CHAPTER ae Engine Components Learning Objectives After studying this chapter, you will be able to: * Identify the basic components of a small engine and describe the function of each component. * Describe engine block variations. * Describe the construction and operation of the crankshaft. ‘+ Explain piston design considerations and differentiate between types of piston rings. * Describe connecting rod and bearing variations. + Identify common valve train configurations. Engine Components Chapter 5 provided you with an explanation of two- and four-stroke engine operation and a general idea of how the major parts of a gasoline engine operate. This chapter will detail the design and construction of the various mechanical parts that are commonly used in smalll gasoline engines, Most of these parts are found on all engine types. A few of the parts are specific to either two- or four-stroke engine designs. piston piston pin piston rings piston skirt poppet valve porting pushrods reed valve rewind starter assembly ring tension rocker arms rotary valves slap snap rings sump thrust surfaces valve guide valve lifter valve spring valve train valve-in-block wrist pin Engine Block ‘The engine block keeps all engine parts in alignment. See Figure 6-1. This critical engine component is usually a casting of iron or an alu- minum alloy. The engine block consists of two sec- tions: the cylinder block and the crankcase. The cylinder block is the portion of the engine block that contains the cylinder bore. It must be strong, enough to contain the power developed by the expanding gases, 109oytinder a ath == ylinder_— head Figure 6-1 ‘The engine block is important because it keeps all moving parts in alignment. This is a combined cylinder block and crankcase. The eylinder head and sealing ‘gasket are bolted to the cylinder block. The cylinder can be produced accurately by modern methods. It may be bored directly into the casting, or it may be a steel sleeve inserted into an oversize hole bored in the block. The cylinder head may be bolted to the block or it ‘may be cast as part of the cylinder block. The method employed depends on the intended application of the engine and the manufacturer's preference. Aluminum cylinder blocks are often. cast around a steel sleeve. Aluminum, being a soft metal, would wear out quickly due to the friction of the piston, Advantages of aluminum are its light weight and ability to dissipate heat rapidly. Allair-cooled engines have cooling fins on the outside of the cylinder block and cylinder head. The size, thickness, spacing, and direction of the cooling fins are carefully engineered. for efficient air circulation and heat control ‘The crankcase is the portion of the engine block that contains the crankshaft. It must be rigid and strong enough to withstand the rotational forces of the crankshaft, while keeping, all parts in proper alignment. Oil for lubrication is contained in. the crankcase on some engines. On others, a valve system in the crankcase is used that allows a fuel, air, and oil Section 2 Basics of Engine Operation mixture to enter, The crankcase must be designed to protect the internal parts. Gaskets andl oil seals are Used to keep out dirt and keep in the clean oil ‘The crankcase and the cylinder block may be cast as a single unit or the two sections can be fastened together by bolts. Casting metal is the process of pouring molten metal into a form ofa desired shape. Figure 6-1 shows a one-piece engine block with a separate, bolted cylinder head. A two-piece engine block is shown in Figure 6-2. Note that the cylinder head is an integral part of the cylinder block. Crankshaft The crankshaft is the major rotating part of the engine. See. Figure 63. It converts the neciprocat ing (back and forth) motion of the piston into rotary On this engine, the cylinder block is bolted to the crankcase, ‘The oylinder head is cast as part ofthe cylinder block, A crankshaft for a single cylinder engine. Large ‘counterweights opposite the crank journal balance rotational forces.‘Chapter 6 Engine Components (circular) motion. The crankshaft transmits engine torque to a pulley or gear, so that some mechanism can be driven by the engine. It also drives the cam- shaft (on four-stroke engines), supports the flywheel, and, in many engines, operates the ignition system. Figure 6-4 shows a typical one-piece small engine ‘crankshaft, Note the tapered end on the crankshaft, which receives the flywheel. The end of the crank- shaft and the hole through the flywheel have matched tapers that provide good holding power. The flywheel is keyed to the end of the shaft with a Woodrutf key. This type of key cannot slip out during operation. ‘A lock washer and nut hold the flywheel in place. A multipiece crankshaft is shown in Figure 6-5. ‘The crankshaft throw is the offset portion of the shaft measured from the centerline of the main bearing bore to the centerline of the connecting rod journal. The connecting rod journal is com- monly referred to as the crank throw or crankpin. To help offset the unbalance created by the force of the reciprocating mass (connecting red, piston, and crankpin), counterweights are