at the beginning of
each wireline job and measures the total load at the sheave.
The measurement panel receives the data from the load cell
and counter assembly. Depth correction calculations for
temperature and tension are calculated to give the final
corrected depth measurement. Typical accuracies will be
850

0·0005 AHD/AHD.
• Magnetic mark system - (Electric-line) - This involves
measuring the spool payout by recording the magnetic marks
and correcting for line stretch due to the measured tension. A
full system description is given in the BSM vol I. The quoted
accuracy of the system is 0·001 AHD/AHD. The magnetic mark
system is used as a back-up system for a continuous electronic
counter system.
• Casing collar locator (CCL) - (Electric-line) - A CCL detects the
collars of casing and drill pipe by detecting the magnetic field
that they generate. The advantage of a CCL is that the
resolution of the measurement is independent of wireline
depth. However, an accurate casing tally is required. It is
recommended to use a CCL where wireline depth inaccuracies
are expected to be large (high inclination, deep wells). Typical
overall accuracy is 0·0005 AHD/AHD.
For all wireline depth measuring systems, the out-run depth can be
checked by comparing the wireline depth when the survey tool is re-
zeroed (i.e. tool recovered back at surface) at the end of the survey.
1.5.9.2.2 UNCERTAINTIES OF WIRELINE SURVEYING
851

This deployment technique can be applied to solid-state magnetic

and all types of gyroscopic tools and the corresponding deployment
technique uncertainties can be differentiated into depth uncertainties
and tool misalignment.
• Wireline depth uncertainties
These depend on borehole inclination and running conditions. For

example, in highly inclined boreholes, wireline overrun may occur
during the in-run. During the out-run, high tensions (hence stretch)
in the wireline may be observed. Wireline depth uncertainties can be
divided into the following:
• Systematic depth uncertainty - A systematic depth uncertainty

is an error in the measuring device and cannot be detected
from in-run and out-run comparison. To identify a systematic
uncertainty a comparison between a wireline survey and a drill
pipe survey should be made.
• Systematic depth uncertainties can be best detected in hole
sections with significant inclination or azimuth changes (refer
to Topic 5.5.2.3).
• In-run / out-run uncertainty - This can be checked by
comparing the wireline lengths of in-run and out-run at
852

surface, known as the wireline closure. The wireline closure

should be less than 0.001 AHD/AHD (after correction for out-
run uncertainty at bottom, see below) for wireline units with
magnetic marker or continuous electronic counter systems and
0.002 AHD/AHD for other units. If the wireline depth closure is
significantly larger than the expected value, then a detailed
comparison between in-run and out-run should be made.
• Out-run depth uncertainty at bottom - For highly inclined wells
where high tensions occur while starting to pull the tool out of
hole, the tool may not move although wireline is pulled. The
starting depth of the out-run should be chosen when actual
tool movement is observed. The stretch effect can be as large
as several metres. Tool movement can be observed either by
using a downhole tension measurement in the cable head
(with surface read-out) or by the skill of the operator to detect
tool movement by the levelling-out of surface tension.
• Tool Misalignment
Tool misalignment comprises misalignment due to imperfections of

the running gear and misalignment due to deflection of the BHA.
Running gear imperfections are toolface dependent as changes in the
tool orientation will result in changes in the tool misalignment. BHA
853

deflection is toolface independent as the deflection is oriented with

gravity irrespective of tool orientation.
• Toolface dependent misalignment - This can be corrected by

applying the toolface offset centre correction where a
rotational shot of at least 6 surveys at different toolfaces is
required. By rotating the survey tool about its tool axis, the
inclination difference between the tool axis and the borehole
axis and hence the offset with respect to the borehole
centreline is measured. This principle is schematically shown in
Figure 2.5.38 and is similar to the cross-axial magnetic
interference correction of SUCOP. The acceptable value for
toolface dependent misalignment is 0·1°. After applying
toolface centre offset correction the misalignment may be
reduced to 0·03°.
• Toolface independent misalignment - The most significant
source of toolface independent toolface misalignment is BHA
deflection. BHA deflection is discussed in Topic 5.10.1.2.
854

Figure 2.5.38: Toolface offset centre correction
1.5.9.3 WIRELINE STEERING TECHNIQUES
Wireline steering developed from the requirement to orient the drill

string and to survey while kicking-off. Initially single-shot tools run on
slick-line were applied to meet this requirement. The major
disadvantage of this system was a lack of real-time readings at
surface which meant that every time the string was moved to try to
achieve the desired orientation, a new survey was required. Since
moving the string is not a precise business due to the effects of drag,
this could be rather frustrating (or a bit of a drag!). If the effects of
reactive torque were also to be accounted for, operations would
855

proceed rather slowly.
The next stage of development was the electric-line steering tool. In

this Topic only, the term "wireline" is adopted as being the commonly
used term to refer to this technique and should be considered to
refer to electric-line only.
The application of the wireline steering tool had the advantage of real
time readings from down hole, but the disadvantage of the wireline
and associated handling problems. To overcome the problems of
wireline, mud pulse Measurement While Drilling (MWD) systems were
developed (refer to Topic 5.9.4). Although technically wireline
steering tools are also MWD systems, the term MWD is commonly
used in the industry to mean systems with data transmission to
surface without the use of wireline. The disadvantage of the mud
pulse MWD systems is their relatively slow data rate. In a number of
applications, e.g. with deep kick-offs or high torque motors, the MWD
data rate is insufficient for obtaining a consistent orientation, and a
wireline steering system is used.
Both magnetic and gyroscopic survey tools can be used for wireline
steering. Gyro steering tools have the advantage of being free from
magnetic interference, but the disadvantage that they may not
856

remain in the drill string whilst drilling ahead. Therefore a gyro

steering tool may only be used to orient the drill string in single-shot
mode between periods of drilling. There is however one North-
seeking gyro tool which is an exception to this rule as it is more
robust and may remain in the drill string whilst drilling.
1.5.9.3.1 WIRELINE STEERING TOOLS
Wireline steering tools are positioned close to the mud motor and
measure the orientation of the bent sub and/or mud motor relative to
the high-side of the hole. Survey data is transmitted to the surface
via the electric-line. The tool constantly monitors the borehole
direction as it is drilled and enables rapid adjustments to be made to
keep the hole on course by orienting the BHA.
Wireline steering tools can only be used with a mud motor or turbine
in non-rotary mode, i.e. when the drill string is not being rotated. In
this respect they differ from Measurement While Drilling (MWD)
systems which do not have a wireline and can be used in rotary
drilling operations.
Wireline steering tools are applied when:
• Kicking-off;
857

• Side-tracking;
• Making correction runs.
Wireline steering tool surveys taken in kick-off assemblies are usually

sufficiently accurate for controlling and monitoring the kick-off
interval, but for an accurate definitive survey a magnetic or
gyroscopic survey should subsequently be taken through the kick-off
section.
1.5.9.3.2 PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION - TOOL CATEGORIES
Wireline steering systems are composed of a downhole probe,

wireline and surface equipment. The downhole probe can be a solid
state magnetic tool, a conventional gyro tool or a North-seeking gyro
tool. Magnetic tools are the most frequently used, but have an
application restriction due to magnetic interference from adjacent
casing, which does not exist for the gyroscopic tools (refer to Table
2.5.1).
An illustration of a typical solid state magnetic wireline steering tool

set up with circulating head is given in Figure 2.5.39 and one with a
side entry sub is given in Figure 2.5.40.
858

Figure 2.5.39: A typical solid state magnetic wireline steering tool set-
up with circulating head
859

Figure 2.5.40: Side entry sub rig-up
Issues of quality assurance and quality control are as per those

described in the Topics covering the individual tool category.
Uncertainties of wireline steering
860

Tool uncertainties for both solid state magnetic and North-seeking

gyro steering tools are as per those given in Topics 5.7.2.2 and
5.8.1.7 respectively. As the probe lands in the BHA, depth control is
provided by the drill string tally (as per Topic 5.9.1). Therefore
specific deployment technique uncertainties are BHA deflection, drill
pipe tally uncertainties (refer to Topic 5.9.1.1) and toolface
dependent misalignment.
1.5.9.3.3 STEERING THE MUD MOTOR
Wireline steering tools are used with a bent sub and mud motor (see
Figure 2.5.39). The scribe line on the bent sub and on the probe are
aligned by a mule shoe orienting sub (see Figure 2.5.41). From this
the toolface offset is determined and is normally set to zero by
rotating and locking the mule shoe sleeve.
861

Figure 2.5.41: Mule shoe orienting sub
Thus by ensuring the orientation of the survey tool, a magnetic or

gyroscopic steering tool can read the orientation of the scribe line as
described in Topic 5.2.3.
1.5.9.3.4 WIRELINE INSIDE DRILL PIPE
Wireline units are not commonly used in combination with drill pipe
when making hole. The resulting operations are increased in
complexity and can present potential safety hazards. However, when
wireline steering there is no choice but to use the two in
combination. There are three ways of getting the wireline inside the
862

drill string whilst being able to circulate. They involve the use of one
of the three following systems:
Circulating head
The basic system comprises a hydraulic pack-off and a swivel (as

shown in Figure 2.5.42) mounted on top of a working stand of drill
pipe which has been hung off the hook (as shown in Figure 2.5.39).
The top of the circulating head is provided with a sealing
arrangement (pack-off) through which the cable is fed into the drill
pipe. If another stand or single has to be added, the survey tool
probe has to be pulled out of hole to remove the wire from the drill
pipe. The kelly or topdrive cannot be connected when the system is
in use. This system is not used for rotary drilling.
863

Figure 2.5.42: Circulating head with hydraulic pack-off
To save rig time try to use a double or a triple drill pipe joint as a
working stand.
Side entry sub
Under normal circumstances with a circulating head, the probe will be

tripped in the hole at the beginning of the drilling operation and will
remain seated downhole until it is recovered on wireline after drilling
the working stand.
864

A side entry sub rig-up is illustrated in Figure 2.5.40. Side entry subs
are used to avoid pulling the steering tool when adding pipe.
Provided that a split kelly-bushing is employed, this system allows
you to use a kelly, but does not permit rotary drilling. Their use thus
saves rig time. With a side entry sub system, the cable is clamped on
to the outside of the drill pipe and enters the drill string via a side
entry sub which is provided with a sealing arrangement (stuffing
box).
The side entry sub system comprises a wireline side entry sub, a
hydraulic cell assembly, a split kelly bushing and associated wireline
equipment. There are several disadvantages associated with the use
of side entry subs:
• *Pressure control problems - These can occur when closing the

drill pipe BOP rams (because the cable lies outside the drill
pipe). Also annulus-drill pipe communication can occur if there
is stuffing box packing failure.
• Wireline damage - The side entry sub should be located inside
the casing otherwise the wireline will be damaged by the
casing shoe or open hole.
Safe operation of the side entry sub system requires careful co-
865

operation between the Driller and the wireline operator and an

intercom is vital. The wireline is liable to damage at the rotary table
and if severed will recoil, endangering personnel on the rig floor.
Adherence to the specific precautions given in the BSM vol I is
recommended.
Ensure that all personnel involved are aware of the limits and
abilities of each other's equipment.
866

Wireline wet connector and running

procedure
In slim-hole drilling, the small

clearances make the use of a side
entry sub for a wireline steering tool
difficult. In other applications, the
wireline on the outside of the drill
string is unacceptable from the well
control point of view.
To overcome this a rotating wet

connector can be used near to
surface. Figure 2.5.43 shows a typical
layout. The system uses a similar
rotating wet connector as used in
The disadvantage is that the wireline

requires cutting. Typical running Figure 2.5.43 : Steering tool
procedures are given in the BSM vol with wet connector
I. coiled tubing directional drilling operations. It allows the wireline

to be pulled for adding drill pipe and orienting, without pulling the
steering tool, and with the kelly or topdrive still in place.
867

Whenever pipe rotation is needed, or drill pipe has to be added, the

overshot can be pulled into the kelly or topdrive. When the overshot
is connected, the operation is similar to a conventional steering tool.
The disadvantage is that the wireline requires cutting. Typical

running procedures are given in the BSM vol I.
1.5.9.4 MEASUREMENT WHILE DRILLING
With the advances in steerable drilling BHAs, which allow a well to be

drilled close to a pre-defined profile with a minimum of trips to
change the BHA, a new set of survey requirements have evolved.
These requirements are to have sensors downhole, as close to the bit
as possible, which can transmit the azimuth, inclination and toolface
of the BHA in real time whilst drilling.
Hence, Measurement While Drilling (MWD) systems have been

developed which are used to monitor the orientation and direction of
the BHA and thus the open hole while drilling operations are in
progress. Figure 2.5.44 shows the main components of an MWD
system.
MWD surveys can be used both as orientation surveys for use with
steerable BHAs, or to replace magnetic single-shot and multi-shot
868

surveys taken when drilling a hole section. Such surveys are of

comparable accuracy to solid state magnetic surveys and can be used
as definitive surveys. MWD systems are run by a Survey Engineer.
The simplest MWD is a mechanical inclination-only mud pulse tool,

but most conventional MWD systems take surveys of inclination and
azimuth at discrete survey stations. More sophisticated systems have
the capability to contain extra sensors, for drill string mechanics (e.g.
downhole weight on bit, downhole torque, downhole shock,
downhole pressure and temperature) and/or petrophysical evaluation
(e.g. gamma ray, resistivity, density and porosity). This is now known
as Formation Evaluation While Drilling (FEWD).
Most systems transmit the data to surface using pressure pulses in

the drilling fluid inside the drill pipe. These pulses are detected at
surface by a pressure sensor on the stand-pipe and decoded by a
surface computer. There is one system available that uses low
frequency electromagnetic waves to transmit data rather than mud
pulses.
With geo-steering systems, where the well is steered relative to the

geological information instead of to a predetermined geometric well
path, the directional sensors are replaced by petrophysical logging
869

sensors.
Figure 2.5.44: Measurement while drilling (MWD) tool layout
870

1.5.9.4.1 CONVENTIONAL MWD TOOLS
A conventional MWD system consists of a downhole probe (survey

tool), data transmission system and a surface equipment package.
Directional data is measured by the downhole probe and sent by mud
pulse telemetry or electromagnetic waves to surface. At surface the
data is received and presented in a form usable to the driller.
Downhole probe
The downhole probe of an MWD system is identical to that of solid

state single and multi-shot magnetic tools. The probe is placed in a
non-magnetic collar, known as the MWD collar.
Data transmission
There are three primary means of transmitting data to the surface -

refer to Figure 2.5.45 for illustrations:
Mud pulse telemetry
Data is encoded into binary format and sent to surface by either

positive or negative pressure pulses generated in the drilling fluid
inside the drill string. At surface the pulses are detected by pressure
transducers on the stand-pipe and decoded by a surface computer.
871

In a positive pulse system, a poppet valve in the bore of the drill

collar is used to momentarily restrict the drilling fluid flow through
the collar. This creates a positive (increase) pressure pulse that can
be detected in the stand pipe at surface. In a negative pulse system
a valve vents a small volume of drilling fluid from the drill collar bore
into the annulus which has the effect of reducing the pressure drop
in the bit and BHA below the pulsar sub. This drop is seen at surface
as a negative (decreased) pressure pulse on the stand pipe.
Figure 2.5.45: Mud pulse telemetry systems
Continuous-wave telemetry
872

This is a form of positive pulse employing a rotating device to

generate a fixed frequency signal which sends binary information
encoded in phase shifts on a pressure wave to surface through the
mud column. The main advantage of this system over the positive
and negative system is the high pulse frequency reducing necessary
survey time.
Electromagnetic transmission
This system uses low frequency electromagnetic waves passing

through the formation. These are received by an antenna placed in
the ground adjacent to the wellsite. The system has a limited depth
range dependent on the resistivity of the formations: the lower the
resistivity, the shallower the useful depth range. At present this is
typically between 1000 and 2000 metres.
Surface equipment
Typical surface components of a mud pulse MWD system include

pressure transducers for signal detection, electronic signal decoding
equipment and various analogue and digital readouts/plotters.
Quality Assurance
Quality assurance of MWD tools is identical to that of solid state

873

single and multi-shot tools (as discussed in Topic 5.7.2.2). In addition

to this a function test should be performed prior to running the BHA
to bottom. Function test procedures will vary for the different MWD
tools and should be checked with the MWD contractor. An set of
typical procedures common to most systems is given in the BSM volI.
Pre-survey checklist and running procedures
Running procedures for the various MWD tools will differ and should
be checked with the MWD contractor. Different tools have varying
procedures for initiating the survey (e.g. by stopping the pumps).
Some tools can have the mode (e.g. survey or steering) changed by
communicating with the tool from surface, usually by cycling the mud
pumps.
Quality Control
As with solid state magnetic survey tools, quality control of MWD

surveys is mainly governed by SUCOP (refer to Topic 5.7.3.3).
A check shot should be taken to verify the MWD data. The azimuth
difference between the check shot and the MWD should be less than
1° for inclinations greater than 10°. The inclination difference should
be less than 0.25°. Where differences exceed these tolerances the
874

quality of the two data sets should be verified independently by the

use of SUCOP (refer to Topic 5.7.3.3).
Uncertainties of MWD surveying
Uncertainties of MWD tools are as per solid state magnetic survey

tools (refer to Topics 5.7.2.2 and 5.7.3.3). Specific deployment
technique uncertainties are BHA deflection, drill pipe tally
uncertainties (refer to Topic 5.9.1.1) and toolface dependent
misalignment.
1.5.9.4.2 GEO-STEERING
This technique has been primarily developed to accurately drill

horizontal wells and thin reservoirs where it is necessary to remain in
a particular area of a reservoir, e.g. away from an oil/water contact
and/or as close as possible to the top of the oil zone. Instead of
steering with directional sensors to a pre-determined well plan to
reach the target, the well is drilled and steered using data from
petrophysical logging information sensed by Formation Evaluation
While Drilling (FEWD) tools such as Gamma Ray, Resistivity and
Sonic.
The success of geo-steering depends on the availability of an
875

accurate reservoir model and log information to allow the location

within the reservoir to be determined from FEWD logs. From this, it
can sometimes be decided how to orient a steerable BHA to remain
in the required position in the reservoir.
The geo-steering technique often includes drilling a simple pilot hole

through the reservoir so that it can be logged and defined. This pilot
hole is then plugged back and the well re-drilled at the required
inclination using directional surveys and geo-steering techniques as
appropriate.
Most MWD companies have systems and sensors that can be used for
geo-steering. The essential element of a geo-steering system is a
steerable BHA with logging sensors as close to the bit as possible.
These sensors often include inclination measurements, but not
magnetic azimuth as it is not possible to have a sufficient length of
NMDC. However, accurate azimuth data is not always required as
geo-steering is mostly used where vertical depth hence inclination is
critical. The systems integrate directional drilling, drilling mechanics
and petrophysical data measured down hole, with relevant surface
measurements. This allows the Directional Driller, Driller and
Geologist to make real time decisions.
876

The key components of a typical geo-steering system are as follows -

see the illustration in Figure 2.5.46:
• Geo-steering tool - This consists of a steerable positive

displacement motor with an instrumented housing above the
bit. The near bit sensors measure formation resistivity, gamma
ray, bit speed and inclination. An electromagnetic telemetry
system transmits this data to the MWD system above the
motor, where it is converted to mud pulses and transmitted to
surface.
• CDR (Compensated Dual Resistivity) tool - This tool takes
spectral gamma ray and borehole compensated deep and
shallow resistivity measurements. The advantage of taking
these measurements while drilling is that true resistivity in thin
beds can be measured before drilling fluid filtrate invasion
occurs.
• RWOB (Receiver, Weight on Bit and Torque) tool - This is
placed beneath the MWD tool. It receives the electromagnetic
signals from the Geo-steering tool, then sends them to the
MWD tool for pulsed transmission to the surface. It also
measures downhole weight on bit, reactive torque, pressure
drop across the motor, geo-steering tool and bit and annulus
877

pressure.
• Power-Pulse tool - This measures toolface, inclination and
azimuth, as well as drilling shocks. During rotary drilling, the
tool takes continuous survey measurements and can be
controlled from surface by varying the drilling fluid flow rate.
This can be used to reprogram data transmission speed,
memory recording frequency and data frame type, which then
allows for the selection of data to be stored in downhole
memory or transmitted to surface.
• CDN (Compensated Density Neutron) tool - A CDN provides
real time apparent neutron porosity, formation bulk density
and photoelectric effect data to characterise formation porosity
and lithology while drilling.
878

Figure 2.5.46: Anadrill Schlumberger's IDEAL geo-steering system
1.5.10 Well design constraints

This Topic introduces some of the challenges presented during
879

specific drilling operations together with the solutions that have been
developed to overcome them. Further details on specific issues
should be sought from either the BSM vol I or your relevant Survey
Company.
1.5.10.1 HORIZONTAL WELL SURVEYING
High inclination wells (above 70°) create specific difficulties for

obtaining accurate surveys. Two main problems arise with high
inclination surveying:
• Running wireline survey tools to bottom;

• Vertical position uncertainty.
A further specific challenge is with dual horizontal wells where two

closely spaced parallel wells are drilled. In such cases, magnetic
interference from the casing of the first well while drilling the second
well will preclude the use of conventional magnetic surveying
techniques. Special parallel well surveying/tracking techniques have
been developed to overcome this problem.
1.5.10.1.1 RUNNING WIRELINE SURVEY TOOLS
This is a simple mechanical problem where the component of the

tool's weight acting along the borehole is insufficient to
880

overcome the resistance. For high inclination wells, traditional

solutions have been to:
• Ensure that the tool running gear is appropriate, with sinker

bars, roller or wheeled centralisers.
• Ensure that the casing has been cleaned out with a bit and
scraper run and the drilling fluid is in good condition.
• Displace the well to a lighter and less viscous fluid (e.g. sea
water, brine or completion fluid) prior to running the survey.
• Run drill pipe and gently pump the wireline tool down through
it.
• Run the tool on as part of a drill pipe conveyed logging system,
so the survey is made as the drill pipe is run into and pulled
out of the hole.
When running tools on wireline it can be difficult to detect if the tool

has stopped moving down the hole as this is not often clear from the
surface wireline tension. To help detect tool movement when using
electric-line, a downhole tension measurement in the cable head is
useful. Also a Casing Collar Locator (CCL) can be run (refer to Topic
5.9.2.1), but these often have a minimum and maximum speed
between which they need to be run to give a good response.
881

Recently introduced methods include 'stiff wireline'. Although special

semi-rigid electric-line is in prototype form it is not yet available
commercially. The most usual stiff wireline is coiled tubing with an
electric-line threaded through the bore. This has the advantage that
the tool can be pushed and pulled in a highly inclined or horizontal
well as well as being able to pump through the coiled tubing (see
also Topic 5.10.3). The disadvantage is the size and cost of a coiled
tubing unit. However, in some cases using the stiff wireline method
may be the only way to get a survey or log.
1.5.10.1.2 VERTICAL POSITION UNCERTAINTY
When surveying low inclination wells, the lateral position uncertainty

is generally more significant than the vertical position uncertainty.
However, for horizontal wells where the cross-borehole uncertainties
now contribute to the vertical position uncertainty, the latter
becomes more significant and may become greater than target
tolerances or even the reservoir thickness.
Vertical position uncertainty is made up of a combination of tool and

deployment technique uncertainties. Deployment technique
uncertainties make up the major part of the vertical depth
uncertainty and are composed of tool misalignment combined with
882

wireline depth uncertainty or BHA deflection and drill pipe stretch,

depending on whether the position of the tool is controlled by
wireline or drill string.
The effect of each component will depend on the specific well profile
and care should be taken to ensure that survey tools and deployment
techniques are selected to minimise these uncertainties. However, as
horizontal wells are often used where tight vertical control is
necessary, this still may not be accurate enough and geo-steering
may be required in combination with directional surveys to reduce
vertical uncertainty by using a geological marker or to control the
well trajectory by following a gas-oil contact (refer to Topic 5.9.4.2).
For MWD tools, a major source of vertical uncertainty comes from the
deflection of the drill string between stabilisers. Deflection may be of
the order of 0.3°. The exact magnitude of the deflection depends on
the BHA configuration. Where a well requires vertical control from the
MWD surveys, the effect of deflection, can be reduced or corrected
for by:
• Deflection calculation and correction - The deflection can be

calculated but depends heavily on the downhole condition, e.g.
actual hole diameter. Based on these calculations, a deflection
883

neutral point may be defined and the effect of deflection

minimised by locating the sensor at this point.
• Additional surveying - Running additional magnetic or
gyroscopic single or multi-shot, magnetic or gyroscopic wireline
steering survey tools may also reduce vertical depth
uncertainty, with the bottom station of the additional survey
being used as a tie-in point for the subsequent MWD surveys.
1.5.10.1.3 DUAL HORIZONTAL / MULTI-LATERAL WELLS
In some enhanced oil recovery techniques using steam flooding, two

parallel horizontal wells are drilled in close proximity, one higher than
the other. The upper well is used to inject steam, while the lower
well produces the heated oil and condensed steam. The success of
this recovery method requires a consistent separation between the
wells which cannot be obtained with standard borehole surveying
techniques.
Therefore two techniques have been developed to maintain the

separation while continuously drilling. These techniques can also be
used for drilling of multi-lateral wells where steel components of an
existing well may cause magnetic interference while drilling the next
well:
884

• The SIEP parallel well tracking technique - KSEPL (now SIEP)

developed a method for directional surveying of two parallel
wells. This field-proven technique is based on magnetostatic
homing-in technology. The casing joints of the horizontal
section of the first well are artificially magnetised prior to
running in the hole. This creates a unique magnetic field
pattern that is used as a reference for monitoring the
trajectory of the second well. This field pattern is detected with
conventional MWD tools so the second well can be drilled
relative to the first. This method has the advantages of using
standard MWD survey tools that can transmit raw sensor data,
needs no access to the first wellbore while drilling the second
well and does not require the use of homing-in tools.
• The Sperry-Sun and Vector Magnetics Inc. method - This uses
a Magnetic Guidance Tool (MGT) for twinning wells. The MGT
and associated software provide distance and directional
information between two wells. The MGT tool is an
electromagnetic field source, which when energised
superimposes a magnetic field of known strength and
orientation on the Earth's local magnetic field. The MGT tool is
then pumped on electric-line down the lower well to guide the
drilling of the upper well as the magnetic fields are detected by
885

an MWD tool.
1.5.10.2 SLIM-HOLE SURVEYING
Since the mid eighties there has been an interest in drilling wells with
smaller hole sizes. The SIEP definition of 'slim-hole' is drilling,
evaluation and completion technology which allows fully engineered
61/4" and smaller holes to be drilled and completed. These are
typically 41/8", 43/4" or 57/8" hole sizes, with the smaller holes taking a
31/2" liner.
There are a number of gyro survey tools and steering tools that have
an OD of 1·75" and are used inside conventional drill strings. These
are also directly applicable in slim-hole drilling. Specifications of all
approved tools are given in the BSM vol I. There is only one (North-
seeking) gyro tool that can be used as a wireline gyro steering tool
and in its more robust form it can remain downhole while drilling
When running wireline tools through boreholes that are close to the
tool diameter, the wireline speed is an important factor in being able
to run the tool to bottom due to the influence of the small annular
clearance. At low speeds in a deviated well, the tool drags along the
low-side of the hole and friction is fairly high. As the speed
886

increases, the fluid flow past the tool acts like a hydrodynamic
bearing and the tool floats clear of the hole wall and friction is
reduced to a minimum. As the tool speed further increases, the fluid
pressure drop along the tool length increases and becomes
predominant. At this point the drag increases rapidly with speed. In
any one of these three regimes, the tool will stop running in the hole
when the drag is greater than the downward force.
When running in through small diameter hole, it may be necessary to

try different wireline speeds to minimise drag and ensure that the
tool gets to bottom. On the out-run, the drag acts to increase the
wireline tension.
MWD systems are commonly available in sizes down to 43/4" OD for

drilling a 57/8" hole.
Often the speed of the out-run will be limited by the maximum

wireline tension. When there is open hole, however, care must be
taken not to swab the well in. This also applies with other forms of
logging. Such a scenario does not always immediately occur to
personnel who typically construct wells with more conventional hole
sizes (and can catch them unawares).
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1.5.10.3 COILED TUBING SURVEYING
An extension of slim-hole drilling has been into drilling with coiled

tubing, both for deepening and sidetracking existing wells, as well as
drilling new wells. Due to the small hole diameters (typically 33/4" or
37/8"), new survey tools have been developed to monitor the
directional drilling process.
The use of coiled tubing for directional drilling requires toolface

orientation to be measured and controlled. As coiled tubing cannot be
rotated, a steerable drilling assembly is used with an 'orienting tool'
on a coiled tubing drill string. This tool can orient the steerable BHA
relative to the coiled tubing on command. There are currently two
options, either MWD or wireline steering tools, to measure the motor
orientation (toolface).
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Figure 2.5.47: Typical coiled tubing with MWD layout
• MWD - There are a limited number of companies that can offer

small diameter MWD tools for use with coiled tubing. The tools
are usually in 31/2" diameter, 15 ft long NMDCs. A typical BHA
is shown in Figure 2.5.47. The MWD mud pulse telemetry
systems do not seem to suffer from excessive signal
attenuation when used with coiled tubing. The advantage of
889

MWD over steering tools is that there is no need for wireline,

however the data rate of the MWD is sometimes too slow for
successful orientation. The MWD is also more sensitive to
plugging problems by debris and LCM. The actual operation of
the MWD is similar to larger tools used in conventional hole
sizes as discussed in Topic 5.9.4.1.
• Steering Tools - The advantage of the steering tool over the
MWD system is that it is shorter in length and gives a higher
data rate which may be necessary for monitoring toolface
orientations. The disadvantage is the wireline and the
connections required. A typical BHA with a steering tool is
shown in Figure 2.5.48 and consists of a drilling assembly
connector which connects the drill string to the coiled tubing
and the steering tool to the wireline via a 'rotating wet
connector', as discussed in Topic 5.9.3.4. The orienting tool is
located below the drilling assembly connector and can rotate
the BHA relative to the coiled tubing and then lock the toolface
orientation. To take directional surveys and monitor the
toolface orientation, a steering tool probe is mounted in a
NMDC between the steerable mud motor and the orienting
tool. As the steering tool cannot be tripped, it is centralised
with special centralisers to absorb drilling shocks and
890

vibrations.
Figure 2.5.48: Coiled tubing steering tool lzyout
In the case of wireline steering tools, prior to shipping the coiled

tubing unit to the well site, either a standard mono- or multi-
conductor electric-line is threaded through the bore of the coiled
tubing. A special head allows the survey tool to be connected to the
electric-line and the coiled tubing, while also allowing circulation
through the coiled tubing. The rotating joint on the coiled tubing reel
891

is modified to enable electrical connection to be made to the logging

cable. Such a system is now a fairly standard procedure for coiled
tubing service companies, who may have coiled tubing permanently
threaded with cable ready to run.
1.5.10.4 UNDER-BALANCED DRILLING SURVEYING
The primary objective of under-balanced drilling is to reduce reservoir

impairment and to optimise early production. For this purpose,
drilling is performed applying a circulating hydrostatic head lower
than the reservoir pore pressure. Drilling fluids may be normal mud,
aerated mud or foam. In the case of under-balanced drilling with
normal mud, standard mud pulse telemetry can still be applied.
However, with aerated mud or foam, standard pulse telemetry as
used by conventional MWD tools is no longer possible. An alternative
surveying method for mud pulse telemetry is the electromagnetic
telemetry system (refer to Topic 5.9.4.1). This system transmits data
to surface when using any drilling fluid and can thus be used when
under-balanced drilling with drill pipe and coiled tubing. Other
methods of transmitting data to surface are to use wired coiled
tubing or a wet connector (refer to Topics 5.10.3 and 5.9.3.4
respectively).
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1.6 CASING DESIGN
1.6.1 General
The purpose of this document is to provide the reader with a
grounding in casing design according to the practices of the Shell
Group. It clearly explains the essential principles of casing design and
introduces some more advanced, but less commonly applied,
practices. To that end this document complements the SIEP Casing
Design Guide (EP 92-2000) which shall be considered to be the
definitive document on the subject, unless specific comment is made.
This document does not provide the reader with an excuse not to use
the Casing Design Guide (CDG) and the reader is encouraged to
develop his/her knowledge and interest in the subject and to refer to
893

the CDG for further explanation, clarification and references on any

topic.
Proficient management and/or execution of the casing design process

demands a thorough knowledge of the engineering principles
underlying the subject.
1.6.1.1 THE ROLE OF CASING DESIGN IN WELL

OPERATIONS
Casing design is the selection of a set of casing strings in order to

optimise total costs and ensure the technical integrity of the well
throughout the total life cycle (usually equal to the field life), i.e.
during:
• The well (re-)construction phase - drilling, completion and

workovers
• The well operation phase - production or injection.
Casing design is an integral part of the effort required to design,

build and operate quality wells, contributing maximum monetary
value over their entire life cycle, without compromising safety and
environmental standards
894

For the Shell Well Engineer, casing design is considered to be a

critical core competence. It is not necessarily a core activity. In
other words, even if you are not performing the casing design, you
will be responsible for its management and quality, and therefore this
justifies the need for you to know how to perform casing design.
The objective is to ensure that the casing design intent is not

exceeded by the predicted, and subsequent actual, operating
envelope. This is done by predicting the possible loads and conditions
within the well bore and then designing both open hole and cased-
hole sections with predicted load bearing capacities (resistances) that
meet those loads. The predicted loads include a variety of external
and internal pressures, thermal loads and loads related to the self-
weight of the casing. The resistances should account for time related
aspects such as wear, corrosion and fatigue, which influence the load
bearing capacity of the casing strings.
It is critical that the design intent is communicated to the well

constructors and operators so that they may know when the limit of
the design intent is being approached (i.e. before it is exceeded).
This is particularly important for any known limitations and
assumptions of the design, e.g. the assumed casing shoe strength
895

which may exceed that which is encountered.
Typically the Shell Group spends over $300 million on casing and
tubing which accounts for ±15% of the Group's Drilling Expenditure.
Hence even a small percentage improvement will lead to considerable
savings. It is believed that currently many wells are over-designed
(wasting money) or under-designed (potential failure incidents) to
the extent that both can even occur in the same well. By applying the
correct casing design practices it is suggested that 10% could easily
be saved (with a potential saving of 25%) and that many potential
incidents of well failure that currently are unrecognised (as the worst
case loads have not yet been experienced) can be avoided.
Many Shell OUs have established a casing design focal point to

collate relevant local expertise, develop it further where required and
address more complex issues. By working in a global network
coordinated by an SIEP focal point, leverage can be gained by
pooling expertise and sharing problems and learning.
1.6.1.2 SHELL PRACTICES & THE CASING DESIGN

GUIDE (EP 92-2000)
Conventional casing design practice is based on simple mechanical
896

engineering principles which are easy to both understand and apply.

Recently, more accurate techniques have been introduced that are
more complicated but build on the same basic principles
The Shell Group internal standards for casing design are all contained
or referenced in the SIEP document "Casing Design Guide" (EP 92-
2000 of December 1992). This document fully replaces its
predecessor "Casing Design Manual" (EP-50600 of May 1980).
As well as being thoroughly updated, the Casing Design Guide (CDG)

also introduced some changes to the previous practices. These
include:
• Clarity of the design process - roles, responsibilities, activities,

inputs and outputs;
• Less prescriptive guidance - requiring enhanced understanding
and ability of the designer;
• Less conservative design criteria - with changes to
recommended design load cases;
• Introduction of triaxial stress analysis;
• Introduction to the concept of "service" loads including thermal
modelling;
• Enhancement of time related factors;
897

• Introduction of commercial software available to all Shell OUs.
A more detailed summary of the changes was presented in an SIEP

Drilling Equipment Newsletter (refer to DEN 7/94).
The role of the CDG is simply to provide a tool to assist the designer
apply his/her engineering ability. It actually offers the designer a
great deal of scope by which convention can be challenged. It is a
recently disproven belief that the CDG ties the hands to the designer
to use very conservative design criteria resulting in over-design. The
casing designer may deviate from the practices recommended in the
CDG should local circumstances permit, provided such deviations are
realistically justified and documented for others to understand and
appreciate.
Some challenges facing the casing designer are as follows:
• Some OUs have transferred the activity of performing the

casing design to outside contractors. No matter who is
performing the activity, the Shell Well Engineer is still
responsible for the quality of the casing design and must
therefore have the competence to understand it.
• Coincidental with the implementation of Drilling in the Nineties
was the elimination of the position of the Senior Operations
898

Engineer. This tended to be an individual who had adequate

expertise to mentor an inexperienced engineer on subjects
such as casing design. The inexperienced engineer should now
seek such guidance elsewhere in his/her OU or outside.
• Standardisation of individual wells is obviously a good practice
to reduce the total costs of well construction. However it
should not be used as an excuse to not engineer and it is
suggested that for "repeated" wells, the standard should be
correctly engineered once and then each well examined to
verify that it is within standard design intent. Unfortunately,
standard well designs are often far in excess of the range of
demands of the wells covered by the standard. This is
explained in Figure 2.6.1 where Design B represents a fully
optimised standard design but Design A represents another
standard design which, if applied to the wells of the area or
field considered, would result in a defined "waste" due to
unnecessary over-design.
899

Figure 2.6.1 : Casing design challenges - standardisation
• Previous practices resulting in over-design of wells meant that

wells had plenty of spare capacity. Whilst the need exists to
challenge convention and old assumptions in order to achieve
some of the available savings, as we push closer to the limit it
becomes more important to know where the limit is and to
understand and manage the uncertainties to ensure safe and
cost effective operations. It must be appreciated by the
designer that his/her finite value for either a load or resistance
is an estimate with associated uncertainty. It is essential that
risk management techniques are considered to manage these
uncertainties.
900

Finally, it is requested that casing design be performed by

every Shell Well Engineer using the latest approved tools and
practices. Please do not "engineer" the design using an old
well programme, some Tippex and a photo-copier!!
1.6.1.3 CASING TYPES & FUNCTIONS
• General Types and Functions

• Specific Types and Functions
1.6.1.3.1 GENERAL TYPES & FUNCTIONS
For drilling and completing a well it is usually necessary to line the

walls of the hole with steel tubes called casing. Casing is specified
and supplied in accordance with certain physical properties. The most
significant of these are:
• Length of tubular e.g. Range 3 varies from 10·4m to 14·6m

(34 ft to 48 ft);
• Outside diameter;
• Weight per unit length (and hence internal diameter);
• Grade of steel (i.e. the minimum yield stress and heat
treatment performed);
• Type of end connection.
901

The manufacture and supply of tubulars is generally in accordance

with standards produced by the committees of the American
Petroleum Institute (API). The API has appointed Committee 5 on the
Standardisation of Tubular Goods. This committee publishes, and
continually updates, a series of Specifications, Standards, Bulletins
and Recommended Practices covering the manufacture, performance
and handling of tubular goods. They also license manufacturers to
use the API Monogram on material that meets their published
specifications, so that field personnel can identify materials that
comply with the standards. Their pronouncements are almost
universally accepted as the basis for discussions on the properties of
tubulars. However, this does not mean that everyone accepts the
published performance data as the best theoretical representation of
the parameters. The forum consists both of users and manufacturers.
An example of one of the most relevant documents to casing design

and specification is API Specification 5CT "Specification for casing
and tubing" which covers seamless and welded casing and tubing,
couplings, pup joints and connectors in all grades. Processes of
manufacture, chemical and mechanical property requirements,
methods of test and dimensions are included.
It should be noted that each physical property of the tubular body
902

has a tolerance range within which the manufacturer is bound to

supply the material. These tolerances may be either as per the API
standard or as specified by the purchaser.
Each casing, together with the cement which holds it in place and
seals the annulus, performs one or more of the following important
functions:
• Keeping the hole open from sloughing and swelling shales;

• Keeping the hole open from moving salt formations;
• Preventing contamination of fresh-water horizons;
• Providing a means of controlling fluid influxes;
• Providing a container for drilling and completion fluids;
• Confining produced fluid to the well bore;
• Providing a smooth conduit for drilling, logging and completion
tools;
• Providing a smooth conduit for future casing and tubing
strings;
• Supporting wellhead equipment and subsequent casing strings;
• Providing a means of anchoring the BOPs and christmas tree.
1.6.1.3.2 SPECIFIC TYPES AND FUNCTIONS
Sections of individual casings that are screwed together and
903

cemented in hole are called casing strings. The following names are
given to specific casing strings dependant on their function during
the well construction and operation. They are illustrated in Figure
2.6.2.
As with many oil-field terms, these names often mean different

casings to different people, for example the term "conductor" is
used to refer to many different strings. It is therefore suggested
that a simple sketch is used to clarify intent when discussing
casings.
Stove Pipe
A driven pipe used in onshore drilling to provide a circulation system

for the drilling fluid. Sometimes cemented in pre-drilled hole.
Marine conductor
Marine conductors are used in offshore drilling operations where the

BOP stack is above the water. They are designed to provide
structural strength; to cover soft formations below the sea bottom; to
serve as a circulation system for the drilling fluid and to guide the
drilling and casing strings into the hole. The marine conductor may
904

be driven, drilled and driven or cemented in a pre-drilled hole.
Foundation pile
This is a string used in offshore drilling where the BOP stack is on the
sea floor. It is designed to serve as a circulation system for the
drilling fluid and to guide the drilling and casing strings into the hole.
The pipe is either jetted in or cemented in a pre-drilled hole.
Conductor string
This is a string which is installed to cover shallow unconsolidated

formations, to seal off shallow water sands and to provide protection
against shallow gas flows. The string is cemented to the surface or
sea bed if possible, and is always the first string onto which one or
more BOPs are installed. For wells with a surface BOP, the conductor
string also usually supports the wellhead, the BOP, the christmas tree
and subsequent casing strings. Compression loads are therefore
often the most critical design parameter for this casing which is the
main structural member of the well. Above the top cement, the
conductor must be centralised to prevent buckling. For onshore wells
this is often supplemented with a top-fill cementation but for offshore
wells the annulus between the marine conductor and conductor
string is usually left uncemented above the mud line, in order to
905

minimise load transfer from the environment and hence bending

stresses in the conductor string.
Cement height for the conductor string is critical for considerations of

settlement/compression. This has been known to be over 51cm (20
inches) due to elastic compression of casings in the case of an
offshore well in 213 m (700 ft) of water where the 18-5/8" casing
was set at 610 m (2,000 ft) but only cemented to 427 m (1,400 ft)
due to losses combined with inadequate excess cement slurry for the
hole conditions.
For offshore wells with holes in the marine conductor at the mud line,
it has been known to pump cement volumes in excess of 450% in
order to maximise the top of cement behind the conductor casing.
This cement volume was limited only by the local minimum cement
stocking policy.
Surface string
This is a string which is installed to provide blow-out protection, to

seal off water sands and to prevent loss of circulation. The string is
normally cemented to surface or inside the conductor string.
906

Intermediate string
This is a string which is used to isolate weak formations, to case off

loss zones, sloughing, caving and reservoir formations. Such strings
are also set in transition zones to abnormal formation pressure to
provide blow-out protection by upgrading the strength of the well.
The cement height for this casing should be determined by the
requirement to shut off any hydrocarbon zones and/or flowing salt
sections. The top of the cement need not necessarily be inside the
surface string.
Production string
This is a string which is installed to separate productive zones from

other reservoir formations or for testing purposes.
Care has to be taken in the selection of the steel type and the
connections for a production string. Special consideration is required
where drilling takes place below the production casing since it may
suffer some damage due to wear. In a liner completion both the
liner and casing form the production string and must be designed
accordingly.
907