added to the crank- shaft. By placing these weights opposite the crank- pin, engine vibration is greatly reduced. As shown in Figures 6-4 and 6-5, the counterweights are usually forged as an integral part of the crankshaft. Crankshaft Main Bearings The crankshaft is supported by one or more main bearings. Often, the main bearing journal surfaces are hardened by an induction hardening ‘Single-piece crankshafts are most popular in small gasoline engine applications. Connecting rod journal or erankpin le 9 Main ‘Main bearing bearing journal journal ‘Counterweight i Multipiece crankshatts have various parts pressed together under heavy pressure. process to provide long service life. The three types of main bearings used are: + Sleeve or bushing, See + Roller bearing, See Figure 6 ‘+ Ball bearing, See Figure 6-8. Main bearing Crankshaft _,Crankpin formed in block metal Bronze or babbit-lined insert bearing ‘Aluminum crankcase-block Crankshaft counterweight Grn Friction-type crankshaft main bearings. The shaft at left uses a bore in the aluminum crankcase as a bearing ‘surface, The shaft at right uses a precision insert bearing.Tapered roller bearing Snap ring Crankshaft Crankcase —— ‘Typical use of a tapered roller bearing as a crankshaft main bearing, Crankpin Ball bearing __-Snap_ ring Crankcase Crankshaft ‘A ball bearing also can be used as a crankshaft main bearing. When roller bearings are used to support the crankshaft, highly polished, hardened alloy steel bearing races are pressed into the crankcase to reduce friction and provide good wear ability. Crankcase Seals Crankcase seals prevent leakage of oil from the areas where the crankshaft and crankcase come together. The shell of the seal makes fixed Section 2 Basics of Engine Operation contact with the crankcase, while the knife edge of the sealing lip rubs lightly against the crankshaft. A small coil spring keeps the sealing lip in con- stant contact with the shaft it seals, See Figure 6-9. Seals are made of neoprene, leather, graphite, or other materials, depending on how they are used. Pistons The piston is the straight line driving member of the engine, It is subjected to the direct heat of combustion and must have adequate clearance in the cylinder to allow for expansion. ‘The piston provides a seal between the com- bustion chamber and the crankcase. This is accomplished by cutting grooves near the top of the piston and installing piston rings. The piston rings fit the grooves with a slight side clearance, and exert tension on the cylinder wall. Properly installed, piston rings prevent blowby of exhaust gases into the crankcase and leakage of oil into the combustion chamber. The number of piston rings per piston depends on the type of engine and its design. Note the piston rings in Figure 6-10, Small coil spring Oil seal Crankshaft Crankcase Atypical neoprene oil seal has a sealing lip with a sharp edge, providing increased pressure and reduced triction.Chapter 6 Engine Components Piston Ring Tho psion iho larges! ldngveciroctng pat in an engine. Piston rings seal the combustion chamber Phe Samneace eat paper Piston Construction Pistons can be made of aluminum or steel Aluminum is by far the most popular metal for this application. The surface may be coated with a special break-in finish (tin or other coating). Some- times pistons are chrome plated for installations where they operate directly on aluminum-alloy cylinder walls. The type of piston often used in a four-stroke engine is shown in Figure 6-11. The head is quite thick, giving this hardworking part strength and resistance to overheating. The area below the head has grooves for the piston rings. The full- diameter ridges between the grooves are called lands. The wall or bottom of the oil ring groove is either slotted or pierced with holes. Oil wiped from the cylinder wall by the oil ring flows through these holes and back into the oil sump. The sump is the low area of the engine block where the oil collects. Pistons may have grooves for one to four rings. Generally, the two-stroke engine piston has one or two grooves. Both are compression ring grooves. Four-stroke engine pistons will generally have three grooves, two for compression tings and one for an oil control ring, There isa holein each side of the piston through which a piston pin, or wrist pin, is placed. This pin acts as a hinge between the connecting rod and piston and holds the two together. The section ‘Compression ring grooves Caen Ef (Ss fected Oi contro! ring groove Ce “Piston pin hole Pin bosses Reinforced edge This typical four-stroke engine piston is out away to show construction details. of the piston surrounding the piston pin hole is called the pin boss. Itis thick and often reinforced with cast-in webs. The piston skirt is the part of the piston below the bottom of the lower ring groove. The skirt is designed to be as light as possible to hold down the weight of the assembly. ‘The skirt actually guides the piston and keeps it from tipping from side to side. Portions of it may be cut away for lightness. Also, in some two-stroke ‘engines, portions may be cut away to allow the air- fuel mixture to pass through the piston skirt into other parts of the cylinder. Cam-Ground Pistons When the designer wants the smallest pos- sible clearance between the piston skirt and the cylinder wall, skirts are often cam ground to an elliptical (oval) shape. The oval shape of a cam- ground piston allows the thrust surfaces (sides of skirt forced against cylinder during compression and firing) to fit more closely, even when cold. As the piston heats up, the diameter across the thrust surfaces remains constant and the piston enlarges parallel to (in the same direction as) the piston pin. See Figure 6-12. These exaggerated views illus- trate how a cam-ground piston expands to a round shape as it becomes hot.om Wy Qylinder wait Piston head Vii Exaggerated top views of a cam ground piston as it would fit in a cylinder. A—Cold. B—Hot. Arrows indicate piston pin position, re 6- Piston Thrust Surfaces During the compression stroke, the pressure of the confined air-fuel mixture forces the piston toward one side of the cylinder. See Figure 6-13A. When the crankshaft throw passes TDC, burning and rapidly expanding gases push hard on the pis- ton, forcing it against the opposite side of the cylin- det: See Figure 6-13B. In each instance, the sides of the piston forced against the cylinder wall are called thrust surfaces. Compression Stroke Power Stroke rankpin ‘The thrust surfaces of a piston must resist heavy side pressure against the cylinder walls. A—Upstroke. B—Downstroke. Section 2 Basics of Engine Operation These surfaces are at right angles (90°) to the cen- terline of the crankshaft and piston pin If the piston has too much clearance in the cyl inder, side thrust during the compression and firing strokes will make it move, or slap, from one side of the cylinder to the other. As it moves sideways, the piston will tend to tip, or cock, in the cylinder, This loose fit can be very harmful (o the piston and rings. The pis- ton must fit the cylinder properly to avoid slapping, Piston Head Size The piston head receives the brunt of combus- tion heat, so it runs hotter than the skirt and expands more. Because of this, the head of the piston often is made with a smaller diameter than the skirt. Figure 6-14 shows an exaggerated view of a piston with the head smaller than the skirt. The actual dif ference is only a few thousandths of an inch. Piston Head Shape Piston heads are manufactured in many differ- ent shapes, depending on the type of small engine and its use. On four-stroke engines, the piston head can be flat, domed, or wedge-shaped. Pistons used in two-stroke engines generally are flat when used with a loop-scavenging design. Cross-scavenging, designs use a raised baifle or deflector head piston. See Figure 6-15. |<—Skirt Diamoter—e| GETS ‘The piston head receives the greatest heat and is ‘sometimes made smaller to compensate for expansion,Chapter 6 Engine Components Flat Dome Wedge Batfle Figure 6-15. ‘Small gasoline engine piston heads are manufactured in a wide variety of shapes. Piston Rings All small engine pistons must have clearance for lubrication and expansion. At the same time, they must have rings to help do the job of sealing the cylinder(s). Without piston rings, the piston could not compress the fuel charge properly. Also, burning gases would leak out between the sides of the piston and the cylinder wall. In performing their job, the piston rings ride against the cylinder wall, separated from it only by a thin film of oil. The rings rub freely against the sides of the ring grooves, which hold the rings squarely to the bore and force them to slide up and down the cylinder with the piston, See Figure 6-16. Since the ring face is in steady contact with the cyl- inder walls an effective seal is formed. Figure 6-17 shows a piston ring in its groove. The sides of the ring groove are flat, parallel, and smooth. In operation, expanding gases force the ring down against the lower side of the groove. At the same time, gases behind the ring force it against the cylinder wall. These forces help to form a good seal. Piston Ring Types Most pistons use three rings. These three rings consist of two ring types. Generally, the two upper rings are compression rings and the lower ring is an oil control ring, See Figure 6-18, Compression Rings ‘The first and second rings from the top of the piston are compression rings. Compression rings are designed to provide a strong seal, keeping the compressed air-fuel mixture and the burning gases above the piston by preventing passage between Burning fuel _ Piston Cylinder head 1 ' t Cc} it} ES Piston Cylinder wall ‘Connecting rod Grn Piston rings form a seal between the piston and cylinder wall Compression pressure Cylinder wall Figure ‘Combustion chamber pressure forces the ring against the cylinder wall and the bottom side of the groove.Compression rings oil ‘control ring Piston ‘The two top piston rings are compression rings and the bottom ring is the oil control ring, They fit into the grooves cut into the piston, the piston and the cylinder wall. Compression ring shapes vary, with the scraper grooves, beveled faces, and grooves or bevels on the inner side of the ring, See Figure 6-19. The various