Liner (other than slotted liners)
A liner is a string of casing which does not extend all the way to the
surface. Liners are installed to permit deeper drilling (not necessarily
set in the reservoir section), to separate the productive zones from
the other reservoir formations or for testing purposes. Usually liners
are cemented up to the top of the liner.
1.6.1.4 THE DESIGN PROCESS
This Topic outlines the process used to arrive at a technically and

economically sound casing design. This process is divided into two
main phases, preliminary design and detailed design, with the former
further subdivided into data collection and casing scheme selection.
It is likely that some of the terms and concepts mentioned in this
introduction to the design process may not be familiar to the reader.
This should not cause alarm as they will be explained later in this
document. If this is the case, the reader should re-read this Topic
summarising the design process after completing the rest of the
document.
908

Flowchart 2.6.1: Global design procedure
As illustrated in Flowchart 2.6.1, it will generally be necessary to

repeat these phases in an iterative process to obtain an optimum
design as design information becomes available or can be estimated
more accurately.
It is critical that the casing designer pays adequate attention to the

preliminary design phase. It is at this stage that the greatest impact
on casing scheme optimisation can be achieved by developing
alternative design options. High-value input is thus achieved by the
early involvement of the Well Engineer in green field exploration
ventures and field development plans.
909

Unfortunately, such opportunities are often missed.
The following are key steps to achieving a successful design. The

Well Engineer should take ownership of each one and challenge any
hurdles in achieving them:
• Early collection of all the relevant and accurate data by a multi-

disciplinary team;
• Selection of the casing scheme which is most cost-effective
over the entire life cycle of the well;
• Accurate definition of the various load cases to which each
casing string is likely to be subjected;
• Accurate evaluation of the ability of the casing string to
withstand the applied loads, using both:
Æ conventional uniaxial analysis methods to determine the

overall resistance to internal and external pressure
loads, and to the axial loads encountered during
installation of the casing, and
Æ triaxial analysis methods involving detailed calculation of
the radial, tangential and axial stresses on each volume
element of the casing to determine the resistance to the
actual service loads experienced after the casing has
910

been cemented in place.
The difference between uniaxial and triaxial stress analysis is

explained in Topic 6.1.4.4.
Some of the continual challenges for the Well Engineer in managing

this process are:
• Accuracy of design data (normally supplied by Petroleum

Engineering colleagues). Data with large associated unknowns
will result in a more expensive design due to having to provide
contingency to cater for the uncertainty within the design
intent. The cost of this should be quantified to compare with
the cost of narrowing the data ranges. All too often this is
simply not done with the result that wells are over-designed
with either unnecessary contingency or unrealistic design loads
(i.e. designing for the 0.1% possibility).
• Timing of design data. The casing designer must receive the
data in adequate time to perform the design work prior to
ordering the casing material and accessories. Where the
required casing is not available from stock, it must be ordered
with a supply lead-time of typically 6-9 months. Thus if data is
not obtained in time, a first pass design is made with assumed
911

data in order to permit ordering of casing. A final design check

is then performed when the data is received to verify that the
design is adequate. In order not to be "caught out", the first
pass often results in over-design and hence unnecessary
expense. Again, the casing designer should seek prompt
submission of accurate data and make his/her colleagues
aware of the cost of delaying the data.
• Balance of new design practices versus the correct application
of fundamental principles. It is too easy for the casing designer
to get over-involved in the detailed design stage and miss
opportunities for improving the casing scheme. For example,
time is more effectively spent eliminating a casing string rather
than reducing a casing's grade by one step.
• Software and the "black-box" pitfall. No matter how thoroughly
computer applications are used in the design process, the
casing designer must always understand the calculations and
results in order to appreciate and manage the implications and
limitations of the design. The presently available computer
applications have been developed as tools to assist the casing
designer to engineer, not as tools to take-over the engineering.
• Continual process looping to optimise design. This should be
performed not just in order to continually slim-down a design,
912

but also to ensure that new data does not invalidate previous
results and casing selections.
• The need for concise/clear documentation. It is essential that
the casing designer documents his/her work for others to
review and understand the design. This summary
documentation should be attached to the well programme in
order that wellsite personnel may know when the actual
operating envelope is approaching the limit of the design
intent.
1.6.1.4.1 PRELIMINARY DESIGN
You may be surprised to know that preliminary casing design is not

directly the design of the casing. It is in fact the design of the
allowable open hole. Working upwards from the bottom of the well,
the maximum allowable open hole length is designed. Once this has
been done, it is implied that the rest of the hole section must be
covered by casing. This is repeated for each previous hole section in
turn, working outwards and upwards to the surface.
Design criteria to be satisfied are based on the predicted loads

compared with the open hole resistance (strength). Thus the
preliminary design stage is geologically driven and it is at this critical
913

phase that the biggest scope exists for optimisation by the casing
designer, e.g. the possibility that a complete casing string may be
eliminated.
This is the stage where convention can best be challenged by the

diligent casing designer. Studies show that this stage is often over-
engineered by not applying the CDG correctly. The casing designer
must apply effort coupled with sound engineering practices to avoid
over-design and other forms of unnecessary expenditure.
No computer application is yet available on the market to assist the

casing designer to perform this whole step, but one is currently being
developed and is expected to be available to all Shell OUs mid-1998.
This need is currently partially satisfied by the Wellplan for Windows
suite of applications (see Topic 6.1.4.5 below for clarification).
1.6.1.4.2 DATA COLLECTION
The outcome of the casing design process is strongly influenced by

the quality of the initial data-collection exercise. The required design
information should include accurate data on:
• Lithology, pore pressures, temperatures and strength of

formations to be penetrated;
914

• Estimates of the fluid properties to be encountered;

• Dimensional constraints, such as completion size.
To be effective, data collection must be carried out at an early stage

in the design process, by means of a multi-disciplinary team including
local OU staff from the Petroleum Engineering and Operations
departments in addition to the casing designer. Continuous
developments in downhole technology will lead to the introduction of
novel ideas resulting in reduced well costs. The casing designer
should be familiar with these developments and evaluate their merits
for application in his/her specific case.
1.6.1.4.3 CASING SCHEME SELECTION
Selection of the optimum (most cost-effective) casing scheme for an

anticipated development plan can play a major role in cutting overall
well costs and guaranteeing formation integrity during drilling under
all realistic loading conditions. The structure of the casing scheme
selection procedure is illustrated in Flowchart 2.6.2.
The geological data is used to define the worst case loads that the
open hole will see throughout the drilling phase (and any expected
re-drill workovers). Applying the criteria used to ensure the integrity
of the open hole, these loads are then matched against the predicted
915

open hole strengths in order to determine maximum acceptable open

hole lengths. Hence the minimum casing shoe setting depths are
implied.
The dimensional constraints are based on the objectives and type of

the well, i.e. the maximum OD of tools/equipment to be run inside
the well. This is used to determine the minimum ID for any casing.
Thus working from inside outwards and from the bottom up, each
open hole section is optimised in turn. By implication the length of
casing required to drill each hole section is then determined.
The output of the preliminary design stage is a specified casing

scheme together with the drilling fluid densities required to drill each
hole section, or a range of casing schemes that meet the design
criteria. A casing scheme for a well consists of:
• The number of strings of casing/liner required;

• The diameter of each string of casing/liner;
• The minimum length of each string of casing/liner (and hence
the length and diameter of each open hole section).
This stage of the well design should be carried out in conjunction

with the design of the fluids for the well - drilling fluid and cement. It
should be noted that at the completion of this stage, the casing has
916

not been specified to a level of detail that may be used for ordering.
However, it should have been determined whether corrosion resistant
materials are required. Based on the casing scheme it will be possible
to estimate the casing costs to ±25%.
The casing scheme is used as input to the detailed design phase of

the casing design process. However, an initial casing scheme may
have to be modified on the basis of the results of later stages of the
design process. Also, if performed at the field development stage, a
casing scheme should not remain frozen for the life of the
development but should be re-evaluated as the field is appraised and
also during the life of the field as the reservoir environment matures,
e.g. decreasing pore pressures or changing fluid properties.
1.6.1.4.4 DETAILED DESIGN
Detailed design is the subsequent design of the casing resulting in its

detailed specification to allow material ordering of tubulars and
accessories. Design criteria to be satisfied are based on a comparison
of the predicted loads with the casing resistance.
Thus the detailed design stage is driven by the casing mechanics and
it is important that the casing designer is able to predict the in-situ
resistance of the casing, i.e. allowing for casing wear, corrosion
917

and/or fatigue.
The detailed design phase takes a given casing scheme as input,

together with the detailed design data. During this stage the casing
designer determines the material grade, casing wall thickness and
required connection type for each section of the casing scheme
selected, which will allow it to withstand all realistically expected
loads throughout the life of the well.
The casing designer need not select a single weight and grade
combination for the entire casing string, but may choose different
weight and grade combinations for intervals within the casing string.
This is done at the judgement of the casing designer, balancing the
optimisation of casing costs against both wellsite casing inventory
management and supply stock levels.
The structure of this phase is illustrated in Flowchart 2.6.3. In

general, it will be most effective to design the individual casing
sections in the order specified in Flowchart 2.6.4.
Commercial software is available to every OU to assist the casing

designer to perform this stage (see Topic 6.1.4.5 below).
It is suggested that a summary of the output from this stage
918

(including preliminary design work where relevant) should be

submitted for approval as part of the well programme.
Do not use someone else's home-made casing design spreadsheet

to design your casings. The computer applications available to every
OU have been developed with Shell Group input to surpass and
replace such dangerous tools.
• Selection of relevant load cases
Before design calculations can be performed for a given casing

interval, the casing designer must decide which load cases can
realistically be expected to occur. A load case is a description of a
"worst-case" scenario that may occur, in which a load is exerted on
the casing. Two examples of load cases are:
• downhole losses without returns to surface - which results in a

collapse load on the casing
• circulating out an influx - which imposes a burst load on a
casing.
The method of selecting load cases is dealt with in Topic 6.3.1.
The load cases presented in the CDG are the recommended minimum
919

that should be considered. These have been developed over many

years and, although often challenged, are deemed to be realistic as
they have often occurred.
The casing designer should be wary of local load cases that are
inherited by tradition. These should be challenged to ensure they are
neither over-estimates nor under-estimates of reality.
• Uniaxial design
The basic principle of uniaxial design is that of examining the stress

in each axis individually and verifying that the yield stress rating for
the casing is not exceeded.
Figure 2.6.3 gives the principle of uniaxial casing design.
Thus when examining one axis, all other axes are assumed to be at
zero stress, e.g. the pressure differential (tangential stress) for burst
is calculated assuming zero axial tension. The intent of the uniaxial
design method is to ensure that the individual load (burst, collapse,
tension or compression) does not exceed the fixed rating for that
casing in that axis - defined in API Bull 5C3.
This is therefore an approximate method of analysing the load versus

the resistance. Due to only examining each axis in isolation, uniaxial
920

design often leads to a conservative choice of tubular grade and wall

thickness.
The design loads selected are quantified throughout the casing

interval with the aid of the relevant data (see Topic 6.3.2). These are
compared with the resistances to burst or collapse tabulated in API
Bull 5C2 on the basis of the formulae published in API Bull 5C3 (see
Topic 6.3.3), after these values have been corrected to take the
influence of corrosion, wear and fatigue (see Topic 6.3.4) into
account and divided by the relevant design factor (see Topic 6.3.6).
The casing design obtained in this way is then checked to see
whether the casing selected can withstand the loads occurring during
installation (in particular the axial forces due to the total weight of
the casing string down to the depth considered, and the shock and
torsion loads experienced during setting the casing).
• Triaxial design
Triaxial design acknowledges that stresses are "additive" and that

stresses should not be examined in isolation, i.e. that the stresses in
one axis effect the stresses in both perpendicular axes, by either
increasing or decreasing them.
With the development of user-friendly commercial stress analysis
921

software, the use of triaxial analysis to optimise casing design is now

possible. These computer applications relieve the designer of a lot of
repetitious calculations and allow him/her to concentrate on more
accurate estimation of the service-life load conditions - a task for
which software has also been developed.
The principle of triaxial design is illustrated in Figure 2.6.4
The interrelationship of design loads can now be analysed using a

combination of Hooke's law, the Lamé equations and the von Mises
yield criterion. The intent of the triaxial design method is to ensure
that the combined loads (burst, collapse, tension and compression)
do not produce stresses exceeding the yield stress of the casing
material. As with the uniaxial approach, the influence of corrosion,
wear and fatigue should be taken into account before the triaxial
design factor is applied.
By applying the more accurate triaxial design method, designs that

did not meet the uniaxial design rules may now be acceptable. That
is to say that uniaxial design tends to be more conservative than
triaxial design.
To appreciate the principle of triaxial stress behaviour, imagine

pulling axially on a hollow elastic tube. As the axial tension increases
922

so the diameter of the tube will decrease resulting in negative hoop

"strain", generating a negative (compression) hoop stress. To now
return to a zero hoop stress, a positive internal pressure should be
applied. Thus with axial tension applied, a greater internal pressure
can be withstood by the tube (triaxial analysis method) than with
zero axial load (uniaxial design method). Note that the opposite is
true if axial compression is applied.
• Further design considerations
Connections
It is important to ensure that the casing connections should also

withstand the loads to which they are subjected. Recent
developments have led to a wide diversity of connection types and
sealing compounds for use with casing connections. The salient
aspects of connection design are highlighted in Topic 6.3.7.
Design for special cases
The design steps outlined above are applicable to any casing string or
liner. However, special design measures are needed to ensure
adequate design in special cases such as high-temperature/high-
pressure wells, horizontal wells, and squeezing salt wells. The special
923

design considerations applicable to such cases are discussed briefly in

Topic 6.4.1.
Operational aspects
Practical details which need to be taken into account in the design of

any casing string are not covered in this Part of the DLP but are
discussed in Section 5, Part 2 - Casing and Cementing Practices.
Probabilistic approach to casing design
Probabilistic methods of risk analysis now under development may

become applicable to casing design in the future. This approach is
briefly presented in Topic 6.3.6.
1.6.1.4.5 THE ROLE OF SOFTWARE
In the early 1990s the only computer applications that existed, either
within the Shell Group or on the commercial market, for use by the
casing designer were user-unfriendly tools for limited use. Although
technically very powerful, they tended to be used for specific aspects
of casing design by a few experts. There was nothing available to
assist a "normal" Well Engineer design "normal" wells in an effective
manner.
924

The need for such a tool was recognised and several tools have
been, and are being, developed under the direction of SIEP and in
accordance with the CDG in order that the tools become integrated
with Shell Group standards. The first of these generalist tools,
"StressCheck", is a tool to perform uniaxial design with simple
thermal modelling and was launched to the industry and the Shell
Group in 1995.
These applications have been developed with the following

objectives:
• To assist the engineer to do on computer what he/she already

does on paper, i.e. not to act as a black box;
• To provide extra functionality that can not be done by hand
due to its tedious nature;
• To enhance the engineer's level of understanding and
engineering by modelling complex effects in a recognisable
way and by providing excellent on-line help explaining the
design theory as well as the application mechanics;
• To provide an auditable and recordable process so that others
can understand the implications and assumptions
(communicate the design intent);
• To replace the numerous uncontrolled spreadsheets that had
925

been developed by individual engineers in response to the

situation outlined above;
• To provide improved accuracy and consistency of tools used in
every OU;
• To provide an easy means of performing sensitivity analysis;
• To enable full life cycle analysis to be performed;
• To provide an easy means of tubular stock
management/selection;
• To enable a cost effective quality casing design to be made.
It is the intent that this suite of applications provide common tools

for all Well Engineers in all OUs that assist in the design of casings
according to familiar practices. These products are available to all
OUs under the SIEP Group Common Software (GCS) projects that
OUs sponsor on a voluntary basis. By sponsoring the GCS projects,
OUs are entitled to use the industries best commercial applications
plus the "Shell specials" that are maintained and supplied by the
commercial vendors.
Many of the applications referred to in the CDG have been updated

or replaced. The specific software that is currently provided under the
GCS to assist the casing designer is as follows (please check with
your OU focal point to determine the latest approved version) -
926

"integration" refers to the data-sharing ability of the applications:
• Well Control, Cementing and Hydraulics modules of

Wellplan for Windows (WfW) - by Landmark - Used in
preliminary casing design to estimate influx volumes and
pressures seen by the open hole. Only integrated with the
other WfW modules.
• Stabor module of WfW - by Landmark - Used in preliminary
casing design to estimate the drilling fluid density required to
drill through a given formation at a specified angle. Only
integrated with the other WfW modules.
• Torque/Drag Analysis module of WfW - by Landmark - Used
in detailed casing design to estimate complex drag loads for
specified casing scheme, well trajectory, drilling fluid and drill
string. Only integrated with the other WfW modules.
• CasingSeat - by Enertech - (not yet available) - Used for
preliminary casing design. Only integrated with other Enertech
products.
• CWear5 - by Maurer (product of DEA-42 project) - Used to
predict the casing wear in a well. This application is not part of
the GCS, but is available to every OU via the SIEP GCS focal-
points. Not integrated with the other applications.
927

• StressCheck - by Enertech - Used for complete detailed

design for all wells to determine load cases, in-situ resistance
and hence the required weight and grade of casing required.
Capable of modelling capacities of worn casings. Uses API
defined thermal profile approximations throughout the well
bore. Only integrated with other Enertech products.
• WellCat - by Enertech - Used for detailed design of HP/HT
wells as provides accurate tool for calculating thermal profiles
against time. Also used for complex stress analysis, specifically
post-buckling stress analysis. Only integrated with other
Enertech products.
1.6.2 Preliminary design

There are two important activities which must be performed within
the preliminary design phase preceding the detailed casing design
calculations: data collection and preliminary selection of the casing
scheme for the planned well, specifying the number of casing strings,
their minimum diameters and minimum shoe setting depths.
Casing diameters should be the minimum feasible given the

formation evaluation requirements and drilling and production
equipment sizes. Recent developments in drilling, evaluation and
928

completion techniques have increased the application of slim-hole

drilling and monobore completions to allow for slimmer casing
scheme selection.
Preliminary design is driven by the design of the open hole and in

order to meet the local open hole demands and general design
criteria (defined in Topic 6.2.2). Casing setting depths are determined
by comparing formation strength with the loads to which the
formation may be subjected. The primary method of estimating
formation strength is still the use of leak-off and limit tests, although
other methods are available and under development. The main
means of determining well bore pressure loads during drilling,
circulation and tripping is by computer modelling, or on a simple
level, the equations contained in the SIEP Pressure Control Manual
for Drilling and Workover Operations (EP89-1500) and the Well
Engineers Notebook.
1.6.2.1 DESIGN PARAMETERS
Considerable effort is required from the Petroleum Engineering and

Operations departments when planning, designing and
drilling/completing a well. In view of the high costs of these
operations and the severe penalties attached to failure, the data set
929

used for casing design must be as complete and accurate as possible

right from the start. Some of the data is laid down in the
development plan, well proposal or well objectives. However,
optimised casing design demands more detailed information on all
strata to be penetrated.
The geological and reservoir related design parameters that the

casing designer requires are: the lithological column, the formation-
strength, pore-pressure and temperature profiles, the hydrocarbon
composition and the H2S/CO2 concentrations. These are considered to
be design parameters.
1.6.2.1.1 LITHOLOGICAL COLUMN
The lithological column is the description of the sequence of

formations that are expected to be encountered in the well to be
drilled. Every formation has its characteristic properties with regard
to formation strength, drilling problems, reservoir potentials, etc.
Advanced knowledge of these properties will save both time and
cost.
Lithological information is important in casing design for the following

reasons - for an example of a lithological column refer to Figure
930

2.6.5:
• The column may provide a warning for potential drilling and

casing hazards.
• The parameter will assist the Well Engineer in making a
tentative design of the depth for the various casing shoes, as
the type of formation and its depth will give a good indication
of formation strength.
• The presence of aerobic environments can be an indicator for
H2S which may be formed by bacterial action.
• In combination with offset well pore pressure profiles, potential
over/under pressure zones may be predicted.
In the case of an exploration well, the casing designer may not have
much information available. Well planning and design will be based
entirely on information from seismic and regional geological
information. However, with the progress of time and the increase of
the available data the geological prognosis can be compared to the
actual lithological column. Subsequent casing designs should be
further optimised as data is made available, i.e. sought out by the
casing designer.
It should be noted that predicted depths always have a margin of
931

error. This is an additional uncertainty that must be accounted for by

the casing designer when performing sensitivity analysis on a design.
Casing shoe setting depths should be specified relative to a formation
top rather than a specific depth as it is the formation top (or bottom)
that is the driving factor. Obviously narrowing the uncertainty
associated with the formation top will lead to an improved well
design.
1.6.2.1.2 FORMATION STRENGTH PROFILE
This subject is only briefly addressed here but is also covered in

Section 2, Part 3 - Well Control: Principles and Practices. Reference
should also be made to the CDG.
Formation strength refers to the ability of rock to withstand a certain

load without failure. For the casing designer formation strength data
is used to determine casing setting depth, maximum safe drilling
depth and whether losses will be caused by circulating pressures,
surge pressures and cementing operations.
The main importance for casing design is the relationship between

well bore pressures and the ability of the bore hole wall to contain
well bore fluids, both for an intact and a fractured bore hole. It is this
relationship from which the preliminary casing design criteria are
932

derived.
The mechanism of bore hole failure and the significant points of

interest associated with formation breakdown are illustrated in Figure
2.6.6 which is a typical plot of pumping pressure against volume
pumped into the bore hole. The following definitions refer to this
plot:
Figure 2.6.6: Relations of leak-off, formation breakdown, formation

propagation and formation closure pressures
• The Leak-Off Pressure (LOP) is the pressure at which the curve

deviates from the initial linear build-up. This deviation is
associated with a noticeable intake of fluid into the formation
933

either by filtration through the mudcake or by the formation of

small cracks in the bore hole wall.
• The Formation Breakdown Pressure (FBP) is the point at which
the bore hole wall fails and a major fracture is initiated.
Powered by the decompression of the well bore fluid, this
fracture grows almost instantaneously and the well bore
pressure reduces sharply. The stress concentrations around an
intact bore hole determine the strength of a bore hole. Once
formation breakdown has occurred, these stress concentrations
disappear, and the strength of the bore hole is reduced to the
minimum in-situ stress of the formation. This explains the
reduction in strength of a fractured bore hole.
• The Fracture Propagation Pressure (FPP) is the stabilised
pressure at which the fracture propagates into the formation in
a controlled manner, if pumping is continued. Due to the
frictional pressure losses in the fracture, the FPP will increase if
the flow rate increases.
• When pumping is stopped, flow into the well and into the
fracture stops almost immediately; frictional pressure losses
disappear, and the pressure drops to a value called the
Instantaneous Shut-In Pressure (ISIP). At this stage, the
fracture is open, but does not propagate further.
934

• The fluid in the fracture then leaks away, through the faces of
the fracture into the formation and the pressure decreases.
The pressure at which the fracture closes is the Fracture
Closure Pressure (FCP). It can be shown that this pressure is
equal to the minimum in-situ stress.
If the fractured bore hole is pressured up again, the fracture opens

up at the Fracture Reopening Pressure (FRP), which in most cases is
equal to the FCP. The fracture continues to propagate at the FPP.
The original FBP will not be reached anymore; the strength of the
bore hole is reduced compared to the original unfractured situation.
In some situations the strength of the bore hole may be restored.
This process is called "clay-healing". However, this mechanism is not
well understood and should not be relied upon.
In geophysics and rock mechanics, the Formation Breakdown

Gradient (FBG) is calculated by dividing the FBP by the true vertical
thickness of the overburden. In this way formation strength and
overburden gradient can be compared. The comparison is different
for land and offshore wells. However, for the Well Engineer
performing casing design and well control, the FBP is expressed as an
equivalent drilling fluid gradient relative to the drill-floor. This is the
gradient of a drilling fluid that will give a hydrostatic pressure equal
935

to the FBP at the formation of interest.
The following different methods exist for determining the strength of

a formation:
• Limit Test or Leak-Off Test - During these tests the well is

slowly pressured up, taking care not to break down the
formation. As soon as a predetermined pressure is reached or
when leak-off is observed, the test is stopped. These tests
confirm that the well bore can withstand the test pressure
without breakdown of the formation.
• Formation Breakdown Test - The well is pressured up until
formation breakdown is observed. The test is sometimes
continued with a series of fracture opening and closing cycles
(microfrac, minifrac test).
• Measurements on core material - These measurements will
give additional information on rock properties and the
orientation of the in-situ stress.
• Wireline testing - Several new wireline tools for improved rock
property evaluation or formation strength measurement are
under development and will become available in the near
future.
• Analysis of "loss events" - The strength of the open hole can
936

be inferred from a careful analysis of any operational event

that causes losses. If losses occur, they should be treated as
an opportunity to derive valuable information.
Procedures for performing formation strength tests are given in the

CDG and EP 89-1500 - the Pressure Control Manual.
1.6.2.1.3 PORE-PRESSURE PROFILE
This subject is only briefly addressed here but is thoroughly covered

in Section 2, Part 3 - Well Control: Principles and Practices. Reference
should also be made to the CDG.
The pore pressure is the pressure of the fluid in the pore spaces of
the formation. The pore pressure profile throughout the well bore is
an important design parameter for casing design, in terms of both
setting depth selection and the required casing capacity for both
burst and collapse loading.
See Figure 2.6.7 for an example of the influence of the pore pressure
profile on the required number of casing strings.
937

Figure 2.6.7: Pressure depth graph of the Champion ultra-deep well

(CP-236)
Pore pressures are often expressed as equivalent gradients relative to

a reference level. In geophysics and rock mechanics, this is the "Free
Water Level" FWL, (i.e. sea level offshore or ground water level on
land). However, for the Well Engineer, specifically for well control,
the pore pressure is expressed as an equivalent drilling fluid gradient
relative to the drill-floor - usually abbreviated as EMG for Equivalent
Mud Gradient.
938

Do not confuse absolute pore pressures expressed as an equivalent

drilling fluid gradient with pore pressure gradients as measured by a
pressure gauge at different depths within the formation during a
logging run. The latter is used to estimate the density of the pore
fluid, and thus helps to distinguish between gas, condensate, oil and
water, whereas the former is useful because it gives a direct
indication of the drilling fluid density required to balance the pore
pressure.
During the drilling of a well, pore pressures can be inferred from an

analysis of the drilling operation during a reservoir fluid influx (e.g.
drilling kick or swabbed kick). In reservoirs of sufficient porosity and
permeability, pore pressures can be measured with wireline tools
(e.g. RFT) after the well has been drilled. Evaluation of petrophysical
(wireline and MWD) data allows the determination of the behaviour
of pore pressures in shales.
While drilling an exploration well there will be virtually no pore

pressure information available. The only indication for pressure
anomalies then consists of velocity anomalies on seismic profiles.
After a first well has been drilled, a base case pore pressure profile is
available. Limited data correlation may then be possible. Certain
939

assumptions on the pore pressure profile must therefore be made by

the casing designer based on the information available. The
assumptions and their implications on the design of the well must be
clearly documented to assist both:
• The well constructor - to determine when the operating

envelope is approaching the limit of the design intent - and
• The casing designer of subsequent wells - to determine where
a casing design may be further optimised when additional
design information becomes available.
However, for appraisal and development wells the available pore

pressure data will have increased. Based on this data set an accurate
presentation of the pore pressure profile can then be constructed.
The ranges of uncertainty associated with a pore pressure profile

must be understood by the casing designer and accounted for in the
casing design. Typically this would mean assuming the highest values
of pore pressure when determining burst loads and the minimum
values when considering the collapse loads (see Topic 6.3.2.1). This
can often have very high cost implications for a well and the casing
designer should draw attention to these implications (incremental
cost) to ensure that uncertainties are not excessive or that cost
940

effective studies can not be performed to reduce the uncertainty

range.
1.6.2.1.4 TEMPERATURE PROFILE, HYDROCARBON

PROPERTIES, H2S, CO2 & NON-HYDROCARBON
FORMATION FLUID COMPOSITION
These topics are only briefly addressed here but are covered in more
detail in the CDG.
• Temperature Profile
During drilling and subsequent operations on a well (e.g. production,

injection, fraccing/acidising, etc.), temperature changes from the
static geothermal gradient will affect the temperature of the well bore
thus generating thermal loads on casing strings. These loads are
"strain-driven" rather than "stress-driven" as per pressure loads. The
forces/displacements caused by these changes in temperature can be
of considerable importance for the following reasons:
• Laterally unsupported sections of casing may buckle due to the

forces resulting from thermal expansion/contraction of the
strings.
• In sealed annuli, the pressure changes caused by thermal
941

expansion/contraction of the fluids between the casings can

lead to collapse/burst of strings.
• Well growth/shrinkage due to thermal expansion/contraction
must be taken into account e.g. in platform and facilities
design.
• Reduction of yield strength hence reduction of pipe load
bearing capacity at elevated temperature has to be taken into
account.
The above effects will be of particular importance in development

wells in which the temperatures during drilling/completion are widely
different from the temperatures under production/injection
conditions. Large temperature changes and hence more significant
loads occur in:
• High pressure/high temperature wells in which near-surface

temperatures, initially as low as 15°C (60°F) or less may
eventually approach temperatures over 177°C (350°F) after
prolonged periods of production.
• Steam soak operations, in which the wells are cycled over a
large temperature range.
• Injection wells, where during prolonged injection the
temperature at bottom will approach the temperature of the
942

liquids at surface.
Typical shrinkage (i.e. wellhead downward movement) during start-

up from shut-in of a Shell Expro water injection well on a platform in
± 107m (350 ft) water depth is some 30·5 cm (12 inch).
Temperature predictions are also important for sour service casing

design, as the grade selection is a function of the temperature.
In order to make the predictions as accurate as possible, various

computer applications are now available and should be used (see
Topic 6.1.4.5)
• Hydrocarbon Properties
The exact properties of the produced hydrocarbons are dependent on

the type of buried organic matter, time of burial and pressure and
temperature after this burial (metagenesis). Hydrocarbons
encountered may consist of liquid or gas only or a mixture. Under
reservoir conditions the hydrocarbons will have other properties than
at surface conditions.
The casing designer uses the hydrocarbon properties to calculate the

burst design loads during both preliminary and detailed design. The
pressure loads resulting from circulating out an influx during well
943

control operations or the loads resulting from the complete

displacement of the casing to gas are dependent on these properties.
It should be noted that the burst load design case scenarios used
during the preliminary and detailed design are not the same (see
Topics 6.2.2.2 and 6.3.2.1 respectively).
An important design parameter is the average density of the

hydrocarbons when completely filling the well bore. This will be field
specific, may vary with depth and should be defined by the individual
OU.
Another design parameter of interest is the compressibility factor (Z-

factor). The compressibility factor can be interpreted as a term by
which the pressure must be corrected to account for the departure
from the ideal gas equation. This correction can have a significant
influence on the design pressure value when, for example, calculating
the kick-pressure profile.
• H2S, CO2 & Non-Hydrocarbon Formation Fluid Composition
At the preliminary design stage these should be considered in order

to establish whether corrosive resistant alloy (CRA) materials will be
required. This will have significant impact on both cost and lead times
944

for supply of tubulars.
Hydrogen sulphide (H2S) and carbon dioxide (CO2) are gases which
have a strong corrosive effect on tubulars. Forecasting their presence
and concentration is essential for a choice of a proper casing grade
and wall thickness. It is also critical for operational safety purposes.
Tentative forecasts can be made after data gathering and a review of
regional occurrence maps that should be available in each OU.
The effects of any corrosive fluids should be considered on all

potentially exposed surfaces, not just those in the steady-state
production scenario. Therefore consideration should be given to the
implications for a production casing of leaking tubing leading to
produced fluids in the A-annulus (the annulus between the
production tubing and the production casing).
Apart from the obvious hazard to well constructors and operators,

the presence of H2S is of particular concern because of the rapid
occurrence and potentially disastrous consequences of sulphide
stress corrosion cracking in casing. The international standard
defining the use of specific metallic materials for oilfield equipment is
the National Association of Corrosion Engineers (NACE) standard
MR0175-91 which defines "sour" conditions as those having an H2S
945

partial pressure over 0·34 kPa (0·05 psia). For a well with a bottom-
hole pressure of 68,950 kPa (10,000 psi), this represents an H2S
concentration of 5 ppm. CO2 is a potential threat if it is dissolved in
water.
Apart from the gases mentioned above, casing can also be subjected
to corrosive attack opposite formations containing corrosive fluids.
Corrosive fluids can be found in water rich formations and aquifers as
well as in the reservoir itself.
1.6.2.2 CASING SCHEME SELECTION
The preliminary casing scheme selection should contribute maximum

monetary value to the total field development. This rule is applicable
to exploration and appraisal as well as development wells.
Consequently, by determining the well configuration from the inside
working outwards and from the bottom of the well upwards, the
most cost effective casing scheme should be selected.
Casing scheme selection has a substantial effect on the overall well

costs. At all times due regard must be paid to issues relating to
safety and the environment. Risks shall be "managed" and not just
"taken".
946

Whilst the detailed design phase dealt with in Topic 6.3 will address
the structural integrity of the well, casing scheme selection is based
on evaluation of more general issues of well configuration which are
driven by field development economics coupled with the expected
geological properties.
The basic sequence of events in the casing scheme selection process

has been previously illustrated in Figure 2.6.2.
The output of the preliminary design stage is to specify a casing

scheme together with the drilling fluid densities required to drill each
hole section, or a range of casing schemes that meet the design
criteria. A casing scheme for a well consists of:
• The number of casings/liners required;

• The diameter of each casing/liner;
• The minimum length of each casing/liner (and hence the
length and diameter of each open hole section).
The casing scheme serves as input to the detailed design phase.
1.6.2.2.1 MINIMUM CASING DIAMETER
This aspect of the design is geometrically driven and determined

solely by well objectives and what will be done with the well during
947

its construction and operation. It is dependant on the availability of

down-hole drilling equipment, logging tools and production
requirements.
By considering the well objectives in detail an optimum casing

scheme can be achieved for exploration and appraisal wells through
applying the latest evaluation techniques such as those
recommended under Slim-Hole Drilling, Evaluation and Completion
(SHDEC) technology which allows fully engineered drilling and
evaluation operations down to 6-1/4" (0·1588 m) and smaller holes.
For development wells, the final hole size or production tubing size
determines the well configuration and it is obvious that the casing
diameters may not therefore be as small as if the well were to be for
exploration. However alternative completion systems should be
considered to optimise overall dimensions, such as a monobore
completion.
The success of SHDEC technology means that small hole sizes can
now be reliably planned in the preliminary design phase or as a
contingency. SHDEC should not be confused with the term "Slimline"
well design which is defined as engineering the most cost effective
well around the optimal production conduit or final hole size. In some
948

OUs a Slimline well design is termed a Cost Effective Casing Design

(CECD) or Tight and Small Clearance Casing Design.
Recent developments and considerations for well configuration

improvements are summarised in the panel below, highlighting the
efficiency improvements that can be achieved.
Efficiency increases due to well configuration improvements
For development wells the casing designer should work with
949

Petroleum Engineering to design the inflow and outflow systems, eg.

the perforations,/open hole and production conduit with its flow
controls respectively. These two systems should be in balance
otherwise one would be inefficiently restricting the other. The inflow
system is determined by considering well geometry through the
reservoir; the reservoir potential and likely damage (impairment)
caused by the drilling and completion operations. The outflow system
is determined by considering the conduit bore, possible artificial lift
methods (even in the later life of the well/field) and the well/field
economics.
For development wells, initiate discussions on well geometry from

the assumption that the well will be horizontal and that not drilling a
horizontal well would have to be justified by Petroleum Engineering.
This is contary to the conventional starting point that a horizontal
well would have to be justified.
The casing designer should be aware of, and encouraging the

application of, recent developments within the industry - both within
the Shell Group and other operators. Additionally, the technology
development programmes within OUs should be targeted to achieve
reductions in hole size relevant to their own operations, e.g. where
950

hole size is limited by equipment availability, then stimulate the

development of smaller tools.
Contingencies should be justified on the basis of an explicit

probability analysis. Frequently too much contingency is included in
designs, at unnecessary cost.
1.6.2.2.2 MINIMUM CASING-SHOE SETTING DEPTH
The casing-shoe setting depth is driven by geological considerations,

specifically the strength and integrity of each open hole section. The
minimum casing shoe setting depth is usually driven by one, or more,
of the following considerations;
• To prevent failure of formations by induced circulating

pressures during well control operations when closing in and
circulating out an influx;
• To prevent failure of formations by induced circulating
pressures during drilling operations like circulating, drilling and
tripping;
• To isolate overlaying unstable formations;
• To isolate overlaying shallow hydrocarbons;
• To isolate overlaying lost circulation zones;
951

• To isolate overlaying freshwater horizons.
The last four of the above are determined by the geology of the open
hole in which the specific casing is to be set, depend on local OU
procedures, and are location specific.
The first two are determined by the geology of the subsequent open
hole(s) to be drilled once the casing has been set and will be
discussed below as they are applicable to all casing strings. The
underlying principle is that comparison of the greatest pressure
loading on the well bore - resulting from well control, drilling,
circulating and tripping operations - with the well bore strength, leads
to the determination of the minimum casing setting depth.
• Design Criteria
The primary consideration is to prevent failure of the formation both

at the casing shoe and throughout the following open hole section
which must remain intact under all realistic load conditions.
Additionally, if the well bore fails, the well design must allow a stable
situation to exist for the damaged well. Relating back to the
definitions in Topic 6.2.1.2, these two requirements can be expressed
as a relation between the pressures in the well (the load) and the
952

strength of the well bore (the resistance):
• The estimated Formation Breakdown Pressure (FBP) of any

formation below the casing shoe should not be exceeded
during normal operating conditions, including well control,
drilling, circulating and tripping.
• The drilling fluid gradient required to balance the anticipated
pore pressures in the open hole section should never be higher
than the estimated equivalent drilling fluid gradient of the
Fracture Closure Pressure (FCP) in any of the formations in the
open hole section.
If these requirements are met, the well bore will not fracture and the
well will not experience uncontrolled losses under design conditions.
These design conditions relate to the maximum influx that can be
closed in and circulated out, and to the maximum circulating rate and
trip speed that can be accommodated. In addition, if the formation
accidentally fractures and a loss- or kick/loss-situation develops, it
will be possible to return the damaged well to a stable situation,
without significant gains or losses, once the well has been circulated
to drilling fluid.
This procedure is to be followed for every casing string, usually
953

starting at the total depth (TD) working upwards and outwards. Once
again the simple principle of comparing load with resistance is
applied, in this case for the open hole, to determine the minimum
casing shoe setting depth.
Figure 2.6.8: Effect of well influx calculation on kick pressure profile
Figure 2.6.8 demonstrates that the shoe is selected at the depth at

which the load profile exceeds resistance profile. The casing designer
should perform sensitivity analysis in order to manage the
uncertainties associated with the design data.
954

• Monitoring during drilling
During the drilling of the well, the actual data will become available
and so the calculations performed under Topic 6.2.2.2 should be
repeated in order to establish the maximum safe drilling depth
(MSDD) for the actual formation strengths encountered.
If the FBP (or the LOP) is less than expected, the MSDD may be
determined to be less than the planned section TD. It is important
that this should be acknowledged and appropriate action be taken.
This action will include steps to reduce the possible influx volume by
engineering improvements to the controlling variables, e.g. kick
detection techniques, crew reaction time, shut-in method etc.
Modelling of this can be performed using the computer applications
referred to in Topic 6.1.4.5, applying principles defined in EP 89-1500
the Pressure Control Manual.
When drilling a well where a lower than expected shoe strength has
been encountered, do not conveniently lower the design influx
volume in order to produce an MSDD that allows you to continue
drilling and set the next casing as planned. The situation should be
recognised and managed by taking competent steps to lower the
possible influx volume.
955

There are also implications to be considered if the actual FBP (or the
LOP) is greater than expected. This is because the well capacity that
is determined during the detailed design stage (refer to Topic
6.3.1.1) may be relying on leak-off at the casing shoe to limit the
maximum pressures seen during the drilling burst load. Therefore an
unexpectedly high FBP would increase the internal pressures seen
during the drilling burst load case such that the strength of the
casing may be exceeded.
• Determination of well bore pressure load
These loads can be determined by considering them in two groups:
• Pressure loading during drilling, circulating and tripping

operations.
• Pressure loading during well control operations.
Pressure loading during drilling, circulation and tripping can be

established by applying physical models using computer applications.
Such tools are available to all OUs through the SIEP Common System
projects (refer to Topic 6.1.4.5). The computer applications that
model these pressure loads are contained in the Wellplan for
Windows suite (this replaces the applications recommended in the
956

CDG).
The determination of the pressure loads on the well bore during well
control can be divided into two aspects: influx volume determination
and well bore pressure calculation. For the determination of the well
specific design influx and for the calculation of the well bore pressure
loading (the kick pressure profile), an advanced single bubble model
has been developed and is implemented in the relevant computer
application contained in the Wellplan for Windows suite (refer to
Topic 6.1.4.5).
The casing designer is responsible for establishing this design influx

volume and the relevant well bore pressure. In addition to the fluid
and reservoir parameters, the locally applied detection techniques,
shut-in procedures, specific rig equipment and level of staff training
all influence the value of this volume. The Well Control module of the
Wellplan for Windows suite models this. The implemented model
contains the following features:
• Influx volume calculation for kicks during drilling, after pump

shutdown or for a swab kick, taking into consideration:
• Transient production behaviour of the reservoir;
• The rate of penetration into the reservoir;
957

• The detection of the kick on flow rate out increase or pit

volume increase including the hidden volume factor;
• The effect of loss of annular friction on the production rate of
the reservoir when the pumps are shut down after detection of
the kick;
• The reaction time of the drilling crew after detection of the
kick;
• The shut-in method.
Note that the preliminary design load case is based on the realistic
(controlled) kick volume, not on full evacuation to well bore fluids.
This model makes it possible to calculate the design influx under a

given set of circumstances, instead of the out-dated practice of
relying on a default value such as 16 m3 (100 bbls) for a 12-1/4"
hole.
The practice of relying on a default value for each hole size is

out-dated and should be challenged. However the result of such
a simulation will only be as reliable as the values used in its
calculation are. Therefore care to detail is required during the
modelling process
958

As illustrated in Figure 2.6.8 taking a more realistic locally established

estimate of the well influx - e.g. 0·6 m3 (4 bbls) assuming fast kick
detection and control response, or 8·7 m3 (55 bbls) assuming slow
response - has an appreciable effect on the calculated kick pressure
profile and hence on the casing setting depth selected.
• Well bore pressure, i.e. the kick pressure profile, calculation

during the killing phase with a kick volume obtained from
above calculation. The kick pressure profile is calculated
considering:
• a temperature profile in the well during circulation;
• the gas compressibility factor: Z-factor;
• the well bore deviation in the planned trajectory.
The effect of this advanced model on the kick pressure profile is

illustrated in Figure 2.6.9 and shows a reduction in the design
pressure load compared to the description of the gas behaviour with
PV = Constant.
With the increase of available data, the above calculations should be

repeated during the well drilling phase (see 'Monitoring during
drilling')
959

Figure 2.6.9: Effect of advanced model on kick pressure profile
• Determination of well bore strength
Formation strength, as presented in Topic 6.2.1.2, is the other critical

design parameter for casing shoe setting depth. With respect to this
parameter two significantly different phases can be distinguished:
• Well design phase, in which the preparation of the best

estimate of the lithological model, formation strength profile
and pore pressure profile is addressed. This will determine the
number and setting depths of casings.
• Well drilling phase in which the measuring and reporting of
960

formation strength parameters is addressed. Confirmation and

updating of the well design assumptions, if necessary, can
change the well design. In addition, the data should be
properly documented and stored.
Having accurate data on formation strength is an integral part of

casing design. It is important during both the design and the drilling
phase. The establishment of a good regional model of formation
strength is of great importance for the optimisation of future wells
and for optimal field development planning.
In the absence of a more accurate formation strength model, both

the formation breakdown pressure (FBP) and the fracture closure
pressure (FCP) can be conservatively approximated to the leak off-
pressure (LOP) of offset wells.
In the design phase, a best possible estimate will have to be made of

the formation strength. This may be done using an advanced regional
formation strength model, offset well data, or a simple empirical
relationship for those wells, where no other data is available.
When designing wells in new areas, or in those cases where

additional regional information is valuable, always consider carrying
961

out a more complete formation strength test, including formation

breakdown. This way, useful data on formation breakdown, fracture
closure and in-situ stress can be obtained. The advantage of a good
theoretical/empirical formation strength model, may well offset the
risk associated with a small reduction in formation strength caused by
a fractured casing shoe. If operational considerations do not allow
these tests to be performed during drilling, these tests can instead be
conducted during abandonment of wells.
Procedures for performing formation strength tests are given in the