bevels and grooves are designed to create an internal stress in each compression ring, See Figure 6-20. The stress causes the ring to twist slightly in its groove during the intake stroke of the piston. The twisting action places the lower edge of the ring, rather than the face, in contact with the cylinder wall. This allows compression rings to act as a mild scraper to aid in oil control. See Figure 6-20A. ‘On the compression and exhaust strokes (four- stroke engine), the rings are in a tipped position and tend to slip lightly over the oil film on the cyl- inder. See Figure 6-20B. On the power stroke, the pressure of the gases forces the ring flat so that the entire edge bears firmly against the cylinder wall. Maximum sealing is provided during this critical time. See Figure 6-20C. Section 2 Basics of Engine Operation > o S ‘ Compression ring shapes. A—Outer groove. B—Chrome-plated, tapered face. C—Inner groove, chrome face. D—Ferrox-filed, grooved face. E—Piain chrome face. F—Keystone. G—Inner groove, tapered face. H—Inner chamfer, molybdenum-filled, grooved face. Scraper face. (Perfect Circle Products) Oil Control Rings The oil control rings are designed to remove surplus oil from the cylinder walls. They do this through a light scraping action against the walls. Both the ring and the groove are slotted, or per- forated (having holes). Oil trapped by the ring passes through the slots or holes in the ring and the groove. See Figure 6-21. Tt then flows down inside the piston where it drops into the crankcase. A three-piece oil control ring with a hump-type, spring-steel expander is shown in Figure 6-22.Chapter 6 Engine Components a a Cylinder Combustion wall chamber Piston Ring during Ring during Ring during intake stroke compression power or A 8 and exhaust e firing stroke stroke ‘The inner groove causes the ring to twist slightly, aiding oil control and compression. It also reduces wear. Cylinder Ring scrapes surplus oil wall from cylinder ‘Oil film “Oil returns, to crankcase ao Anil control ring removes surplus oll from the cylinder oo cil control ring with flat steel (hump-type) ‘walls, A—Ol being removed, 8—Path of ol during removal. expander in place. (Perfect Circle Products)Piston Ring Construction Piston rings are made of cast iron or steel. Both may be plated with chrome or other long-wearing, materials. Most pistons use cast iron compression ings. Steel, when used, generally goes into the construction of the oil control ring. In some instal- lations, a cast iron center spacer-scraper may be combined with steel side rails. Ring Tension To permit the piston rings to expand and con- tract under varied temperatures and operating conditions, the rings are cut through at one place at the time of manufacture. See Figure 6-23. The size of this opening between the ends of the ring (with piston and rings in the cylinder) is called the ring end gap. Although a great number of end gap designs have been used in an effort to seal against gas leakage, the plain butt joint is the most common. In another design feature, the outside diameter of a piston ring is made slightly larger than cyl- inder bore diameter. This causes the ring to exert force on the cylinder wall when installed. This force is called ring tension. Ring Movement Piston rings are free to move inward and outward in their respective grooves in the pis- ton, See Figure 6-24. In addition, the rings will gradually work their way around (float) in the grooves, unless each ring is pinned in place as shown in Figure 6-25. In most four-stroke ~~ Ring end gap Figure 6-23. ‘An end gap is cut through the piston ring to permit the ring to enter the cylinder and stil exert tension on the cylinder wall Section 2 Basics of Engine Operation Ring Ring side clearance allows movement, admits lubricating cil, and permits expansion of parts due to heat. Ring groove Piston 9S Ring side clearance Vi); Ring Vs Gos Many two-stroke engines have pinned rings to prevent, ring fotation. engines, the rings float. Some two-stroke engines have the rings pinned in position. This is to pre- vent the ring ends from catching on the edge of the intake or exhaust ports and cutting into the cylinder wall. Floating rings are installed with the ring end ‘gaps staggered to avoid gap alignment and pos- sible oil flow through the series of gaps to the com- bustion chamber. Pinned rings are held in position by a short pin manufactured into the ring groove in the piston. The ring ends are cut out to straddle the pin. See Figure 6-25. Obviously, the pin pre- vents rotation of the ring around the groove. Piston Pins A piston pin is used to secure the connecting rod to the piston. These pins are made of case-hardened.Chapter 6 Engine Components “ee steel and are ground to exact size. They may be hol-_is used in the rod. The piston bosses may also have low or solid. A typical solid piston pin is shown in bronze bushing inserts for the pin. Figure 6-26. Retaining sap rings are compressed and Many different piston pin assemblies have been placed in grooves in the piston pin bosses. They used. The full-floating pin arrangement shown in prevent the pin from rubbing on the cylinder sur- Figure 6-27 is free to turn in the rod as well as in face. See Figure 6-28. Some piston pins are a tight, the piston bosses, When both the connecting rod press fit in the connecting rod. See Figure 6-29. and piston are of aluminum alloy, the pin can oper- The pin may turn in the piston bosses, bushings, ate directly against this material. If the rod is steel, or needle bearings, depending on the type of con- either a bronze bushing or a needle roller bearing struction used. Soff, tough center Hard outer skin Snap ring re Figure 6-28. ‘Asolid piston pin has hardened and ground surfaces. Snap rings keep a full-floating pin in place in the piston. SSIS i: Ne Co Te rin q N fa ieected ESS) I Th eer 7 Piston Piston pin press fit in roo Connecting rod ‘steel connecting rod ‘secures piston pin Figure 6-27. ‘Afull-floating piston pin used in a steel connecting rod This piston pin is pressed into the connecting rod, but requires use of a bushing. is allowed to turn in the pin bosses of the piston.Connecting Rods and Bearings The connecting rod attaches the piston to the crankshaft. The upper end of the connecting rod hasa hole through which the piston pin is passed. The lower end contains a large bearing that fits around the crankshaft journal. See Figure 6-30. The lower end of the connecting rod is usu- ally split when friction bearings are used. Friction bearings use smooth, sliding surfaces to reduce friction between moving parts. The place at which the halves separate is called the parting line. The bearing cap holds the assembly together with con- necting rod bolts or screws. Figure 6-31 shows the relative position of the connecting rod and cap. When needle or roller bearings are used, the rod end can be split or solid. See Figure 6-32. Friction-Type Rod Bearings There are three types of friction bearings commonly used in the big end of connecting rods. = ems Piston Vs ~ Connecting eZ Piston pin rod cross section \ Connecting rod upper end Connecting rod Crankshaft J Upper half lower bearing — Lower half Journal Rod cap lower bearing fastener Figure 6-30. ‘A connecting rod attaches the piston to the crankshaft. Bearings are used at both ends of the rod to reduce friction, Section 2 Basics of Engine Operation ‘Shown are the relative positions of connecting rod parts, Split lower bearing Solid ower Upper bearing halt Lower halt Fastener ‘Two types of connecting rod designs (crankshaft end). ‘A—Spiit construction. 8—Solid construction See Figure 6-33. The three types of friction bear- ings are: + Rod metal (used when rod is made of aluminum alloy). * Bearing bronze (cast into rod end, bored, and finished). + Removable precision insert bearings (steel shells lined with various materials). The thin lining material on removable bear- ing inserts can be fead-tin babbitt, aluminum, or copper-lead-tin. Figure 6-34 shows a steel-backed insert (1) that is coated with cast babbitt (2). This type of bearing is called a precision insert because it is made to an exact size for proper fit. Bearing inserts are kept from turning in the rod end by a locating tab on the parting line edge ofeach insert. The tab fits into a slot in the rod itself. Figure 6-35 illustrates this tab and slot arrangement.‘Chapter 6 Engine Components Rod metal bearing surface Cast-in bronze bearing surface Bronze C insert Friction-type connecting rod bearings. A—Rod metal forms the bearing surface. B—Bronze bearing is cast into the rod metal. C—Replaceable precision insert bearing. Construction of a typical precision insert bearing, (Clevite Corp.) Antifriction Bearings Many small gasoline engines use an antifric- tion bearing in the big end of the connecting rod. Antifriction bearings use rollers or balls to reduce friction between moving parts. See Figure 6-36. These roller elements can be held together by a roller cage or separator. See Figure 6-36A. The roll- ers can also be left free as in Figure 6-36B. Antifric- tion bearing assemblies are hardened and ground to an exact size. They must fit accurately, but still have some clearance for expansion. Intake and Exhaust Ports In developing an engine, we need to pro- vide a way in which a fresh air-fuel mixture can be admitted to the engine and, once burned, the waste products exhausted. This can be done by Locating ab Parting line __Siot Bearing Rod bore 4 aE Locating tabs prevent precision inserts from turning. Roller or needle cage ¢3 A em ‘Two types of connecting rod roller bearings. A—Caged rollers. B—Free needle beatings. (Evinrude Motors)using ports (openings) that are alternately covered and exposed by the piston (two-stroke design) or by using poppet valves to open and close the port, openings (four-stroke design). Ports, Reed Valves, and Rotary Valves ‘Two-stroke engines generally use porting of the cylinder wall (instead of camshaft-operated poppet valves) in the fuel-feed and exhaust systems. Port- ing basically consists of two holes (ports) in the Burning fuel mixture Reed valve closed A Section 2 Basies of Engine Operation cylinder wall. One port admits the air-fuel mixture and the other port allows exhaust gases to escape. Some two-stroke engines use reed valves or rotary valves to