CDG.
1.6.3 Detailed design and analysis

Once the casing scheme has been selected as described in Topic
6.2.2, the casing designer must design the individual strings, i.e.
determine the wall thickness and material grade of each one to
ensure that each string can withstand the worst case loads that the
casing could experience during installation, drilling and operation of
the well. This design process should also include likely workovers
(extensions and re-drills). The fundamental design criterion used for
each load case considered is that, throughout the casing length:
962

L C (c,w,f)/DF
where: L = load for the load case in question,
"in-situ" load-bearing capacity of the casing

C(c,w,f) =
(corrected for corrosion, wear and fatigue),
DF = design factor to be applied.
It should be noted that the resistance of a specific weight and grade

of casing will change over the life of the well due to casing corrosion,
wear and fatigue. Thus the "in-situ" load-bearing capacity of the
casing is the resistance of the casing having been corrected for this.
Until recently these effects were not included in designs in a
competent manner (only done by increasing the weight by one step
or two in critical areas), but now tools are available to assist the
casing designer to perform the required engineering.
As we drill longer reach wells, the significance of wear becomes more

critical to the integrity of the well. If it is not controlled, wear can
even create a hole in the casing. If this occurs, the casing would
have a resistance of zero, and any pressure loads would not be
resisted by the damaged casing but would be immediately
transferred to the annular space around it. Depending on the position
of the hole relative to the top of the cement round the casing and to
963

the shoe of the previous casing a risk may then exist of the formation
breaking down below the shoe of the previous casing.
Descriptions of the minimum suite of load cases to be considered

together with methods of quantifying the predicted loads are given in
the following topics. This is followed by the presentation of methods
of determining the in-situ load-bearing resistance. The use of design
factors is explained in Topic 6.3.6, and those currently recommended
for use within the Shell Group are defined.
A further important issue is the distinction between uniaxial and

triaxial design. As discussed in Topic 6.1.4.4, uniaxial design consists
of comparing a uniaxial load (such as a pressure or an axial force)
with a uniaxial load-bearing capacity. Triaxial design methods
compare the combined effect of radial, tangential and axial stresses
in the casing wall with the material yield strength, and represent a
more realistic assessment of the ability of the casing to withstand a
given load.
However, triaxial casing design involves many more calculations than

uniaxial design and is only practical with the aid of suitable computer
applications. Now that such tools are available to all OUs (see Topic
6.1.4.5), SIEP recommends the use of triaxial casing-design methods
964

- especially for the analysis of service loads.
It is critical to remember that the casing scheme is an input. Should

the detailed design process result in changes to the casing scheme,
any knock-on effects must be carefully investigated by re-
performing the relevant elements of the preliminary design.
1.6.3.1 LOAD CASES
Before carrying out detailed design calculations, the casing designer

must decide which load cases need to be taken into consideration for
each casing string. This decision will depend on the likelihood of
occurrence of the individual load cases (as assessed by each OU),
and on the consequences if they do occur. This topic presents the
range of load cases which should be considered for the three types of
loads; burst/collapse, installation and service. In each case the down-
hole scenarios likely to lead to the load case are stated. The selected
loads should subsequently be quantified and compared with the (in-
situ) resistance of the casing.
The structure of the detailed design process is presented in Flowchart

2.6.5; for understanding the load and model types refer to Figure
2.6.10.
965

The procedure is as follows. It should be noted that the first two

steps may be performed both manually using graph paper or with the
assistance of a computer application but that the third step may only
be performed using a computer application (the worked example
given in the CDG follows these three steps):
• Stage 1 - Design a suitable casing to withstand the "pressure"

loads (i.e. burst and collapse). This involves modelling the
casing as an open ended vessel with free ends;
• Stage 2 - Verify the suitability of the selected casing to
withstand the "installation" loads (i.e. running, cementing and
pressure testing). This involves modelling the casing as closed
vessel with the upper end restrained;
• Stage 3 - Investigate the "service" loads (i.e. packer loads,
thermal loads, annulus pressure loads) and determine whether
the selected casing is adequate to withstand them. This
requires the casing to be modelled as a closed vessel with both
ends restrained.
966

Figure 2.6.10: Design/check criteria for all three design stages
If the calculations show it to be necessary, the selected casing weight

and/or grade may be revised at either the second or third stage. If
this is done, all previous stages should then be repeated: e.g. at
stage 2 the grade of the casing might be increased and the weight
decreased slightly. As the "new" casing may not be capable of
967

withstanding the pressure loads, stage 1 should be repeated.
The software available to all OUs is able to perform these three

stages concurrently (see Topic 6.1.4.5). These three stages are
performed considering only the body of the casing. Subsequently,
consideration needs to be given to the resistance of the selected
connections (see Topic 6.3.7).
1.6.3.1.1 PRESSURE LOADS
When designing casing by hand, both the collapse and burst pressure
loads are approximated by the pressure differential across the casing
wall i.e. Pexternal - Pinternal (refer to Topic 6.1.4.4). When this is plotted
against the length/depth of the casing it is known as the load line. If
the resulting load line comprises mainly positive net pressures, it is
called a burst load line (BLL); if it comprises mainly negative
pressures it is called a collapse load line (CLL). The net pressures
(positive or negative) occurring on the relevant BLL or CLL are then
compared with the in-situ API burst or collapse ratings for various
grades of casing divided by the relevant design factor.
Collapse or burst loads can occur both during drilling and production.
Each casing must be individually considered with care to determine
which load cases are relevant. For example some casings may only
968

experience drilling loads, but some intermediate strings are also used
as production casing and so both the drilling and the production
loads should be considered in their design.
Collapse and burst loads will be considered separately below using

flowcharts to present the logic used to distinguish the various
relevant load cases. Some general considerations are as follows:
• When considering an internal pressure profile (whether for

burst or collapse) in the drilling phase, only one situation needs
be considered across the whole length of casing. However, in
the production phase a distinction must be made between the
internal pressure profiles above and below the packer. When
considering the internal pressure profile for burst in the
production phase, a further distinction must be made according
to the type of well involved: production well or injection well.
• When considering an external pressure profile, three factors
need to be considered for all the load cases: the presence of
permeable formations over the cemented interval, the quality
of the cement column between the casing and the formation
and the density and quality of the fluid in the annulus above
the top of cement. It is useful to distinguish between
exploration/appraisal wells (with a relatively short life) and
969

development wells (typically with a much longer life).
The number of cases to be considered in a given situation may be

determined from inspection of the bottom row of boxes in the
corresponding flowchart. For example, Flowchart 2.6.6 shows that
only two load cases need be considered for collapse in the drilling
phase: different external pressure profiles will be obtained depending
on whether the cement column is good or bad. In both cases, the
annulus fluid may be assumed to have its original density (insufficient
time for deterioration to occur), and the internal pressure profile will
be determined by drilling fluid losses to a level where the drilling fluid
column finally balances the pore pressure. Both scenarios should be
investigated to determine which results in the higher loads which
would then be applied.
The special cases to be considered in addition to the base cases are

indicated along the bottom of each flowchart. It should be
emphasised that in all cases the casing designer is looking for the
most realistic highest loading taking into account local OU
experience.
970

Once the individual CLLs and BLLs for both drilling and production
loads have been created they should be combined to create a single,
worst case, CLL and BLL for that casing that can then be compared
with the in-situ ratings of the casings divided by the relevant design
factor.
External Pressure Profile
The method of determining the external pressure profile is common

to both collapse and burst loads and will be presented first before the
internal pressure profiles are presented. The external pressure profile
is determined by the contents of the annulus, the quality of the
contents and its interface with the formation. The contents of the
annulus are the cement column and the annulus fluid column. Their
effects on the external pressure profile are presented below:
Collapse Loads
For definition of external pressure profiles see above. The following

presents how to define the internal pressure profiles during both
drilling and production. These profiles should then be compared to
the worst case (highest) external pressure profile to determine the
collapse load line.
971

Burst Loads
For definition of external pressure profiles see above. The following

presents how to define the internal pressure profiles during both
drilling and production. These profiles should then be compared to
the worst case (lowest) external pressure profile to determine the
burst load line.
The loads generated during pressure testing also have to be taken

into account.
Cement Column
This method relies on considering set cement to behave as a porous

matrix of low permeability (in the microDarcy to milliDarcy range)
containing a pore fluid at a certain pressure. The permeability of the
cement around the casing is usually intermediate, between those of a
high-permeability and of a low-permeability formation. Where the
cement column is set across a high-permeability formation (milliDarcy
and above), the pressure in the cement will be equal to the pore
pressure in the formation.
Local experience coupled with worst case analysis will determine

whether to choose a good or a poor cement column scenario.
972

Where the cement column is set across a low-permeability formation

(microDarcy and below), the pressure will depend on its quality.
It is assumed below for the sake of simplicity that the cement column
only passes through one high-permeability formation. The analysis
for the case of more than one high-permeability zone is very similar
and details can be found in the CDG.
In the case of a good cement column (see Figure 2.6.11), the cement
column acts as an effective seal between the high-permeability
formation and the top of cement. The cement pore-pressure profile in
the segment of cement column across the low-permeability formation
interval will then be such as to connect the pore pressure at the top
of the high-permeability formation with the pressure at the top of
cement due to the hydrostatic pressure of the annulus fluid. The
cement pore-pressure profile across the low-permeability interval is
thus semi-static.
In the case of a poor cement column (see Figure 2.6.12), the cement
column no longer acts as an effective seal between the high-
permeability formation and the top of cement. The pressure gradient
in the cement across the low-permeability interval will then be equal
to the cement mix-water gradient. The pressure at the top of cement
973

is therefore determined by drawing a pressure line with this gradient

upwards from the pressure at the top of the high-permeability
formation. As a result, the annulus pressure line will be shifted to
lower pressures in low-pressure reservoirs and to higher pressures in
high-pressure reservoirs. This leads to an annulus level drop or an
annulus pressure build-up respectively.
No matter whether the cement column is good or bad, the cement

pore-pressure profile below the high-permeability formation is given
by a line of slope equal to the cement mix-water gradient extending
downwards from the pressure at the bottom of the high-permeability
formation to the casing shoe.
For the determination of the cement pore-pressure profile in the

cement column opposite a previous casing, this previous casing
should be treated as a low-permeability formation.
In the event that the cement column does not pass through a high-
permeability formation, the cement mix-water gradient may be
assumed to extend downwards from the top of cement to the casing
shoe, no matter whether the quality of the cement is high or low.
The pressure at the top of cement will be equal to the hydrostatic
pressure of the annulus fluid.
974

Annulus Fluid Column
Because the drilling phase is relatively short, deterioration of the

annulus fluid during drilling should not be taken into account when
defining drilling loads for both exploration and for development wells.
The pressure gradient in the annulus fluid will therefore be
determined by the density of the fluid used at the time of the cement
job. The exception to this is a re-drill workover, in which case
annulus fluid deterioration shall be considered as defined below.
In the case of a high-quality cement column over a high-permeability

formation, the annulus-fluid pressure line extends downwards with
the above-mentioned gradient from zero pressure at the wellhead to
the top of cement (see Figure 2.6.11).
For a low-quality cement column across a high-permeability

formation, the annulus-fluid pressure line extends upwards with the
same gradient from the pressure at the top of cement towards the
wellhead. As Figure 2.6.12 shows, this can lead to annulus pressure
in a high-pressure reservoir, or to annulus fluid drop in a low-
pressure reservoir.
If the cement column does not pass through any high-permeability

formations, the annulus-fluid pressure line extends downwards from
975

zero pressure at the wellhead to the top of cement, no matter what

the quality of the cement.
However when considering production loads, since casing strings can

have a much longer service life, deterioration of the annulus fluid
should be taken into account. The pressure gradient in the annulus
fluid in such cases should be considered to be the density of the fluid
used at the time of the cement job, or the density of the deteriorated
fluid, depending on the elapsed time and on the inherent stability of
the annulus fluid. While brines and bentonite/water-based drilling
fluids are stable with time, the density of oil-based and
polymer/water-based drilling fluids is liable to drop to that of the
base fluid.
For exploration wells used for short-term production tests, it can be

assumed that the annulus-fluid pressure gradient is determined by
the fluid density at the time of cementation.
During drilling
Collapse loads occurring during drilling are usually the result of the
level of the drilling fluid in the bore hole dropping due to natural or
induced losses. These loads should be considered for all casing
strings that are drilled through. There are however a number of
976

special cases to be considered.
Flowchart 2.6.6 provides a decision tree for determining collapse

loads during the drilling phase. This applies to conductor casings,
surface, intermediate casings/liners and production casings/liners
that are drilled through.
The internal pressure profile is determined by considering the worst

case of losses to the open hole formations. The internal pressure
profile may be constructed as follows (refer to Figure 2.6.13):
• The pore-pressure profile determines the pressure in the

formation - and hence in the bore hole - down to total depth
(TD).
• In a losses situation, the drilling fluid column will drop until the
pore pressure at loss zone is just balanced by the pressure due
to the drilling fluid column. Normally the lowest evacuation
level results from considering the loss zone to be at section TD,
but this is not always the case (see below).
• The evacuation level can be found by drawing the drilling fluid
pressure line (whose gradient is determined by the drilling fluid
density) back from the pore pressure at TD to the depth axis.
• The resulting pressure profile is shown in this figure - and in all
977

other figures in this topic - by the thick grey line.

• The evacuation level chosen should always be the deepest that
can occur due to drilling below the casing shoe. Thus, if the
pore pressure in a certain formation through which the bore
hole passes is sub-normal, e.g. because of a depleted horizon,
the drilling fluid-pressure line will be drawn from the point on
the pore-pressure profile which gives the lowest evacuation
level, and not from TD.
978

979

Figure 2.6.13: Drilling phase - collapse internal pressure profile
Special cases are as follows (for more details refer to the CDG):
• Air or foam drilling - Design for full internal evacuation, i.e.

internal pressure profile equal to atmospheric pressure.
• Aerated drilling - Design for an internal pressure profile
assuming an evacuation level based on the pore-pressure
profile.
• Salt loading - The load produced by salt should be modelled as
if it were an external fluid pressure equal to the overburden
pressure at the depth of the salt formation. See Figure 2.6.14
for clarification. Although time-dependant, it is unpredictable
and thus salt loading should always be assumed when
designing for collapse in the drilling phase.
• Formation compaction - External loading due to formation
compaction should replace that resulting from annulus-fluid
and cement-column pressures as described earlier.
• Blow-out - Design for full internal evacuation of the string to
atmospheric pressure. A realistic wear margin should be taken
into account when selecting the casing.
980

Figure 2.6.14: Drilling phase - salt loading
During production
Collapse loads during the production phase generally occur as a

result of evacuation resulting from natural or induced losses during
workover of the well. There are also a number of special cases to be
considered.
Flowchart 2.6.7 provides a decision tree for determining collapse

loads during the production phase and applies to both production
981

casings and liners.
The internal pressure profile is determined by separately considering

the conditions both above and below the packer. The internal
pressure profile may be constructed as follows (refer to Figure
2.6.15):
982

Figure 2.6.15: Production phase - collapse internal pressure profile

above packer
• Below the production packer: the casing must always be

designed to withstand full internal evacuation to atmospheric
983

pressure. This is to account for high draw-downs, differential

depletion, and back-surging operations.
• Above the production packer: the casing is usually not subject
to critical collapse loading during normal production
operations. During completion and workover, however, drilling
fluid/brine losses may lead to evacuation of the upper section
of the production casing. The deepest possible evacuation level
should be calculated based on the pore pressure profile and
the fluid density in use.
• Gas-lift wells - Design for complete internal evacuation to

atmospheric pressure (above the packer) to account for
complete venting of the tubing/production-casing annulus as a
result of surface-equipment failure.
• Artificial lift equipment working in pump-off mode (no
downhole packer) - design for complete internal evacuation to
account for the low annulus working pressure.
• Salt loading - The load produced by salt should be modelled as
if it were an external fluid pressure equal to the overburden
pressure at the depth of the salt formation. See Figure 2.6.14
for clarification. Although time-dependant, it is unpredictable
984

and thus salt loading should always be assumed when

designing for collapse in the production phase.
• Formation compaction - External loading due to formation
compaction should replace that resulting from annulus fluid
and cement column pressures as described above.
• Blow-out - If the casing design is to cater for a blow-out
scenario, design for full evacuation of the string to atmospheric
pressure. A realistic wear margin should be taken into account
when selecting the casing.
During drilling
Burst loads can occur during the drilling phase due to displacement
of the bore hole to hydrocarbons. There are a number of special
cases to be considered.
Flowchart 2.6.8 provides a decision tree for determining burst loads

during the drilling phase. This applies to conductor casings, surface,
intermediate casings/liners and production casings/liners that are
drilled through. See Figure 2.6.16 for clarification.
The internal pressure profile is determined by considering the worst

case internal pressure loading which is that following a complete loss
of primary control corresponding to full displacement of the casing to
985

gas and the well closed-in at surface. The internal pressure profile
may be constructed as follows (refer to Figure 2.6.17):
• Assume a gas gradient taken from the pore pressure at TD. If

the gas-water contact (GWC) in the structure is known, the
chosen gradient should be assumed to originate from this
depth.
• Where more information is available about the behaviour of
the hydrocarbon phase, a field-specific gas gradient should be
used.
• When hydrocarbons with a very low gas/oil ratio are
encountered, the relevant oil gradient may be used. Although
hydrocarbons with a medium gas/oil ratio will separate out
once the well is shut in, it is very difficult to quantify a realistic
internal pressure profile for this case. Hence, the approach for
the worst case internal pressure loading described above
should be used.
• The resultant pressure at the casing shoe should be compared
with the formation breakdown pressure (FBP) at that depth. If
the pressure is in excess of the highest anticipated FBP the
internal pressure profile should be reduced accordingly. The
hydrocarbon gradient will then extend upwards from this
986

highest anticipated FBP at the casing shoe. Special cases are

as follows (for more details refer to the CDG):
It should be noted that this is a different load case to that used for
determining the casing setting depth during the preliminary design
phase which assumed a limited (controlled) influx. Care should be
taken to avoid the popular confusion between these two load
cases.
• Over-pressured aquifer in bore hole below casing - Design for

an internal pressure profile of that due to full displacement of
the well bore to formation water, with the well closed in at
surface. The pressure calculations are based on a pressure line
with the formation-water gradient, drawn upwards from pore
pressure at the top of the aquifer.
• Salt loading - As this is a time-dependent phenomenon and
since its onset cannot be accurately predicted, it should be
assumed absent when calculating the external pressure profile
for a burst scenario. This is the opposite of the rule given
for collapse load cases.
During production
987

Burst loading during the production phase will generally depend on

whether the load "source" is above or below the production packer.
Burst loads above the production packer are usually a result of tubing
failure. There are, however, a number of special cases to be
considered. The internal pressure profile is determined by considering
the worst case internal pressure loading which is that following a
tubing failure. The internal pressure profile may be constructed as
follows (refer to Figure 2.6.18):
Figure 2.6.18: Production phase production tubing failure
• Above the production packer, the maximum internal pressure

profile experienced by the production casing will be that
resulting from a leak in the production/injection tubing or
988

test string at or near the surface. The appropriate surface

pressure (CITHP for production wells and ITHP for injection
wells) will then be imposed on the packer fluid. The gradient of
the pressure line is determined by the density of the fluid
between the tubing and the casing at the time.
• Below the production packer, the internal pressure profile for a
production well is that corresponding to full displacement of
this section of the casing to hydrocarbons. Worst case pressure
calculations should be based on a pressure line with gas
gradient extending from the pressure at TD (or higher if
resulting in a greater load). For an injection well, or wells
where stimulation treatment may be performed, the internal
pressure profile below the packer should be that resulting from
injection operations.
Gas-lift wells - The most severe internal pressure loading above the
packer is that generated during the kick-off process, when the kick-
off pressure is applied to the top of the packer fluid.
Gas-lift pressure on intermediate casing - A leak in the production

casing may impose the lift-gas injection pressure on the annulus fluid
989

column between the production casing and the intermediate casing.

Special attention should be paid to the internal pressure profile for
this latter casing in sub-sea well design where control of this pressure
is not possible.
Salt loading - As this is a time-dependent phenomenon and since its

onset cannot be accurately predicted, it should be assumed absent
when calculating the external pressure profile for a burst scenario.
Pressure Testing
Although the CDG states that the load case due to pressure testing
the casing should only be considered under the installation loads it is
suggested that it should also be considered when analysing the
pressure loads. The objective of the casing pressure test is to verify
that each casing can withstand the maximum anticipated burst loads.
Thus the pressure test should, in principle, exceed the greatest
predicted loads during both drilling and production, i.e. the combined
BLL. Pressure testing is therefore likely to be the most severe burst
load applied to the casing.
Conventionally, this pressure test is performed directly after bumping

of the top plug when the cement slurry has been displaced and while
the cement is still soft. However, pressure testing the casing to the
990

expected wellhead pressure with the cement displacement fluid

inside the casing can lead to pressures being exerted that exceed the
rating of the lower sections of the casing or of the cement plugs.
Therefore in some cases, it will be necessary design a more
complicated pressure test using a retrievable packer set at selected
depths, pressure testing the casing in stages in order to verify its
integrity. Due to the risk of damaging the cement, this pressure test
programme may be restricted to only above the top of cement,
relying on the initial pressure test on bumping the cement plugs (and
the presence of the cement) to imply the integrity of the cemented
casing. Certainly, the bottom 80 m (250 ft) of the casing or liner shall
not be pressure tested once the cement has set in order to avoid
damage to the cement at the casing shoe.
EP89-1500, the Pressure Control Manual, states that the maximum

recommended test pressure shall be 75% of the casing internal yield
pressure, i.e. 75% of the burst rating. However this may be
contradicted by the need to pressure test the casing to the maximum
possible design load of 91% of the burst rating (applying the design
factor of 1.1 for burst - see Topic 6.3.6). Exceeding this 75% limit
may be done at the judgement of the well designer and operator,
following the local OU standards and policies. This decision will often
991

depend on the risks involved in pressure testing against the risk and
consequences of not doing so.
1.6.3.1.2 INSTALLATION LOADS
At this stage in the design process, the casing string will have been
designed to withstand the anticipated collapse and burst loads. It
should now be checked against the loads that will be experienced
during the installation of this pressure vessel and against the loads
experienced during cementation and pressure testing. Such loads are
calculated on the basis that the string is fixed (suspended) at surface
but free to move at the shoe.
These loads generate 3-dimensional principal stresses - axial (σa),

radial (σr) and tangential (σt) (also called hoop) that are classically
modelled as shown in Figure 2.6.19.
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Figure 2.6.19: Stresses in casing wall
These loads are briefly defined below with the resulting stresses
indicated in brackets:
• Self weight (in air) loads (influences sa). The load imposed on
the string by gravitational effects. This load depends on the
weight per unit length of the string and the suspended vertical
length below a point along the pipe axis.
• Pressure (buoyancy) loads (influences sa, sr, st). The pressure
load, which results when casing is submerged in the drilling
993

fluid, drilling fluid and/or cement. This load will depend on the
density of the fluid(s) in which the casing is submerged, the
presence of any applied surface pressures and the vertical
depth of the casing.
• Bending loads (influences sa). Stresses generated by bending
the pipe through any curved portion of the hole. Such stresses
will be tensile in the outer or convex wall and compressive in
the inner or concave wall.
• Dynamic drag loads (influences sa and torsion t). The result of
sliding resistance between the casing and the bore hole wall.
The velocity profile at the point of contact results in axial and
tangential drag force components. Hence, drag loads may
result in torsional and axial stresses.
• Shock loads (influences sa). Stresses as a result of shock
waves generated when a casing that is being run into the hole
is suddenly obstructed at a point somewhere along the casing
or suddenly clears an obstruction. A similar effect occurs when
the casing is being pulled out- of-hole and is suddenly stopped.
• Point loads (influences sa, sr, st). These result from operational
activities related to pressure testing. For example, pressure
testing using retrievable packers or directly after the cement
displacement.
994

• Static drag loads (influences sa). These drag loads are the
remaining stresses after casing movement. Evaluation of these
loads requires a knowledge of the movement "history" of the
casing.
Temperature effects do not lead to additional stresses in the

installation phase since the casing is free to move at the shoe.
The casing design should be checked against the combination of

these loads that result when the string is being run, and against the
combination that result when the string is landed off. The applicable
loads during these dynamic and static phases can be determined
from the table alongside.
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The following criteria, together with the design parameters, should

be used to generate the load conditions against which the capacity of
the casing design should be checked.
• Dynamic Loads
• Static Loads
• Dynamic loads
The selected casing string should be checked to confirm that it is

capable of withstanding the sum of the principal stresses (σa, σr, σt)
within the pipe wall resulting from self weight, pressure (buoyancy),
996

bending, drag or shock. Any rotational loads (τ) which are

experienced while running the casing to its setting depth should also
be checked. Casing reciprocation/rotation during cementation is
considered part of this phase and is subjected to the same check
criteria.
The individual loads should be established applying the following

rules:
• Self weight (in air) loads - Should be calculated from the

product of nominal unit weight and the vertical projection of
the well trajectory.
• Pressure (buoyancy) loads - Should be based on the lowest
anticipated drilling fluid/cement pressure gradient and the
vertical projection of the well trajectory.
• Bending loads - Should be based on the planned rate of
curvature for a well trajectory increased with an additional
dogleg severity. This additional dogleg severity value should be
based on local OU-specific experience. In the absence of such
knowledge an additional dogleg severity of 0·67°/10 m (2°/100
ft), above the planned value of rate of curvature for any point
in the well trajectory, should be used.
• Dynamic drag loads - should be estimated for both running and
997

pulling casing. Additional rotation of casing strings introducing

a torsional load should also be estimated. These should be
estimated using computer applications using OU-specific values
of "friction factor". In the absence of local OU-specific
knowledge on friction factors to establish these loads, the
advice should be sought on the correct application of default
values from the computer application supplier (try the on-line
Help first).
• Shock loads - should be calculated from the peak casing
running velocity which is assumed to be one and a half times
the average casing running speed. In the absence of OU-
specific information on average running speeds an average
running speed of 13 seconds per 12 m (40 ft) joint, giving a
peak velocity of 1·4 m/sec (4·5 ft/sec), should be used. If such
loads are found to be excessive, the casing running speed
should be reduced accordingly, rather than adjusting the
casing design. Do not forget to pass on such limitations of the
design to the well constructor as part of the design intent
contained in the well programme.
998

A "friction factor" is a factor used when modelling drill string

dynamics and accounts for many variables (approximately 10)
including drilling fluid-type, hole tortuosity, and "coefficient of
friction" between the drill string and the casing/open hole. It is not
the same as the "coefficient of friction" which is simply the ideal
relationship between two specific bodies separated by a specific
fluid.
When considering how to combine these loads, it is possible that

shock and drag loads act in the opposite direction even though they
may occur at the same time. For example, while running in, the drag
force gives rise to a compressive load, while a surface shock load
caused by kicking in the slips will give rise to a tensile shock load. On
the other hand a compressive shock load, caused by running into a
ridge with the casing shoe, will be damped out rapidly due to the
high wall contact forces that exist in those parts of the casing which
experience high drag loads. As a result, shock and drag loads can be
considered to be mutually exclusive and the larger of the two should
be used in calculating the total dynamic load.
In summary, the maximum expected axial load during the dynamic

phase of the installation phase is the greater of:
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Self weight (in air) load or Self weight (in air) load
+ +
Pressure (buoyancy) load Pressure (buoyancy) load
+ +
Bending load Bending load
+ +
Dynamic drag load Shock load
The pressure related radial (σr) and tangential (σt) stresses are
usually low compared to the axial stress (σa). However, for
completeness they may be analysed using the computer application
referred to in Topic 6.1.4.5 to derive the von Mises equivalent stress
(σVME).
• Static loads
The casing string designed as described above should be checked for

ability to withstand the loads resulting from the combination self
weight, pressure (buoyancy), bending and static drag loads. The
resultant stresses generated by any point loads arising during
pressure testing should also be checked.
The self-weight, pressure (buoyancy), and bending loads should be
1000

analysed as described in earlier in this Topic. The static drag load is

not well known. The design factor, as discussed in Topic 6.3.6, takes
this unknown into account. The point (pressure) loads should be
analysed for:
• Any pre-cementation pressure test load (against a retrievable

packer);
• Any post-cementation pressure test load (against the sealed
float shoe).
In summary the maximum expected axial load (σa) during the static
phase of the installation phase is the greater of:
Self weight (in air) load or Self weight (in air) load
+ +
Pressure (buoyancy) load Pressure (buoyancy) load
+ +
Bending load Bending load
+ +
Point load due to pre- Point load due to post-

cementation pressure test cementation pressure test
The pressure related radial stress (σr) and tangential stresses (σt) are
1001

mostly low compared to the axial stress (σa). However, for

completeness they may be analysed to derive the equivalent stress
(σVME).
Especially for the larger OD casing strings, the post-cementation

collapse load should be evaluated.
1.6.3.1.3 SERVICE LOADS
The initial casing design performed when analysing the pressure

loads (Topic 6.3.1.1) is not an accurate reflection of the service
loads, as it assumes that the casing string is not fixed at either end.
Obviously, as the pressure loads occur once the casing has been
cemented it would be more appropriate to model the pressure loads
acting casing with both ends axially constrained.
It must be ensured that the incremental stresses (∆σa, ∆σt, ∆σr) in

the pipe body resulting from changes in pressure, temperature and
applied point loads relative to the as-cemented condition (σa, σt, σr),
must not cause the casing to fail. Also instability, i.e. occurrence of
buckling, should be investigated as its consequences in terms of
additional stresses (∆σa) or through-bore obstruction for future
operations should be evaluated and corrected.
1002

For the uniaxial analysis, calculation of the resulting incremental axial

force will enable the total actual axial force to be compared with the
pipe axial capacity. Also the reduced axial force, Fa*, as introduced in
Topic 6.3.5, can then be compared to the critical buckling force. The
collapse and burst loads can be compared to the uniaxial collapse
and burst capacities as documented in API Bull 5C3. For the more
advanced analysis the equivalent stress (σVME) should be compared to
the yield strength (σy).
The following paragraphs describe the pressure, temperature, and

point loads that may result in incremental stresses for which a design
check is required.
• Pressure Loads
• Temperature Loads
• Point Loads
• Pressure loads
The following actual axial forces acting should be considered:
• The axial force within both uncemented and cemented sections

of the casing should be re-calculated for the burst and collapse
load cases as established in the initial pressure load design.
1003

• The axial force resulting from anticipated changes to the as-

cemented internal and external fluid densities should be
calculated e.g. increased internal fluid density for deeper
drilling, reduced external fluid density due to drilling fluid
deterioration with time.
• The axial force resulting from anticipated changes to the as-
cemented internal and external surface pressures must be
calculated e.g. increased external surface pressure due to a
live annulus, increased internal surface pressure due to a
pressure test against a retrievable packer.
The following should be considered from the perspective of

generating high collapse and/or burst loads:
• If, in the initial design, the poor cement bond scenario was
used in the collapse load case, the possibility of a live annulus
has already been taken into account. If however, the good
cement bond scenario was adopted, but possible annulus
pressures are to be catered for, a check should be made of the
maximum allowable annulus pressure. Depending upon this
pressure, a judgement must be made between design of the
casing and control measures i.e. bleed-off of any such
pressures. Also possible leak-off at the casing shoe will limit
1004

the pressure development in the annulus under consideration.

Possible burst of the outer casing and collapse of the inner
casing should be addressed under such circumstances.
• Some well servicing operations e.g. stimulation treatments,
result in a considerable increase in the bottom-hole pressure.
Any communication path behind the pipe will allow possible
pressurisation to extend outside the zone that is directly
affected. This may result in a collapse load being applied to
any casing section which is not itself internally pressured, e.g.
casing above the packer or bridge plug. It is therefore
advisable that the design of the production casing, to be set
across the reservoir subject to stimulation operations, is
checked for ability to withstand these pressures.
In order to account for buckling the reduced axial forces should be

determined:
• The value of reduced axial force, Fa*, in the uncemented

section resulting from changes in pressure as mentioned in this
topic under actual axial forces should be checked against the
critical buckling force (see Topic 6.3.5).
• Temperature loads
1005

The following actual axial forces acting should be considered:
• The axial force within both cemented and uncemented sections

of the casing, resulting from linear thermal expansion caused
by a change in temperature of the casing material. In
particular, the forces generated by injecting cold fluids can be
considerable. The effect of wellhead thermal growth (i.e.
vertical movement of the wellhead) for offshore platform wells
should also be taken into account.
• The axial force resulting from thermal expansion of fluids
contained in sealed annuli should be determined. Whether the
casing should be designed to withstand these loads will depend
on the ability to bleed off these pressures. Such pressures will
not return once bled off. This in contrast to pressures caused
by a live annulus.
Collapse and burst loads should be examined for the following:
• Collapse and burst loads resulting from thermal expansion of

fluids contained in sealed annuli. Whether the casing should be
designed to withstand these loads will depend on the ability to
bleed off these pressures. Such pressures will not return once
bled off. This in contrast to pressures caused by a live annulus.
1006

Possible burst of the outer casing and collapse of the inner

casing should be addressed under such circumstances.
The following should be investigated for its effect on the reduced

axial forces:
• The value of the reduced axial force in the uncemented section

resulting from temperature changes as mentioned above
should be checked against the critical buckling force.
• Point loads
The following point loads should be considered:
• The most common example of a point load is that due to a

production packer set in the production casing to which a load
is applied by landing the tubing in compression/tension. The
resulting actual axial force, both above and below the
production packer, should be checked.
• A pressure test with a retrievable packer does not only
introduce pressure loads onto the casing but also a change in
the axial stress. The resulting axial stress, both above and
below the retrievable packer should be checked.
• One particular form of a point load is the surface loading on to
1007

the conductor casing of any well. The applied load is the

weight of the inner casing strings, the wellhead and BOP or
christmas tree and the completion tubulars.
• The value of the reduced axial force in the uncemented section
resulting from point loads as mentioned in this topic should be
checked against the critical buckling force (refer to Topic
6.3.5).
1.6.3.2 LOAD DETERMINATION
This section presents the methods for calculating the magnitude of

the loads imposed on the casing as a result of the various load cases
described in Topic 6.3.1. The structure of this topic follows the
overall structure of the casing design process that was illustrated in
Flowchart 2.6.5.
Pressure loads and installation loads are addressed independently

using uniaxial stress analysis. The service loads are calculated by
determining the tangential, radial, and axial stresses in the cemented
(restrained) casing string and performing a triaxial stress analysis.
For a thorough worked example of detailed casing design (including

load determination), the reader is referred to the example provided in
1008

the CDG, which should be considered to be part of this Distance

Learning Package.
Load determination for the specific cases of stove pipes, foundation

piles, marine conductors and conductor strings is also addressed.
1.6.3.2.1 PRESSURE LOADS
Internal and external pressure profiles are generally independent and

comparison of the two results in either a collapse load line or in a
burst load line. In the following paragraphs the methods to quantify
the relevant loads will be presented highlighting important principles
many of which are common to both collapse and burst.
Although the principles for determining the external pressure profile

are the same for both collapse and burst, it is unlikely that identical
external pressure profiles would be assumed for both collapse and
burst loads as the worst case option would be selected for each, i.e.
the highest external pressure profile for collapse and the lowest for
burst.
• Collapse load
The collapse load at any vertical depth, z, is the difference between
1009

the external pressure and the internal pressure at that depth:
Pc(z) = Pe(z) - Pi(z) for: Pe > Pi where: Pe = external pressure

Pi = internal pressure
When represented graphically, this is termed the Collapse Load Line

(CLL) and can have one gradient or may be composed of sections
with different gradients, i.e. derived form a combination of load cases
to create the worst case CLL that the entire casing string may be
subject to.
This expression is simple and easy to calculate at any depth but is

different to the expression for collapse load defined in API Bull 5C3
which is:
Pc(z) = Pe(z) - Pi(z){1-2(t/d)} where: d = casing outside diameter

t = casing wall thickness
You will note that for depths where Pi = 0 the two expressions are
the same but at depths where Pi > 0, the "pressure difference"
method is an under-estimate of the API collapse load.
This difference is due to the effect of the pressure loading on the

cross-sectional area of the casing, for example if Pe = Pi = 34,500
kPa (5,000psi), there is in fact a slight collapse load on the casing
1010

due to the differential cross sectional area external/internal.
However, in practice the collapse pressure load can be approximated

by the differential pressure loading across the casing, as the worst
case collapse load is normally at depth above the fluid evacuation
level inside the casing, i.e. Pi = 0, and in this case the two
expressions are equal and therefore the approximation is valid. This
simplifies the calculations to be made by the casing designer.
Computer applications are able to model the API collapse load
calculation at all depths.
• Burst load
The burst load at any vertical depth, z, is the difference between the
internal pressure and the external pressure at that depth.
Pb(z) = Pi(z) - Pe(z) for Pi > Pe
When represented graphically, this is termed the Burst Load Line

(BLL) and the resulting line can have one gradient or may be
composed of sections with different gradients, i.e. derived form a
combination of load cases to create the worst case BLL that the
entire casing string may be subject to.
In the case of burst, API Bull 5C3 does define the burst load as being
1011

the differential pressure loading across the casing, i.e. Pi - Pe.
As with collapse load, there is the "loaded area" effect, but in the
case of burst, the differential pressure calculation is an over-estimate
of the true burst load.
• Formation load
Laterally moving formations, such as salt, exert a collapse loading on

casing. The loading is generally modelled as a uniform fluid pressure
load adjacent to the relevant formations only, with a pressure equal
to the overburden pressure. No account is taken of the non-
uniformity of these types of loads.
Near-vertical formation loads, such as compaction are complex and

usually estimated using computer models.
See Topic 6.4.1 for more details about both these cases.
1.6.3.2.2 INSTALLATION LOADS
Loads, which are relevant for the installation phase are made up of
some or all of the following. Topic 6.3.1.2 introduced these loads and
stated which should be combined for the dynamic and the static load
determination. The following states methods for quantifying the
1012

relevant loads. It is rare, however, that these calculations are

performed manually by the casing designer with the availability of
competent computer applications (see Topic 6.1.4.5):
• Self-weight (in air)
The self weight (in air) load is the load imposed on the casing string
by gravitational effects. It is shown in the CDG that for any type of
well trajectory (vertical, straight inclined and curved), the axial force
at any point is the nominal weight multiplied by the true vertical
length of the casing below that point:
Fa(z) = Wn (ZL-z)
where: Fa(z) = axial force at TV depth z
Wn = nominal weight of casing
ZL = TVD of section
• Pressure (buoyancy)
The contribution of the pressure loads to the axial force can be

calculated from the vertical projection of the well. This topic is fully
addressed in the CDG where it is demonstrated that for any type of
well trajectory (vertical, straight inclined and curved), the axial force
1013

at any point can be calculated from considering the vertical projection

of the well:
FB = [PeAe - PiAi]L
where: FB = pressure (buoyancy) load
L = measured length of the section
Ae = external cross-sectional area
Ai = internal cross-sectional area
[ ]L = denotes that terms are at L
Therefore the axial force including buoyancy is given by:
Fa(z) = Wn (ZL -z) - [PeAe - PiAi]L
• Bending load
Bending effects axial force by increasing tension in the outer convex

casing wall and by reducing tension in the inner concave wall. By the
principle of superposition, the axial force caused by bending can be
added to those due to
Self-weight (in air) and pressure (buoyancy) loads.
The equivalent additional axial force due to bending loads is
1014

independent of well inclination and is calculated by:
Fb = 183x106 Do ϕ As {N} Fb = 218 Do ϕ As {lb}
where: Do = casing outside diameter {m or inch}
j = dogleg severity {°/10 m or °/100 ft}
As = casing wall cross-sectional area {m2 or inch2}
• Dynamic load
The dynamic drag loads should be estimated using the latest

computer applications available to all OUs (see Topic 6.1.4.5).
The total friction force, Ffric, is the integrated product of the total
force normal to the axis of the casing at a given point, Fn, and the
coefficient of friction, µ, at that point. The direction of the total
friction force is opposite to the direction of movement of the string.
Friction is a vector force and thus may act axially (as when tripping),
tangentially (as when rotating) or a combination of the two (as when
rotating in or out of hole). In the majority of casing design
applications rotation will not be present, and hence the total friction
force will act entirely in the axial direction. This is usually called drag.
When the pipe is rotated only, as for a liner cementation with a
1015

rotating liner hanger, the total friction force will be manifested as

torque at surface. There is no axial drag force because there is no
movement in the axial direction once the liner hanger is set.
• Shock load
The velocity of the shock wave is equal to the speed of sound in steel
and the stress associated with this shock wave results in an
additional axial force.
The highest possible additional axial force in the pipe due to the
shock load can be approximated to (assuming peak velocity = 1.5 x
average):
Fs = 6.1x107 Vav As {N} Fs = 2,700 Vav As {lb}
where: Vav = average casing running speed {m/s or ft/s}
j = dogleg severity {°/10 m or °/100 ft}
As = casing wall cross-sectional area {m2 or inch2}
This analysis gives a conservative estimate since it assumes a

deceleration of the casing string in an infinitely short time. In reality
this will not be the case since the object that stops the casing will
always have some degree of flexibility.
1016

• Point load
Consider the situation where a packer has been set on drill pipe in a
casing string.
Below the point load location the axial force would be given (as
before) by:
Fa(z) = Wn (ZL -z) -FB
If an upward load is then applied to the packer the axial force in the
casing above the packer is given by:
Fa(z) = Wn (ZL -z) -FB - Wp
where
Wp = upward load applied to packer
If a surface test pressure is applied across the full internal cross-

sectional area above a packer, the axial force in the casing above the
point load is:
Fa(z) = Wn (ZL - z) -FB+ Pt.Ai
where :
1017

Pt = surface test pressure
Ai = full internal cross-sectional area
• Static drag
This area of analysis is complex and at present can only be

performed by computerised numerical techniques (see Topic 6.1.4.5).
• Temperature load
If an element of casing is subjected to a temperature increase the

element will expand. Since the change in temperature will generally
be different for each element the incremental expansions must be
integrated over the entire length of the casing to find the total
change in length. During installation of a casing, changes in
temperature will not generate additional axial loads as the casing has
free ends.
Integrating over the whole length to find the length change:
where: a = coefficient of linear expansion
1018

gi = thermal gradient of the hole
L = whole length of casing
• Maximum installation load
For each point along the string, it must be confirmed that the casing
can accommodate the maximum force that the string at that point
will have seen during installation. This is best achieved by
considering self-weight, buoyancy, and bending first, and then
adding shock or drag loads later by the principle of superposition.
It should also be borne in mind that the point of greatest installation

load is not necessarily at TD of the hole section as it depends on
doglegs and casing weights. Thus the installation load calculations
should be performed at several running depths especially at major
casing and open hole transitions points. This is especially important
for the running of liners through high build-up sections into straight
inclined sections. This is another reason for using a computer to
assist with the design calculations.
1.6.3.2.3 SERVICE LOADS
The previous section presented the methods to quantify the

installation and as-landed loads. This section presents methods
1019

to quantify changes in stress in the cemented casing due to

departure from the as-cemented conditions caused by changes in
pressure and temperature. This allows the casing designer to model
the casing throughout the complete well life-cycle.
The resulting changes in stress should be added to the as-cemented

stress to result in a new stress state. The as-cemented stress state
should be calculated using the casing weight and pressures resulting
from fluid columns present at the end of the casing cementation.
It will be clear that the manual solution of these problems is

cumbersome and once again, this is a task best performed by
computer under the control of the casing designer (see Topic
6.1.4.5).
• Changes in tangential stress
The tangential stress, σt, is solely dependent on the internal and

external pressures. As a result, change in this stress, can only result
from pressure changes. Thus, from the Lamé equations:
1020

• Changes in radial stress
The radial stress, σr, is also solely dependent on the internal and
external pressures. As a result, change in this stress, can only result
from pressure changes. Thus, from the Lamé equations again:
• Changes in axial stress
The equations controlling the change in axial stress in a partially

cemented casing string due to a departure from the as-cemented
conditions are too long and complicated for inclusion in this
document. It suffices to state that they are dependant on certain
assumptions about the cemented conditions and are defined
separately for both the cemented and uncemented intervals
depending on the following variables (details can be found in the
CDG):
• Increase in internal pressure with fluid density and/or surface

pressure - due to fluid densities being increased for deeper
drilling or a pressure test being carried out once the cement
has set, prior to drilling out the shoe.
• Increased internal pressure due to pressure test with
1021

retrievable packer set above the top of cement.