control fuel flow directly into the crankcase. This allows room for additional transfer ports that promote better fuel transfer and scavenging, ‘A reed valve opens during the compression stroke of the piston and closes before the start of the power stroke. See Figure 6-37, The reed is made of thin, flexi- blespring steel, whichis fastened atone end. The oppo- site end covers the intake port. The reed stop is thick and inflexible. It prevents the reed from opening too far and becoming permanently bent. See Figure 6-38. Fuel mixture being compressed = Fuel mixture enters crankcase through ‘open reed valve ‘A popular method of crankcase valving is a reed valve designed to fit into the crankcase wall t relies on the difference between atmospheric pressure and crankcase pressure to be opened. The default position of the reed valve is the closed position. = Fuel mixture -_ Vacuum in — Pressure in crankcase en cankoase — opened a. _ Outer _ A corneas? B ON Figure 6-38. Reed valve action. A—Vacuum in the crankcase, formed by the upward moving piston, causes atmospheric pressure to force air-fuel mixture through the port opening. B—Downward piston movement compresses the {uel mixture in the crankcase to a pressure greater than atmospheric pressure. The springiness of the reed and crankcase pressure act together to close the port.Chapters Engi ‘Components In operation, the reed is opened by atmospheric pressure during the intake stroke. It is closed by the springiness of the metal and the compression in the crankcase on the power stroke. Figure 6-38A, illustrates the air-fuel mixture entering the crank- case. Figure 6-38B shows how the reed valve is closed by crankcase pressure. There are many reed valve designs. Some typi- cal configurations are illustrated in Figure 6-39. Some two-stroke engines use rotary valves (instead of reed valves) to control air-fuel intake. ‘These valves are generally attached to the end of the crankshaft, although some run on a sepa- rate shaft geared off the crankshaft. In opera- tion, a valve rotates against a wear plate. Both the valve and plate have holes in them. When the holes align, an air-fuel charge enters the crank- case. Figure 6-40 illustrates a two-stroke engine equipped with a rotary disc valve. Poppet Valves Ina four-stroke engine (see Chapter 5 for addi- tional information on fundamentals), a poppet valve is installed in each port to control the flow of fresh fuel mixture into the cylinder and provide a means of exhausting the burned gases. During, the period of expansion of the burning gases that drive the piston downward, both valves are tightly closed. See Figure 6-41. ‘The angled face of each valve will close tightly against a smooth seat cut around each port open- ing, To align the valve and ensure accurate raising and lowering in relation to the seat, the valve stem passes through a machined hole in the block. This hole is called a valve guide. Poppet valves are subjected to tremendous heat. ‘The normal operating temperature of the exhaust valve exceeds 1000°E To withstand this heat, high- quality, heat-resistant steel must be used and the correct operating clearances must be maintained. Valve Spring Assembly A valve spring must be used on each valve to hold it firmly against the seat. Placed over the valve stem, the spring is compressed to provide tension. It is connected to the valve stem by means of a washer retainer and keeper (lock). ‘The spring allows the valve to be opened when necessary and will close it when pressure is removed from the valve stem. Figure 6-42 shows the location of the spring and keeper assembled on the valve. An enlarged view of the horseshoe valve lock system is shown in Figure 6-43. ‘A valve in the open position is illustrated in Figure 6-44. When pressure is removed from the end of the valve stem, the spring will draw the valve down against the seat and seal off the port from the combustion chamber. Several forms of reed valves. A—Single reed, closed position. B—Single reed, open position. Note how the reed ‘opening distance is controlled by the stop. C—Twin teed. O—Tiple reed. E—Another form of triple reed. F—Single reed. G—Muitiple reed. H—Four reed. | Multiple reed.Section 2 Basics of Engine Operation (siojoyy epniuiaz) “wowluBye Ul ese Lod eseoyUeI9 Bly PUR ISIp e4I UI B04 ‘9uy UeyM Aju Lado s! Yod ey) 'YeYSHUEID OU JO Led SI 9sIP ALeIO4 Buy eoUIg “aUIbUE oJoK9-OmI ® UI SojeIedo anfen AlEIOL e MOY MOYS SWIEIBEIP OSOU, a ° sepullAg o1u eseoyUeI WOH ABEND USE aseoyueig ul uoisseidwog Buwieysue1,—sesep peuing Buysneuxg sepulikg ut uorsuedxa asoio" peso angen Are10y, ann 12104 ‘enjen Arei0u enren Aaei0ps reoyrnti, feeuml a v aseoxues out sorainqieg wows ebreuD ysei4 Gunong Jepuidg ul eB1eyD Bulsse1dwo sepuyifg ul aBueyg Buus Sutuodo anjen Aue}0y ene Aveo jooumtis Co 6-0 6Chapter Engine Components Combustion Exhaust port Poppet valves seal the intake and exhaust ports during the power stroke. Valve guides keep the valves aligned with the valve seats. Combustion chamber Valve guide area Valve spring Spring washer Keeper or lock Connecting rod “Cylinder Figure 6-42. The valve spring keeps tension on the valve to ensure proper seating. The