• Reduction in internal pressure due to (partial) evacuation or
reduced fluid density.
• Increase in external pressure with annulus pressure - usually
resulting from a live annulus.
• Reduction in external pressure with reduced annulus fluid level
or fluid density - for example due to drilling fluid solids
settlement.
• Temperature-induced change in axial stress - due to two
concurrent effects: firstly, increased stresses due to steel linear
expansion effects, and secondly, fluid pressure increase in
sealed casing annuli.
• Point-load-induced changes in axial stress - for example due to
a tubing compressive or tensile load to a Annular Safety Valve,
suspension packer or production packer set in the casing.
1.6.3.2.4 LOADS ON STOVE PIPES, FOUNDATION PILES, MARINE

CONDUCTORS AND CONDUCTOR STRINGS
The load determination for a stove pipe, foundation pile or marine

conductor can be a complex issue. This determination is usually
followed by specialised stress analysis resulting in the involvement of
the local or SIEP Structural Engineering department. For first-pass
1022

analysis the computer applications recommended in Topic 6.1.4.5

should be used.
The load determination and related stress analysis for a conductor

casing is less complex, but still requires a good knowledge of the
boundary conditions. This topic will touch on some of the issues
involved.
• Stove-pipe, foundation pile or marine-conductor design
For land wells, the stove pipe is usually driven or cemented to

surface. Without a landing plate, such strings then carry the buoyant
weight of the conductor casing until the cement is set and the
landing ring removed. The weight of all subsequent inner strings,
wellhead, BOP, christmas tree and any tubing-to-packer force is
taken by the conductor casing. Shear forces between the conductor
casing and the cement will transmit loads to the stove pipe.
For sub-sea wells, the foundation pile is usually cemented to sea bed.
Therefore these strings might be considered as a rigid foundation,
which will permanently carry the total buoyant weight of inner
strings, the wellhead, the BOP, the christmas tree, and any tubing to
packer force.
1023

For offshore wells with surface wellheads, a marine conductor is

installed to protect the other casings from lateral environmental
loading. The marine conductor is usually not designed to withstand
the axial loads carried by the conductor casing. In order to prevent
lateral loads being transferred from the marine conductor to the
conductor casing and axial loads being transferred from the
conductor casing to the marine conductor, the conductor casing
should not be cemented above sea bed or mud line suspension
system, if present.
• Axial load and strain in conductor casing
In addition to the pressure vessel design criteria, the conductor

casing is usually subjected to axial loading, caused by the weight of
subsequent casings, BOPs, tubing and christmas tree. Also, the
implications of possible future work-over operations, such as the
compressive loads generated by snubbing units, should be
considered.
These compressive forces should be investigated to see if they cause

yielding or buckling. The wellhead settlement (compression)
calculation is also required to check whether interference will occur
with the stationary surrounding structures as for example marine
1024

conductor or well bay area.
Because of the distinct difference in length of the uncemented

sections between land/sub-sea wellhead systems and platform/mud
line wellhead systems they are addressed separately:
• Land wells or wells with sub-sea wellheads (no free-standing

conductor string) - the conductor casing is cemented over its
entire length but is not directly supported by the stove pipe.
The conductor casing alone will carry the total buoyant weight
of the inner strings, wellhead, BOP, christmas tree and any
tubing-to-packer force.
• Offshore wells with surface wellheads (with free-standing
conductor string) - the conductor casing is not entirely
cemented and the uncemented portion will initially compress
elastically. Any such compression will transfer some of the total
load to the inner strings. The loads applied to the conductor
string and any inner strings must be known in order to check
the ability of each string, but particularly the conductor string,
to withstand them. The resulting wellhead movement must be
predicted to ensure sufficient clearance when designing the
wellhead area of the platform. The load distribution between
the strings can be simply calculated by considering the
1025

behaviour of the casings already in place as a set of parallel

springs. For wells with a mud line suspension system, only the
surface to sea bed tie-back section of each casing, together
with the wellhead, tubing and christmas tree loads, is
supported by the conductor casing.
Cement height for the conductor string is critical for considerations

of settlement/compression. This has been known to be over 51 cm
(20 inch) due to elastic compression of casings in the case of an
offshore well in 213 m (700 ft) of water where the 18-5/8" casing
was set at 610m (2,000 ft) but only cemented to 427 m (1,400 ft)
due to losses combined with inadequate excess cement slurry for the
hole conditions.
For offshore wells with holes in the marine conductor at the mud
line, it has been known to pump cement volumes in excess of 450%
in order to maximise the top of cement behind the conductor casing.
This cement volume was limited only by the local minimum cement
stocking policy.
1026

• Thermal growth of wellhead
The installed tubulars should be considered as a system of casing

and tubing strings which are interconnected at surface, each having
an uncemented section which is capable of undergoing linear thermal
expansion.
When the well is placed on production, there is a temperature rise in

each string causing each casing to want to expand. If all the casings
wanted to expand by the same amount, there would be no increase
in the axial load for in any casing. However, because of different
casing cross-sections and uncemented lengths, each casing wants to
expand by a different amount to the others; but due to the
interconnection at surface, each casing is forced to expand by the
same amount. The result of this is that some casings will expand less
and some more than if the casings were stand-alone.
The resulting change in axial force in each can be calculated

assuming that, for overall equilibrium of the system, the total change
in axial force for all the strings due to temperature effects, must
equal the total change in axial force for all the strings due to thermal
wellhead growth.
1027

This is based on the assumption that casing hangers are

competently locked into the wellhead. Where this is not the case, an
unseating of the casing hanger can result in the associated loss of
the annulus seal. This is particularly true for casing hangers and
pack-offs that are only located/energised by the casing load below
the hanger, in which case the casing hanger need not unseat to de-
energise the pack-off, as this can occur with a decrease in the axial
load below the casing hanger.
1.6.3.3 LOAD-BEARING CAPACITY
The uniaxial casing strengths for burst, collapse and axial loads are
defined for the casing body by the formulae given in API Bull 5C3 and
calculated ratings are presented in industry standard books such as
the Drilling Data Handbook from the Institut Français du Pétrole. The
CDG explains the background of the various API casing strength
formulae, and comparisons are drawn with triaxial stress analysis.
Some of the issues surrounding the tabulated values provided by API
Bull 5C2 are discussed.
It should be noted that the burst capacity formula for casing is based
on yield of the pipe. In fact, failure will not occur until the pipe
material reaches its ultimate strength. As a result, the capacity
1028

calculated from the minimum yield and the casing wall thickness can
be regarded as conservative.
All strengths require down-rating to account for the effects of wear,

corrosion and fatigue (see Topic 6.3.4) and for the effect of
temperature on yield strength. When performing triaxial stress
analysis, the allowable value of the von Mises equivalent stress is
usually the yield strength of the material adjusted for temperature
effects. Whenever the casing designer is dubious about a rating or
just wants confirmation, the first line of contact should always be the
casing manufacturer.
By way of example, typical values for down-rating both uniaxial

capacities and the material yield stress for the effect of temperature
are:
Yield strength
Temperature (°C) (°F)
correction factor
20 68 1·00
50 122 0·95
100 212 0·88
1029

150 302 0·84
200 392 0·81
Although this effect is obviously more significant for wells incurring

extreme temperatures, it should be accounted for in the design of all
wells. When using the computer applications referred to in Topic
6.1.4.5 this can be done automatically (even varying with
temperature/depth) using user-defined correction values. The casing
designer should not apply the above factors, but should seek detailed
information from the casing manufacturer so that an accurate
corrections can be made for the material to be used.
The casing designer should be aware that the majority of API

ratings are the minimum that the combined tolerances throughout
the whole manufacturing process will render. Therefore, if there is a
specific material need in a casing design, discussions with the
manufacturer/ supplier may lead to the casing being supplied at
tighter tolerances than the API range thereby rendering a more
predictable and hence "stronger" product. Often this can easily be
done by the manufacturers with little or no increase in cost.
Collapse failure is worthy of special note as there are two failure

modes of collapse. The casing designer needs to be aware
1030

which is applicable to his/her specific case. This can be determined

by calculating the slenderness ratio (do/t - outer diameter / thickness)
for the tubular body:
• Plastic failure - this is the conventional failure mode when the

yield stress of the material is exceeded. This mode occurs for
low do/t ratios - typically of less than 15.
• Elastic failure - this is the failure mode when the tubular
collapses due to instability before the yield stress is reached in
the body wall and is independent of the yield stress. This mode
occurs for high do/t ratios - typically of greater than 25.
It can be seen that a large transition zone exists between the two
modes of failure for which failure is less predictable. Thus API Bull
5C3 contains four different collapse formulae, and for each formula a
table is presented showing for each casing grade the do/t range for
which the formula is applicable.
1.6.3.4 CORROSION, WEAR AND FATIGUE
All three of the above factors are present in all casing strings in all
wells and can act independently to significantly influence the
resistance of a casing string. The task for the casing designer is to
determine whether each effect will be significant for his/her
1031

casing strings and should therefore anticipate, predict and account

for them during the casing design. The following introduces the
issues and suggests how they should be recognised and dealt with by
the casing designer. For more information on the subjects, the reader
should refer to the CDG.
Experience indicates that it is the wear effect that is often neglected

by the casing designer resulting in the construction of wells that are
not fit for purpose. Within the Shell Group, casing wear has led to
several blow-outs that should only have been controlled influxes.
1.6.3.4.1 INFLUENCE OF CORROSION ON CASING STRENGTH
Casing corrosion can impair the ability of the casing to perform its
functions in two ways both of which may result in the casing being
no longer able to withstand the design loads. These may occur
gradually (over several years) or suddenly (within minutes):
• Loss of metal volume reducing the wall thickness;

• Weakening the casing material reducing the resistance ratings.
In casing design there are three basic causes for corrosion that
should be considered:
• Internal casing corrosion due to reservoir fluids within the well;

1032

• Internal and external casing corrosion due to drilling,

workover, and completion fluids;
• External corrosion due to formation fluids, reservoir fluids, and
surface water.
The primary task of the casing designer is to eliminate any possible

sudden, catastrophic failure of any casing strings within the
anticipated environment. Yet again this is an example of where the
timing and accuracy of the well design information is essential to
ensure that the design is optimised and that unnecessary expense is
not incurred.
The secondary task of the casing designer is to manage the gradual

effects by seeking expert help (local OU metallurgists or SIEP) to
predict the rates of casing degradation. The effects of this on the
casing resistance ratings can then be modelled in a similar way to
casing wear using the tools referred to in Topic 6.1.4.5.
• Casing materials
Steels for use in casing are supplied by manufacturers in a wide

variety of grades. The materials can be differentiated in terms of
chemical constituents nd also in terms of method of manufacture,
specifically the heat treatment (refer to API Spec 5CT).
1033

Manufacturers also produce their own proprietary (i.e. non-API)

grades with claimed performance advantages over the equivalent API
tubulars.
Corrosion resistant alloy (CRA) casing materials often achieve the

required strength levels by cold working. Their corrosion properties
usually reflect those of the corresponding lower strength materials.
The welding of casing is a very specialised process involving both

pre- and post-weld heat treatment. Without this approach welds will
be very hard and subject to cold cracking due to hydrogen and
brittle fracture. Welding of casing should not be attempted in the
field and the practice of welding casing head housings should be
strongly discouraged.
• Common types of corrosion
The following types of corrosion should be considered and depend on

the environments - both internal and external - to which the casing
will be subjected:
• General corrosion - This is a reaction between a metal and any

corrosive well or formation fluid which leads to general, rather
than localised, metal loss.
1034

• Galvanic corrosion - This results from the differing

electrochemical potentials of different metals or different areas
of the same metal in an electrolyte which also contains a
corrosive agent such as oxygen or carbon dioxide. The
potential differences create a cathode-anode pair, and metal
loss from the anode results.
• Pitting - This results when corrosion product adheres to its
surface thus limiting further attack. Subsequent local layer
breakdown due to electrochemical effects or physical removal
can expose bare metal to the electrolyte. This exposed area
becomes anodic with respect to the protected surrounding
metal. Galvanic corrosion at these areas can cause pitting
damage.
• Differential-aeration corrosion - When different areas of a
carbon steel casing are exposed to electrolytes with different
oxygen concentrations, a galvanic cathode-anode pair is
generated and metal loss from the anode results.
• Carbon-dioxide corrosion - When CO2 dissolves in water it
leads to the attack of carbon steel through a series of complex
reactions. Temperature of exposure and the partial pressure of
CO2 play important roles in determining the degree of
corrosivity.
1035

• Hydrogen-sulphide corrosion - Hydrogen sulphide (H2S) can

produce many forms of corrosion - general attack, pitting,
hydrogen embrittlement (HE), hydrogen-induced cracking
(HIC) and sulphide-stress-corrosion cracking (SSCC). The last
three of these are all related to the uptake of hydrogen into
the metal lattice. SSCC becomes less likely to occur at
temperatures permanently above about 65°C (150°F). As well
as temperature of exposure, the partial pressure of H2S
determines the degree of corrosivity.
• Chloride-stress-corrosion cracking (SCC) - (commonly referred
to as stress corrosion cracking). This form of attack involves an
anodic corrosion process in which corrosion occurs at stress
induced failures in a passive metal surface film. The process is
stimulated by the presence of chloride ions but its propagation
requires the presence of a corrosive agent such as oxygen.
Unlike SSCC, the risk of SCC increases with increasing
temperature above a threshold of about 60°C (140°F).
• Bacterial corrosion - Sulphate reducing bacteria (SRB) can
produce hydrogen sulphide when under anaerobic (oxygen
free), sulphate containing conditions. This can happen in the
ranges of pH 5·5-9 and only at temperatures less than about
80°C (176°F).
1036

• Erosion/corrosion - Fast moving fluids and solids can strip a

metal of its protective oxide, sulphide or carbonate layer. The
exposed surface then reacts to reform this protective layer and
this cycle is repeated producing a high rate of attack.
• Intergranular corrosion - During heat treatment, either during
or after manufacture, metallurgical changes can result in a
lower corrosion resistance at material grain boundaries than in
the matrix. Exposure to a corrosive environment can then
cause intergranular attack through local galvanic corrosion
reactions.
• Prevention and control of casing corrosion
Forms of corrosion which can lead to sudden and rapid failure (SSCC,
SCC, HE) should always be designed for. When considering gradual
metal loss corrosion, engineering judgement must be used to
determine whether the extent as well as the consequences of a loss
of wall thickness justify a change in casing thickness or material.
When analysing internal corrosion of the production casing due to

produced reservoir fluids, two well bore intervals should be
considered:
• Production casing below production packer - This part is
1037

continuously exposed to the (flowing) reservoir fluids and,

unlike the production tubing, no internal corrosion inhibitor can
be applied nor can the casing be readily retrieved for
replacement. If the fluids locally lead to water wetting of the
casing material, corrosion of carbon steel will take place. To
prevent corrosion in this part of a casing the same material
selection criteria should be applied as would be used for long
life production tubing under the same conditions with expert
advice being sought.
• Production casing above production packer - Normally the
exposure time of the production casing (with an inhibited
packer fluid ) to corrosive conditions will be too short to result
in serious weight loss corrosion on the inside of the casing.
However, the result of extended exposure to produced fluids or
contamination of the packer fluid should be considered. For
beam pumped wells, oxygen contamination is a risk and
corrosion is possible.
All casing strings which may be exposed to sour gas (H2S) should
consist of material which is resistant to SSCC at the conditions in
which it will be used.
NACE (National Association of Corrosion Engineers) document MR
1038

0175-91 defines a sour gas environment as one where the total

pressure exceeds 448 kPa (65 psia) and the H2S partial pressure
exceeds 0·34 kPa (0.05 psia). The immersion of stressed, high
strength casing materials in such an environment can lead to the
rapid and sudden failure of those materials due to SSCC. The ability
of the casing material to resist SSCC increases with temperature. The
risk of SSCC therefore increases with:
• Increasing H2S partial pressure;

• Increasing steel hardness (and hence strength);
• Increasing stress (residual or applied);
• Decreasing pH of the solution;
• Decreasing temperature.
The need to design for sour service conditions will primarily depend
on the well bore pressure and the H2S concentration.
Although a maximum hardness of 22 Rockwell C is specified by

NACE, use of API grades up to and including L80, which has a
maximum hardness of 23 Rockwell C, is accepted based on
laboratory evaluation and field experience. Materials which do not
meet this hardness requirement, generally all steels with a minimum
yield strength greater than 551,600 kPa (80,000 psi), can be qualified
1039

for sour service using laboratory-based testing procedures. NACE

document TM 0177-90 describes SSCC resistance testing procedures:
• The NACE Standard Tensile Test - is the most commonly

applied. This test requires demonstration that the material is
resistant to SSCC at an applied level of tensile stress. It is the
purchaser's responsibility to specify the required stress level.
• The NACE Standard Bent Beam Test or Shell Bent Beam Test -
involves stressing the sample specimen beyond its yield
strength. A critical stress (σc) value is calculated from the test
data and is used to relate resistance to SSCC.
It is important to note that proprietary sour service materials

qualified by the NACE Standard Tensile Test method only cannot
necessarily be safely used to their full minimum yield strength under
sour conditions. It is therefore current Shell policy to require
qualification using more severe testing methods. Results of the NACE
Standard Tensile Test are not considered an adequate guide to field
performance. The Shell Bent Beam Test is currently recommended.
It is often argued that the control of drilling fluid pH or the use of

H2S scavenging drilling fluids make the use of such special casing
materials unnecessary. However, studies have shown that when the
1040

well bore is displaced to gas, drilling fluids cannot be relied upon to

prevent SSCC.
The risk of SSCC decreases with increasing temperature. As a result,

high strength, hence high hardness, materials that are not qualified
for sour service at low temperatures can be used in parts of the well
where the minimum continuous temperature exceeds 65°C (150°F).
Still higher strength materials can be used for minimum temperatures
exceeding 80°C (175°F).
The application of casing materials in sour service conditions, where

SSCC can occur, is summarised in the following SIEP approved table:
1041

Other aspects of notable concern at the design stage are:
• Internal and external corrosion due to drilling, workover and

completion fluids - particularly annuli between casing strings
(where drilling fluids or brines may degrade with time,
especially at elevated temperature) and the tubing/production-
casing annulus. In the case of a gas lift well there are two
possible sources of corrosion: the use of water wet injection
gas and the presence of a water pocket above the packer but
1042

below the injection valve.

• External corrosion due to reservoir fluids, formation fluids and
surface water particularly on the outside of casing strings
exposed to reservoir fluids - where the same considerations
apply as for the inside of production casing below the
production packer - and on the outside of casing strings
exposed to formation fluids - e.g. where a casing may be
exposed to water rich formation zones or aquifers. The primary
barrier to corrosion is adequate cementation with a suitable
cement which provides an alkaline environment next to the
steel surface.
• Conductor casings
The open annulus between the marine conductor or stove pipe
and the conductor casing inevitably becomes filled with (salt)
water which promotes oxygen corrosion on the outside of the
conductor casing and the inside of the marine conductor or
stove pipe, particularly close to the water level. Where a
marine conductor is perforated near the mud line this problem
is made worse by the inflow and outflow of oxygenated sea
water with wave and tidal movements.
• Marine conductors
A marine conductor can be divided into three zones with
1043

different environments: the zone exposed to the atmosphere,

the splash zone and the submerged zone. All zones are subject
to oxygen attack which can take the form of general corrosion
or pitting. In the zone exposed to the atmosphere above the
conductor guides, corrosion can be prevented/controlled by
painting. In the splash-zone, where corrosion is most severe
because of constant re-wetting of the steel, maintenance
coating of the conductor is difficult. In addition, coatings
cannot withstand the sliding forces as the conductor passes
through the guides and coatings applied are scraped off. Often
no coating is applied for this zone but use is made of a
substantial corrosion allowance. In the submerged zone,
corrosion is prevented by cathodic protection and allowance
should be made for the conductors in the cathodic protection
design for the platform.
• New developments
Two trends in drilling with potentially major impacts on the casing

materials used are:
• Deeper, high pressure and high temperature wells are being

drilled, the well fluids sometimes being very corrosive;
1044

• Wells being drilled in more and more remote areas and hostile
environments.
The first trend requires higher strength steel grades for casing. This
represents a problem for sour service qualified steels. The current
SIEP view is that the qualification of higher grades 689,500 kPa
(100,000 psi) and 758,450 kPa (110,000 psi) minimum yield
strength) for sour service should be based on the Standard/Shell
Bent Beam Test. It is realised that for some applications involving low
amounts of H2S this may be rather conservative.
Due to the costs of repair operations in remote areas and in hostile

environments e.g. deep sub-sea, wells in such areas should be
designed with the aim of low maintenance. If casing corrosion can be
expected, it might be economically attractive to spend more money
at the design/initial construction stage to achieve corrosion
prevention.
Although the use of Fibre-Glass Reinforced Plastic (FRP) has been

widely accepted in many surface applications, there is little
experience with the materials downhole. Theoretically the material
offers excellent opportunities for both Capex and Opex reductions
due to its light weight and corrosion resistance over the life cycle. In
1045

practice, the low pressure rating and the sensitive handling/make-up

procedures make application difficult. However, it is perceived that as
the experience with the use of the material increases and
development continues, more applications will be found.
1.6.3.4.2 INFLUENCE OF WEAR ON CASING STRENGTH
Casing wear occurs in all wells. The burst, collapse and axial
strengths of a casing are directly related to its wall thickness and
hence are reduced by wear. The task of the casing designer is to
ensure that the predicted wear will not reduce the strength of the
casing below that which will allow the well to be drilled and operated
safely. Historically this has not been done in a thoroughly competent,
engineered manner. Tools now exist to enable this to be done more
easily.
Unless there is very well documented evidence that wear is not a

problem, the amount of wear should be monitored closely during
the drilling of the well to allow comparison with predicted values so
that if it becomes excessive, appropriate action can be taken.
• Site and timing of casing wear
The major cause of casing wear is by a rotating drill string which is
1046

pulled firmly against the casing in the curved parts of the well bore
as a result of the tension in the drill string. Wear due to drill pipe
tripping, as opposed to rotating, has been calculated to represent
approximately 1% of total wear. Wear due to wireline is somewhat
greater than that of drill pipe tripping but still of the same order of
magnitude. As a result of these observations, research aimed at
understanding, reducing or eliminating casing wear has been based
almost exclusively on the study of drill pipe rotating in casing.
In deviated wells, the greatest wear will occur over the build-up,
drop-off and tangent sections - particularly in the upper sections of
the well where the drill string tension is higher - and also where
casing buckling may have occurred, i.e. at the top of cement.
In vertical wells, wear points could also develop at the top of cement
if casing buckling occurs. Otherwise, wear is likely to be small and
uniformly distributed unless there are severe local doglegs.
Deep wells are of particular concern. Firstly, drilling time increases,

increasing the time for wear. Secondly, the longer drill strings will
cause greater tension and thus generate higher contact forces.
Wear is often found in the casing joints just below the hanger. This is
thought to be caused by misalignment of the rotary table relative to
1047

the wellhead and less than perfect alignment of casing and wellhead
housings. It is aggravated by the high tension in the drill pipe
resulting in high contact loads. A larger wear design margin for 5-10
casing joints just below the hanger may be considered to counteract
the reduction in wall thickness. It is also important to ensure that the
casing housing, wear bushing, casing hanger, and the first few joints
below the hanger have a common internal diameter.
• Effect of wear on different types of casing strength
The collapse capacity of worn casing is directly related to the

remaining wall thickness. The collapse capacity should be calculated
by using the minimum remaining wall thickness in the appropriate
collapse formula from API Bull 5C3. Since the wall thickness is not
usually reduced in a uniform manner, use of the minimum value will
give a conservative estimate of the remaining capacity. The stress
concentration that may arise from wireline wear does not affect
collapse resistance.
The burst capacity of worn casing is proportional to the remaining

wall thickness and should be calculated from the burst formula in API
Bull 5C3 using the minimum wall thickness. This typically applies to
drill pipe generated wear. For wireline wear, the reduction in burst
1048

pressure is the result of two factors. The first is the reduction due to
the reduced wall thickness and the second is due to the stress
concentration resulting from the sudden change in geometry.
The axial strength of casing is the product of the material yield

strength and the cross-sectional area of the steel. Any uniform or
localised reduction in wall thickness will effect it. However, the effect
of a given localised reduction in wall thickness on collapse and burst
capacity will be much more severe than on the axial load capacity.
The axial strength of connections are also calculated based on cross-

sectional areas. The axial strength of an internally worn connection
should be calculated using the formulas given in API Bull 5C3 for
round thread, buttress thread and extreme line connections based on
the maximum internal diameter of the pin. For premium connections,
the calculation of remaining strength will vary with connection type
and the manufacturer should be consulted.
1049

Using the computer applications referred to in Topic 6.1.4.5, the

effect of wear on these casing capacities can be accounted for in
order to meet defined loads. Thus it is possible to design casing for
a specific wear (percentage or thickness) or to calculate what wear
is acceptable for a given design varied throughout the casing length.
The intelligent user should not apply a constant wear allowance
throughout the casing length as wear tends to be non-uniform.
Wear prediction computer applications should be used to assist the
designer.
• Wear mechanisms
Wear is the result of a complex tribological process taking place in

the contact area between the drill string and the casing, with drilling
fluid generally present as the intermediate medium.
Contact between drill string and casing can occur at the drill pipe tool
joint and along the drill pipe body. In most cases wear due to pipe
body rotation will be negligible. The main point of contact between
the drill string and the casing will be the drill pipe tool joints.
• Modelling and predicting the wear process
The aim of wear modelling is to be able to predict where casing wear
1050

will occur and how severe it will be. The technique most commonly
adopted is to modify theoretical models, usually by the use of
empirical wear factors, so that they match field and laboratory
observations.
Despite the differing views between research establishments, there is

general agreement that casing wear models have to take into
account the following:
• Magnitude of the tool joint to casing contact pressure;

• Geometry of the contacting surfaces;
• Relative roughness of the contacting surfaces;
• Material of the contacting surfaces;
• Magnitude of the relative velocity and the time the mating
surfaces contact;
• Drilling fluid composition.
Casing material grade has been shown to have little effect on the
rate of casing wear. As a result, when designing the casing for burst
and collapse, an increase in wall thickness is preferable to an
increase in grade from the perspective of wear resistance.
The currently recommended wear modelling computer application is
1051

defined in Topic 6.1.4.5
• Controlling casing wear
Control of wear can be done at two phases:
• During the design of the well, leading to wear elimination;

• During the construction of the well, resulting in wear reduction.
Casing wear is primarily affected by contact load, tool joint hard

facing type and condition, drilling fluid properties and wear track
length. Elimination or reduction of casing wear therefore must
concentrate on these four factors. These should be considered as a
suite of techniques to reduce wear to an acceptable level:
• Contact load - Wear will be proportional to contact load which

can be minimised in a number of ways:
Æ Well path selection - ensure that dogleg severities in the

build and drop sections of deviated wells are as low as
possible and that localised drilled doglegs in vertical or
straight sections are avoided. While the well is being
drilled, the actual well path can be similarly analysed.
Æ Drill pipe protectors - used to distribute the contact load
over a larger area. Conventionally these were attached
1052

to, and rotated with, the drill string. These are not
considered to be effective because as the protector
becomes impregnated with sand it will start to add to
casing wear. Recently non-rotating drill pipe protectors
(NRDPP) have been introduced - notably by Western
Well Tool. OU experience to date with these is very
positive. It is hoped that other suppliers will soon follow
with similar products thus reducing costs. NRDPPs can
assist to significantly reduce the magnitude of the
casing wear.
Care should be taken to observe for failure of NRDPP as once one

falls off, others tend to follow and this can be catastrophic.
Hard facing of tool joints - this is the condition that, when incorrect,
generates the majority of casing wear and it is thus where the
greatest improvement can be made. Rough tool joint hard facing is
the most dominant cause of catastrophic casing wear, and hence it
must not be used inside casing. Only smooth (machined or field
worn) hard facing is acceptable and the drilling contract must specify
quantitatively the smoothness of the hard facing. In the past,
common practice has been to run drill pipe with new rough hard
1053

facing exclusively in open hole to wear-in the hard facing. However,

besides the complicated pipe handling, a judgement must still be
made as to when the hard facing is smooth enough. Such practices
are therefore not recommended. Acceptable hard facing materials are
given in the CDG and have also been the subject of numerous DENs.
All other hard facing materials should be considered as unacceptable.
Considering two aspects of breaking-in of new drill pipe - i.e. the

breaking-in of the tool-joints and their initial hours of rotation
smoothing any roughness in the hard-facing - either arrange for it to
be performed in someone else's well or have drill pipe supplied
broken-in (refer to SQAIR). Do not let it be done in your well as it is
both time consuming and results in high wear. If it can not be
avoided, then manage your drill pipe inventory so that the
new/rough pipe is used in open hole only.
• Drilling fluids - The application of smooth hard facing with oil-

base drilling fluids and weighted water-base drilling fluids
results in "low" wear due to the development of a protective
film. The absence of this protective film causes rapid casing
wear. Rotating hours in unweighted water-base drilling fluids
and also in brine should therefore be limited unless effective
1054

lubricants are used.

• Wear-track length (WTL) - The volume of wear is proportional
to the rotary cutting distance or wear track length. This length
is a function of the tool joint dimensions, the drill string
rotational speed, the number of rotating hours and the rate of
penetration. For a given rate of penetration, the casing wear
can only be minimised by reducing the rotation speed or by
reducing the number of rotating hours. This is best achieved
by use of a downhole motor so that it is not necessary to
rotate the drill string. Consideration should also be given to
possible severe casing wear while drilling out cementing plugs.
Plugs which have a tendency to rotate should be avoided
wherever possible because this can lead to a significant
amount of time rotating the drill pipe at the same depth.
• Designing for wear
During the detailed casing design, an objective of the casing designer

is to predict the casing wear for each casing string (varying with
depth) and use that predicted wear is to estimate the worn casing
capacities for comparison with the anticipated loads. This is done
with the assistance of computer applications recommended in Topic
1055

6.1.4.5.
This leads to one of three actions being taken depending on the

outcome:
• The anticipated loads exceeds the worn capacity:

Increase the wall thickness (casing weight) over the affected
interval or investigate the alternative drilling techniques (e.g. a
downhole motor to avoid drill string rotation).
• Worn casing capacities are just sufficient:
Implement competent wear monitoring programme during
drilling to ensure that predicted wear is not exceeded.
• Worn casing capacities are clearly adequate:
The casing may be over-designed; consider reducing the
casing weight and/or grade.
• Wear monitoring programme
Ongoing wear monitoring during drilling is best performed with the

assistance of the computer applications identified in Topic 6.1.4.5. It
is recommended that any wear prediction application should be
"calibrated" within the OU on a controlled well where casing callipers
are run. This practice will provide confidence in the use of the
application for what might be extreme wells and is an example of
1056

managing the uncertainties during the casing (well) design.
The method of collecting steel removed from the casing is very crude
and consists of positioning a number of bar-shaped "ditch" magnets
diagonally in the flow line. The ditch magnets should be stacked so
that the drilling fluid passes more than one magnet. Whilst this
method may not give an accurate absolute value of steel removed
from the well, it does give a true relative value so that trends can
easily be observed, provided that the magnets are cleaned regularly.
The shape of the recovered filings should also be recorded since this
can give an indication of the wear mechanism.
This method can also be locally calibrated together with the wear
prediction application. Subsequently, if the "new" anticipated total
wear (extrapolated based on actual values) reduces the strength
capacity of the casing below that required to allow safe drilling and
operation of the well, appropriate measures to reduce wear - such as
the use of a downhole motor - should be taken.
Wear can also be evaluated by the use of wireline logging tools.

These services can give an accurate measure of remaining wall
thickness. It is strongly recommended that a base log is run prior to
commencing drilling operations on wells where casing wear may
1057

prove to be a critical success factor.
• New developments
Most developments in the field of casing wear are related to tool joint
hard facing materials. A recently introduced hard facing material -
Armacor - has been shown in tests to reduce both casing wear and
drill string friction relative to other hard facing materials. This
material forms a very hard, thin, glass-like layer. When the surface is
worn away a new layer is formed.
As mentioned above the industry is developing non-rotating drill pipe

protectors (NRDPPs), which could further assist in the reduction of
casing wear. Presently there is only one supplier able to supply these
products world-wide. It is known that others are developing such
products thereby additionally stimulating the market.
The modelling of wear prediction should ideally be combined and

integrated with the casing design computer applications. This
situation is not currently the case, but is being developed.
1.6.3.4.3 INFLUENCE OF FATIGUE ON CASING STRENGTH
Casing may fail after one single load exceeding the ultimate tensile or
compressive strength, but also after repeated load cycles below the
1058

ultimate tensile or compressive strength. This phenomenon is known

as fatigue and practically all materials are subject to it. Although
generally not a problem for the casing designer, there are specific
cases where its effect can be significant and must be accounted for
at the design stage.
For further details on fatigue the reader is referred to the CDG.
• Specific issues
Casing fatigue failure can be directly related to casing dimensions,

material properties, number of load cycles and types of load
amplitudes exerted on the casing. The last two are dependent on
several other parameters, e.g. movements and mechanical properties
of all components connected to the casing.
A separation into two groups of possible fatigue related issues can be

made by making a distinction between externally generated loads
and internally generated loads on the casing. External loads are
usually caused by waves and currents, while internal loads are
induced by the internal fluid flow. Both loads can occur during either
Drilling Operations or Production Activities.
Below, considerations to avert casing fatigue failures are presented:
1059

• Externally generated loads, These are usually associated with

offshore structures. An integral design of the whole marine
drilling and production system is necessary, requiring a coupled
analysis approach to the total system. This is a task performed
by the OU Structural Engineer rather than the Casing Designer.
Wave and current loads induce stresses, either directly in the
casing assembly (above the sea bed, including the marine
conductor), or indirectly in the suspended strings (below the
sea bed) through forces being transferred by the sub-sea
wellhead. Possible solutions to avert fatigue failures consist of:
Æ de-tuning of the natural frequency, by for example

changing the diameter or applying top-tension;
Æ disruption of the excitation by streamlining the flow for
example by shaped buoyancy material, i.e. fairings;
Æ disruption of the excitation by breaking the vortex
pattern by, for example, mounting helical strakes.
• Internally generated loads - These are not a function of the

location type, but are caused by fluid movement and
temperature cycles inside the casing load causes on a casing
can be distinguished into internal fluid flow induced vibration,
pressure surges and thermal stresses. A steam well is a special
1060

case of the latter and is discussed in Topic 6.4.1.
1.6.3.5 BUCKLING
Buckling is a stability failure, and can occur at stress levels well below
the yield strength of the material. Consider a vertical cylindrical pipe
of length L, pinned at both ends, to which an end force Fa is applied
as shown in Figure 2.6.20.
Figure 2.6.20: Euler buckling
1061

For small compressive values of Fa, elastic axial strain will result.
When Fa reaches a certain critical compressive value, a sideways
displacement will occur. This behaviour is known as buckling. The
underlying theory together with equations for calculating the
resistance of casing to buckling is presented in the CDG.
Compressive loads can lead to the buckling of the casing provided it

is not adequately laterally restrained. The analysis of buckling is
based on use of the fundamental equation for the "reduced axial
force" at any point in the casing string. Stable equilibrium exists if the
reduced axial force in the tube is positive and buckling will not occur.
An essential, but not sufficient, condition for buckling is that the
reduced axial force is negative. The reduced axial force, Fa* (also
known as fictitious or effective force), is an expression of the true
axial force corrected for differential pressure forces between the
inside and outside of the casing.
The type of compressive failure of a casing is governed by its

"slenderness ratio". A critical slenderness ratio exists below which
failure will be one of yield and above which failure will be due to
elastic instability (buckling). As shown in Figure 2.6.21, buckling at
this critical slenderness ratio corresponds to a compressive stress of
half the yield stress. The critical slenderness ratio leads to the
1062

generation of a critical length for a specific casing, which if used to

determine centraliser spacing (at 82% of the critical length - refer to
CDG), will render a situation whereby the casing will not fail through
buckling provided that the axial compressive stresses are less than
half the yield stress. This only holds true provided that the bore
through which the casing is run is true so that the centralisers may
be effective, i.e. no huge washouts.
Figure 2.6.21: Corrected Euler curve
For buckling to occur, not only must the reduced axial force be
negative, but it must exceed the casing's resistance to buckling which
1063

is a function of the well bore, casing material/geometry and its

supports (end conditions, free length and centralisation). In an
inclined well bore, where the casing lies against the low side of the
bore hole, the capacity of the casing to resist buckling is higher than
that given by the Euler buckling force (vertical casing). Thus the
resistance to buckling increases with hole angle.
It is essential to realise that the onset of buckling is not synonymous

with casing failure. If buckling occurs, the local stresses across a
cross-section of the pipe can be fully elastic, fully plastic, or in the
transition region between them. If the casing does not have sufficient
ductility, fracture will occur prior to reaching the fully plastic region.
The amount of buckling that can be tolerated can be estimated by
post-buckling analysis. These calculations are complex and detailed
studies are only possible with the aid of computer tools (refer to
Topic 6.1.4.5).
Casing can undergo either Euler buckling (two dimensional, non-

helical), or helical buckling. Both types of buckling result in local
stresses that are initially fully elastic. The onset of plastic deformation
will depend on the applied load and support conditions
The following rules of thumb should be used by the casing designer
1064

to manage buckling:
• Buckling will not occur if the slenderness ratio is less than the
critical value and the compressive stress is less than half the
yield stress.
• Methods of preventing buckling include raising the top of
cement, the use of centralisers, the application surface tension
to the casing and/or increasing the casing strength.
• Buckling can occur in sections of casing that are in tension.
• Buckling is more likely to occur as internal pressure increases.
• Buckling is less likely to occur as external pressure increases.
Flowchart 2.6.9 (based on EP94-2001 Appendix II-1) gives a decision

tree to use when designing for compressive loads.
If it is still likely that buckling will occur, post-buckling analysis should

be carried out to determine whether the casing can withstand the
loads without exceeding the limits set on stress, strain and wellhead
deflection.
1065

It is important to design for a potentially low top of cement to cater

for losses that may occur during actual cementation. This should be
determined by the Casing Designer, based on the formation strength
available.
1.6.3.6 DESIGN FACTORS
A uniaxial design factor is defined as the minimum acceptable ratio

required between the corresponding (in-situ) casing strength (as per
Topics 6.3.3 and 6.3.4) and the estimated design load (as per Topic
6.3.2). The triaxial design factor is defined as the minimum ratio
required between the yield strength (corrected for the effect of
temperature) and the von Mises equivalent stress (allowing for the
effects of corrosion, wear and fatigue on the casing wall thickness).
This topic presents the Shell recommended uniaxial collapse, burst,
axial and compression design factors plus the triaxial design factor.
Some history and explanation is given as to origin of the currently
accepted values.
These design factors are "combined" design factors, taking into

account both the uncertainties in the design-load estimation process
(load) and those in the manufacturing process leading to variations in
1066

casing strength (resistance).
During the design process a specific value is assumed for each of the
loads and resistances analysed. This is an approximation ignoring the
uncertainties and it is more accurate to consider each as a probability
distribution. It can be seen in Figure 2.6.22 that a design factor is
used to separate the two probability curves of the load and
resistance.
Figure 2.6.22: The effect of design factors
The following should be noted from Figure 2.6.22:
• The finite values chosen for the load and resistance are not
1067

necessarily the mean or the modal values - they are simply the
best guess by the casing designer.
• The uniaxial design criterion is that the resistance shall always
be greater than the load multiplied by the relevant design
factor - R > DF x L.
• In the event that the load condition is experienced, the
probability of failure is given by the overlap of the two
distributions.
• *In traditional uniaxial design, because the exact shape of the
curves is not known, the probability of failure is not known.
The probabilities of failure will not be the same for each
uniaxial load case. Experience and the lack of systematic
casing failures show that the probabilities of failure are not
unacceptably high; they may however be unacceptably low.
Historically there has been very little rationale behind the choice of
casing design factors. The values used in the drilling industry vary
between operators - usually because of variations in the design
method used. For instance, some operators include wear or wall-
thickness tolerances in the design factors for casing strength, while
others do not. On the other hand, some operators assume full
evacuation to calculate the design load for collapse, while others
1068

apply a partial evacuation rule. This difference in approach should be

considered when comparing the design factors used by different
companies.
The term "design factor" should not be confused with a "safety

factor", which is a multiplier to be applied to the maximum design
load. The former is based on scientific considerations, while the
latter is usually arbitrarily chosen to give a certain robustness to the
design. For casing design within the Shell Group, only the design
factor should be used. Applying a safety factor as well would lead to
over design.
In order to reduce the design factors further, a full probabilistic

evaluation is required in order to quantify the probabilities of failure
and subsequently adjust design factors to ensure that all probabilities
of failure are controlled at the design stage to give equal "risk" for all
design loads (NB "risk" = "probability" x "consequence"). This
technique is known as Quantitative Risk Assessment (QRA) and such
a project has been initiated as a joint industry project, DEA-64. The
results of this are expected soon, but are unlikely to have any
immediate impact on the way casings are designed within the Shell
Group. However, it is expected that in the coming years QRA
1069

technique will shed more light on design factors.
1.6.3.6.1 SUMMARY
A summary of the Shell Group design factors is given in Table 2.6.2

below.
1.6.3.6.2 COLLAPSE DESIGN FACTOR
The reliability of casing collapse capacities is high due to the more
1070

tightly controlled manufacturing processes. API Bull 5C2 presents the

relevant values for the collapse capacity of the casing, but recent
studies reveal that these values are occasionally conservative.
Based on the above, and since corrosion, wear and down-rating

because of tension and temperature should be treated separately,
the uniaxial Collapse Design Factor of 1·0 is applied
1.6.3.6.3 BURST DESIGN FACTOR
As is documented in API Bull 5C3, the burst capacity of a casing is

related to the yield strength of the material and the wall thickness,
both of which are allowed to vary considerably. The burst strength
formula in API Bull 5C3 incorporates a 0·875 multiplication factor in
recognition of the -12·5% tolerance permitted in API Spec 5CT on
casing wall thickness.
A conservatism is built into the values as tabled in API Bull 5C2, since
initial yielding in burst loading will not rupture the pipe. However, the
whole of the casing design is predicted upon the avoidance of
yielding. Therefore, no allowance should be made for the fact that
rupture of the casing is unlikely even if the burst rating is slightly
exceeded. Also, when evaluating the burst capacity of a casing, a
down-rating because of wear, corrosion, temperature and applied
1071

compression is required before the design factor is introduced.
While a collapse failure would normally be expected deeper down the

well bore, the rupture of a casing due to burst loads will most likely
be a near-surface event. Hence, the consequences are more severe
for such a failure. Based on this consideration, although the
probability of the failure mode is low, it is recommended that an
uniaxial Burst Design Factor of 1.1 is applied.
1.6.3.6.4 TENSION DESIGN FACTOR
Software applications can assist in the tension load prediction during

the installation phase as well as during the service life time.
Accounting for the weight in air load, the pressure (buoyancy) load,
the bending load, the dynamic loads like drag and shock loads and
the changes in axial load by changes in temperature and pressures is
now possible. However, it should be highlighted that the static drag
loads are more difficult to quantify.
The uncorrected value for the tensile capacity of a casing string is

presented in API Bull 5C2. The tensile capacity of a casing is related
to the yield strength of the material and the wall thickness, both of
which are allowed to vary considerably. Contrary to the burst rating
formula, the tensile capacity defined in API Bull 5C3 is based on the
1072

nominal values of casing diameter, not the worst case. As a result the
actual tensile capacity could be less than the quoted value because of
manufacturing tolerances. This is catered for in the Tension Design
Factor.
Also when evaluating the tensile capacity of a casing, a down-rating

because of wear, corrosion and temperature is required before the
Tension Design Factor is applied.
Based on these considerations, it is recommended that an uniaxial

Tension Design Factor of 1.3 is applied.
1.6.3.6.5 COMPRESSION DESIGN FACTOR
It has been demonstrated that casing failure due to compressive

loading will be mainly a result of elastic or plastic instability, i.e.
buckling. Hence a pure compression failure, i.e. casing squashing, is
unlikely in most cases.
The casing resistance against buckling can be significantly increased

by the placement of centralisers. If the relevant casing is rigidly
supported by centralisers, very high compression loads can be carried
before buckling occurs.
1073

It can be seen that two Design Factors result:
• If buckling is not possible because of the placement of

centralisers between the casing string under consideration and
the previous casing string, it is recommended that a uniaxial
Compression Design Factor of 1·0 is used. This can be justified
because the calculated centraliser spacing inherently covers a
buckling Design Factor of 1·5.
• If buckling is acceptable a post-buckling analysis should be
carried out to establish the relevant triaxial stress state. In
accordance with the presentation of the Triaxial Design Factor
below, the same Triaxial Design Factor of 1·25 is
recommended for these situations.
1.6.3.6.6 TRIAXIAL DESIGN FACTOR
The increasing acceptance of triaxial stress analysis results in a

requirement for a Triaxial Design Factor.
Translation of the load conditions into a three-dimensional stress

state is currently possible with the advance of computing tools. A
comparison of this resulting three-dimensional stress state with the
(temperature corrected) yield strength value of the uniaxial test is
commonly achieved via the von Mises yield criterion. This yield
1074

criterion has been extensively used and repeatedly verified. The

direct comparison of this von Mises equivalent stress to the yield
strength of the material provides a single design factor.
Based on field experience with triaxial analyses in tubing design and

the analogy with casing design, it is recommended that a Triaxial
Design Factor of 1.25 is used.
1.6.3.7 CONNECTIONS
A connection is a system for joining individuals lengths of casing and

plays a critical role in determining the overall technical integrity of
the casing string. In order not to invalidate the previous design
calculations, the connections selected for a casing string should be as
strong as the casing body. The casing designer must know where this
is not the case for his/her selected connections and verify the
integrity of the complete casing "system" (i.e. the pipe body plus the
connection). The casing designer should be aware of the major
categories of connections, the different sealing mechanisms used,
their strength and the effect of different loads on their performance.
A well designed connection forms a seal when specific make-up
requirements are met.
1075

Leakage of connections is normally caused by:
• Improper design;
• Failure to meet manufacturing tolerances;
• Damage due to handling;
• Failure to comply with the make-up requirements;
• Loading above the rated capacity or downhole operations.
Structural failure of connections may manifest itself as galling or

other deformation of the thread or sealing area during make-up or, in
the worst case, as parting of the connection.
The following aspects of connections are covered in this Subtopic;
• types
• sealing
• thread compounds
• surface treatments
• reliability and structural integrity
• testing and qualification
• thread protectors
• selection and ordering.
1.6.3.7.1 CONNECTION TYPES
1076

It is desirable that the casing connection satisfies several functional

and operational requirements. The functional aspects are to:
• Provide a leak resistance to internal or external fluid pressures;

• Have sufficient structural rigidity to transmit externally applied
loads;
• Have good geometry in order not to increase the outer
diameter or reduce the inner diameter of the casing string
significantly.
The operational aspects are to be:
• Easy to make-up in the field;

• Easy to break-out in the field;
• Re-usable.
To fulfil these aspects the connections are provided, in almost all

cases, with connection threads. Connections based on welding or
gluing techniques and snap-on connectors are available for casing,
but will not be dealt with here.
For many years the API thread connections, with or without a

resilient seal ring, have been the standard in well casing strings. The
standardised connections are shown in Figure 2.6.23.
1077

Figure 2.6.23: API casing connections
However, coupled to the shift away from relatively simple and

inexpensive shallow wells, has been the need for connections with
better seals than the API connections. This has led to the
development of the so-called Premium Connections. The term
Premium Connections is given to a collection of non-API connections
that have one or more special features, such as higher strength,
better sealing properties, faster make-up, smaller outer diameter of
the coupling, internally streamlined and recess free, etc.
Threaded casing connections can be divided in two groups, namely

integral connections and threaded and coupled connections. Each
1078

group can further be divided into several types, depending on the

sealing mechanism and the existence of a torque shoulder.
• Integral connections
The geometry of the pipe ends of integral connections are different

so that they can be connected without using an intermediate part
(the coupling). The principle of the integral connection is shown in
Figure 2.6.24.
Figure 2.6.24: Integral connection with internally and externally upset

pipe ends
Two types of integral connections are common:
• Upset type connection - this type has pipe ends with an

increased wall thickness. The pipe may be externally upset,
1079

internally upset or both (as shown in Figure 2.6.24);

• Non-upset or flush type connection - this type of connection
has pipe ends with the same OD and ID as the pipe. It has a
reduced strength efficiency, compared to upset type of
connections.
• Threaded and coupled connections
The casing joint is externally threaded on both ends of the pipe. The
single joints are joined by an internally threaded coupling to form the
connection. The principle of the threaded and coupled connection is
The coupling can be made with several varying outer diameters:
Figure 2.6.25: Threaded and coupled connection
1080

• Regular - as specified in API Spec 5CT.

• Special clearance - these have a smaller OD than the regular
coupling. In most cases this coupling will have a reduced
strength efficiency. However, a coupling with a higher yield
strength material might be considered to negate this.
• Resilient seal - in order to incorporate a resilient seal and
maintain the required cross-sectional area to keep the same
capacity, it is sometimes required to increase the OD of the
coupling.
• Matched strength - these couplings are designed in order to
match the pipe body strength (100% efficiency). These
optimum couplings may have an external diameter larger or
smaller than the API couplings.
• Comparison of integral and threaded and coupled connections
In recent years there has been a move away from integral type
connections. Listed in Table 2.6.3 are the characteristics of the
integral connections and those of the threaded and coupled
connections:
1081

• Thread forms
The following thread forms are commonly manufactured today:
• API round type thread - A tapered thread with stabbing and

loading flanks of 30° and rounded crests and roots;
• API buttress type thread - A tapered thread with stabbing and
loading flanks of 10° and 3° respectively and flat crests and
1082

roots parallel to the thread cone;

• API extreme-line thread - A tapered thread with stabbing and
loading flanks of 6° and flat crests and roots parallel to the
pipe axis;
• Modified buttress threads used for Premium connections -
Several thread forms of which have been developed;
• Two step thread - Has two sections of different diameter, each
provided with free running, non interfering, threads either
straight or tapered;
• Wedge shape thread - This is based on an interlocking dovetail
thread profile.
1.6.3.7.2 CONNECTION SEALING
Threaded casing connections utilise three basic mechanisms to

establish a leak-tight joint:
• Tapered interference-fit thread seal - such as the API round

and API buttress threads. These are not inherently leak tight,
but have helical leak paths included in the design. Leak-
tightness of these connections is thus obtained by establishing
a high contact pressure on the thread flanks and sealing the
remaining leak path(s) with a thread compound. It should be
1083

noted that no amount of torque applied to the connection can

close the leak paths in round or buttress threads. Indeed, once
the elastic limit of the material is reached, additional torque
cannot help and may damage the connection. Hence, in many
cases, particularly at high temperatures with alternating load
conditions and/or under gas pressure, these types of
connections are not capable of providing a reliable seal.
• Metal-to-metal seal - these are commonly referred to as
Premium connections. Sealing relies on metal-to-metal contact
between the two mating sealing surfaces from both pin and
box. Therefore the thread itself does not have a primary
sealing function but serves to transmit externally applied loads.
Although many Premium connections are based on a similar
design principle, the details of the design in many cases result
in very different characteristics. Often this is a result of the
compromise necessary to ensure good sealing integrity and
acceptable running characteristics in the field. An example of a
Premium connection is given in Figure 2.6.26.
1084

Figure 2.6.26: Premium connection with a typical conical metal-to-

metal seal
• Resilient seal - both API and Premium connections can be

supplied with an additional seal made from polymeric material.
Their sealing function is either primary or secondary. In almost
all cases the polymeric seal ring is incorporated in the threaded
part of the box (see Figure 2.6.27 for an example).
From the viewpoint of design and operational aspects, SIEP does not
encourage the use of resilient seals.
1085

However, couplings with resilient seals may be used as a remedial

action for future casing strings to solve operational problems
experienced with API type connections.
Figure 2.6.27: Round thread connection with resilient seal ring
1.6.3.7.3 THREAD COMPOUNDS
Since thread compounds have a direct influence on most failure

modes it is important to know which compound to use in a given
case and how to apply it. Thread compounds are used for three
distinct purposes:
• to prevent corrosion of the connection parts during storage;

• to facilitate the running of connections during make-up/break-
1086

out;
• to seal the helical paths in the thread profile of tapered
interference fit thread seals.
To serve the first purpose, storage compounds have been developed

that can only be used to protect against corrosion during the storage
of the tubular and should never be used as running compound.
To serve the second and third purposes, running compounds were

developed to fulfil the following functions:
• During make-up - Prevent metal-to-metal contact and thus

protect the threads and seal areas from galling and wear;
• In the made-up condition - Seal the helical paths between
mating threads to make the non-Premium connection leak
tight;
• During break-out - Ensure that the connection can be broken
out, after having served for a long period, without galling and
at torques which do not differ excessively with the applied
make-up torque.
There has always been a definite distinction between the two sorts of
compounds. However, some manufacturers claim to have developed
running compounds which offer corrosion inhibition, equivalent to
1087

that of a good storage compound. These compounds are called

hybrid or multipurpose compounds.
Due to the environmental risk posed by the heavy metal content of

conventional running compounds, a DEA project has tested and
approved several compounds that are metal-free.
An updated list of recommended thread compounds is available from

SIEP. It should be noted that a storage compound is not to be used
as running compound and that a running compound is not to be used
as a storage compound. The amount of compound to be applied is a
function of connection sealing mechanism and geometry and the
actual value should be acquired from the connection manufacturer.
1.6.3.7.4 SURFACE TREATMENTS
In order to ensure the functional efficiency of a connection, even

after multiple make-up operations, surface treatments are applied to
the box, the pin or to both. The surface treatments are applied to
improve:
• the resistance to galling;

• the sealing capability;
• the resistance to corrosion.
1088

The most common treatments are as follows:
• Phosphating - for instance zinc phosphate or manganese

phosphate;
• Lacquer coating - for instance a molybdenum disulphide;
• Oxalating;
• Electrochemical treatments - plating with copper, zinc and tin.
• Ion deposition - via ion implantation process.
• Grit blasting, glass-bead peening.
Each of these processes has relative advantages over the other

depending on the casing material and the environment of application.
To varying degrees each can improve the galling resistance, sealing
capability and corrosion resistance.
1.6.3.7.5 RELIABILITY AND STRUCTURAL INTEGRITY OF

CONNECTIONS
The possible loads on a connection can affect a connection's sealing

and structural capacity. It should be noted that the sealing and
structural capacities are not always the same. For further details on
integrity of connections and how to apply capacity ratings in practice,
the reader should refer to the CDG.
1089

A connection is subjected to two types of load:
• Make-up load - Making the connection parts up will impose

stresses in the connection. In general, the stress levels are
related to the make-up torque applied. Stresses should be
sufficiently high to generate good contact between the sealing
surfaces, but below yield to avoid plastic deformation;
• Service load - The connection is subjected to the same loads
as can be derived from the design criteria for the total casing
string.
• Structural integrity
There is only one way of expressing the connection structural

capacity - the stresses in a loaded connection should be compared to
the actual yield strength of the material in use.
However, to present a simple means of assessing a connection

capacity, the term "efficiency" has been introduced which is the ratio
between an uniaxial capacity of the connection and the pipe body to
which it is attached. Hence the efficiency of a connection can be
expressed as a tensile-, pressure-, compression-, bending-, or
torque-efficiency.
1090

Care should be taken when applying the tabulations of API Bull 5C2
for API connections or when accepting performance values of
Premium connection manufacturers in order not to operate a casing
string outside the minimum yield envelope. The industry has
introduced the following terms to describe and clarify the tensile
capacity:
• Parting load: The load under which the connection will suffer
from tensile failure.
• Joint Elastic Limit: The tensile load under which the connection
will yield.
Most premium connection manufacturers are quoting both limits. The

"joint elastic limit" should be used to ensure that the yield is not
exceeded.
• Sealing capacity
The sealing capacity of a connection is the ability to prevent leakage

while subjected to any of the imposed loads. Leakage is defined as
the inability of a connection to withstand a pressure differential over
it. Normally a qualification test generates the values for the sealing
capacity. It should be noted SIEP accepts a maximum leakage rate of
1x10-3 std cm3 gas/sec at the manufacturer's specified pressure
1091

rating. For API connections it should be highlighted that the tables in

API Bull 5C2 only quote the structural and not the sealing capacity of
a connection.
• Failure mechanisms
A threaded connection may fail under one or more load conditions.

The failure could be a leakage failure or a structural failure. The
following failure mechanisms are common:
• Plastic deformation of the sealing area;

• Belling out of the coupling;
• Jumping out or "unzipping" of the thread;
• Shear of the threads;
• Splitting of the box;
• Circumferential fracture of the pipe end or coupling.
1.6.3.7.6 TESTING AND QUALIFICATION
Because of doubt surrounding the actual performance of connections

compared with the stated claims of manufacturers, qualification tests
for connections have been designed and introduced. Testing of
connections was historically performed in accordance with API RP 37
in order to ensure competent and repeatable performance. The
1092

accepted method for the qualification of casing connection designs is

to conduct tests on a number of full scale specimens. The aim of
such an investigation is to assess the following primary
characteristics:
• The galling tendency;

• The sealing capacity,
• The structural load bearing capacity.
The tests performed simulate a number of load conditions which can

be imposed on connections during service. In general the test
programmes comprise:
• Repeated make-up and break-out tests at various make-up

specifications;
• Internal pressure sealing tests under different combinations of
loading;
• Internal pressure sealing tests during thermal cycling;
• External pressure sealing tests under axial loading;
• Tensile or burst tests to failure.
In 1990 API RP 37 was replaced by API RP 5C5 which specifies four

test classes and a relationship is suggested between the test classes
and the service applications. Class I connection tests are intended for
1093

the most severe field applications, whilst Class IV connection tests

are intended for the least severe applications.
Finite element design techniques provide efficient design practices

to the equipment industry. However, do not accept the results of
finite element analysis (FEA) performed on a piece of equipment
without adequate physical verification testing and be wary of a
manufacturer claiming that FEA negates the need for any physical
testing.
An SIEP review of API RP 5C5 led to further amendments which have

resulted in the development and acceptance of an SIEP approved
testing and qualification (EP92-0147). Connections planned for the
casing string for the production phase are required to comply to this
new testing scheme. For connections which may be subjected to gas
in the drilling phase, it is strongly recommended that this testing
scheme be similarly applied.
1094

There is no way of generalising test results for a particular

connection to the same type of connection but having a different
size, weight, grade/alloy composition or surface treatment. SIEP
therefore does not accept the scaling of results to different sizes or
grades and each connection combination will have to be tested for
approval.
1.6.3.7.7 THREAD PROTECTORS
Before casing joints are installed in a well, they are exposed to a

variety of harsh conditions during repeated transport, handling and
storage. The threaded pipe ends frequently have to withstand
accidental impact loading during shipment from the mill to the well
site and once at the well site, during handling, cleaning and running
into the hole. In addition, these threaded ends are often exposed to
corrosive environments during storage. Therefore it is of vital
importance to protect the threads and seals against impact loading
and water penetration all the way from the mill up to the drill floor,
with a thread protector.
Thread protectors can be divided into two types:
• Threaded protector or transit protector This type of protector
1095

for both pin and box, can be used from the mill onwards up to
the moment the joint is laid down on the casing rack at the
location, where it is taken off to allow removal of the storage
compound. Most of these heavy-duty- type of protectors are
composed of a moulded polymer body reinforced with a
cylindrical steel insert. However they can also consist of a
100% polymer.
• Non-threaded protector or handling protector This type of
protector is installed on the pin prior to lifting the casing joint
up to the drill floor. It is usually either a clamp-on type or an
inflatable type.
1.6.3.7.8 SELECTION AND ORDERING
1096

The industry has not yet developed a transparent hybrid thread

protector (i.e. a combined transit and handling protector). This will
come eventually as it will permit:
• Thread inspection without removal of the protector

• Removal if necessary for cleaning of the thread followed by
the subsequent re-application of thread compound and re-
installation of the same protector.
One or both of the last two steps have been known to be delayed,
or even forgotten, by impatient rig crews. This leads to thread
damage either by handling damage or corrosion, which is only
observed when the casing is run, incurring lost-time.
When selecting a casing connection the predicted load on the

connection should be compared to the connection's capacity. This is
applicable for all types of wells: exploration, appraisal and
development wells.
The design load can be derived from the same design loads as laid
down for the complete casing string in Topic 6.3.2. With respect to
the strength of the connection two aspects should be considered:
• Structural load bearing capacity;

1097

• Sealing capacity.
Both of these should be obtained from the tables in API Bull 5C2, the
manufacturer's own information or (for Premium connections) from
qualification testing.
API versus Premium Connections
SIEP has derived the following limits with respect to the field of
application of API connections:
• If the connection could be exposed to an appreciable gas

pressure loading for a prolonged period of time, then a
Premium connection with a metal-to-metal seal should be
selected. This applies to all hydrocarbon gasses with or without
traces of H2S/CO2.
• If the differential burst/collapse pressure is in excess of 27,580
kPa (4,000 psi), then a Premium connection with a metal-to-
metal seal should be selected.
• If the temperature is in excess of 120°C (250°F), then a
Premium connection with a metal-to-metal seal should be
selected.
These limits do not so much reflect the structural limitations of API
1098

connections, which can be far in excess of these values, but the

limitations to the application of the compound as the sealing
mechanism.
For additional advice on the ordering of non-API connections, refer

to DEN 17/92 and others.
1.6.3.8 EXAMPLE OF DETAILED DESIGN AND

ANALYSIS
For a thorough worked example of detailed casing design performed

by hand (except service loads which have been analysed with the use
of a computer application), the reader is referred to the example
provided in the CDG. This worked example should be considered to
be part of this DLP.
1.6.4 Special cases and general

considerations
Up to this point this Part has been addressing casing design for the
standard well, resulting in the design of a set of casings having
acceptable technical integrity. Special design considerations are
1099

required in a number of more complex cases, some of which are

briefly dealt with below.
Detailed information is available in the EP-reports referenced in the

CDG. When facing such challenging design cases, the casing designer
must help him/herself fully by using locally available
experience/reports and by networking, both within their own OU, and
also within the rest of the Shell Group through formal and informal
communications. In addition to this the casing designer should
conduct an open-literature search in order to add the industry
experience on relevant topics.
Similarly, if you perform work that will be of interest or use to

colleagues, please pass reports on to the Focal-Point in SIEP for
further distribution.
1.6.4.1 CASING DESIGN IN SPECIAL CASES
The listed issues should be given particular attention for the following
special cases. They have been divided into factors which effect the
load on the casing and factors which influence the resistance of the
casing.
• High Pressure/High Temperature Well
1100

• Horizontal Well
• Squeezing Salt Well
• Steam Well
• Slim-Hole Well
• Permafrost Well
• Gravity Structure
• Reservoir Compaction Environment
• Deep-Water Well
• Gas-Lift Well
1.6.4.1.1 HIGH-PRESSURE / HIGH-TEMPERATURE WELL
Within the oil industry, the definition of HP/HT wells has slight
variations from one operating area to another. In general, and within
the Shell Group, they are defined as those wells where the
undisturbed bottom hole temperature at total depth or prospective
reservoir section is greater than 150°C (300°F) and either the
maximum anticipated pore pressure exceeds a hydrostatic gradient of
18·10 kPa/m (0·8 psi/ft) or pressure control equipment with a
working pressure greater than 69,000 kPa (10,000 psi) is required.
In such wells the high differential pressures often lead to the use of
high strength, thick-walled, and occasionally non-standard, casing.
1101

This can lead to small but significantly troublesome problems with

associated equipment, e.g. retrievable packers that become
irretrievable when inadvertently used in a casing outside their
working range.
Loads:
• Higher loads due to higher forces and pressures involved. A

triaxial stress analysis is therefore recommended to optimise
the design (refer to Topic 6.1.4.4).
• Build-up of annulus pressures due to thermal expansion of fluid
in sealed annuli which cannot be bled off, e.g. subsea
wellheads. These can be modelled using tools referred to in
Topic 6.1.4.5.
• High buckling potential due to the linear expansion resulting
from large temperature increases during deeper drilling and
subsequent testing/production.
• The pressure testing programme needs careful design and the
axial loading resulting from use of retrievable test packers
should be checked.
Resistance:
• High H2S partial pressures, i.e. sour conditions. The partial
1102

pressure for H2S which defines sour conditions (0·34 kPa or

0·05 psia) is achieved for relatively low H2S concentrations.
• The requirement for gas-tight connections at high
temperatures and differential pressures is not easily satisfied.
Only suitably qualified connections should be selected.
• Due to the effect of dimensional tolerances on casing
performance, the desired casing rating may be achieved by a
tightening of manufacturing tolerances rather than using non-
standard casing sizes.
• As the casing material yield strength reduces at high
temperatures, the capacity of the casing should be down-rated
according to the downhole operating temperature.
• Several drilling liners might be required to allow for deeper
drilling. This is because the anticipated drilling fluid gradients
to balance the high pore pressures are usually close to the
formation breakdown gradient.
1.6.4.1.2 HORIZONTAL WELL
There are a number of areas in horizontal well casing design that

may differ from a standard well. These mostly relate to the casing
loading, although there can be instances where the capacity of the
1103

casing is purposely reduced.
Loads:
• In the horizontal section, the stability of the formation must be

determined in order to assess whether the casing in this
section has to withstand the full overburden pressure. In the
case that the casing will be subject to formation the casing
behaviour should be investigated using expert help (SIEP).
• For short radius build-up sections the bending stresses can be
significant.
• Note that all the casing that has to pass through these high
doglegs must be designed to withstand the bending stresses
generated.
• Due to the high contact forces between the casing and the
bore hole wall in highly deviated sections of the well, dynamic
drag and torque loads will be high. Drag loads may be such
that once the casing string passes a given depth, the total axial
force required to pull the string upwards exceeds the axial
capacity of the pipe.
• Optimum cementation of the casing in the horizontal section is
obtained by rotating the casing/liner. Thus consideration must
be given to the torque required to achieve this rotation and the
1104

ability of the selected couplings to withstand this torque.

Selection of couplings should be based on the maximum
anticipated torque. This can be estimated using the tools
referred to in Topic 6.1.4.5.
Resistance:
• Liners set in horizontal sections are often pre-drilled or slotted

to avoid the need for complicated perforating operations.
When running these liners, the reduction in axial capacity due
to the holes should be considered. This is best achieved by
calculating the stress concentration factor that results from the
presence of the hole and comparing the resulting stress with
the casing material yield stress.
1.6.4.1.3 SQUEEZING SALT WELL
When a hole is drilled and casing is set through a salt formation, the
salt will gradually flow and make contact with the casing applying a
compressive radial load.
Load:
• The salt flow may result in casing opposite this formation being
subjected to the full formation overburden gradient, typically
1105

22·6 kPa/m (1 psi/ft). Therefore, the collapse loads, will be

extremely high.
• This behaviour is time dependent so that during the drilling
phase increased external loading due to moving salt may be
minor, while in the production phase, salt loading might play a
greater role.
• The loading that results is not uniformly applied. This type of
point loading, resulting in high shear stresses, can cause
casing failure at much lower loads than when applied
uniformly.
• The casing may start to bend into the wash-out opposite the
moving salt. The resulting increase in axial stress on one side
of the casing may lead to a reduced collapse pressure or the
casing may fail due to bending stresses alone.
Resistance:
• To withstand this type of non-uniform loading, the

diameter/thickness (do/t) ratio of the casing would have to be
less than 4. It is impractical and uneconomical to design the
casing to withstand these forces (thick- walled casing have do/t
ratios between 9 and 11). Instead, non-uniform loading effects
are reduced by operational practices such as minimising hole
1106

enlargement during drilling and cementing the casing over the

entire salt interval. Following this approach, the casing is
designed to withstand a concentrically uniform external
pressure - equivalent to the overburden pressure at the depth
of the salt formation - in the same manner as for fluid
pressure.
1.6.4.1.4 STEAM WELL
Casing in conventional wells is designed to be capable of resisting

burst, collapse, tensile and compressive loads while remaining in the
elastic range of the casing material, i.e. without exceeding the yield
strength. The design of steam injection wells differs from this rule as
they may be designed to incorporate yield of the casing body when
subjected to thermal loading. The reason for this is that the
mechanism of thermal loading is an imposed effective strain which
results in a stress, rather than direct loads (stresses) which result in a
strain of material. Note that because of the end restraints, actual
axial strain is zero and thus the thermal strains are "effective".
In the design of a steam well, the axial stress may exceed the yield
strength in compression during heating and exceed the yield strength
in tension during subsequent cooling. As such, a design is required
1107

which incorporates post yield behaviour of both casing and

connections.
The axial loads are increased by casings generally being cemented

from TD to surface as this prevents elongation of the casing during
heating and this causes large axial stresses which yield the casing in
compression. Similarly, the cement prevents contraction of the casing
during cooling, causing large tensile stresses close to or above yield.
The collapse resistance must be corrected to account for both the

presence of tension and the reduction of casing yield strength for the
high temperatures. Particular attention must also be paid to the
casing connections of the production casing which must provide
reliable structural strength and gas tight sealing under the high
temperatures and loads of the steam well operating cycle. A
connection should not be used unless it has been tested and qualified
accordingly.
1.6.4.1.5 SLIM-HOLE WELL
The determination of casing sizes (preliminary design) is the most

important phase of casing design in terms of well cost. It is the task
of the casing designer to engineer the most cost-effective well
around this final hole size or production conduit. Reduction of the
1108

final hole size will therefore lead to significant cost savings.
For a slim-hole casing design all the design should be determined as

for all other wells, with particular attention to the following:
Loads:
• For a fixed influx volume, the smaller annular cross-section

causes a greater influx height than in conventional holes. This
influences the casing setting depth and indicates the need for
more sensitive kick detection techniques.
• Hydraulics - The reduced clearance between well components
can lead to drilling and cementing hydraulics being excessive
due to the pressure drops in both the drill string and/or
annular clearances. The rheology of the drilling fluid should be
carefully selected, and then controlled, to ensure pressure
losses are minimised. The hydraulics can be analysed using the
tools identified in Topic 6.1.4.5. Selection of casing and drill
pipe sizes should ensure that flow rates throughout the well do
not cause problems with respect to hole cleaning.
1.6.4.1.6 PERMAFROST WELL
Permafrost is defined as permanently frozen soil. Soil at temperatures
1109

below freezing point may or may not contain ice, depending upon
pore fluid salinity, pore pressure and soil type. Permafrost can be
continuous from the surface or discontinuous with intermittent
unfrozen zones.
The presence of permafrost, and particularly the consequences of

permafrost thaw resulting from increased surface temperatures
during drilling and production, impact casing design in a number of
ways and directly influence casing setting depths (part of the
preliminary design phase) and casing load determination. Casing
capacity is assumed to be unaffected.
1.6.4.1.7 GRAVITY STRUCTURE
With time, a concrete gravity platform structure will induce

considerable deformation within the supporting soil. The casing,
particularly the marine conductor, will have to follow the
displacements that take place in the soil.
The marine conductor, and possibly the conductor casing, therefore

have to be designed such that the loads caused by soil settlement
shear forces does not cause yield to occur. Casing capacity is not
affected by this environment.
1110

Modelling of these shear forces is generally performed by computer

analysis and advice should be sought from expertise within SIEP if
not locally available. External consultants can also provide
computerised analysis.
Loads:
• Self-weight of marine conductor or conductor casing;

• Any loading from other strings and the wellhead/BOP;
• Temperature changes due to production;
• Platform settlements;
• Frictional forces from guides due to platform settlements;
• Bending moments due to platform rotation.
Such analysis produces a plot of axial stress against depth, which can
then be compared with the marine conductor or conductor casing
yield strength. Ensuring that yield strength of the conductor casing is
not exceeded can be achieved either by selection of an appropriate
steel grade for the conductor casing, or by setting the marine
conductor some 30 m (100 ft) below the depth of the deepest soil
displacement, so that the conductor casing does not experience any
soil settlement.
1111

1.6.4.1.8 RESERVOIR COMPACTION ENVIRONMENT
Production of hydrocarbons will lead to a reduction in reservoir pore

pressure if it is not maintained by a drive mechanism. The resulting
increase in effective stress leads to reservoir compaction and
deformation of the overburden.
The vertical strain caused by this compaction of the producing

interval is transferred to a certain extent to the casing string(s) set
across that interval. This casing will undergo axial deformation and,
in the case of deviated wells, lateral deformation such as bending,
ovalisation or crushing. These lateral loads are comparable in type to
lateral loads in squeezing salt formations but are thought to be
significantly less in magnitude. Excessive overburden deformation
can lead to localised slip across faults and bedding planes. This
results in shearing of casing. Casing capacity is not affected by this
environment.
Although not common, where it does occur, it does so over the life of
the well and should therefore be of concern to the casing designer.
Modelling of the forces involved is generally performed by computer
analysis and advice should be sought from expertise within SIEP if
not locally available.
1112

1.6.4.1.9 DEEP-WATER WELL
Deep-water wells present two problems for the casing designer;

casing setting depth and environmental loading above the seabed.
Firstly, these environments have lower fracture gradients (from

surface) than equivalent depths for land wells or offshore wells in
shallow water. As the water depth increases, fracture gradients are
significantly different, particularly in the shallow sections of the well.
Selection of casing setting depths must take into account these
reduced fracture gradients.
Secondly, current and wave loading can result in direct and indirect
loading on the marine conductor, subsea wellhead system and
foundation pile. Generated fatigue loads should be addressed in close
co-operation with the Structural Engineering Department.
Since it is not desirable to cement the conductor casing-marine

conductor annulus above seabed, a centralisation program will be
required which also takes into account the transfer of loading
between conductor casing and marine conductor.
1.6.4.1.10 GAS-LIFT WELL
Casing designs for wells in which gas-lift completions are to be
1113

installed are based upon different design load cases from standard
wells. They have to be treated differently from standard wells in two
respects for production load cases.
Loads:
• Definition of the possible pressure profiles within the "live"

tubing/production casing annulus (A-annulus);
• Design of the intermediate casing to withstand the
consequences of a leak in the production casing for subsea
wells.
These pressure profiles should be constructed in close co-operation

with the Production Technologist for the following production-mode
cases:
• Kick-off;
• Gas lift;
• Closed-in, and assuming a leaking gas-lift valve;
• Evacuation to unpressurised injection gas.
1.6.4.2 OPERATIONAL ASPECTS
There is much more to ordering casing than you may at first imagine.
1114

For thorough advice on this topic the reader is referred to the CDG
plus the numerous DEN's issued by SIEP on the subject that are
referenced in the CDG.
Advice on the make-up and running of casing strings can be found in

Section 5, Part 2 - Casing and cementing operations.
1.7 COMPLETIONS
1.7.1 Completion types

This Part is an introduction to well completions. When a well has
been drilled it is not in a state in which it will produce hydrocarbons.
The well, like the job, has to be "completed".
The word "completion" may at first seem a little confusing, because it
1115

is used within the industry to mean two different (but closely related)
things. When referring to a given well the completion can mean:
• the (geometrical) concept of how the well should be configured

for production.
• the actual hardware which is run into the well in order to
produce it,
In practice the context will always make it clear what is meant. The
first will give the answer to the question "How are we going to
complete the well ?" and the answer will be of the type "as a twin
string dual completion". The second will give the answer to the
question "What are we going to use to complete the well ?" and the
answer will be of the type "the completion will consist of a wireline
set permanent packer, a dual retrievable packer run on a 31/2" long
string and a 27/8" short string" plus the other necessary details such
as connection types etc.
They can be classified in three ways - by reservoir/wellbore interface,

by mode of production and by completion geometry - as shown in
Figure 2.7.1, and further subdivided as shown in the lower levels of
Figure 2.7.1 and in Figure 2.7.2.
1116

1.7.1.1 CLASSIFICATION BY
RESERVOIR/WELLBORE INTERFACE
1.7.1.1.1 OPEN HOLE COMPLETIONS
Open hole completions are also termed 'barefoot' completions.
In this type of completion the casing is set in place and cemented

above the productive interval(s). Further drilling extends the well
bore into and/or through the reservoir(s) which is left uncased, hence
the term 'Open Hole'; See Figure 2.7.3.
Figure 2.7.3: Schematic of open hole completion
This completion method is used where it is desirable to expose the
1117

whole of the productive interval(s) to the well bore. The rock of the
producing formations must be strong or 'consolidated' to prevent
breakdown and collapse when in production.
It has many advantages over other completion methods as there is

no formation damage from cement and the well can be easily
deepened or converted to a liner type completion.
The downside of an open hole completion is that excessive water or

gas production cannot be controlled. Similarly, zonal stimulation is
more difficult.
1.7.1.1.2 LINER COMPLETIONS
• UNCEMENTED LINER COMPLETIONS
In some formations hydrocarbons exist in regions where the rock

particles are not bonded together and sand will move towards the
well bore as well fluids are produced. The use of an uncemented liner
(slotted or screened) acts as a strainer stopping the flow of sand.
Liners are hung off from the bottom of the production casing and are
usually sealed by a liner packer to direct well flow through the liner
bore.
1118

Figure 2.7.4a: Uncemented slotted pipe as liner
The advantages and disadvantages of uncemented liner completions

over other completion methods is the same as for the open hole
completion.
Various types of uncemented liner are as follows:
Slotted Pipe
Slot widths depend on the size of the sand grains in the formation
1119

and are typically 0·01" - 0·04" (0·25 - 1 mm) wide; see Figure
2.7.4a.
Wire Wrapped Screens
A liner is drilled with holes along its length, typically 3/8"-1/2" (10-12
mm), and then lightly wrapped with a special V-shaped wire - see
Figure 2.7.4b.
Figures 2.7.4b, c & d: Other completions using uncemented liners
Wire-wrapped screen liner completions are not used very often since
sand movement into the well bore causes permeability (flow rate)
1120

impairment and screen erosion can occur at high production rates.
These problems may be overcome by filling the annulus between the

open hole and screen with graded coarse sand which acts to support
the open hole section as well as prevent formation sand movement.
This completion method is termed an 'external gravel pack' (to
differentiate it from an 'internal gravel pack' used in cased hole
completions). An alternative to a gravel pack is to consolidate the
formation with a resin. Both methods are described below:
External Gravel Pack
The open hole is enlarged to about twice its drilled diameter with a
hole opener (under-reamer) and a wire wrapped screen is installed.
Gravel, graded to a size calculated to prevent the formation sand
from passing through it, is placed outside the screen with special
gravel pack running equipment. The pack is then sealed behind the
screen; See Figure 2.7.4c.
Resin Injection
Placement of plastic resin can be performed through tubing and

activated chemically by flushing with chemicals to harden and
consolidate sand particles; this technique is also known as artificial
1121

cementation or on site consolidation.
Accurate placement of the pumped resin may best be achieved using

modern coiled tubing methods. The resins most extensively used are
phenol-formaldehyde, epoxy, and furan.
The attractiveness of this method is that it can be done through the

tubing after completing if unforeseen sand problems develop. Plastic
resin injection techniques are useful in thin (<10 ft., 3m) high
porosity zones.
• PERFORATED CEMENTED LINER COMPLETIONS
In perforated cemented liner completions, the casing is set above the

intended productive interval, and the latter then drilled. A liner is
cemented in place which is subsequently punctured (perforated) by
shaped explosive charges at the depths it is desired to produce from.
1122

Figure 2.7.5: Schematic of a perforated cemented liner
These perforations are designed to penetrate any impaired regions

around the original well bore and provide an unobstructed channel to
the undamaged formation. By using various depth measuring
devices, i.e. a casing collar locator (CCL), specific zones within the
productive interval can be perforated selectively, thus avoiding
unproductive zones, the production of undesirable fluids (gas or
water), or production from unconsolidated sections that might
produce sand.
Perforated cemented liners are used for single (as shown in Figure
1123

2.7.5) or multiple zone completions
1.7.1.1.3 PERFORATED CEMENTED CASING COMPLETIONS
In a perforated cemented casing completion, the hole is drilled

through the target formation(s) and production casing is run and
cemented in the hole. Like the perforated liner completion method,
the casing and cement are perforated to reach the reservoir(s),
allowing communication of the well fluids to the well bore.
Another term for a perforated casing completion is the 'set through'

completion.
Perforated cemented casing completion methods are:
• Standard perforated cemented casing:
The use of a perforated casing completion for multiple productive

intervals is shown in Figure 2.7.6a.
1124

Figure 2.7.6: Schematics of perforated cemented casing completions
• Internal gravel packs:
In this method the production casing is cemented to TD. Perforating

of the producing interval(s) is performed and the perforations
cleaned. A screen is then run inside the casing and gravel is placed
into the casing/screen annulus and the perforating tunnels; see
Figure 2.7.6b.
Cased and perforated completions are the most common types of

completions performed today since they offer selective pay zone
perforation and also allow selective stimulation, which is more
1125

difficult in open hole or uncemented liner completions.
1.7.1.2 CLASSIFICATION BY MODE OF

PRODUCTION
1.7.1.2.1 NATURAL FLOW
When a hydrocarbon reservoir can sustain flow due to its natural

pressure, flow may be either, up the tubing string, the production
casing, or both
• Tubingless completions
Casing flow completions are a particularly low-cost method in

marginal flow conditions such as low rate gas wells. See Figure
2.7.7a.
Casing flow completions are normally not used in Shell operations

primarily because the production casing is exposed to well pressure
and/or corrosive fluids. Tubingless completions are potentially
hazardous especially in offshore installations as there is an increased
risk of collision damage offshore and no facility to install sub-surface
safety valves (SSSVs). The use of casing flow production methods
has been discouraged both offshore and onshore, but is under review
again due to potential cost savings and the availability of new
1126

equipment.
Figure 2.7.7: Schematics of flowing wells (single string)
1127

• Tubing flow completions
Tubing flow completions as shown in Figures 2.7.7 b & c utilise

tubing to convey the well fluids to surface.
Given that the resistance to flow of a conduit is inversely related to

its diameter, the potential of prolific wells will depend on the tubing
size and will always be lower than if it were produced through the
casing. You should note, however, that it may be more effective to
use a smaller conduit in wells whose production is limited by the
inflow performance of the reservoir. Under these circumstances the
flow velocity is inversely related to the tubing diameter and the
velocity resulting in the most efficient flow regime, at which the rate
is a maximum, may well be achieved at less than the maximum
available diameter.
As well as for production, the tubing string can be utilised as a 'kill

string' or for the injection of chemicals. Tubing strings may also
accommodate gas lift valves which essentially 'gas assist' well liquids
to surface; these valves would be installed if formation pressure
decreased to a level where natural flow could no longer be sustained.
The most common method of completing a well that flows naturally

is to use a single tubing string/packer system. The packer is installed
1128

in the production casing to offer casing protection, sub-surface well

control and an anchor for the tubing. Two examples of such a
completion are shown in Figure 2.7.7b & c. The former shows a
simple low cost completion which may be installed in a low pressure
well, the latter shows a more sophisticated completion which would
be used in a higher pressure well
Other equipment commonly installed in the tubing string to facilitate

safer production operations includes:
Wireline No-Go if installed above the highest opening in the tubing

Nipple permits the installation of a bottom hole check or
safety valve, or a plug.
Safety Valve permits the installation of a surface controlled sub-

Landing Nipple surface safety valve (SCSSSV).
Flow Couplings absorb erosion caused by turbulence and abrasion.
Circulating fitted above the packer to enable the displacement of

Sleeve the tubing contents with either a lower density liquid
to kick off the well or a higher density fluid to kill it.
All of these standard completion tools are described in later Topics.
In general, the type of tubing and packer installation is dependent
1129

upon the completion requirements in conjunction with economic

considerations. The completion engineer must consider many aspects
of tubing/packer completions such as chemical injection, well
servicing accessibility, perforating method and future artificial lift
methods etc.
• High rate liner
In a liner completion the liner hanger can take the place of a packer,
with large diameter tubing stabbed into the polished bore receptacle
of the liner hanger. A polished bore receptacle in a liner hanger can
be used in place of a packer, i.e. a high rate liner, as shown in Figure
2.7.7d.
This method is used in deep wells where tubing and casing

clearances are small and for high productivity wells where the use of
a packer would restrict the flow of well fluids.
1.7.1.2.2 ARTIFICIAL LIFT
Artificial lift methods are necessary when a reservoir's natural

pressure is insufficient to deliver liquids to surface production
facilities. Various artificial lift methods, and their key completion
considerations are described below and illustrated in Figure 2.7.8.
1130

More details are given in Topic 7.5.
• Rod pump lift
These pumps consist of a cylinder and piston, each fitted with a

check valve, known as the standing and travelling valves respectively.
Reciprocation of the piston via "sucker rods" by a surface unit pumps
the well fluid up the tubing. They are utilised in low to moderate rate
wells which can deliver less than 2,000 bpd (300 m3/day).
The key feature of a rod pump completion is that it normally has an

open annulus, although a tubing anchor device such as a packer
sometimes has to be used if the stretch of the tubing, as it is
alternately loaded and unloaded by the piston, approaches the stroke
of the piston. A completion using the latter device is shown in Figure
2.7.8a.
1131