valve spring keeper and washer hold the spring in place and permit removal when necessary. Block < Valve stem _—Spring washer Horseshoe valve lock Lock __ FE. groove Lock recess Go ‘Typical method of retaining the valve spring on the valve stem. A special tool generally is used to compress the spring prior to removing the horseshoe valve lock Valve head Margin Valve seat ‘The valve face and valve seat must be ground to correct angles, and concentric to the centerline of the guide, to seal properly. Camshafts and Gears ‘The camshaft, found in four-stroke engines, is designed to open the valves the right amount at the right time. It holds them open for a spe- cific period and allows them to close at the cor- rect instant. A single camshaft is used in most small engines, with a cam (lobe) for each valve. When the camshaft rotates, the lobe of the cam lifts the valve from its seat. This process is shown in Figure 6-45. Camshafts are made of steel or cast iron. The surface of the shaft is hardened to improve wearability. The ends of the camshaft may turn in bearings or in the block metal. See Figure 6-46.Section 2 Basies of Engine Operation Cam N Flank ‘Open nose, Sha ose. Flan Bratt aay NO Closed ra Closed ' [ } cam py Vee \ , lobe ster i “*& ‘Shaft Base section dameter A B c D E ‘A, B—By grinding a round shaft into a cam shape, a car the cam lobe opens the valve. Camshaft drive gear Cam lobe Camshaft Camshaft turns in block metal Figure 6-46. Solid camshaft. Some small engine camshafts are hollow and have a second shaft running through them, Figure 6-47. With this setup, the inner shaft is fixed and the hollow camshaft revolves on it. Most small gasoline engines use gears to turn the camshaft. A gear on the crankshaft meshes with and drives a gear on the camshaft. Since the camshaft gear'is exactly twice the size of the crankshaft gear, it runs at half crankshaft speed. See Figure 6-48 Valve Lifter or Tappet In actual practice, the cam lobe does not con- tact the valve stem directly. By locating the cam- shaft some distance below the valve stem end, imshatt is formed. C, D, E—When the camshaft is revolved, Engine block Hollow camshaft Camshaft turns on shaft Figure 6-47. Hollow camshaft turning on a fixed shaft. Gm ‘The camshaft gear is meshed with the crankshaft gear 0 that the timing marks are aligned. The camshaft turns at half crankshaft speed.Chapter 6 Engine Components it is possible to insert a valve lifter between the lobe and stem. See Figure 6-49. A hole in the block above the camshaft serves as a guide in which the lifter can operate. As the camshaft revolves, the lifter rises and falls, opening and closing the valve. The valve lifter may have an adjustment screw in the upper end to provide a means of adjusting, valve stem-to-lifter clearance. Without this adjust- ment, proper clearance must be obtained by grind- ing the end of the lifter or valve stem. The base of the lifter may be made wider than the body to provide a larger cam lobe-to-lifter contact area. See Figure 6-50. _Nalve stem to ~~ adjusting screw clearance (called tappet clearance) Adjusting —_ sorew “ Block metal acts as lifter guide ‘As the camshatt tums, the cam lobe will operate the valve lifter to open the valve and then allow it to close. __——Adusting—__ a A valve lifter may be called a tappet or cam follower. ‘An adjustment screw allows setting of the proper valve clearance. A wide base provides a larger contact area. Valve Train Configurations The valve train consists of all of the compo- nents that work together to transform the rotation of the crankshaft into the opening and closing of the valves. There are three main types of valve train configurations used in modern small gas engines. See Figure 6-51. ‘in the valve-in-block arrangement, Figure 6-51A, the camshaft is located in the crankcase and the valves are located in the cylinder block, directly above the camshaft lobes. As the camshaft rotates, the valve lifters act directly on the valve stems. Engines using this design are often referred to as flatheads, because the cylinder head is relatively flat and thin, This arrangement may also be referred to as an L-head or side-valve engine. ‘The overhead valve (OHV) arrangement has grown in popularity over recent years. In this arrangement, the camshaft is installed in the crankcase, but the valves are installed in the cylinder head. Pushrods transfer motion from the valve lifters, which are in the block, to one end of the rocker arms, which are installed in the cylinder head. The rocker arms are basi- cally levers. When the pushrod pushes up on one end of the rocker arm, the other end of the rocker arm pushes down on the valve stem. See Figure 6-518. Some manufacturers use an overhead cam (OHC) design, Figure 6-51C. In this valve train arrangement, both the camshaft and valve assem- blies are installed in the cylinder head. There are several variations of the overhead cam configu- ration. The camshaft may be positioned directly over the valves or offset. If the camshaft is offset, rocker arms are added to the design to transfer motion from the camshaft to the valves. Since the camshaft is located away from the