Figure 2.7.8: Artificial lift methods
1132

• Hydraulic pump lift
Hydraulic pump lift is utilised in crooked holes, when the produced

fluid has a high viscosity and in variable production conditions, all of
which cause problems for conventional rod pumping. Three types of
hydraulic pump are available to lift liquid:
consists of a set of coupled pistons, one driven by a
• Piston: power fluid and the other pumping the well fluid;
systems exist for production up the annulus, as
shown in Figure 2.7.8b, or up the tubing.
delivers power fluid to the tubing as a low pressure
• Jet: high velocity jet which entrains the produced fluid and
has its velocity converted into sufficient head to
produce to surface.
• Turbine: power fluid rotates a shaft on which a centrifugal or

axial pump is mounted; see Figure 2.7.8c.
The main feature of these types of completions is the use of both the
annulus and tubing as a flow path for the power fluid.
The most common power fluid is recycled "stabilised" crude oil, which
removes the necessity to separate produced fluid from power fluid at
1133

the surface. Stabilised crude is crude which has had virtually all the
gas removed so that it can be circulated in a low pressure system
prior to re-injection. If the produced fluid itself is not suitable, if for
example the viscosity is too high, crude with different characteristics
may be available either from different reservoirs in the same field or
from other fields in the area.
• Plunger Lift
The plunger lift system, as illustrated in Figure 2.7.8d, is a low rate

lift system in which annulus gas energy is used to drive a plunger
carrying a small slug of liquid up the tubing when the well is opened
at surface. Subsequent closing of the well allows the plunger to fall
back to the bottom. Plunger lift is useful for de-watering low rate gas
wells as it prevents the water falling back through the gas.
In this type of completion the open annulus is used to store lift gas
and a tubing stop is installed as a bumper for the plunger.
• Electric submersible pumps (ESP)
ESPs are used to move large volumes of low gas/liquid ratio fluids
from reservoirs with temperatures below 250o F, e.g. water supply
wells, high water cut producers, and high deliverability
1134

undersaturated oil wells See Figure 2.7.8e.
The main features of an ESP completion is the special wellhead and

downhole equipment used for installation and protection of the
electric cable.
Usually the larger tubing sizes are used to handle the greater
volumes the ESP can deliver.
• Gas Lift
Gas lift supplements the flow process by the injection of compressed

gas into the flow stream which lightens the liquid column, reduces
the liquid viscosity, reduces friction and supplies potential energy in
the form of gas expansion; see Figure 2.7.9.
Continuous gas lift is used to lift liquid from reservoirs that have a
high productivity index (PI) and a high bottom hole pressure (BHP).
Intermittent lift is used in reservoirs that exhibit low PI/low BHP, low
PI/high BHP, or high PI/low BHP.
Liquid production can range up to 4,000 bbls/day (650 m3/day)

through normal size tubing strings; casing flow can lift up to 25,000
bbls/day (4,000 m3/day).
1135

Figure 2.7.9: Gas Lifting
The gas lift completion requires a packer and gas lift valves for
unloading and production. The gas lift valve setting depths and
tubing size are determined from computer packages which optimise
production according to PI, GLR, etc.
1136

1.7.1.3 CLASSIFICATION BY COMPLETION

GEOMETRY
1.7.1.3.1 SINGLE ZONE COMPLETIONS
Flowing wells that are equipped with a single tubing string are usually
completed with a packer. Single zone completions may involve the
downhole commingling of production from several intervals within
that zone.
Examples of single zone completions are shown in Figure 2.7.10:
1137

Figure 2.7.10: Single zone completions
At the design stage, optimum tubing size for maximum long term
flow rate, future artificial lift needs, and future workover operations
should be considered.
1.7.1.3.2 MULTIPLE ZONE COMPLETIONS
When a well encounters multiple pay zones it has to be decided

which of the following completion methods will be used:
• Produce the zones individually in sequence through a single

tubing string and the annulus.
• Complete the well with multiple tubing strings and produce
several zones simultaneously.
• Commingle several zones in a single completion.
• Produce only one zone from that well and drill additional wells
to produce from the other pay zones.
Examples of multiple zone completions are shown in Figure 2.7.11.
1138

Figure 2.7.11: Schematics of multiple zone completions
The main disadvantages of multiple zone completions are that the

requirements for well servicing/workover operations become more
frequent and at the same time they are more complex and time
1139

consuming. In theory it is a very elegant solution to complete a well

with multiple packers and have the ability to produce from different
intervals by simply manipulating wireline tools In practice operating
companies have discovered time and time again that with more than two
packers in a well the lifetime cost of repairs and recompletions is far
higher than it would have been by using simple completions and
accepting the fact that a drilling unit would have to re-enter the well
from time to time. Very often the costs are higher than the cost of
drilling a second well would have been. The problems encountered
are:
• that there are many more potential leak paths than in a simple
completion, including communication between perforated
intervals behind the casing
• that wire line operations are more difficult (see Topic 7.6), and
• that packers can become stuck due to fall out from higher
producing zones.
• Single string dual completion
This is the most basic type dual completion where production of the
lower zone is up through the tubing and production of the upper
zone is up through the casing/tubing annulus; see Figure 2.7.11a.
1140

• Twin string dual completion
In a twin string dual completion, separate flow from two zones (more
if commingled) can be maintained through two tubing strings and
two packers, as shown in Figure 2.7.11b.
• Multiple string completions
In this design, separate flow from three zones can be achieved using
three packers - Figure 2.7.11c.
Such completions yield high total production per well and generally
reduces costs. However, these type of completions are difficult to
install and are usually restrictive to production, due to the small
tubing sizes, to be economically attractive. Further, as mentioned
above, the difficulty of future remedial workover of such wells
prevents their widespread use.
• Concentric string completions
Concentric strings require less clearance than multiple string

completions and can often achieve a higher overall flow capability,
see Figure 2.7.11d.
• that there are many more potential leak paths than in a simple
1141

completion, including communication between perforated

intervals behind the casing
• that wire line operations are more difficult (see Topic 6), and
producing zones.
1142



see Figure 2.7.11d. * that there are many more potential leak paths
than in a simple completion, including communication between
perforated intervals behind the casing
• that wire line operations are more difficult (see Topic 6), and
producing zones.
1143


see Figure 2.7.11d.
1144

Annulus configurations
It is standard company practice to identify an annulus configuration

by an alphabetic progression from internal to external casing strings.
The 'A' annulus is defined as the annulus within the production/liner
casing.
An active annulus refers to any annulus being used for circulation

purposes. An inactive annulus refers to an annulus that cannot be
circulated, e.g. any annulus formed between two strings of
cemented casings.
In the case of a well having an extra annulus between the

production casing and the tubing, is identified separately, e.g. a well
on artificial lift using hydraulic pumping will have a 'drive' annulus.
1.7.1.3.3 SUBSEA COMPLETIONS
Originally subsea wells were drilled for drainage or injection of parts

of a field which were outside the range of deviated wells drilled from
production platforms. However, today's subsea technology and the
development of floating production and storage systems has reduced
costs to where it is now economic to develop fields completely with
1145

subsea wells.
From a completion point of view, the main difficulties

lie in installation and well servicing or workover costs,
mainly due to capital equipment and vessel costs. To
counter this, it is necessary to design completions
with tubing and equipment which has long service
life. Lower cost wireline servicing methods from diving
support vessels have been developed to further
improve economics. Indeed it is now even possible to
obtain workover riser systems on a rental basis,
hence avoiding some capital outlay.
The concept of life cycle costs, which is applicable to

the drilling and completion of all wells, is especially
significant in offshore wells because of the high unit
costs and daily rates encountered in the offshore
environment.
Figure 2.7.12:
Subsea systems have further been developed for
Typical
deep water fields in such areas as the North Atlantic,
subsea
east of the Shetlands. completion
1146

A typical subsea completion is shown in Figure 2.7.12. Sub-sea

Christmas trees are dealt with in Topic 7.4.
1.7.1.3.4 HORIZONTAL COMPLETIONS
• General
In a vertical well bore, with current technology it is possible to

successfully case and cement the hole, complete the well, perforate
the producing zone or zones, clean up the perforations, produce the
well and, if the level of production is not economical, use various
means of stimulation (hydraulic fracturing, acidisation) of the
formation to increase productivity. However the drilling of horizontal
wells and their subsequent study has indicated substantial increases
in production rates and, potentially, additional ultimate recovery
compared to similarly treated vertical wells. As a result, there is now
great incentive to drill, complete, test, stimulate and properly
produce horizontal wells which, due to the possible increased
production rate and recovery, must lead to significant increases in
revenue per well.
From the drilling point of view, horizontal wells can be classified by

the length of the radius between the vertical and horizontal sections -
ultrashort, short, medium or long. The geometrical characteristics of
1147

such horizontal wells are given in Table 2.7.1
Formations which have naturally fractured networks are prime

candidates for horizontal wells with multi-zonal completions where
large production increases can be expected, as shown in Figure
2.7.13.
1148

Figure 2.7.13: Naturally fractured formations
The methods used to complete horizontal wells are described below

and illustrated in Figure 2.7.14.
1149

Figure 2.7.14: Horizontal well completions
• Open hole
This is the most economical completion where removal of drilling fluid

and debris from the horizontal section is the primary stimulation
performed. If additional stimulation is required, tubing is run to TD
and stimulation fluid spotted into the horizontal section and then
pumped into the formation.
• Slotted liner or wire-wrapped screen
This type of completion is used if there is a risk of hole collapse

and/or sand production. It is used in reservoirs that will flow naturally
where no stimulation treatments are required.
• External casing packers
Used in combination with closeable ported subs for selective

production from one or more intervals in the horizontal section of a
well which penetrates a reservoir that has different zones.
In general, packers of this type are commonly used to separate

productive zones, either with or without cement. Similarly, because of
the difficulty in cementing horizontal liners, many horizontal
1150

production strings are run without cementing. With the installation of

ported collars or SSDs in such a horizontal completion string design,
individual zones can be selectively produced and treated.
For uncemented liner completions, the application of rotation may be

utilised to deflate certain packers for retrieval.
• Cemented casing or liner
In this type of completion, production casing or liner is cemented into

the horizontal section. After perforating, controlled stimulation
treatments (matrix and fracture) can be performed efficiently.
• Completion Tools/Practices
In a horizontal hole, the completion problems are more complex than

in vertical wells. For example, any debris in the horizontal well bore
will remain where it is and create an obstacle for moving tools or
instruments. Similarly, gravity will have a profound effect on various
tools in the horizontal section of the well bore and effective
centralisation is necessary.
Completion equipment currently available is capable of working

satisfactorily in a horizontal well with little or no modification. The
main area requiring development is coiled tubing conveyed tools
1151

equivalent to wireline tools. Some advance has been made in the

development of SSDs, mounted in the horizontal section of wells,
which can be opened and closed using a coiled tubing conveyed
shifting tool. Similarly, coiled tubing manipulation tools exist for
packer setting in horizontal sections.
1.7.2 Completion equipment

Completion equipment comprises
• packer systems
• seals and seal stacks
• sliding side doors
• side pocket mandrels
• landing nipples
• flow couplings
• blast joints
• gravel packs.
1.7.2.1 PACKER SYSTEMS

1152

A packer is a device used to provide a seal between the tubing and

the casing. In conjunction with a properly designed completion
string, this seal directs the flow of reservoir fluids from the producing
formation up through tubing to the surface. The packer seal keeps
well pressure and corrosive fluids from entering the annular space
between the casing and the tubing, hence providing a higher degree
of safety throughout the life of the well.
A packer is tubular in construction and basically consists of three

main elements:
• Body to contain the packing elements and slips, through bore

to provide the flow conduit through the assembly and
connections for the tailpipe and tubing string.
• Case hardened slips designed to bite into and grip the casing
wall, holding the packer body parallel with the casing axis.
• Rubber sealing elements to provide the seal between the
packer body and casing.
The principal reasons for running a packer are to isolate producing

zones or the annulus from formation fluids. They are also used in
well servicing to enable well repairs or stimulation operations to be
performed.
1153

1.7.2.1.2 CLASSIFICATION OF PACKERS
In general, packers may be classified roughly by their status when

set in a well, i.e.:
Retrievable (able to be retrieved by pulling the tubing as part of the

design).
Permanent (not intended to be retrieved but can be removed by

destructive milling process).
A second generation of the permanent type packers are:
• Permanent-Retrievable (although seemingly a contradictory

term, this is a retrievable packer having the characteristics of a
permanent packer.
• Retrievable packers
These are generally lowered into the well bore attached to and as an
integral part of the production tubing string. As the name implies,
retrievable packers can be recovered from the well, usually be
applying pull to the tubing.
• Permanent packers
1154

These can be lowered into the well bore and set on an electric
wireline or on tubing after which the wireline or tubing is released
from the packer mechanically. and when set. When set, permanent
packers may be considered as an integral part of the casing and can
only be removed from a well by milling through the slips, thus
releasing the grip on the casing.
• Permanent/retrievable packers
These packers have the same characteristics as permanent packers

but can be released and recovered from the well without milling.
They utilise a self releasing mechanism activated by a recovery tool.
Packers may be further sub-classified according to the number of

bores required for production i.e.
• Single - one concentric bore through the packer for use with a
single completion string.
• Dual - two parallel bores through the packer for use with two
tubing strings.
This can be extended for multiple completions as mentioned in Topic

1.
1155

1.7.2.1.3 SETTING PROCEDURES
Packers, both retrievable and permanent, are set in the production

casing by one of the following methods:
• Mechanically set
By running on a tubing string and manipulating the tubing, i.e. by

applying compression or tension in combination with rotation
depending on the particular setting mechanism of the packer.
Packers having rotation set/release mechanisms should be avoided in

highly deviated wells since any torque applied to the top end of the
tubing may not be able to be transmitted to the packer downhole.
• Hydraulically set
By running on a tubing string, setting a wireline plug in the tubing

below the packer and applying a differential pressure. The packer is
then tested for correct setting by applying tension to the tubing
and/or by applying pressure to the annulus. Disconnecting from the
packer is generally by rotation or further increased pull on the tubing
string.
More details are given under Permanent Packers
1156

• Electric Wireline set
By running the packer attached to a wireline setting adapter kit

connected to an electrically activated setting device on the end of an
electric conducting wireline. On reaching the desired setting depth,
usually confirmed by correlating to a previous base log, an electrical
signal is transmitted from surface which fires an explosive charge in
the top of the device. This drives down a piston which sets the
packer via the adapter. The speed of the setting action is controlled
by the metering of hydraulic fluid out of the other side of the piston.
More details are given under Permanent Packers
1.7.2.1.4 RETRIEVABLE PACKER SYSTEMS
Retrievable packers may be sub-classified as compression, tension, or

compression/tension packers.
• Compression packers
Compression packers are designed to be set by downward forces

from applied tubing weight (compression) or by the application of
annulus pressure above the packer. They are utilised in shallow to
medium depth oil and gas wells with moderate to low pressures.
1157

They are released by a straight pull on the tubing.
• Tension packers
Tension packers are designed to be set by upward forces from tubing

tension or by the application of pressure below the packer. Tension
set packers are utilised in waterflood injection wells and in wells
1158

where high density completion fluids will not

be placed in the casing annulus. They are
released by a combination of downward
movement and right hand turning of the
tubing before pulling.
• Tension/compression packers
Tension/compression packers are designed for

either compressive or tensile forces or
application of pressure from above or below.
They are usually released by right hand
rotation of the tubing string.
Retrievable packers are generally used for

short term applications or low
pressure/temperature production conditions.
The main advantages of using a retrievable Figure 2.7.16:Typical

packer is that no drilling (milling) is necessary mechanically set
to remove the packer and it saves tripping to retrievable packers
retrieve as it is pulled with the tubing.
The disadvantages of retrievable packers are that:
1159

• they can be accidentally released

• they may be difficult to retrieve
• they have smaller bores than permanent packers in the same
diameter casing
The following pre-checks are required prior to running retrievable

packers:
• Ensure that the ID of the packer will accommodate any

wireline tools to be run through the packer.
• Ensure that all the inside and outside dimensions relevant to
the packer are measured and recorded.
• Ensure that all lengths relevant to the packer are measured
and recorded.
• Ensure that all external slips and the packer elements are in
good condition before running the packer.
1.7.2.1.5 RETRIEVABLE PACKER ACCESSORIES
• Wireline lockable collets
Wireline lockable collet/sleeve latches may be used in dual

completions to provide a means of independently running or
retrieving the short string. The collet is locked or unlocked by a
1160

wireline tool. When locked the short string can be pressure tested or
have tension applied. The collet is run on the bottom of the short
string and the latch is in the head of dual packer.
1161

Figure 2.7.17 shows a hydraulically set dual

packer and a collet latch (not to the same
scale).
In dual string completions, the tubing strings

may be run independently or simultaneously.
They are usually run simultaneously as it is
sometimes difficult to get the second string past
the primary string, especially in wells where
there are doglegs or when clearances are small
such as in gas lift wells with SPMs in the tubing
strings.
When they are run simultaneously, the short

string collet is locked into the dual packer. Once
Figure 2.7.17:
landed and the string pressure tested, the collet
Typical
is unlocked to ensure that the short string can
hydraulically set
be retrieved independently of the long string in
dual string
the event that wireline access to the collet is retrievable packer,
impossible due to an obstruction. Unlocking of plus collet latch
1162

the collet should only be carried out with the string in compression.
As an alternative procedure to the above for simultaneously running

the tubing strings, the short strings is run two joints above the
packer and when at setting depth, the short string is lowered, latched
and locked into the packer before spacing out and pressure testing.
Conventional wireline methods combined with special locating and

shifting tools are used to shift the inner sleeve in the collet seal
assembly to lock and unlock it in the packer.
• Telescoping swivel joint
In dual or multiple completions the strings must be of equal lengths

for connection between packers or to the tubing hanger. There must
also be a means to be able to rotate all but one of the connections to
allow thread make up. These features are provided by use of a
telescoping swivel joint (or adjustable union).
The telescoping swivel joint is a device which is stroked in or out to

adjust lengths and allows rotation. They are then locked after
connection to the hanger.
1.7.2.1.6 PERMANENT PACKER SYSTEM
1163

Permanent packer systems are

generally used for more
demanding well conditions such
as high temperature/pressures,
long term high production rates
and where excessive tubing
movement is anticipated. They
also find applications as
temporary bridge plugs and are
often used in place of retrievable
packers which have an
inadequate bore size.
Permanent packers are

sometimes also known as
Figure 2.7.18 : Typical permanent
production packers or retainer
packer
production packers.
They can be installed on electric wireline or hydraulically on tubing

for which an adaptor kit is normally required.
1164

1.7.2.1.7 PERMANENT PACKER ACCESSORIES
• Locator tubing seal assemblies
Locator tubing seal assemblies, see Figure 2.7.23a, are tubular in

construction fitted with a series of external seals providing an
effective seal between tubing and packer bore. They are designed to
limit the downward movement of seals in the polished bore of the
packer by means of a no-go shoulder at the top end of the seal
assembly. Locator seal assemblies are normally landed in sufficient
compression to prevent upward seal movement due to pressure
below the packer.
• Seal bore extensions
A seal bore extension is used to provide an additional sealing bore

when a longer seal assembly is run to accommodate large tubing
movements induced by changes in temperature and pressure during
pressure testing or production conditions. The seal bore extension is
run below the packer and has the same ID as the packer.
Tubing seal assemblies can be assembled in various lengths, for

installation in a seal bore assembly, depending on the amount of
tubing movement anticipated; See Figure 2.7.23b.
1165

• Anchor tubing seal assemblies
Anchor tubing seal assemblies as shown in Figures 2.7.23 c & d are

used where it is necessary to anchor the tubing to a permanent
packer while retaining the option to unlatch when required. Anchor
latches are normally used where well conditions require the tubing to
be placed in a state of tension or where insufficient weight is
available to prevent seal movement.
The anchor seal assembly has a latch sleeve or collet, threaded to

match the left hand thread on the packer. The latch has vertical slots
cut in it and the lower flank of the thread is chamfered.
On entry into the packer the latch sleeve collapses inwards until it
butts against the packer shoulder. The latch sleeve is now free to
spring out and engage in the thread on the packer.
The anchor latch can be released from the packer by placing the
tubing in slight tension at the packer and rotating the tubing a
prescribed number of turns to the right at surface.
1166

• Wireline setting method
The initial action required to set a

permanent packer is by a
downward thrust on the outside
of the packer while holding the
inside stationery on the cable.
This action continues until the
friction of upper slips and
expanding elements contacting
the casing wall overcomes the
weight of the packer and packer
tailpipe whereafter the piston
pulls the inside upwards to
complete the setting process.
Generally, the completion
engineer assumes the packer
setting depth is the middle of the
elements prior to running
whereas in fact
Figure 2.7.19: Schematic of an
the actual depth may be some electric wireline setting tool
1167

few inches different but this is of little consequence.
The electric wireline setting tool consists of a piston and piston rod
inside a cylinder - see Figure 2.7.19. At the appropriate depth an
electrical signal is sent down the electric wireline to detonate the
explosive charge. The forces generated by the explosion drives the
piston/piston rod downwards through a metering device to produce a
slower controlled action.
Explosive compounds used in electric setting tools can generate up to

90,000 lbs. setting force. Setting times can be adjusted from almost
instantaneously to times of about 1 hour.
NOTE: Care must be exercised when working with explosives.
To achieve the proper direction of forces to set a packer, a blade or

key (cross link) is fixed to the piston rod and extends through a slot
in a lower housing and engages in an outer sleeve (cross link sleeve).
Thus, the downward thrust of the central piston rod is transferred to
a downward thrust on the cross link sleeve. After the upper slips bite,
the upward force on the cylinder is transferred to an upward pull on
the inner mandrel.
The actual forces are transmitted to the packer via the adapter kit
1168

which also incorporates the mechanism of freeing the setting

assembly from the set packer. This mechanism is a collapsible collet
which is activated by a release stud which is broken after the packer
is fully set. The breaking force of the stud is selected for the
particular packer plus a suitable margin of error.
If the position of a packer is critical, the wireline method is preferred

since the depth can be correlated with the formation evaluation tool
depths by utilising a casing collar locator (CCL) and/or gamma ray
logging tool in the electric wireline tool string.
Prior to setting a permanent packer on electric wireline, it is essential

that a junk catcher/gauge ring be run to ensure that the well is free
of any material that may foul the packer assembly and cause a
premature set.
• Hydraulic setting method
There are two methods of hydraulically setting a permanent packer,

these are to run a regular packer on a hydraulic setting tool or, more
commonly nowadays, to use a hydraulic permanent packer which
incorporates the hydraulic setting mechanism. The latter has an
advantage over the former in that it can be installed on the
completion string whereas the former requires a work string to set
1169

the packer before running the completion string. A typical hydraulic

type permanent packer is shown schematically in Figure 2.7.20.
1170

Figure 2.7.20 : Schematic of

typical hydraulic permanent Figure 2.7.21 : Schematic of a
packer hydraulic setting tool
1171

Hydraulic set packers have an application in being able to be set

where wireline or mechanical set methods are difficult, e.g. in highly
deviated wells.
Figure 2.7.21 shows the principle of operation of a hydraulic setting

tool. The packer is run to depth on tubing or drill pipe attached to the
adapter kit and hydraulic setting tool. While running in the well bore
the tubing is flushed through with annulus fluid via the upper ports
(a) and through the support sleeve.
Hydrostatic pressure in the annulus has access to the underside of

the two setting pistons via the lower ports but is excluded from the
top of the pistons by the control plug. The resultant upward
differential on the pistons protects the tool from premature setting
while running.
The control plug is held in its closed position by a collet lock and the
control latch. The collets are held out by the enlarged lower end of
the support sleeve, which is shear-pinned to the collets.
When the setting depth is reached, a ball is dropped down the tubing
and seats in the top of the support sleeve. Tubing pressure is
increased at surface, the shear screws holding the support sleeve
break at an appropriate pressure, and the support sleeve moves
1172

down to shoulder on the control plug. The collets are now free to
collapse and further downward movement carries the control plug
down giving hydraulic access to the upper piston.
The lower seals on the support sleeve close off the upper ports and
tubing pressure can now work on the upper piston via the hollow
piston rod to the lower piston. The pistons are forced down and their
movement is transferred via the cross link to the cross link sleeve, to
the adapter kit and finally to the setting sleeve on the packer. The
packer body is held against this downward thrust by the setting
mandrel.
The application of further pressure will pull apart a release stud in

the adapter kit. The hydraulic setting tool can be then returned to
surface; tubing fluid can unload via the exposed lower ports (b).
• Adapter kit
The adapter kit transmits the forces generated by setting tools in

order to set packers and provides a means of releasing the setting
equipment from the packer. The adapter kit is installed between the
packer and the setting device.
1173

Figure 2.7.22 shows an adapter

kit assembly for top-setting a
packer. The bottom of the release
sleeve carries a left-hand thread,
matching the thread in the top of
the packer body. The lower half
of the release sleeve, including
the left-hand thread, is slotted
vertically to form a series of
resilient fingers. The threaded
portion is forced into engagement
with the thread on the packer by
upward pressure of the mandrel
guide. By this means the upward
force of the setting device is
transmitted to the packer body,
while the downward thrust of the
adapter sleeve drives down the
Figure 2.7.22 : Adapter kit
packer setting sleeve.
releasing mechanism
When setting is complete, forces which are still increasing will shear
the release stud (weak link). The fingers of the release sleeve
1174

collapse since upward forces no longer exist, and the threaded

portion disengages from the packer. The setting tool and adapter can
be pulled from the well.
1.7.2.2 SEALS AND SEAL STACKS

1.7.2.2.1 GENERAL
The materials selected for downhole equipment not only include

metallic components but also the seals, e.g. the seal assemblies
shown in Figure 2.7.23. Seal materials used are selected for their
resilience and resistance to thermal and chemical environments.
Unfortunately there is no single seal material that offers adequate
levels of these characteristics for all downhole applications.
Effective sealing in downhole conditions may be achieved by single

seals such as O-rings, T-seals or similar but other applications may
require several seals to be used in conjunction such as V-packing
stacks on wireline tools, SSDs and packer seal assemblies. Some
types of seals are designed for dynamic applications and others
static. Often several different materials are required in combination to
provide resilience to the downhole conditions. When these seals are
used in combination they are termed 'seal systems' by some
manufacturers.
1175

1.7.2.2.2 SEAL MATERIALS
Equipment suppliers have developed seal materials and designed seal

stacks to cater for all downhole environments for their product
ranges and a completion design engineer making equipment
selections must determine which product has the most suitable seals
for resistance to the expected well environment.
1.7.2.2.3 PACKER SEALS/SEAL STACKS
These paragraphs are intended to concentrate on packer and liner

hanger systems especially seals which are stacked together in seal
assemblies and other packer tools. A typical packer seal stack
configuration is shown in Figure 2.7.24.
The main packer seal which packs off within the well bore is the
'sealing element'. It is a rugged large piece of elastomeric material
which is deformed and forced outwards against the wall of the casing
or hole. Various designs are available from single piece elements to
three piece with extrusion rings etc. As it is so large, it is usually
made of Nitrile as only the very ends of the element is in contact with
the well fluids and, therefore degradation even in harsh environments
is limited. A range of element hardnesses are used for various
temperature and pressure conditions. In general, harder durometer
1176

elements are used in high temperatures or pressures to prevent

extrusion; however they are more prone to leak as they do not mould
as easily to the casing or formation.
With regard to packer seal assemblies, an important factor to be

considered in seal selection, is the mechanical strength for stinging
into and withdrawal of the seals from packer seal bores under
differential pressures; this is termed 'unloading'. This is necessary
during the installation procedure of the completion and thereafter
under pressure cycling and/or temperature changes during the
production phase. Tubing movement calculations must be carried out
to determine this tubing movement or ensure that both the packer
and tubing can cater for the stresses applied when the seal assembly
is latched to the packer.
The most robust type of seal for packer applications is the bonded
seal as shown in Figure 2.7.24. The design of this type of seal is ideal
and uses high strength elastomers such as Nitrile or Viton bonded to
metal carriers. However, these materials have limited chemical
resistance properties.
1177

Figure 2.7.24: Seal units for

permanent/permanent retrievable
packers
Seals for performance beyond that of bonded seals require the use of
more inert materials and are termed 'premium' seals but, in
consequence, they have a lower extrusion resistance and are prone
to damage or breakage under unloading conditions. They are,
however, effective if confined within seal bores. To help reduce
premium seal damage, it is recommended they only be used in
1178

containment systems such as a Chevron or V-ring stacks.
1.7.2.3 SLIDING SIDE DOORS
1179

A Sliding Side Door (SSD) or

Sliding Sleeve is installed in the
tubing during well completion to
provide a communication path
between the tubing and the
annulus when it is opened. It is
used to:
• bring a well onto

production after drilling or
workover by unloading,
(i.e. circulating the
completion fluid in the
tubing out with a lighter
fluid),
• kill a well prior to pulling
the tubing during a
workover operation
(reverse of the previous)
and, Figure 2.7.25:A sliding side door
• allow selective zone production in a multiple zone well
1180

completion.
SSDs and other tubing string wireline operated completion

components should be spaced out at least 10m (30 ft) apart to
prevent accidental operation of the wrong component.
The use of an SSD above a production packer carries a risk as,

historically, they have been a source of 'A' annulus leaks. Within
some Shell OUs, the use of an SSD as a circulation device has been
largely superseded by the side pocket mandrel as shown in Figure
2.7.26. New generation SSDs with non-elastomeric seal technology
have greatly reduced the risk of leakage and should now be more
seriously considered for some applications.
Should an SSD leak, it can be straddled by a wireline set straddle but

this reduces full bore access for wireline operations below this depth
unless the straddle is retrieved.
Other alternatives to SSDs are ported nipples with retrievable

straddles.
1.7.2.3.1 CONSTRUCTION
SSDs generally consist of a top sub, bottom sub, outer housing and a
sliding sleeve, hence, the title. Two sets of packing are positioned at
1181

each side of the circulation holes in the outer housing which seal off
the flow path when the sleeve is in the closed position. When the
sleeve is moved to the open position by wireline or coiled tubing, a
set of slots in the sleeve move across between the packings opposite
the holes in the outer housing, hence providing a flow path.
The sleeve must be fully open before circulating otherwise the

packing opposite the slots will be damaged. Usually the SSD will have
an equalising port which is used to equalise differential pressure
before the slots are moved past the packing.
There are a variety of models available which open either with

upward or downward sleeve movement. A number of SSDs can be
installed in the completion string and selectively opened or closed by
the use of the appropriate selective wireline shifting tool.
Tubing and annulus pressures must be equalised before an SSD

sleeve is opened to prevent wireline tools being blown up or down
the tubing.
1.7.2.3.2 APPLICATIONS
• Oil/gas and water injection wells
1182

The use of SSDs in single/dual completions are detailed below.
Above packer for:
• Circulation purposes.
• Equalising tubing/annulus prior to changing gas lift valves.
Between packers for:
• Production purposes.
• Killing and stimulation purposes.
In tailpipes below the bottom packer for:
• Equalising pressure should a plug get stuck in the bottom no-

go nipple.
• Production of a bottom interval if the no-go nipple is
obstructed.
Use in this application is rare.
• Horizontal or high angle wells
The SSD has had widespread use for zonal isolation between packers
1183

in horizontal or high angle wells. This was an application of a

standard completion tool operated by wireline methods converted
into operation by coiled tubing so as to be able to work in high well
angles where wireline could not operate. One of the largest users of
this technology is Maersk Oil and Gas in Denmark.
1.7.2.4 SIDE POCKET MANDRELS
A Side Pocket Mandrel (SPM) is a receptacle for wireline installed

devices which can be used for circulation purposes. An SPM is
installed in the tubing string critically positioned for its intended
application. The devices which can be installed in an SPM are:
• Gas lift valves.

• Chemical injection valves.
• Circulation valves.
• Differential dump kill valves.
• Equalising valves.
• Dummy valves.
The dummy valve is essentially a plug which is installed in the SPM

when circulation is not desired, e.g. when pressure testing or when
idle.
1184

SPMs were originally designed for

application in gas lift, which is still
their main use, but in modern
completions they are also tending
to replace Sliding Side Doors
(SSDs) for circulation operations;
the reason being that the seals
are carried on the valve and can
be replaced when damaged
unlike the SSD which has
permanently installed seals and
can only be repaired by a
workover. They are also versatile
in that they may be used for
other purposes such as chemical
injection and annulus over- Figure 2.7.26: Typical side pocket
pressure protection. mandrel (SPM)
A feature of the SPM which has made its use so widespread in gas lift
applications is that it provides a full bore through the tubing due to
the installed valves/devices being offset to one side in a pocket. This
was a vital improvement over previous systems where the valves
1185

were set in receptacles, stacked above each other. These were

known as 'concentric' systems and to change out a faulty valve
meant that all valves above the target valve had to be retrieved
before it could in turn be pulled, and vice versa for re-installation.
An SPM consists of an oval or round body shell with an integral

forged pocket offset to one side of the longitudinal axis. The SPM
pocket has seal bores and a lock profile to accommodate the
communication or flow control device - see Figure 2.7.26.
Located in the upper part of the body is an orientation sleeve which

aligns a wireline setting tool, or kick-over tool, with the side pocket
aperture, regardless of well deviation or the orientation of the pocket.
Side pocket mandrels are available in two sizes of pocket receptacles,
1" or 11/2" ID.
NOTE: Circulation should only be carried through an SPM with a

circulation valve installed, otherwise the pocket itself will be flow cut
and permanently damaged, resulting in a workover.
1.7.2.4.2 APPLICATIONS
SPMs in oil completions are used for gas lifting, circulation, chemical
1186

injection for (wax, corrosion inhibitor, etc.) and well kick-off.
Used for gas lifting, a number of SPMs are be positioned in the tubing
at depths required to give optimum gas lift performance according to
the well specific gas lift design. The valves installed in all but the
lowest mandrel are usually be unloading type valves, with a metering
injection valve installed in the lowermost mandrel which is the
injection depth.
Some completions may incorporate SPMs as contingency for future

gas lift use. These SPMs will be plugged with dummy valves until the
gas lift system is commissioned. Some wells may have SPMs installed
solely for well kick-off purposes.
In gas wells they are used for emergency well killing, circulation and
chemical injection (methanol, glycol, corrosion inhibitor, etc.). When
used for emergency well killing they are installed immediately above
the top packer with a shear type kill valve.
In water injection wells they are used for circulation purposes only.
1.7.2.4.3 SPECIAL APPLICATIONS
Models have been developed for special applications such as for the
attachment of an injection line run from surface. This can be done as
1187

an alternative to using the annulus as a flow path with the

advantages of:
• reducing the volume of the injection system

• keeping injection pressures off the annulus
• preventing any potential erosion/corrosion of tubulars or
completion equipment.
Other SPM features have also been incorporated into sub-surface

safety valve technology where one manufacturer developed a valve
where the operating mechanism, termed the 'brain', is set in a side
pocket and is, therefore, retrievable for repair/replacement. The brain
is basically an operating piston which opens a flapper valve contained
in the bottom of the tool. A control line is run and connects the port
in the SPM type housing to the controls system through the tubing
hanger in the normal fashion.
1.7.2.5 WIRELINE LANDING NIPPLES
Landing nipples are tubing string components designed to

accommodate the installation of various wireline retrievable flow
control devices. The most common flow controls are plugs, standing
valves, chokes, pressure and temperature gauges and storm chokes.
1188

Nipples are strategically placed in a completion string to enable

pressure testing during installation and to locate other flow controls
or gauges at their appropriate positions. These could be, for example
(from top down):
For pressure testing christmas tree and plugging for

Tubing hanger
barrier protection when working on the wellhead.
SCSSSV top For installation of an insert valve, leak finding and

sub back up plugging position for barrier protection.
At SSSV depth For installation of a storm choke.
Bottom of For pressure testing tubing string

tubing string
or in SSD top sub during installation, leak finding, deep set storm
chokes.
• Below packer in packer tailpipe For setting and/or pressure

testing packer and string during installation, leak finding and
plugging for barrier protection.
• Below perforated tubing joint To catch any dropped tools and
for installation of BHP gauges.
Nipples are also commonly used for checking wireline counter depths
1189

by tagging them with a tool string.
There are two types of wireline landing nipples, no-go and selective.
These are described in the following pages.
The main features of a landing nipple, as shown in Figure 2.7.27, are

the locking groove or profile, polished seal bore and no-go shoulder.
Figure 2.7.27: Typical wireline landing nipples
Landing nipples are available in two basic types, made to fit most
tubing sizes and weights with API or premium connections:
1190

• No-go or non-selective
The non-selective nipple receives a locking device which uses a no-go

principle for the purposes of location. This requires that the OD of
the locking device is slightly larger than the no-go diameter of the
nipple. The no-go diameter is usually a small shoulder located below
the packing bore (bottom no-go) or, in some designs, the top of the
packing bore itself is used as the no-go. Only one no-go landing
nipple of a particular size can be used in a completion tubing string.
• Selective
There are two selective nipple systems:
• One where the locking device or mandrel has a special profile

which will only locate the nipple with exactly the same profile
(each nipple must have a different profile).
• The other where the locking devices are designed with the
same external key profile and the method of nipple selection is
determined by manipulation of the running tool. This selective
design is full bore and allows the installation of several nipples
of the same size and type.
1191

Figure 2.7.28: Sur-set lock mandrel
1.7.2.5.2 POSITION OF WIRELINE LANDING NIPPLES
The industry norm has been to use selective landing nipples in the
tubing string with one no-go nipple installed at the bottom of the
tailpipe. However, nowadays tapered string completions are
commonplace and there is a wider use of no-go nipples in each
1192

tubing size section. No-go nipples are preferred to selective nipples

as they have positive location for installation of lock mandrels. A
more recent development by manufacturers has been slim
shouldered no-go nipples which still give the benefit of the positive
location but provide as large a bore size as possible. The Baker 'Sur-
Set' system was the first of this type which uses the slim no-go for
location of the lock mandrel. During the setting process the lock is
pulled up into the lock profile exporting the no-go shoulders, hence
preventing deformation to the slim contact area due to forces caused
by pressure from above. This is shown in Figure 2.7.28. Other similar
systems are now available.
1.7.2.5.3 WIRELINE OPERATING LIMITS IN DEVIATED WELLS
The maximum practical deviation for wireline lock mandrel setting is

65° - 70° from vertical. At higher deviations, downward jarring action
may not be effective - refer to Topic 7.6. In these instances, coiled
tubing may be used for installing and retrieving wireline tools.
1.7.2.6 FLOW COUPLINGS
In high flow rate wells flow couplings are installed above (and
sometimes below) flow control devices, including SSDs and SCSSSV
landing nipples, in the completion string to protect against internal
1193

erosion caused by flow turbulence. When well fluid encounters a

restriction in the conduit such as a landing nipple, excessive
turbulence will develop immediately above and possibly below the
nipple. In a completion string this flow erosion would reduce the life
of the completion as it would weaken and eventually cut through the
tubing.
To allow for this erosion a heavy-walled tubular is run above (and

sometimes below) the nipple. Although the same amount of erosion
would still be experienced, the added thickness of the flow coupling
leaves enough material intact to provide adequate strength over the
projected life of the well.
• In oil or water injection wells generally, one flow coupling

should be installed directly above and one below the safety
valve landing nipple. Flow couplings may be required for other
completion devices depending on the nature of the fluid
flowing.
• In gas wells all bore restrictions such as at SPMs and swedges,
should have flow couplings installed directly above them. Flow
couplings should be provided for safety valve landing nipples
as in oil wells above.
1194

Calculations to determine flow velocities and criteria for erosion are

given in API Specifications.
1.7.2.7 BLAST JOINTS
Blast joints are installed opposite perforations (non gravel packed)

where external cutting or abrasive action occurs caused by produced
well fluids or sand. In actual fact they perform the same task as flow
couplings but protect against external erosion.
They are constructed from a heat treated alloy material and are
heavy walled tubulars. Blast joints are usually available in 10, 15, and
20 ft lengths.
Completion designs should ensure that blast joints extend at least 4

ft on either side of a perforated interval.
1.7.2.8 GRAVEL PACK

1.7.2.8.1 WHAT IS A GRAVEL PACK ?
A gravel pack is a completion procedure that is performed to prevent

sand production from unconsolidated sandstone formations and high
production rate wells. It consists of placing a screen in the well bore,
then filling the perforation tunnels and the annular area between the
1195

screen and the casing with specially sized, highly permeable gravel
pack sand. The formation sand bridges on the gravel pack sand, and
the gravel pack sand bridges on the screen. It may be referred to as
a 'two-stage filter' for this reason. This two-stage filter allows for
sand-free production at any rate.
A brief overview of gravel packing completion equipment and tooling

follows below. A typical gravel pack installation procedure is given in
Topic 7.7.5.
1.7.2.8.2 SERVICE TOOLS
Service tools are defined as the equipment necessary to perform the

gravel pack, but which are removed from the well after gravel
packing. Common GP tools are described below.
• Setting tool
The hydraulic setting tool generates the force required to set the
gravel pack packer. It is attached to the crossover tool and it bumps
up against the setting sleeve of the packer. A setting ball is dropped
to the ball seat in the crossover tool to plug off the ID of the tool.
Applied tubing pressure acts on a piston in the hydraulic setting tool
to set the packer.
1196

• Crossover tool
The crossover tool creates various circulating paths for fluid to flow
during the gravel packing operation. It consists of a series of
moulded seals surrounding a gravel pack port midway down the tool
and a return port near the top of the tool. See Figure 2.7.32. Most
crossover tools have a 'squeeze' position, a 'circulating' position, and
a 'reverse circulating' position. The 'squeeze' position exists to
perform squeeze gravel packs and to inject acid treatments into the
formation. The 'circulating' position provides a path to circulate the
gravel pack into place in the perforations and around the screen. The
'reverse circulating' position allows reversing excess sand out the
work string after gravel packing.
1197

Figure 2.7.32: Typical crossover tool
There are two release mechanisms available to release the crossover

tool from the packer after it is set - a mechanical release requiring
1198

rotation and a hydraulic releasing mechanism.
• Shifting Tool
The shifting tool is run below the crossover tool to open and close
the sliding sleeve in the extension. When the gravel pack is complete,
the service tools are pulled out of the gravel pack assembly. The
shifting tool is pulled through the sliding sleeve so that the collet
catches the fingers in the sliding sleeve, thus shifting it to the closed
position.
• Washpipe
Washpipe is run internal to the screen and blank to insure that the
carrier fluid carries gravel to the bottom of the interval. The bottom
of the washpipe should be positioned as close to the bottom of the
screen as possible in a water pack. Research indicates that
maximising the washpipe OD increases the resistance to flow into the
washpipe/screen annulus and increases gravel pack efficiency (Ref.
SPE 6805). The ratio of washpipe OD to screen base pipe ID should
be as close to 0.8 as possible. In some instances this will require the
use of flush joint washpipe.
1.7.2.8.3 COMPLETION EQUIPMENT
1199

The completion equipment is

defined as the gravel pack
equipment that remains in the
well after the gravel pack
operation is completed. Following
is a single zone gravel pack
assembly for a 'water pack'. A
water pack is a gravel pack that
is performed using largely non-
viscosified completion brine as
the gravel carrier fluid. The
components of the gravel pack
assembly, shown in Figure
2.7.29, will be reviewed from the Figure 2.7.29: Gravel pack
bottom up. assembly
• Sump packer
The purpose of the sump packer is to provide a positive base for the
gravel pack. The sump packer is usually run into the well prior to
perforating and is set at a specified distance below the perforations.
It can be either a retrievable or permanent seal bore type packer,
however, it is typically a permanent packer set on wireline; Refer to
1200

Topic 7.2.1 for packers. The advantage of using a packer as opposed

to a bridge plug is that a packer provides a sump below the
completed zone for debris such as that produced during perforation.
The sump may also be required to facilitate the running of production
logs.
• Snap latch seal assembly
The gravel pack assembly is latched into the sump packer through a
snap latch seal assembly. This tool has threaded fingers that collapse
inward as it contact the top of the packer. When the assembly is fully
lowered into the sump packer, the threaded fingers expand and
engage the left-hand square threads at the top of the sump packer.
Two moulded seals provide a seal between the lower packer bore
and the snap latch assembly. This tool can be snapped in and out of
the sump packer to verify that the gravel pack assembly is properly
positioned.
• Gravel pack (production) screen
The Screen is a filter that retains the gravel pack sand which is
placed between the screen and open hole or into perforations. This
allows formation sand to bridge on the gravel pack sand, and the
gravel pack sand to bridge on openings between wire wraps of the
1201

screen.
• Standard wire wrapped screen
The gravel pack screen is

supported on a length of
standard oilfield tubing,
referred to as 'base pipe'. The
base pipe is drilled with a
sufficient number of holes to
create a greater amount of
flow area per foot of pipe than
Figure 2.7.30 : Bakerweld screen
the internal flow area of the
design
pipe - see Figure 2.7.30. This ensures that the screen design will not
be the limiting factor for flow capacity in the completion design. The
preformed screen 'jacket', consisting of the outer wire wrap, sized to
prevent passage of the gravel pack sand, and the longitudinal ribs, is
then welded to the base pipe at each end of the jacket. The ribs hold
the wire wrap off of the base pipe, creating an annular area between
the inside of the screen jacket and the outside of the base pipe. This
will allow fluid at all the openings in the screen to be able to drain to
the holes in the base pipe.
1202

• Pre-packed screen
Prepacked screens are screens

that incorporate a thickness of
resin-coated gravel pack sand
inside the screen which may act
as a bridging agent should the
screen jacket fail. Prepacked
screen may be recommended for
use in any of the following Figure 2.7.31 : Typical welded
circumstances: screen
• Highly deviated wells

• Non-gravel packed wells
• Heterogeneous permeability through the producing interval
• Lengthy producing intervals
• Multiple zone wells in which the zones are too close to create a
gravel reserve
• When there is any other reason to doubt the ability to achieve
a good gravel pack
There are a number of various configurations of pre-packed screen

from different suppliers, and the new generation incorporate sintered
1203

metal elements
• Blank pipe
Blank pipe is incorporated to position the packer away from the

screen and to provide a reservoir of gravel above the top of the
screen. This reservoir will allow voids created by pack settling to fill
from above. There is no hard rule on how large the reservoir of
gravel should be, however, 20 metres (60 ft) of packed gravel above
the top of the screen should be sufficient for all but very long zones.
For water packs, 20 metres (60 ft) of blank pipe is recommended in
addition to the 10 metres (30 ft) of screen above the top perforation
to provide the gravel reserve.
Ideally, the blank pipe should be the same size as the base pipe of
the screen. This prevents a drastic change in annular flow area at the
blank pipe and screen interface. Alternatively, the next larger blank
pipe size can be used with flush joint connections to provide a
constant OD assembly. The use of smaller blank pipe very often
results in the formation of a bridge at the top of the screen. Blank
pipe should be centralised similarly to the screen.
• Shear-out safety joint
1204

A shear-out safety joint consists of two subs that are connected by a

number of shear screws. This device should be incorporated into
most gravel pack assemblies to allow for retrieval of the packer and
extension independently of the blank pipe and screen. After applying
straight tension to shear the screws, the packer and extension may
be retrieved. The blank pipe and screen may then be washed over
and retrieved. Alternatively, if the screen is securely anchored in the
hole with gravel and no shear-out safety joint is run, the tubing
below the packer must be cut to retrieve the packer. The shear-out
safety joint must be shear pinned to support the weight of the
assembly with some safety factor, therefore, due to limited shear
value, it is not recommended to be used in long assemblies, such as
horizontal gravel pack assemblies.
• Knock-out isolation valve
A Knock-Out Isolation Valve is a mechanical fluid loss device that

minimises completion fluid losses and damage to the formation while
retrieving the gravel pack assembly and running the production
string. It is usually positioned above the blank pipe and below the
extension. While gravel packing, the flapper valve is held in the open
position by the washpipe. When the washpipe is retrieved after the
gravel pack, the flapper is allowed to close downward on a seal.
1205

Production will open the flapper naturally; however, if necessary it

may be broken hydraulically or mechanically.
• Gravel pack extension
Gravel pack extensions are available in two types, perforated and

sliding sleeve. The gravel pack extension houses the crossover tool
and provides a path for the gravel from the tubing to the
screen/casing annulus and for fluid returns. If a perforated extension
is used, the holes in the extension should be isolated during the
production mode with a seal assembly. Isolating the holes is a
precaution to prevent any gravel production. If a seal assembly
cannot be used to isolate the holes or a long seal assembly is not
desired due to increased cost, a sliding sleeve gravel pack extension
should be used. After the gravel pack is completed, the sliding sleeve
is closed when the shifting tool is pulled back through it from below.
• Gravel pack packer
At the top of the assembly is a gravel pack packer. This packer may
be permanent or retrievable; however, retrievable type packers are
recommended should a workover become necessary.
1206

1.7.3 Sub-surface safety valves

1.7.3.1 WHY USE A SUB-SURFACE SAFETY VALVE?
A sub-surface safety valve (SSSV) is a downhole safety device

installed in a well which can be closed in emergency situations.
An emergency may arise on or around a well from equipment failure,

human error, collision with an offshore facility by a third party vessel,
fire, leaks or sabotage.
The reason for using an SSSV is to provide protection to site and off-
site personnel, surface facilities (especially on offshore installations),
the environment and the reservoir. This reason has even greater
implications for wells which have been drilled and completed in
geologically or politically unstable areas and potential war zones.
It also provides general protection against any 'what if' scenario

which may arise.
Nowadays, in the light of the potential effects of oil and gas

discharges into the environment, most operating companies have a
definitive policy regarding wells which can sustain natural flow. In
many countries, government legislation insists that an SSSV is
1207

installed as the primary safety device.
A secondary use of an SSSV is that it may be considered as a barrier

in well plugging to allow remedial well operations to be conducted to
the Christmas tree, or removal of the tree for rig operations, provided
it has been satisfactorily leak tested.
1.7.3.2 TYPES OF SUB-SURFACE SAFETY VALVES
Two types of sub-surface safety valve are available for production

tubing strings - direct controlled and remote controlled valves
1.7.3.2.1 DIRECT CONTROLLED SSSV
This type of SSSV uses flow rate changes of a well to operate the
valve. The valve is normally open under 'normal' flowing conditions
but any deviation from this normal condition (e.g. destruction of the
wellhead or a rupture of a surface production flowline producing an
increase in flow rate) will cause the safety valve to close. Such valves
are generally termed sub-surface controlled sub-surface safety valves
or 'storm chokes'. They have several weaknesses, however:
• Some emergency situations (e.g. surface fire near oil and gas
separation equipment) do not directly affect the flowing
1208

characteristics of the well; in such situations closure of the

safety valve will not occur.
• They are difficult to calibrate and set to a desired flow rate
• The "normal" flow rate changes with time - either because of
reservoir pressure decline or because of the requirements of
production scheduling - and every time it changes significantly
the storm choke must be replaced by one with a different
setting.
• They are very difficult to test
Since such a system lacks human control, the use of safety valves of
this type is diminishing.
1.7.3.2.2 REMOTE CONTROLLED SSSV
This type of safety valve, as the title suggests, moves the point of
control from downhole to the surface. The remote operation of this
type of valve can be integrated with pressure pilots, emergency shut-
down systems (ESD, PSD) and surface safety control manifolds.
Therefore, surface controlled sub-surface safety valves (SCSSSVs)
are better suited for both manual and automatic action required by
today's industry.
In the simplest system, a remotely controlled safety valve is held
1209

open by transmitting a supply of hydraulic pressure from the control

system on surface through small bore tubing to the valve. The
pressure is provided by a hydraulic pump, or bank of pumps, through
a pressure regulator contained in the control system. A system of
sensors (pressure and/or fire) are installed at some strategic points
near the wellhead and around the plant and, when activated, signals
the control system to remove the hydraulic pressure from the control
line, allowing the safety valve to close and shutting off well flow.
A typical SCSSSV installation is shown in Figure 2.7.33 which features

an annulus safeguard for the gas lift system.
1210

Figure 2.7.33: A typical SCSSSV installation
1.7.3.2.3 SCSSSV INSTALLATIONS
There are two main versions of surface controlled sub-surface safety
1211

valves:
• Wireline retrievable safety valves (run and installed in a

wireline nipple in the completion string after the completion
has been landed, tested and the christmas tree installed).
• Tubing retrievable safety valves (installed as an integral part of
the completion string).
For valve setting depths see Topic 7.3.5.
1.7.3.2.4 SCSSSV DESIGNS
Figures 2.7.35 and 2.7.36 are typical examples of a fail-safe close ball
type WRSV and a flapper type TRSV. In these examples, the
important features are the valve mechanism and the hydraulic
operation.
WRSVs and TRSVs are available with optional ball or flapper type
closure, although, increasingly the flapper type is becoming more
popular due to its reliability, brought about by a simpler design and
operation.
TRSVs are usually full-bore valves i.e. the inside diameter is

compatible with the production tubing. TRSVs which have to pass
through tubing to reach the SVLN, have comparable bore sizes much
1212

less than that of the tubing.
• Wireline retrievable SCSSSVs
After the completion string has been installed, a wireline retrievable

SCSSSV is run, located and locked into a safety valve landing nipple
(SVLN) prior to production. The SVLN is installed in the tubing string.
The components required for the installation of a wireline retrievable
safety valve (WRSV) system are; the WRSV, SVLN, lock mandrel,
hydraulic control line and fittings, hydraulic control manifold and
wireline installation and retrieval tools.
1213

A safety valve landing nipple is a

short tubular component primarily
designed as a receptacle in which
to lock the WRSV. It is run on the
production tubing string. The
main features of an SVLN are the
control line port, locking groove
or profile, polished seal bores
above and below the control line
port, polished seal bore below the
control line port and the no-go
shoulder. These features are Figure 2.7.34: Typical safety valve
illustrated in Figure 2.7.34. landing nipple
The internal locking profile receives the matching keys of the

appropriate lock mandrel to which the WRSV is assembled. This
assembly is run, located and locked into the SVLN. The control line
port in the SVLN exits through a lug which, being raised, offers a
degree of protection for the hydraulic control line and its fitting. In
general, SVLNs are usually of a non-welded construction designed to
be robust against shock and knocking while being installed. The
material selected for the SVLN must resist the corrosion effects of the
1214

well environment.
The control line is attached to the SVLN and tubing hanger by

compression fittings and the material selected for these must be
compatible with the nipple and hanger materials and also resistant to
corrosion from annulus or packer fluids.
SVLNs are available in various configurations depending on the WRSV

design, weight of tubing and tubing thread connection.
A lock mandrel, as stated earlier, is a carrier for the WRSV and is a

removable locking device used to locate, lock and seal off within the
matching SVLN. The WRSV is attached to the lower end of the lock
mandrel to make up the valve assembly.
The lock mandrel keys are mechanically driven out and locked into
the internally machined recess of the SVLN.
When running a WRSV, a prong on the running tool (R/T) of the

wireline tool string is used to hold the valve in the open position to
allow fluid bypass when entering the nipple otherwise it would
become pressure locked. When successfully locked into the SVLN,
hydraulic pressure is applied to the control line to hold the valve open
allowing retrieval of the prong, R/T and tool string.
1215

Pressure sealing within the nipple is achieved by packing stacks on

both the lock mandrel and the WRSV which positions in the landing
nipple's upper and lower seal bores. These packing stacks provide a
seal above and below the control line port within the nipple. The area
between the packings is the communication path from the control
line into the valves operating system. Control fluid from the control
line, which is usually 1/4" OD tubing, enters the valve's hydraulic
piston and actuates the valve.
• Tubing retrievable SCSSSVs
A tubing retrievable SCSSSV is run as an integral part of the

completion string. The equipment requirements for a tubing
retrievable safety valve (TRSV) system are: the TRSV assembly,
hydraulic control line and fittings, and a hydraulic control manifold.
Similar to the WRSV, the control line is attached between the TRSV
and tubing hanger.
When running a TRSV, hydraulic pressure is applied to the control

line holding the valve open to prevent pressure locking when the
tubing string engages a packer or liner hanger. The valve of this hold
open pressure is provided in the manufacturer's design and test
1216

pressures.
If a TRSV develops a failure while in service, an option to allow the

well to continue in production is to install a WRSV insert valve within
the TRSV using a lockout tool, insert wireline retrievable safety valve
(WRSV) and wireline installation and retrieval tools.
NOTE: If the reason for the TRSV failure is due to a leakage of the
control line, then this remedy is not appropriate as the WRSV also
relies on control line integrity.
The TRSV insert procedure locks open the valve mechanism with the
lockout tool, which also opens communication to the control line, and
installs the insert valve in exactly the same manner as given previous
WRSV installation procedure.
This option is a cost effective method of safety valve re-instatement

but may reduce production due to its smaller bore size. If this was
unacceptable, a workover would be necessary to plug and kill the
well and pull the completion.
1.7.3.2.5 VALVE MECHANISM
• Ball valve mechanism
1217

Figure 2.7.35 shows an exploded view of a ball and seat assembly.

This assembly consists of the ball, seat, control arms, sleeve
weldment and alignment pins; the ball is provided with slots to
accommodate the drive pins. The ball and seat assembly provides a
metal-to-metal sealing system and is the primary seal to well
pressure below the safety valve when closed.
Downward movement of the valve seat and control arms within the
sleeve weldment will move the ball downwards. When the sleeve
weldment butts up against the lower assembly, a 90° rotation of the
ball will have occurred moving it to the open position. The rotation is
due to the slots in the ball acting on the drive pins. When hydraulic
pressure is removed the spring pulls back the ball, assisted by any
well pressure, hence reversing the opening action. Additional force
from well pressure will assist in making a pressure tight seal.
1218

Figure 2.7.35: Schematic of a fail-safe close ball type WRSV
• Flapper valve mechanism
Figure 2.7.36 shows an exploded view of a flapper and seat

assembly. During actuation, the flow tube moves downwards and
mechanically opens the flapper system. Reverse of the above action
closes the flapper valve; closure is initially assisted by the flapper
spring and then by well pressure. This flapper closure system has a
metal-to-metal 'hard' seat for high pressure sealing and a 'soft' seat
1219

for low pressure sealing.
Figure 2.7.36: Schematic of a fail-safe close flapper type TRSV
1.7.3.2.6 HYDRAULIC ACTUATION
As discussed above, both ball and flapper valve mechanisms require

the downward movement of an internal actuator to open the valve.
1220

This motion is achieved by the application of hydraulic pressure from

surface, down through the control line to the valve and acting on a
piston (or pistons) forcing it downwards against the opposing force of
an internal power spring and well pressure. This spring provides the
stored potential energy to close the valve when hydraulic pressure is
removed or lost.
Two methods of a achieving this actuation are shown in Figure

2.7.37.
1221

Figure 2.7.37: Two methods of hydraulic actuation
• Concentric piston actuation
Hydraulic fluid is pumped into an annular space within the valve

which moves a concentric piston downwards against the force of the
power spring.
• Rod piston actuation
Hydraulic fluid is pumped into small bores and forces rod pistons
downwards against the force of opposing power springs. Rod piston
actuation reduces the hydraulic chamber volume and permits
operation of valves at greater depths, however the penalty is higher
operating pressures and the corresponding impacts on the system
reliability and costs.
1.7.3.3 SCSSSV EQUALISATION
When an SCSSSV has been closed in a producing well, the well will
build up pressure below the valve to static conditions. This pressure
may be many times higher than the flowing pressure at the valve at
time of closure and, to re-open the valve with a differential pressure
across the closure mechanism, will require higher than normal control
line pressures. This in turn will subject the internal components of
1222

the valve to higher stresses, especially the primary sealing surfaces.

In most circumstances, the pressure required will exceed the rating
of the wellhead, the tubing hanger or the SCSSSV hydraulic control
line. To prevent damage to a safety valve system due to such
stresses, the pressure differential across the valve must be reduced
or eliminated. When this condition has been established, hydraulic
pressure can then be re-applied to the SCSSSV control line to open
the valve.
• METHODS OF PRESSURE EQUALISATION
The following methods can be used to equalise fluid pressures above

and below a closed SCSSSV:
• Re-pressurising the production tubing above the SCSSSV from

another well (if sufficient well pressure exists) via the
production manifold.
• Pumping a fluid which is compatible with the produced well
fluid (e.g. diesel for thin oils) into the production tubing and
pressurise this fluid until equalisation is achieved across the
valve.
• Pumping a supply of inert gas (e.g. nitrogen) at sufficient
pressure into the production tubing until equalisation occurs.
1223

• Using a combination of the methods described in 1 and 3. If

other wells cannot supply sufficient pressure, this deficiency
can be made up by an additional supply of inert gas.
• Using the available built-in equalisation feature of the SCSSSV
installed; this may be used in conjunction with some of the
methods described above.
• Equalisation via the annulus through the (gas lift) blowdown
loop.
Whichever method of SCSSSV equalisation is chosen will be

dependent upon the available source of pressure and, possibly,
Company policy.
1.7.3.3.1 NON-EQUALISING SCSSSVS
As the name implies, non-equalising SCSSSVs have no internal

mechanism to assist in the equalisation of pressure across the safety
valve. Therefore, the only method available is the re-pressurisation of
the production tubing above the safety valve via the christmas tree.
After equalisation, the appropriate control line pressure, as
recommended by the SCSSSV manufacturer, is applied to the valve;
the magnitude of this pressure is dependent on the valve opening
pressure, the setting depth of the valve, the control line fluid gradient
1224

and a safety factor margin.
The advantage over an equalising SCSSSV is that it is more reliable

due to simpler design.
The disadvantages are that an external source of pressure is required

for equalisation and improper operation against differential pressure
can damage the valve.
1.7.3.3.2 EQUALISING SCSSSVS
Equalising SCSSSVs provide an internal mechanism whereby

pressurised well fluid below a closed valve can be introduced into the
production tubing above the valve to facilitate equalisation of
pressure. In general, pressurised well fluid below a safety valve is
allowed to bypass the closed valve by moving a secondary valve
offseat. This small movement of the secondary valve is provided by
applying an appropriate control line pressure which only opens the
secondary valve system; the magnitude of this pressure is dependent
on the valve opening pressure, the setting depth of the valve and the
control line fluid gradient.
The only advantage of this valve vis-a-vis the non equalisation valve
is that it requires no outside source of pressure. However, it is much
1225

less reliable as there are more seals and sealing surfaces.
1.7.3.4 SURFACE CONTROL MANIFOLDS

1.7.3.4.1 SCSSSV CONTROL MANIFOLDS
Since SCSSSVs are fail-safe close valves, they must be held open by
an external pressure source. Surface control manifolds are designed
to provide and control the hydraulic pressure required to hold an
SCSSSV open. Figure 2.7.38a illustrates a typical portable SCSSSV
surface control manifold; such a manifold might be used by wireline
operators to keep a TRSV open (after isolation from the main ESD
system) during routine wireline work on a well.
The main components of such a manifold are the air supply and
regulation system, low pressure system for pneumatic control (3-way
controller, fusible plug, hi-lo pressure pilot, manual shutdown) and
hydraulic system for valve actuation (control line).
1226

Figure 2.7.38: SCSSSV control manifolds
A manifold may have one or more air driven hydraulic pumps to

maintain the desired hydraulic pressure for safety valve operation.
Hydraulic pressure is maintained by a hydraulic control valve which is
actuated by the low pressure air control system. Loss of pressure in
either the low pressure control system, SCSSSV control line; or the
manual shutdown will close the safety valve. Figure 2.7.38b
illustrates the use of single well control manifold. In this illustration, it
is assumed that a hi-lo monitor pilot and a fusible plug are integrated
1227

into the low pressure pneumatic control system and the hydraulic
system is connected via the control line from the manifold down to
the SCSSSV.
Appropriate hydraulic pressure is maintained from the hydraulic

pump, through the hydraulic controller and SCSSSV control line to
hold the safety valve open. Appropriate pneumatic pressure is
maintained in the low pressure control system for the flowline
monitor pilot and the fusible plug; See Figure 2.7.38c.
If the monitor pilot senses a pressure variation outside a pre-set

range, e.g. due to flowline rupture or to the compound within the
fusible plug melting by fire temperature at the wellhead, pressure will
be lost from the low pressure control system. As this pressure
exhausts, a relay valve on the hydraulic controller blocks hydraulic
pump pressure to the SCSSSV; See Figure 2.7.38d. Simultaneously,
the hydraulic controller will allow pressure in the SCSSSV control line
to bleed off to the manifold reservoir.
Additional devices can be integrated with the low pressure control

system such as:
• Melting or rupture of pressurised plastic air line at the

wellhead.
1228

• Operation of a sand (erosion) probe on the flowline.

• Manual operation of the emergency shutdown (ESD) system.
• Automatic operation of production shutdown (PSD) system
(due to e.g. a high separator liquid level).
Surface control manifolds are supplied as complete units containing a

hydraulic fluid reservoir, pressure control regulators, relief valve,
pressure gauges and pump with manual override.
An SCSSSV control manifold installation requires a pneumatic supply

and hydraulic connection to the SCSSSV control line; a pneumatic
connection is also required to the low pressure pilot control system.
1.7.3.4.2 MULTI-WELL CONTROL PANEL SYSTEM
To enhance safety at the wellhead, automatic control of the entire

christmas tree and SCSSSV are usually incorporated into one single
surface control manifold system; See Figure 2.7.39
1229

Figure 2.7.39: Typical well shut-in control panel
This ties in complete control of the well and may save undue
stressing of the SCSSSV by either only closing surface valves or
having a time delay between surface and downhole closures whereby
the surface valves, closing first in sequence, will reduce the
differential pressure across the SCSSSV before its activation.
For a well on gas lift, automatic sequencing of safety valve closure
1230

would be injection gas valve first, the tree surface valves second, and
then the SCSSSV along with the annulus safeguard system. A
predetermined time interval between closures would be incorporated
into the hydraulic control system.
1.7.3.5 SCSSSV SETTING DEPTHS
FACTORS INFLUENCING SCSSSV SETTING DEPTHS
The depth at which an SCSSSV should set in a well will depend on

the following factors:
Well environment Setting depth considerations
1231

Recommended minimum SCSSSV

Land well
setting depth 100 ft. below ground
level.
Offshore well Recommended minimum SCSSSV

setting depth 50 ft. below deepest
pile penetration on fixed steel
platform.
Simultaneous drilling and Below deviation kick-off depth

production.
High blowout potential

Below estimated cratering depth.
Well Production Setting Depth Considerations
Wax deposition Wax deposition depth (oil wells).
Hydrate formation Hydrate formation depth (gas

wells).
1232

Well temperature will be an

influence on these factors during
production.
SCSSSV Characteristics Setting Depth Considerations
Valve closing pressure Maximum fail-safe setting depth.
The valve closing pressure is

depended upon the control line
fluid gradient, operating valve
friction and manufacturer's
recommended operating safety
margin.
1233

When the control line pressure is

removed by the surface control
manifold, the force of the power
spring in the SCSSSV must be
able to overcome the hydrostatic
head of control line fluid and seal
friction during the closing cycle.
These forces are illustrated in

Figure 2.7.40. The closing force
and, hence, the closing pressure
will be the determining factor for
establishing the maximum depth
Figure 2.7.40: SCSSSV force
at which a TRSV or a WRSV can
considerations for maximum
be set in the tubing. setting depth
The maximum fail-safe depth for a particular model of safety valve is

not standard. The maximum fail-safe depth must be determined for
each particular SCSSSV installation.
1.7.3.6 SCSSSV CONTROL LINE FLUIDS
Hydraulic control line fluid is normally static and is held under
1234

pressure for long periods of time. This fluid is also subjected to

relatively high temperatures during production. It must, therefore, be
able to sustain these conditions without decomposition and with
minimal changes in its physical characteristics (e.g. viscosity).
The proper choice of a control line fluid will depend on the production
temperature at the SCSSSV, control line material, SCSSSV material
and SCSSSV seal materials.
Oil-based hydraulic liquids are generally used since they are less
likely to induce corrosion in the control line and the SCSSSV material,
and less likely to degrade the SCSSSV seals.
Water-based hydraulic liquids are diminishing in use since they may

cause corrosion in some metals or alloys. Also, due to their water
content, hydrate ('ice') formation may be promoted in a gas wells if a
leak develops past an SCSSSV seal.
Hydraulic control fluids must be filtered, typically to NAS 6 as fluid

cleanliness has a large bearing on wear and tear of the hydraulic
system due to particle erosion of valve seats and piston seals, etc.
Any ingress of sand/debris into the control line may induce

mechanical problems; for example, wear of dynamic seal areas within
1235

an SCSSSV. Tell-tale signs may be the discoloration of the hydraulic

oil within the reservoir supply tank. The back flow of well fluids up
the control line are indicative of a serious SCSSSV problem and
remedial actions should be instigated.
The speed of closure of an SCSSSV is an important factor in the

choice of hydraulic control fluid. Since the force of the power spring
must displace control fluid back to surface, the viscosity of the
control liquid will determine the flow rate through the control line and
hence the rate of closure of the valve. A highly viscous fluid may slow
down valve action to an unacceptable rate.
1.7.3.7 ANNULUS SAFETY VALVES
The sub-surface safety valves discussed so far, i.e. tubing retrievable

and wireline retrievable, only provide flow control on tubing strings.
In completions where artificial lift or secondary recovery methods are
employed e.g. gas venting in electric submersible pump (ESP),
hydraulic pump, and gas lift installations annulus safety systems are
often used. This is to reduce the potential hazard of a large gas
escape due to the huge inventory within an annulus in the event
there is an incident where the tubing hanger seal is breached.
1236

Figure 2.7.41: Typical annulus-type safety valve system
There are a number of designs of such systems on the market and

the variety is too wide to be covered in detail in this document,
however the basic concepts are the same. With any annulus system,
there must be a sealing device between the tubing and the casing
through which the flow of gas can be closed off. This is generally a
packer or a casing polished bore nipple into which a packing mandrel
1237

will seal. Contained in the sealing device is a fail safe valve

mechanism operated by hydraulic pressure similarly to an SCSSSV.
The valve mechanism opens a communication path through the tool
to allow annulus flow.
1.7.4 Christmas trees

A christmas tree (often known as xmas tree) is an assembly of valves
and fittings which forms the top of the completion. It is connected to
the tubing hanger spool and directs the flow of fluids from the
production tubing(s) into the production flowline(s).
It also provides vertical access to the production tubing(s) for well

servicing and side access to the production tubing(s) for pumping
services, i.e. well kill, circulation and chemical injection facility.
In essence, a christmas tree is a manifold of valves which is installed

on top of a tubing head upper flange or adapter of a wellhead.
Sub-sea christmas trees are designed to perform the same functions

as surface christmas trees but are significantly more complex due to
the operation of the sub-sea valves, the methods of installation and
the interfacing with workover systems. Due to the individualistic
1238

nature of these, their details are not addressed in this manual

although a typical system is shown in Figure 2.7.45.
1.7.4.1 TYPES OF CHRISTMAS TREE

1.7.4.1.1 COMPOSITE TREES
If the individual valves and fittings are flanged and/or clamped

together, the tree is referred to as a 'composite' type tree, as shown
in Figure 2.7.42. There are many variations in the arrangement of the
valves and fittings within these trees to meet with specific
requirements of a particular application. Composite trees are
generally used for low pressure applications only.
1239

Figure 2.7.42: A composite Christmas tre
The advantages of using composite trees are that they utilise

standard components and, in the event of damage, individual items
can be replaced at relatively low cost. Also due to the modular
construction, composite trees are easily adapted for special
applications.
However, composite trees have a high leak potential due to the large
number of connections and are difficult to handle. They are also taller
than solid block versions.
1.7.4.1.2 SOLID BLOCK TREES
If valves and fittings are incorporated directly into a solid steel

forging, the tree is referred to as a 'solid block' tree. Although solid
block trees utilise forged bodies, they are still designed to use
standard valve components such as the actuator, gates and seats.
Top and bottom connections may be either flanged or clamp-type.
On high rate wells, models with Y shaped block forgings are used to
reduce flow turbulence compared to that caused in the 90° spool
pieces used in composite trees. An example of a solid block christmas
tree is shown Figure 2.7.43. A solid block christmas tree used for dual
completions is shown in Figure 2.7.44 and a sub-sea version is shown
1240

in Figure 2.7.45.
In comparison with the composite tree, the solid block has less
potential leak sources.
Figure 2.7.43: Example of a single string solid block christmas tree
1.7.4.2 CHRISTMAS TREE VALVES
1241

Typically from bottom to top, a christmas tree contains the following

valves on each production bore:
1.7.4.2.1 LOWER MASTER VALVE (LMV)
The LMV is a valve utilised on all Christmas trees for contingency to

the UMV (see below) to shut off well flow in the event of a leaking
UMV or the connection between them. It also is used as a barrier in
well isolation to allow work or repair in downstream equipment. It
should never be used as a working valve.
It is normally a manually operated valve, although in moderate to

high pressure wells such a valve may be furnished with a valve
actuator system for automatic or remote controlled operation (i.e. a
part of the surface safety valve system). This is often a regulatory
requirement in sour gas or high pressure wells.
1.7.4.2.2 UPPER MASTER VALVE (UMV)
The UMV is used on moderate to high pressure wells as an

emergency shut-in system. Company policy is that the valve must be
capable of cutting at least 7/32" size braided wireline. The valve can
be actuated pneumatically or hydraulically. The UMV valve is a
surface safety valve and is normally connected to an emergency
1242

shut-down (ESD) system.
1243

Figure 2.7.44: Example of an onshore dual string solid block christmas

tree
1.7.4.2.3 FLOW WING VALVE (FWV)
The FWV permits the passage of well fluids to the choke. This valve
can be operated manually or automatically (pneumatic or hydraulic)
depending on whether is to be included in the surface safety system
design.
On moderate to high pressure wells, often two production wing

valves are usually installed, one manual and the other equipped with
a valve actuator.
1.7.4.2.4 CHOKE VALVE
The choke valve is used to restrict, control or regulate the flow of

hydrocarbons to the production facilities. This valve can be operated
manually or automatically and may be of a fixed (positive) or an
adjustable type valve. It is the only valve on the christmas tree that
is designed and used to control flow. All other main valves are
invariably gate type valves, although needle valves are used on
instrumentation and chemical injection lines.
1244

1.7.4.2.5 KILL WING VALVE
The Kill Wing Valve permits entry of kill fluid into the completion
string and also for pressure equalisation across tree valves e.g.
during wireline operations or prior to the pulling or opening of a sub-
surface safety valve. The kill wing valve is usually operated manually.
1.7.4.2.6 SWAB VALVE
The Swab Valve permits vertical entry into the well for well servicing
such as wireline (slick line and electric line), coiled tubing. It is also
used for BPV installation in the tubing hanger.
This valve (often referred to as the lubricator valve) is operated

manually and is the uppermost valve on the Christmas tree.
1.7.4.3 CHRISTMAS TREE CAP
The Christmas tree cap provides the connection for vertical well
servicing equipment such as a wireline lubricator, injection head and
rod BPV lubricator which are installed directly above the swab valve.
The christmas tree cap normally has a quick union type connection
and is capable of supporting the lubricator stresses encountered in
well servicing operations. The inside diameter of the cap is
1245

compatible with the tree bore and tubing to accommodate the largest
size tools which can be run.
During normal production, the cap has a plug in situ with a threaded
part to accommodate a needle valve pressure gauge. This gauge is
used for periodic visual checking of well pressure. The needle valve is
used to bleed off trapped pressure above the swab before removing
the plug.
1.7.4.4 INSTRUMENT BLOCK
An instrument block or flange is an integral part of christmas tree

design; See Figure 2.7.46. This allows the installation of various
instrumentation to provide visual indication or continuous electronic
monitoring of wellhead data e.g. surface pressures and
temperatures.
1246

Figure 2.7.46: Instrument block
1.7.5 Artificial lift

Natural flow in a well occurs where there is enough reservoir
pressure to lift the formation liquids to the surface into the
production system. Many reservoirs however cannot sustain such
natural flow due to depletion of the reservoir pressure by geological
processes or by the extraction of fluids. In other cases it is desirable
to improve the economics of a project by increasing production over
that which can be obtained by natural flow. In order to maximise the
production of hydrocarbons under these circumstances one possibility
1247

is to artificially maintain or increase the reservoir pressure by re-

injecting produced gas or water, or even water from an outside
source.
The alternative method of maximising the production rate is to

increase the pressure differential between reservoir and bore hole
not by increasing the reservoir pressure but by decreasing the
borehole pressure. This is done by removing the back pressure
exerted on the formation by the column of produced fluids. Energy is
supplied at some point in the well, depending on the composition of
the fluid and the available pressures, to remove the fluid artificially.
Artificial lift encompasses gas lift and pumping systems. The systems
covered in this Topic are
• Gas Lift
• Electrical Submersible Pumping
• Hydraulic Pumping
And the thousands of year old method
• Beam (Rod) Pumping
1248

1.7.5.1 GAS LIFT

Gas lift is a process whereby liquids are "lifted" to surface by injecting

pressurised gas into the production conduit where it commingles with
the produced fluid. This is usually done by gas injection into the
tubing from the annulus. It is particularly useful for lifting wells
where large volumes of high pressure (non corrosive) gas is available
from a nearby well or field. In the absence of an external source of
gas a closed system may be used.
Gas lift may be continuous or intermittent. The choice of method will

depend on the flowing characteristics of the reservoir.
• Continuous gas lift
Continuous gas lift is an extension of natural flow by supplementing

solution gas with pressurised gas injected continuously at a particular
point in the production tubing. (The depth of injection will depend on
the available injection gas pressure.) The injection gas mixes with the
produced well fluids and decreases the flowing pressure gradient of
the mixture from the point of gas injection to surface. This has the
desired effect of reducing the flowing bottomhole pressure and
1249

increasing the rate of inflow from the reservoir.
In a continuous gas lift design there is an optimum gas injection rate

at which production is maximised; beyond that the higher injection
rates increase bottom pressure due to friction losses in the tubing
and are counter productive.
• Intermittent gas lift
In many wells continuous flow cannot be sustained even when the

bottom hole pressure has been reduced to the lowest possible
pressure, which is the separator pressure of say 20 psi or 150 kPa.
This would be the case in very low productivity wells, or high
productivity wells with very low reservoir pressures. In these cases
intermittent gas lift can be applied. This involves allowing the
reservoir fluid to flow into the well against a negligible back pressure
(as mentioned this would be the separator pressure) for a certain
period and then injecting a relatively large volume of gas for a short
period to displace a liquid slug to the surface. When the injected gas
has expanded through the separators the cycle begins again. A
typical injection cycle would be to inject gas for two minutes every
half hour to an hour, but the cycle could be as long as once per day,
or even longer.
1250

Because the well production rate is by definition very low, and the
cost of installing compressors plus a high pressure gas line system is
high, an intermittent gas lift system is normally only a economic
proposition if gas at a sufficient pressure is available from an external
source. There is also the physical problem that compressor output is
continuous whereas the consumption is not. There are however two
situations when it would become attractive even without an external
source of gas:
• If the majority of wells in a field are being produced using a

continuous gas lift system the marginal producers can be
intermittently lifted at little incremental cost.
• If a very large number of wells can be included in the system
so that the cumulative production is sufficient to "pay for" the
compressors, plus the necessary operating costs.
1.7.5.1.2 THE GAS LIFT SYSTEM
The most widely used type of gas lift system is one in which lift gas is
injected from the casing/tubing annulus into the production conduit.
Figure 2.7.47 shows an example of a gas lift system.
1251

Figure 2.7.47: Example of gas lift system
The requirements for such a system are:
1252

These provide down-hole control of the rate of

injection and the timing. They can be fitted with
a range of orifice sizes to govern the injection
Gas lift valves rate. The bellows pressure can be regulated to
govern the pressure differentials at which the
valve opens and closes. A typical valve is shown
in Figure 2.7.48.
these are run as part of the completion string -

see Topic 7.2.4. Gas lift valves (GLVs) can be
Side pocket installed into and retrieved from them by wireline
mandrels methods utilising a kickover tool system. GLV
depths and injection pressures must be carefully
calculated and planned.
these are installed on surface to provide control

Surface control
for pressure regulation, injection volume and
devices
timing.
to separate gas from produced liquids and

provide liquid and gas metering. The production
Separation
flowline to the separator must have minimum
system
restriction, i.e. no chokes and the separator back
pressure must be as low as possible.
1253

to take gas at separator pressure and supply it at

Compressor the required injection pressure. In other words to
add the required energy to the system.
1.7.5.1.3 CONTINUOUS FLOW GAS LIFT
During the naturally producing life of an oil well, the side pocket
mandrels installed in the completion string will contain dummy gas lift
valves. When required, these will be retrieved and replaced with
functional gas lift valves. The required setting depths and
opening/closing pressures of these valves can be determined when
the following information is known:
• Surface casing injection gas pressure

• Gradient of injection gas in casing
• Gradient of produced liquid
• Gradient of produced liquid/injection gas mixture
• Reservoir pressure
• Well P.I.
• Wellhead pressure
This information is thus essential during the design of the completion

in order to place the side pocket mandrels at the correct depths.
1254

When the gas lift valves are installed in the side pocket mandrels,
some type of completion fluid (usually brine) will fill the tubing and
the annulus. This completion fluid will need to be removed, i.e.
unloaded, before liquids can flow from the formation.
Figure 2.7.48: A typical gas lift valve
Figure 2.7.49 shows an example of an unloading sequence from a
1255

continuous gas lift installation provided by four gas lift valves.
Figure 2.7.49: Unloading sequence - continuous gas lift
1256

Gas is injected into the annulus at surface and displaces

liquid through each valve in turn until the liquid level in the
annulus reaches the valve. When the valve is "uncovered" it
will then pass gas into the tubing to assist the lifting process.
The system is normally designed in such a way that as the
second valve is uncovered the first closes, and as the third is
uncovered the second closes, etc.
Unloading in a properly designed gas lift installation should

be an automatic process in which all valves above the
operating valve should be closed and all valves below should
be open.
This process will continue until the situation occurs where

the formation will deliver liquids into the well bore at the
same rate as liquids are being lifted up the tubing and the
well then stabilises. After the well has unloaded, the
production rate will be governed by the size of the orifice in
the operating valve.
1.7.5.1.4 INTERMITTENT FLOW GAS LIFT
In intermittent lift, gas is injected very rapidly into the tubing to form
a gas column under a liquid slug that then expands and lifts the slug
1257

to the surface. In a field operation, gas will be injected into the

tubing for a short period of time several times a day.
Unloading a well which is to be lifted intermittently, is very similar to

that for continuous lift. The only difference is that when a valve is
uncovered, a liquid slug is moved to surface by expansion of a gas
bubble below the slug. This process continues until the bottom valve
is uncovered - see Figure 2.7.50.
This system requires a standing valve at the bottom of the tubing to

prevent the pressure in the gas column being transmitted down to
the producing interval.
Gas lift valves above the operating valves are designed to stay closed
unless there is a liquid slug in the tubing above the valve.
Figure 2.7.51 shows the operating cycle of an intermittent gas lift

installation. With the surface controller closed, formation liquid enters
the well bore and rises in the tubing
1258

1259

Figure 2.7.50: Unloading sequence - intermittent gas lift
Figure 2.7.51: Intermittent lift cycle of operation for a conventional
1260

closed installation
1.7.5.1.5 CHAMBER LIFT
One of the disadvantages of intermittent lift as described above and

shown in Figure 2.7.51 is that the oil column rises to its equilibrium
level inside the tubing. The volume which is expelled during each
injection cycle is thus limited by the tubing diameter. Furthermore
the tubing used in intermittent lift has normally a relatively small
diameter so that the flow regime during the lifting period is optimised
- i.e. fallback is minimised.
An alternative type of intermittent lift is called chamber lift. In this

process a larger diameter section (the chamber) is installed at the
lower end of the tubing, and the latter is extended into the chamber
by means of a so-called "dip tube" with no direct connection between
the top of the chamber and the inside of the tubing (apart from a
very small breather hole). The inflow for a given drawdown is thus
maximised. The operating gas lift valve injects gas into the top of the
chamber, forcing the liquid to flow downwards in the chamber and
enter the tubing via the dip tube. This ensures that the slug of liquid
already has a considerable velocity before the gas starts following it
up the tubing, minimising gas breakthrough.
1261

1.7.5.2 ELECTRICAL SUBMERSIBLE PUMPS

Even in wells where natural well pressure is sufficient to generate

good early production, many wells will still have a need for artificial
lift as they mature. Whenever development plans are raised for a
single well, platform or an entire field, the inclusion of artificial lift
including electric submersible pumps (ESPs) may be considered and
catered for in the final plans. This practice, although involving higher
initial development costs will bring significant future cost savings.
The main advantage of an ESP system over gas lift and hydraulic
pumps is the avoidance of bulky, costly topside facilities (capex).
Other advantages are the higher efficiency and the ability to handle
higher rates. The disadvantage is the higher workover costs (opex) if
the run times are short.
ESP developments in the early days were hindered by the unreliability

of the system - short pump life or cable insulation breakdown - but
improvements in materials technology have enormously increased
performance, durability and reliability. The reliability is still however
very much a function of the type of completion and run times may
still vary from six months to ten years. High temperatures and high
1262

horsepowers make it more difficult to achieve the long end of this

range.
Although improvements have been made, it is some Shell operating

units' view that they are still not reliable enough for sub-sea
completions where workover costs are very high. An assessment of
the viability of any particular system will require an economic life
cycle evaluation.
1.7.5.2.2 EQUIPMENT DESCRIPTION
ESPs may be run on coiled tubing

or cable, but the most common
system uses tubing. The following
paragraphs relate to a tubing
conveyed type system only, as
shown diagramatically in Figure
2.7.52.
• Cable:
There are two basic cable types

Figure 2.7.52: Schematic of an ESP
used in all ESP installations. completion
The motor lead extension (MLE): runs between the pump and
1263

the top of the packer. It has a flat configuration and includes the
connection into the motor which is called the pot head.
The main power cable extends from the connector above the
packer to the connector below the tubing hanger. A range of cable
types and sizes are produced with a typical cable O.D. of 1·25".
Both types of cable have copper conductors that are covered with
various layers of insulation and protection, of which the outer layer is
galvanised steel or Monel armour.
If cables are damaged this is mostly caused by:
• hanging up on BOPs or tie-backs on the way in

• crushing/pinching on the run in especially on highly deviated
wells
• rapid decompression after pressure testing, or
• pulling out of the hole too fast or.
• Penetrators
Penetrators form an integral part of the cable system and are the
means of connecting the cable through pressure barriers such as
packers, tubing hangers and any other such device, maintaining
1264

pressure integrity.
• 'Y' tools
A Y-Tool is a tool which enables

well servicing or pressure surveys
to be conducted below the ESP -
see Figure 2.7.53. The tool is
actually an upside-down Y and
allows vertical access through
one lower leg of the Y while the
other leg is the production path.
The access is only available when

a plug is pulled out of the base of
the tool. Without the plug, the
pump fluid would circulate around
in a loop. The nipple used for the
wireline plug is also used for
hanging off gauges. The access
can also be used to carry out
perforating work and will allow Figure 2.7.53: 'Y' tool
1265

Coiled Tubing for stimulation operations, etc.
• Pumps, intakes and gas separators
The pump section, illustrated in Figure 2.7.54, is a multi-stage

centrifugal type, incorporating either radial or mixed flow type
impellers, depending on the flow rate required.
1266

Figure 2.7.54: ESP pump
Each impeller is designed for a particular capacity range and the

number of stages is determined by the head required. Capacity
ranges of 80-100,000 bpd are available, and a total dynamic head of
up to 14,000 ft. are possible.
• Protectors
The protector is the next component and provides a motor oil

reservoir, pressure equalisation and isolation between motor fluid
and well fluid. The one shown in Figure 2.7.55 is fitted with a thrust
bearing to take the axial loads of the pump shaft, although that is
normally provided for in the pump itself. There are two main types of
isolation - positive seal and labyrinth.
The positive seal type (bag type) provides isolation by a flexible

neoprene diaphragm that expands and contracts with pressure and
temperature differences.
The labyrinth type is the original type of protector and has been used
for over fifty years and is still used in hotter applications today where
neoprene may deteriorate prematurely. The isolation here is provided
by two chambers connected by small diameter tubes. The well fluid
1267

and motor fluid move in and out of the upper chamber as pressure
and temperature changes demand.
A combined system can be used in more difficult applications such as

high deviation wells; in critical situations two protectors can also be
used in tandem.
Figure 2.7.55: Protector
• Motors
1268

The motor is the rotary power force which turns the pump . ESP
motors are two pole, three phase squirrel cage induction type
motors. They are filled with a highly refined mineral oil that provides
high dielectric strength, lubrication for bearings and thermal
conductivity. The thrust bearings carry the load of the motor rotors.
The heat generated by the motor is transferred to the motor housing
by the oil which in turn conducts it to the well fluids passing the
exterior surface of the motor. Therefore, adequate fluid flow past the
motor is of critical importance.
Motors are available in many different sizes and ratings. The

horsepower requirements are largely determined by the required
pump throughput and head.
• Pressure, temperature and flow Instruments
Integral motor pressure and temperature sensing devices are

available from most submersible pump manufacturers. These sensors
transmit a DC signal through the main power cable and thereby
eliminate the need for a separate instrument cable.
Also available are proprietary sensors using separate instrument

cables. These separate cables have to pass through the packer and
this can be achieved with a pressure transmitting capillary or another
1269

cable, space permitting.
Turbine and venturi flow meters can also be installed in the discharge
of the pump which can either be permanently installed or run on
wireline.
1270

Figure 2.7.56: A motor
1271

1.7.5.2.3 FUTURE ESP DEVELOPMENTS
• ESPs for subsea completions
These could significantly increase the production obtainable from

subsea satellite and template wells, and developments are currently
being undertaken to develop wellhead designs, power transmission
and handling equipment for installation. The first subsea well ESP
system completion was installed by Petrobras in 1993.
• Cable suspended ESPs
These are being developed to reduce the costs of installation and

retrieval of the ESP unit. A conventional ESP uses a tubing suspended
pump set, which requires a full workover rig to handle the tubing. A
cable suspended ESP would simply locate into a deep set packer and
produce up the annulus, hence no tubing handling would be
necessary during the installation or retrieval process. This should
greatly increase the speed of the workover, reduce the equipment
and personnel required and correspondingly reduce cost.
• Coiled tubing deployed systems
These are being developed by a number of companies and potentially
1272

have similar advantages to cable suspended types.
1.7.5.3 HYDRAULIC PUMPING SYSTEMS
Until recently the most common and available methods of artificial lift
for high flow rate applications have been gas lift and electrical
submersible pumps. Hydraulic jet pumping systems using a downhole
jet pump have also been used successfully for many years on low
flow rate wells and downhole hydraulic turbine pump systems are a
more recent development marketed as an alternative to ESP systems.
1.7.5.3.1 JET PUMP SYSTEM
Hydraulic jet pumping systems

use the venturi effect for
providing lift energy. A power
fluid is pumped down either the
tubing or the annulus and is
directed through a nozzle in the
jet pump. The venturi effect of
the fluid passing through the
nozzle draws the production
fluids from below the pump into Figure 2.7.57: Typical Jet Pump
the flow stream. System
1273

The jet pump is generally installed by wireline and set into an SSD or
ported nipple which provides the circulation path for the fluids.
Although the great benefit of this type of pump is that it has no
moving parts, it still suffers from flow erosion and, hence it is
desirable to have it retrievable by wireline methods. The
configuration of pumps for forward or reverse circulation is shown in
Figure 2.7.57.
The ratio of well fluid to power fluid required is dependent upon the
required flow rate and head.
Because the produced fluids and the power fluid are commingled in
the production conduit this system is really only viable in two cases:
• if the produced crude is suitable for recirculation as power fluid

after separating out the gas and any produced water
• if a field contains two (or more) reservoirs with different crude
characteristics. For instance the produced fluid from a shallow
viscous oil reservoir could be jet pumped by using light crude
produced from a deeper reservoir.
A new application for the jet pump is its use with coiled tubing for
the clean out of completed horizontal well sections which do not
clean up naturally. This problem is usually associated with the tail
1274

end of horizontal wells where the differential pressure is too small to

provide the energy required, which may be confirmed from logging
surveys. A jet pump is run on coiled tubing with two resettable
packers, the packers are set across the target zone and, by pumping
fluid down the coiled tubing, the fluids are drawn from the formation
between the packers up into the flow stream. This allows the
formation fluids to expel any impeding solids or blocking fluids. The
packers are then unseated and moved to the next section and the
process repeated until all zones have been cleaned up.
1.7.5.3.2 DOWNHOLE HYDRAULIC TURBINE PUMP SYSTEMS
The manufacturers of these systems developed them in the belief

that the hydraulic pump systems would be more reliable than
comparable ESP systems with their inherent problems associated with
electric power transmission and motor systems. In actual fact the
reliability of ESP systems has significantly improved over recent years
so that they effectively compete with hydraulic pumps, and it is true
to say that ESP systems may be preferred to hydraulic pump systems
because of the simpler surface handling systems required. ESPs also
operate more efficiently as hydraulic pump systems must move the
power fluid as well as the produced fluids.
1275

The advantages of hydraulic pump are:
• lightweight construction
• ease of installation
• ability to operate under unstable flowing conditions
• ability to cope with high GOR
• ability to work with high viscosity crudes (given access to a low
viscosity crude to use as power fluid).
The system consists of a downhole hydraulic pump and surface

power plant. The downhole pump is a turbine system driven by
power fluid pumped down the tubing from the surface plant. Just as
for the jet pump, the produced and power fluids are normally
commingled in the production conduit. Unlike the jet pump however,
the possibility does exist of keeping the streams separate by
installing an additional string of tubing connected to the turbine
discharge. In this way a closed circuit power fluid system could be
used. The complication and additional cost would however mean that
that would only be economic under very exceptional circumstances.
1.7.5.3.3 PUMP CONSTRUCTION
The pump consists of two elements - the turbine and hydraulic pump.
They are coupled together into the pump set by a coupling housing.
1276

The turbine drive shaft and pump shafts are coupled together with a
solid coupler.
1277

• Turbine
The turbine is the power

producing section of the pump
and contains a balance drum,
hydrostatic thrust bearing and a
start up thrust bearing contained
in stainless steel housing.
• Pump
The pump section comprises the

necessary hydraulic components,
these being the impellers,
chambers, ring sections and
diffusers, and a balance drum all
housed in a stainless steel casing.
In order to prolong the life of the

pump, the bearings are lubricated
by the power fluid and not
exposed to the produced fluid
which is an advantage over ESPs. Figure 2.7.58 : Hydraulic turbine
pump
1278

1.7.5.4 BEAM PUMPING
The most common method of artificial lift on land is the beam (or
rod) pump system. Beam pumping systems essentially consist of a
surface unit, a sucker rod string and a sub-surface pump. The
reciprocating motion produced by the surface unit is transmitted by
the rods to the pump.
• SURFACE UNIT
The surface pump unit consists of a prime mover (either an electric

motor or a diesel engine), a speed reducer (gears), a crank arm,
metal arms (pitmans), horsehead and bridle. The prime mover,
through the speed reducer, turns the crank arms which move the
pitmans in a vertical reciprocating motion. This motion is transferred
to the sucker rods via the horsehead and the bridle.
In a field with many wells in a relatively small (uninhabited) area it is

a common practice to utilise a single, central, prime mover to pump a
large number of wells. The prime mover drives one or more
horizontal eccentrics to which are attached reciprocating cables or
sucker rods running cross-country to the individual wells. At each
wellhead the motion is converted from horizontal to vertical by a
1279

simple crank mechanism.
1280

1281

Figure 2.7.59: Typical beam pumping system
• SUCKER RODS
Sucker rods are usually 8 metres (25 ft) long and are manufactured
from solid high-grade steel with special couplings. The latter are
shown in Figure 2.7.60. The first sucker rod joint which hangs from
the Bridle is termed the "polished" rod. A set of packing in a stuffing
box on the wellhead seals against the polished area on the rod.
Fibreglass sucker rods are also available for light service applications.
Figure 2.7.60: Sucker rod connector
• DOWNHOLE PUMP
The basic elements of a sub-surface pump are a barrel, plunger,

standing valve and travelling valve - see Figure 2.7.61. As the rod
string is moved up and down by the surface unit, the plunger moves
1282

up and down inside the barrel. As the plunger moves upwards, the
ball in the travelling valve is forced on-seat so that the plunger lifts
the fluid above it, transferring the liquid load to the sucker rods.
Simultaneously, the ball in the standing valve is lifted off-seat by the
influx of formation fluid into the barrel from below the standing
valve. On the downstroke of the plunger, the travelling valve opens,
the standing valve closes to support the fluid column and the plunger
moves down through the well liquids. Repeated reciprocation of the
barrel conveys the well liquids to surface.
1283

Figure 2.7.61: Types of beam pump
There are three principal types of subsurface pump:
Installed as part of the completion string. Their

Tubing advantage is a larger size, but the disadvantage is
pumps that a workover is required to replace the pump
barrel.
1284

Rod pumps Installed and run on the end of the sucker rod. For
(also called the same size of tubing, rod pumps have a smaller
insert pumps) capacity than tubing pumps.
This is a larger version of the tubing pump, with a

Casing pumps
packer attached to the barrel and set in the casing.
1.7.6 Wireline tools

To install a completion involves the use of many services but the

service mostly required is wireline. The wireline referred to here is
simply used for running tools into the well and/or pulling them out
again; it is usually a single strand of piano wire and is not used for
transmitting electrical signals, unlike the conducting cable used by
wireline logging service companies. If a distinction has to be made
between the two kinds of wireline the one used in production
services is usually called "slickline" (because piano wire is smooth)
and the logging cable is called "electric wireline".
1285

Slickline comes in three standard

diameters - 0·072", 0·082" and
0·092". If extra strength is
required a multi-strand line can
be used. This is no longer "slick"
and is called a "braided" line.
Braided lines can be up to 3/16"
diameter.
Wireline tools are used in

completions to:
• drift tubing
• open/close circulation
devices
• install/remove safety valves
• install/remove plugs
It also used for many tasks when

Figure 2.7.62: Typical basic
the well is in production such as:
wireline tool string
• temperature surveys
• making bottom hole pressure and making calliper surveys
1286

• install/remove gas lift valves and circulating devices

• tagging and cleaning out fill or obstructions
• removing wax or scale
The assembly which is run downhole to perform a specific wireline

operation is referred to as the wireline 'tool string'. The tool string is
run, retrieved and manipulated by upward and downward movement
of the wire which is itself raised and lowered by the wireline winch.
The tool string consists of a number of components which are

selected according to the operation to be performed. Tool string
make-up, therefore, varies for each different type of operation.
Wireline operations are conducted with a basic tool string with the
necessary service tools attached to the bottom connection. A typical
basic wireline tool string is shown in Figure 2.7.62.
In addition to the basic tool string, there are a number of standard

tools that are used frequently for tubing control and general
maintenance work. The exact configuration of the tool string is
altered by the operator for the operaion to be performed and in
consideration of other factors such as well (height) access, deviation,
depth, pressure, completion configuration, well log history, etc.
It is essential that an accurate record of the tool string configuration
1287

and dimensions are taken prior to running it in the hole as

contingency for fishing operations. It must be ensured that the
largest fishing neck in the tool string can be fished by a pulling tool
within the smallest tubing size of the completion.
Overview of tool string components
1.7.6.1.1 ROPE SOCKETS
A rope socket provides the means to attach the wireline or braided

line to the tool string. There are two types of slickline rope sockets
for the different sizes of wireline - tear drop and knot type. The
"knot" in a wire line is made by making a very small loop in the wire
and wrapping the free end back round the fixed part. In order to
avoid putting a kink into the wire at the loop, thus weakening it, the
loop is usually made round a small bobbin (shown as "disc" in the
figure). The spring is used to reduce shock loading on the line when
jarring up, or when the line has been slack in the well and the winch
takes the weight when it is already reeling in line at an appreciable
rate.
For braided lines a different type of rope socket is utilised, as shown

in Figure 2.7.64.
1288

Figure 2.7.63: Rope sockets for slick line
Figure 2.7.64: Rope sockets for braided line
1.7.6.1.2 WIRELINE STEM
1289

Wireline stem or 'sinker bar' is required as part of the wireline tool

string to increase its weight to overcome well pressure acting on the
wire cross sectional area and to provide inertia when jarring. An
increase in stem weight increases the impact force delivered by the
jars. The tool string should not however be over-weighted as
excessive mass dampens the 'feel' and premature shearing of shear
pins may occur.
Various stem diameters are available for the range of tubing sizes,
normally in two, three and five feet lengths.
1.7.6.1.3 HEAVY WEIGHT STEM
In applications where greater weight for the same diameter and

length is necessary, lead-filled stem is used. This stem has regular
steel connections and a tubular steel outer barrel. The inside is filled
with lead to provide extra weight.
This stem is used primarily for running pressure and temperature

survey tools in flowing wells to obtain maximum weight with
minimum cross-sectional area, thus reducing the risk of the tools
'floating' or being blown up the hole by pressure differential and fluid
friction.
1290

Other types of high density, heavy weight stem available include

tungsten, uranium and mallory (mercury alloy) filled stem.
1.7.6.1.4 ROLLER STEM
Roller stem is used for work on

deviated wells, or in wells with
paraffin, asphaltene, etc. which
adheres to the tubing walls. It
allows the stem to roll down the
tubing wall, thus avoiding the
friction incurred when using
regular stem.
Figure 2.7.65: Roller Stem
1.7.6.1.5 JARS
Jars are a principal component normally included in every tool string

except those with delicate gauges used for pressure, temperature
and flow rate surveys. Their purpose is to provide an impact force to
operate, set and retrieve downhole devices. Wireline has limited
pulling capability especially in deviated and deep wells; jars are
therefore essential to generate the forces required. If the jars are not
being operated correctly or if the jar action is lost then very little
1291

force can be exerted on the tools.
There are four main types - Spang jars, tubular jars and spring jars,
which have a mechanical action, and hydraulic jars.
Jars are activated by upward or downward motion imparted by the

winch, or by hand if working at shallow depths. It is essential that an
operator can recognise the precise opening and closing point of the
jars on the wireline unit weight indicator. If working by hand it is
easy to feel when the line gains or loses tension as the jars operate.
1.7.6.1.6 STRETCH SIMULATORS/ACCELERATORS
Stretch simulators or accelerators, see Figure 2.7.68, are installed in

the tool string immediately below the rope socket when spring or
hydraulic jars are to be used at shallow depths. The spring replaces
the 'stretch' of the wireline which is available when jarring upwards
at greater depths. Its function is to reduce the shock loading at the
rope socket and cause the stem to 'accelerate' faster when the jars
fire. This creates a more effective impact.
The device works by applying tension on the wire with the winch
whereby the internal spring is compressed. When the jar fires, the
spring expands which in turn accelerates the tool string to give more
1292

impact. This limits excessive loading on the wireline. In theory it

would be a good practice always to utilise this device, but it makes
the tool string assembly over complicated.
1.7.6.2 TOOLSTRING ACCESSORIES

1.7.6.2.1 QUICK-LOCK SYSTEM
Quick-Lock system tool strings may be used instead of (or in

conjunction with) the threaded type tool string.
Figure 2.7.69: Typical Quick-Lock System
Quick-Lock connections are incorporated into a wide range of
1293

equipment. Given that there is no requirement for wrenches when

using the system, it is faster to use than threaded connections. It is
also stronger and will not accidentally back off. Anotheradvantage of
the Quick-Lock connector is that no wrench marks or burrs are
caused, which reduces wear and risk of hand injuries.
1.7.6.2.2 KNUCKLE JOINTS
Knuckle joints are used to offer a degree of flexibility in the tool

string. They incorporate a ball joint assembly allowing rotation and
some angular movement.
During wireline operations in deviated wells, lengthy tool strings

require knuckle joints to pass round bends or kinks. They are also
used to allow alignment of pulling tools with devices being retrieved.
1.7.6.2.3 KNUCKLE JAR
The Wireline knuckle jar is constructed of a special ball and socket

design which provides the same flexibility as a knuckle joint but
additionally has a small stroke for jarring. It is used when only light
jarring is necessary and replaces the regular jar.
It may be typically run with pressure/temperature gauges in

conjunction with a shock absorber or when there is not enough
1294

lubricator height available to use regular jars in the tool string.
Figure 2.7.70: Knuckle joint and knuckle jar
1.7.6.3 TUBING CONDITIONING TOOLS

1.7.6.3.1 GAUGE CUTTER
It is good wireline practice to run a gauge cutter, shown in Figure

2.7.71, before starting any wireline operation in a well, to check the
tubing ID. It is also used to tag TD, locate nipples and to cut sand,
scale, paraffin and other deposits from tubing walls. Gauge cutters
1295

are also used to determine blockage sizes/profiles by running

successively smaller cutters and plotting the depth reached against
diameter to establish the shape of the restriction.
Figure 2.7.71: Wireline gauge cutter and lead impression block
1.7.6.3.2 LEAD IMPRESSION BLOCK (LIB)
Lead impression blocks are used to obtain an image of the top of a

fish, which then enables a choice of the appropriate fishing tool to be
made. The lead impression block is filled at its lower end with lead
1296

which extends below the bottom edge.
The LIB is run and set lightly down on the fish and the jars are
tapped down softly to obtain an imprint. It should only be tapped
once otherwise the imprint will look like a photograph with double
exposure.
1.7.6.3.3 SWAGE
A swaging tool, shown in Figure 2.7.72a, is used to clear minor

restrictions caused by light collapse in the tubing string. Although this
may allow further wireline operations, the tubing collapse strength
will be impaired and further production questionable.
1.7.6.3.4 TUBING BROACH
The tubing broach, shown in Figure 2.7.72b, can be used to remove

a restriction in the tubing, e.g. scale deposits or a minor tubing joint
collapse caused by connection over torque. The use of a broach, like
the use of a swage, will impair subsequent tubing performance.
1297

Figure 2.7.72: Swaging tool, tubing broach and wire scratcher
1.7.6.3.5 WIRE SCRATCHER
A wire scratcher, Figure 2.7.72c, is made from a piece of stem drilled

with a series of holes on at 90° intervals. Pieces of braided line or
slickline (the length dependent on the tubing ID) are inserted in
these holes and locked in place with grub screws.
Wire scratchers are usually run on a pulling tool in order that the tool
1298

string can be retrieved if the scratcher becomes stuck. They are used
to dislodge scale, salt, paraffin etc. from tubing. Wire scratchers can
also be used to fish small pieces of wireline lying loose in a well or
used to locate nipples, side pocket mandrels, etc.
1.7.6.3.6 TUBING END LOCATOR
Tubing End Locators, illustrated in Figure 2.7.73, are used to locate

the end of the tubing and give a cross reference check of depth when
running the completion. They are used also to accurately measure
hold up depth (HUD), or plugged back total depth (PBTD) with
respect to the bottom of the tubing. They can also be used to
position/temperature gauges instead of more expensive electric line
correlating equipment.
When the tool is run and passes out of the tubing, the spring loaded
'finger' trips out to the horizontal position. When pulled back, the
bottom of the tubing is indicated by overpull. After repeating the
procedure to confirm the depth, a further quick pull into the tubing
shears a brass pin and allows the 'finger' to collapse against tool
body, permitting retrieval.
1299

Figure 2.7.73: Tubing end locator
1.7.6.4 RUNNING/PULLING TOOLS
Pulling tools are for recovering flow control devices and other items
of downhole equipment. Some service companies also use them for
running particular downhole tools.
The industry has developed a range of standard sizes of external and
1300

internal fishing necks which pulling tools engage. Therefore, if a size

of, say, a piece of stem is known, then its fishing neck size will also
be known.
Figure 2.7.74: Pulling tools
Pulling tools from different manufacturers often have slightly differing

designs. For this reason, only compatible tools (from same company
as the tool to be run or fished) should be used. However, in practice
these small differences normally do not affect compatibility; an
example is shown in Figure 2.7.74.
There are two types of fishing neck, internal and external as

described earlier. External fishing necks are used generally on tool
strings, running and pulling tools.
1301

The advantage of internal fishing necks is that they have larger flow
area and, for this reason, are often used on flow control assemblies.
Both downhole assemblies and pulling tools are operated by upward

or downward jar action. Sometimes combinations of both are used
depending on the operation to be performed and the equipment
design.
The pulling tool is fitted immediately below the Spang jar and the
assembled tool is then run to a depth predetermined by the location
of the device to be retrieved. Where necessary, a knuckle joint can
be fitted between the pulling tool and the Spang jar to assist in the
latching operation.
There is a vast range of both internal and external pulling tools

available, too large to be covered in this manual. Typical tools are
shown in Figures 2.7.75 and 2.7.76.
1302

Figure 2.7.75: External pulling tool Figure 2.7.76: Internal pulling tool
1.7.7 Completion practices

This topic covers, briefly, various subjects related to the practices
and procedures involved in installing a completion. These are:
• General handling/running of tubular components

• Tubing string installation
• Tubing string pressure testing
• Subsurface safety valve installation and testing
1303

• Gravel packing
• Leak detection
• Wireline equipment and procedures.
1.7.7.1 GENERAL HANDLING/RUNNING OF

TUBULAR COMPONENTS
Well tubulars are specialised lengths of tubing manufactured to high

standards in order to withstand high stresses, pressures and
temperatures, often in a corrosive environment, for long periods.
Failure to select and install these properly can result in expensive
workovers or remedial operations and even loss of the well.
In view of the importance of the proper installation of tubulars in a

well, strict procedures for the care, handling and running of strings
should be closely followed. These procedures cover
• Transportation
• Site handling
• Storage
• Running and pulling.
Many procedure guides, instructions and recommendations have

been published, however, the main source of these is API Report
1304

5C1, "Recommended practice for care and use of casing, tubing and
drill pipe".
Tubulars with premium connections, especially those with metal-to-

metal seals or those supplied in CRA (corrosion resistant alloy)
material need special care, which should be strictly adhered to.
1.7.7.1.1 MAKE-UP TORQUE
Proper torque values must be applied to obtain an optimum stress

distribution throughout each thread connection and to ensure a
pressure tight seal. Make-up to below the recommended minimum
torque can result in leaks and/or joint failure.
Over-torquing may damage the seals and, when shoulder-to-shoulder

connections are used, may result in crimping towards the pipe axis at
the inside (restricting the bore) and/or belling outwards at the
outside.
The make-up torque that is to be applied to a connection should be

recommended by the thread manufacturer, perhaps in consultation
with the steel mill. The make-up torque value is dependent on the
connection type, grade of material, size and weight of tubing. It is
not uncommon for a thread manufacturer to recommend a lower
1305

torque value for a given size and weight of connection in CRA

material than would be applied to a carbon steel grade of tubing of
the same yield strength. This is because the higher grades of CRA
tubing are more susceptible to galling effects should excess torque
be applied.
The effect of the type of thread compound to be used must also be

considered.
It cannot be over-emphasised that the recommendations given by

the manufacturers of the thread connection in respect to the torque
value and the thread compound must be followed.
As tubular size increases in both outside diameter and weight, more

care should be taken during handling and running to avoid the risk of
damage to the connection threads and sealing faces. By increasing
the radial friction and supplying greater loads, the risk of galling is
more likely.
The power tongs that are to be used should be in good condition,

incorporate an integral hydraulic back-up tong and be fitted with dies
of a fine tooth design to avoid undue marking of the tubing. The use
of reduced hardness dies should be considered when running CRA
tubulars. The dies should be regularly inspected and cleaned during
1306

running and pulling operations and changed if required.
The use of pipe wrenches or rig tongs is not recommended.
A reliable and calibrated torque gauge should be used and where

possible a computer controlled make-up system whereby the
connection make-up can be analysed with respect to number of turns
to shoulder points, turns after shouldering and respective torque
valves. This ensures that the joint is made up correctly and any
problem rectified prior to the tubing joint being run in the well.
1307

Figure 2.7.77: Power tongs
1308

Figure 2.7.78 Computer controller for power tong make-up system
1.7.7.1.2 DRIFTING THE TUBING
When wireline equipment such as landing nipples, circulating devices,

etc. are to be run as part of the tubing string, it is essential that it is
dimensionally checked to ensure the free passage of service tools
through the string.
The tubing should be drifted on the pipe rack using a 42" (107 cm)
long non-metallic API drift. The joint should be drifted from the box
to the pin end as it prevents damage to the seal surface.
On completion of the tubing running programme, the tubing (each
1309

section if tapered) must be drifted again using a wireline gauge

cutter.
For tubulars up to 27/8" OD drift diameter the drift size is tubing ID

less 3/32". For tubulars of 31/2" OD and over drift diameter the drift is
tubing ID less 1/8".
1.7.7.1.3 HANDLING OF TUBULARS
The storage preparation and handling of tubulars is vitally important

to ensure that the pipe and its connections are in prime condition for
running into the well. Procedures for handling tubulars are provided
in both SIEP and Shell local manuals which should be adhered to.
These procedures should include the methods of site preparation,

cleaning, logging, protection of tube body and thread connection,
layering of joints, slinging, drifting, handling from pipe racks to the
rig floor, stabbing and connection make-up. They should also cover
similar procedures for chrome tubulars.
These manuals should also contain procedures for the pulling and
retrieval of pipe. These should include the cleaning, logging, rejection
criteria, and connection refurbishment.
1310

1.7.7.2 TUBING STRING INSTALLATION
Most completions have the production tubing connected to a packer

or liner hanger already installed in the well or alternatively have a
retrievable packer requiring to be set at a predetermined depth.
Regardless, this results in the tubing length having to be adjusted to
cater for the fixed distance between the packer and the tubing
hanger system. This adjustment is referred to as 'spacing out'.
Spacing out to packers or liner hangers already installed usually

entails tagging the packer or liner hanger, marking the pipe at the rig
floor then pulling back to adjust the tubing length taking into
consideration tubing movement, distance from rig floor to tubing
hanger hang off point and length of the hanger assembly. To allow
accurate spacing out, a range of pup joints lengths must be provided.
When running retrievable packers, a GR/CCL electric log is run to

enable the string to be set at the correct depth by tying in to a
marker in the casing or formation gamma ray profile. A unique
marker must also be placed in the tubing string, such as a short pup,
wireline nipple or RA sub. After determining the depth of the marker
in the string relative to the marker in the formation the position of
the string can be adjusted before setting the packer. In most cases
1311

there is sufficient tolerance in the position of retrievable packers for

spacing out using pup joints not to be necessary.
1.7.7.3 TUBING STRING PRESSURE TESTING
The procedures for pressure testing when running the completion

string and/or after it has been landed, is dependent upon the type of
completion design, producing conditions, well location, e.g. high
pressure gas wells or low pressure oil wells, corrosive or non-
corrosive, offshore or onshore, etc.
Usually tubing strings will have a wireline nipple located near the
bottom into which a standing valve will be run. In many cases, the
standing valve will be installed at surface and left in place to allow
testing as it reaches predetermined depths until the tubing is landed,
after which it is retrieved. In monobore completions without nipples,
retrievable bridge plugs are used.
The magnitude and duration of pressure tests should be detailed in

the well programme.
The use of high quality premium connections that undergo strict

quality checks prior to dispatch will reduce the risks of tubing leaks
1312

The alternative to testing the entire string is to test each tubing

connection with an internal or external tubing tester. These use
packing elements to seal above and below each connection after it is
made up creating an annular space into which water (or sometimes
gas with the internal tester) is pumped to test the connection seal.
Originally the external method was preferred since it had distinct

advantages over the internal methods;
• it was far less time consuming because the tester was clamped
around the joint like a power tong, whereas the internal tester
is operated by wireline techniques
• it used less hydraulic fluid for testing
Most operating companies have forgone these time consuming tubing

connection testing methods.
1.7.7.4 SCSSSV INSTALLATION AND TESTING
Each type of SCSSSV should have a manufacturer's installation and

testing procedure unique to that particular valve. These procedures
should be incorporated into the well programme and carried out
during the completion installation.
1313

• PRE COMPLETION TESTING
On deck, each valve should be connected to a hydraulic supply to

check its operation. The valve should then have a body pressure test
and a test below the valve mechanism.
• INSTALLATION PROCEDURES
TRSVs are installed in the tubing string and are run to depth with the
valve held open by hydraulic pressure trapped in the control line.
After spacing out, pressure testing and connection to the tubing
hanger, the valve is usually held open by a temporary hold open tool
to prevent pressure locking below the valve when stinging into
packers or liner hangers.
Once landed, control of the valve is achieved by the control system

through the hanger porting, after which the hold open tool can be
retrieved.
If running a WRSV, only the wireline landing nipple is installed in the

string. To allow pressure testing, a dummy valve is installed which
enables pressure testing of the tubing and control line. After landing
of the completion, the dummy valve is retrieved and the WRSV
installed.
1314

• POST COMPLETION LEAK-OFF TESTING
Routine leak-off tests should be performed on all SCSSSVs, the first

being prior to production start up. A leak-off test will ensure that
leakage rate of well fluids past the valve are within the criteria
specified by company policy or API specification. The policy usually
specifies regular frequency testing at 6 monthly intervals.
To conduct the leak-off test, the pressure above the SCSSSV must be
bled down to provide a known differential pressure across the valve.
The well is left for a fixed time and the pressure above the valve
recorded. The rise in pressure, in conjunction with the known original
pressure, GOR and volume between the valve and christmas tree can
be used in a calculation to determine the leak-off rate. By
maintaining records it will be seen when a valve's performance has
declined to the point where well safety is jeopardised and remedial
operations are necessary.
Each facility should have written test procedures with calculated leak
off rates for each well.
If an SCSSSV fails a leak-off test, the safety valve should be

equalised, the valve cycled open then closed, and the leak-off test
repeated. If the SCSSSV again fails the test, the only option will be to
1315

replace the valve or, in case of TRSV, install an insert valve.
1.7.7.5 GRAVEL PACKING
Gravel emplacement in a gravel pack completion is one of the most

difficult completion practices to be carried out.
First the gravel pack assembly is run and installed in the casing on a
combined setting tool/crossover tool which sets the packers; see
Figure 2.7.83.
Following this, the gravel must be placed behind the gravel screen.
This is achieved by carrying the gravel suspended in a carrying agent
or slurry and pumping it down the tubing and through the crossover
tool to behind the screen. As the slurry passes through the screen to
return up the washing pipe and annulus via the crossover tool, the
gravel is sieved out and deposited behind the screen; see Figure
2.7.84. As the gravel is deposited, pressure builds up behind the
screen forcing the gravel out into the perforations. When the screen
is fully covered the pump pressure rises quickly indicating 'sand out'.
When sand out occurs, the crossover tool is moved to the reversing
position to circulate out the excess gravel; see Figure 2.7.85.
Following this, the work string is retrieved and the completion run -
1316

Figure 2.7.86.
The main challenges of gravel packing are to obtain a slurry design

which has necessary properties to carry the gravel but be non
damaging to the formation and to obtain good fluid cleanliness levels.
1.7.7.6 LEAK DETECTION
After a completion is installed leaks may be found, or they may

develop later when the well is in production. Leaks are generally
detected by the observation of pressure on one side of the tubing
while applying test pressure on the other. In production mode, leaks
are generally indicated by the continual presence of pressure on the
annulus.
Before remedial operations can be planned, it is necessary to find the

location of the leak, e.g. packer, tubing, safety valve, hanger, etc.
The normal method of leak detection is to install a wireline plug in a
landing nipple and, applying tubing or perhaps casing pressure, to
determine whether the leak is above or below the plug. The
procedure is repeated using the available landing nipples until the
position of the leak is narrowed down to the section of tubing
between two nipples. Nipples are usually strategically placed in a
1317

string for such a procedure - refer to Topic 7.2.5.
Once it is narrowed down to a particular section of tubing, packer,

etc., then this is usually sufficient to determine the remedial
procedure and equipment required.
However, if it is necessary to determine the exact depth of a leak

then another method would have to be employed. Generally,
nowadays, a resettable packer would be run on either wireline or
coiled tubing and moved up or down the hole while applying pressure
as before until the leak point is found.
An earlier, cruder, method was to run a 'pony's tail' on wireline. A

pony's tail is a piece of unravelled rope or string which is tied to a
wireline stem and run in the well while circulating the leak at as high
an rate as possible. The rope is sucked into the leak as it passes and
the tool string loses weight, indicating the leak depth.
A more sophisticated method is to run a sonic tool on electronic line

and 'listen' for the leak.
1.7.7.7 WIRELINE EQUIPMENT AND PROCEDURES
The different types of wire line and the tools which are used on a
"mechanical" wire line were described in Topic 7.6. These tools
1318

are run in and pulled out of the well attached to the end of a wire fed
from the drum on the wireline winch. The force required to run the
tools into the well is supplied by gravity; wireline is thus of limited
use in high angle or horizontal wells. The force required to retrieve
the tools is provided by a hydraulic power pack (electric or diesel
driven) through a gear box to the wireline drum. The power pack is
often remote from the winch to aid shipping and positioning when
there is limited space such as on a platform wellhead deck.
Figure 2.7.87 illustrates a typical equipment layout for wireline

operations on a land location. The layout for offshore locations varies
due to the wellhead and wireline unit deck levels,but in essence is
very similar. The equipment requirements also differ due to offshore
locations usually having lifting facilities in the way of a rig or a mast,
whereas a land unit would require the use of a crane or gin pole.
1319

Figure 2.7.87: Typical wireline rig-up
Wireline units must be adequately anchored to prevent movement

caused by the loads on the wireline; even the heavier skid mounted
and tmck mounted types must be securely anchored regardless of
the operation being performed.
• LUBRICATOR SYSTEM
For the introduction of the tools (known as "lubricating") into or out

of the well a lubricator system is employed which consists of an
1320

adapter, for connection to the christmas tree, a BOP for pressure

control in the event of leak, sufficient lubricator sections to
accommodate the length of the tool string to be run, and a stuffing
box to seal around the wire. Additionally there may be a tool trap just
above the BOP, a wireline clamp and, if the lubricator is under
pressure, a high pressure control head. A typical installation is shown
in Figure 2.7.88 and the component parts are described on a
separate page.
1321

Figure 2.7.88: The components of a lubricator set-up.
To install a tool string, the christmas tree swab and upper master
valves are closed, the lubricatordisconnected from the BOPs and the
tools pulled up into the bore of the lubricator with the winch. The
wireline is then made fast in the clamp in order to take the tension
out of the wireline while the lubricator is being manoeuvred back
over the BOPs and reconnected. The lubricator is then pressure
tested, and the upper master and swab valves are opened. The
wireline is tensioned by the winch, the clamp released, and the tools
are run into the well bore to conduct the specific wireline operation.
To retrieve the tools, they are pulled back into the lubricator, the
swab and upper master valves are closed and the pressure bled off
the lubricator. The line is made fast in the clamp and the lubricator is
disconnected from the BOPs to retrieve the tools.
The tool trap is a type of one-way valve for the tools and has to be
manually opened to allow them to pass down. Its advantage is that
when the tools have reached the lubricator during retrieval they
cannot drop back down the well again. This is especially useful during
fishing operations when the fishing tool may have an insecure grip on
the fish - as the tool string is pulled into the lubricator even a slight
1322

impact of the rope socket against the stuffing box may cause the fish
to drop free.
• TOOL STRING MANIPULATION
The wireline unit contains a weight indicator and depth counter for
the accurate and efficient manipulation of tool strings. The operator
must be able to run, position and manipulate the jars efficiently to
successfully accomplish tool operations. Manipulation of mechanical
jars requires fast acceleration of the wire by using the power of the
motor and high gear speeds. Due to these factors and the relatively
low tensile strength of the wireline, there is a high risk of wire
breakage when jarring in shallow wells. In deeper wells the elasticity
of the wire gives it more capacity to absorb shock loading.
Some operations may only require simple running and pulling out of
the hole while others, such as installing gas lift valves, require
multiple upwards and downwards manipulation of the wireline before
the task is achieved.
• WIRELINE FISHING
Due to the nature of wireline, it is not uncommon for wire to break or

be cut through overpull or inadvertent closure of a valve respectively.
1323

When this occurs, the wire is pulled back or ejected out of the well by
pressure. The wire and tool string left in the hole is referred to as the
"fish", the same term as used in drilling operations.
Fishing with wireline for a wireline fish is often a difficult task. If the
wire parted because the tool string was stuck the best method is to
try to break it again at the rope socket so that the wire can be
recovered first. This can be done by running a length of stem with as
high a velocity as possible so that when it hits the fish the original
line is bent over at the top of the rope socket and cut by the impact.
If the wire itself has been recovered but the tool string is left in the
hole this can be caught by the fishing neck, but additional lubricator
length is required to accommodate both the fishing tool string and
the fish. It may also be necessary to use stronger braided line if the
weights and combined drag exceeds the capability of the slickline.
Before fishing operations are started, they must be thoroughly

planned and programmed to cover all contingencies. Even with sound
planning it is not uncommon for the situation to be made worse with
fishing tool strings becoming stuck and stacking up.
For exceptional heavy duty fishing operations, heavy duty units and
1324

tools are available.
• WIRELINE RIG UP AND PRESSURE TESTING
All wireline pressure containing equipment is tested at regular

intervals for condition and fitness. It is also tested at the well site
before use.
• WIRELINE BOPS
The wireline BOPs are an intrinsic part of a lubricator system and are
a safety device for closing on the wireline in the event of a leak
developing above them. When the leak has been repaired, the
pressure is equalised via a valve in the BOP and the rams opened to
recommence operations.
BOPs for use with braided or electric line cables may have up to three
sets of rams, i.e. two sealing rams and one set of shear/blind rams.
To initiate a seal on cable, the two sets of sealing rams (the upper
being inverted) are closed and grease is injected between them at a
pressure slightly higher than well pressure creating a "grease seal".
For a slick line, BOPs may have one or, more likely, two sets of rams.
The rams are blind type rams which can seal either around the wire
1325

or without wire.
These BOPs are also used to help in fishing operations in that they
can be closed on wire which has been fished and pulled back into the
lubricator. The BOPs are closed on the wire to hold the fish below
and allow the original wire to be re-threaded back to the wireline
winch. It may also be used when fished wire has been doubled over
to "strip" out the doubled up ends and find the end connected to the
tools. Many operators do not, however, condone this practice today
as there is a risk of injury to personnel conducting the stripping.
• STUFFING BOX
The stuffing box provides a seal around the wire where it passes
through the top of the lubricator. It has a set of packings through
which the wire is threaded. The packings are squeezed by a nut to
press against the wire and the packing housing, forming a seal. The
packings should only be energised sufficiently enough to form the
seal otherwise excess friction may be produced, preventing the tools
from entering the well and causing premature wear to the packings.
In a well with a high tubing head pressure the stuffing box will be
replaced by a control head as shown in Figure 2.7.88. This has
1326

nipples for injecting grease at high pressure to form the seal.
The stuffing box/control head also incorporates a sheave which

directs the path of the wire leaving the lubricator down to the sheave
attached to the tree (which is referred to as the "hay pulley" - see
below). The stuffing box sheave has a guard to keep the wireline in
the sheave groove and is contoured such that, if the wire breaks at
surface, between the winch and stuffing box, it may be caught by the
guard.
• HAY PULLEY
The hay pulley directs the wire from the wireline drum up to the
stuffing box. This arrangement is exceedingly important as it takes
the horizontal forces generated by the wireline winch and prevents
side loading on the lubricator.
The Hay pulley is attached to the tree by hooking it onto a chain

wrapped around the latter. When working with downhole wireline
tools, as opposed to simple pressure and/or temperature surveys, a
weight indicator sensor will be positioned between the Hay pulley
and the chain to give the operator a better idea of what is happening
down hole. If the weight indicator is being used, the Hay pulley must
turn the wireline through 90° as the indicators are calibrated for that
1327

situation.
Even without a weight indicator the Hay pulley gives a visual

indication to the wireline operator when tool weight is being gained
or lost as it moves up or down (respectively) under the influence of
the tension in the wire.
1328

1329

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Chapter Two

1.1 THE DRILL STRING

1.1.1 Drill pipe

Petroleum Engineer: Mohd. Zouhry El-Helu.

E-Mail Address: peteng.mzhelu@gmail.com

Drill pipe is seamless tube, equipped with special threaded couplings

Figure: 2.1.1: A stack of drill pipe

• Dimensions and strength

1.1.1.1 Dimensions and strength

Petroleum Engineer: Mohd. Zouhry El-Helu.

E-Mail Address: peteng.mzhelu@gmail.com

Drill pipe is available in singles or joints which refer to one piece of

Drill pipe singles can be supplied in three length ranges. Ranges I, II

Range I (6.7 m or 22 ft) is now obsolete and Range III (12.19 m or

1.1.1.1.2 SIZE (OUTSIDE DIAMETER - OD) AND WEIGHT

Petroleum Engineer: Mohd. Zouhry El-Helu.

E-Mail Address: peteng.mzhelu@gmail.com

reason for choosing a given size of drill pipe will be explained in

In a number of Operating Companies 6 5/8" (168.2 mm) DP and 5

Petroleum Engineer: Mohd. Zouhry El-Helu.

E-Mail Address: peteng.mzhelu@gmail.com

• Stress is the total load divided by the original cross-sectional

Petroleum Engineer: Mohd. Zouhry El-Helu.

E-Mail Address: peteng.mzhelu@gmail.com

• Elastic strain - The material deforms but returns to its original

Petroleum Engineer: Mohd. Zouhry El-Helu.

E-Mail Address: peteng.mzhelu@gmail.com

Figure 2.1.2 : Stress-Strain Diagram

In Figure 2.1.2 the elastic deformation is approximately a straight

Petroleum Engineer: Mohd. Zouhry El-Helu.

E-Mail Address: peteng.mzhelu@gmail.com

Beyond the elastic limit (Point A in Figure 2.1.2), permanent or plastic

In the harder and stronger steels, and under certain temperature

Petroleum Engineer: Mohd. Zouhry El-Helu.

E-Mail Address: peteng.mzhelu@gmail.com

For drill pipe:

D(55) : minimum yield strength = 379 MPa = 55,000 psi

E(75) : minimum yield strength = 517 MPa = 75,000 psi

X(95) : minimum yield strength = 655 MPa = 95,000 psi

G(105) : minimum yield strength = 724 MPa = 105,000 psi

S(135) : minimum yield strength = 931 MPa = 135,000 psi

For tubing and casing:

H40 : minimum yield strength = 276 MPa = 40,000 psi

K55/J55 : minimum yield strength = 379 MPa = 55,000 psi

N80/L80 : minimum yield strength = 552 MPa = 80,000 psi

P110 : minimum yield strength = 758 MPa = 110,000 psi

For further reference, the mechanical and chemical properties of drill

The minimum yield stress is the parameter used in design

Petroleum Engineer: Mohd. Zouhry El-Helu.

E-Mail Address: peteng.mzhelu@gmail.com

remains in the elastic behaviour range for steel, a design factor of

1.1.1.1.4 DIMENSION AND STRENGTH DATA SOURCES

Secondary, and usually more convenient, sources of data are the

Petroleum Engineer: Mohd. Zouhry El-Helu.

E-Mail Address: peteng.mzhelu@gmail.com

• API RP 5A5: Recommended practice for field inspection of new

Petroleum Engineer: Mohd. Zouhry El-Helu.

E-Mail Address: peteng.mzhelu@gmail.com

1.1.1.1.5 API CLASSIFICATION FOR DRILL PIPE

Even drill pipe in apparently as-new condition is rarely classed as new

Petroleum Engineer: Mohd. Zouhry El-Helu.

E-Mail Address: peteng.mzhelu@gmail.com