crankshaft in all overhead cam designs, it is usually driven by a chain or belt rather than gears. Starter Assembly Alll small gasoline engines have some provi- sion for spinning, or cranking, the engine during starting. Many small engines are equipped with a rewind starter assembly, which is mounted above the flywheel, Figure 6-52. When the rope is pulled, pawls in the starter assembly engage the flywheelPiston Section 2 Basics of Engine Operation Rocker arm Camshaft Pushrod _Nalve lifter Camshaft Praton, ‘The three valve train configurations are shown here. A—Valve-in-block, or side valve configuration. B—Overhead valve (OHV) configuration. C—Overhead cam (OHC) configuration. Recoil starter assembly Flywheel clutch This rewind starter assembly is being removed from the engine, revealing the flywheel clutch clutch and the assembly turns the crankshaft. When the rope is released, the pawls retract, the assembly disengages from the flywheel clutch, and the rope recoils back into the unit. See Figure 6-53. Some engines are equipped with electric starters, which engage the flywheel to turn the crankshaft. These starters will be discussed later in this textbook. Automatic Compression Release To make hand cranking easier, some small engines have an automatic compression release mechanism on the camshaft, This device lifts the exhaust valve slightly during cranking and releases part of the compression pressure. One manufacturer's compression release mechanism is pictured in Figure 6-54. In view A, the camshaft is at rest and springs are holding the flyweights in. In this position, the tab on the larger flyweight protrudes above the base circleChaptor 6 Engine Components Bottom view of a recoiltype starter assembly. When the starter rope is pulled, the pawls extend and engage the ‘lywhee! clutch. This locks the flywheel to the spinning starter assembly to turn the engine. B—When the rope is released, the pawis retract and the flywheel is free to spin independent of the starter assembly, Valve held open Valve closed Fiyweights A Tab out Starting Position Valve liter, | Flyweight Spring ‘An automatic compression release makes cranking easier. A and B—The tab is out, preventing the valve from closing completely. C and D—When the engine starts and reaches 600 rpm, the flyweights move out, the tab retracts, and the valve functions normally. (Kohler Co.)of the exhaust cam, holding the exhaust valve partially open. In view B, the tab prevents the exhaust lifter from resting on the cam. After the engine starts and its speed reaches about 600 rpm, centrifugal force overcomes spring, pressure and the flyweights move outward. Move- mentof the flyweights causes the tab tobe retracted, and the exhaust valve seats fully. See views C and D in Figure 6-53. The flyweights remain in this position until the engine is stopped. A variation of this compression release mech- anism is shown in Figure 6-58. This mechanism, uses a single flyweight and a small pin to hold the exhaust valve open during starting, GEE ‘Automatic compression release. A—Starting position. ‘The pin extends beyond the cam lobe to prevent the exhaust valve from seating. 8—Running position. The pin retracts and the exhaust valve functions normally. Section 2 Basics of Engine Operation Flywheel To improve the running quality of the engine, an additional weight in the form of a round {flywheel is fastened to one end of the crankshaft. See Figure 6-56. During the nonpower strokes, the inertia of the heavy flywheel keeps the crankshaft spinning and smoothes engine operation. Metal fins on the flywheel act as a fan that forces air over the cylinder to cool the engine. Magnets cast into the flywheel produce electrical current for the ignition system. Gr ‘The flywhee! is fastened to the crankshaft. When rotating, its weight smoothes engine operation.Chapter 6 Engine Components Summary SS The engine block keeps all engine parts in alignment. This component is usually a casting of iron or an aluminum alloy. The engine block consists of two sections: the cylinder block and the crankcase. The cylinder block is the portion of the engine block that contains the cylinder bore. The crankcase is the portion of the block that contains the crankshaft. The crankshaft is the major rotating part of the engine. It converts the reciprocating (back and forth) motion of the piston into rotary (circular) motion. The piston is the straight line driving member of the engine. The piston provides a seal between the combustion chamber and the crankcase. This is accomplished by cutting, grooves near the top of the piston and installing piston rings on the piston. Without piston rings, the piston could not compress the fuel charge properly. Also, burning gases would leak out between the sides of the piston and the cylinder wall. Most pistons use three rings. These three rings consist of two ring types. Generally, the two upper rings are compression rings and the lower ring is an oil control ring, The piston pin is used to secure the piston to the connecting rod. The connecting rod attaches the piston to the crankshaft. The upper end of the connecting rod has a hole through which the piston pin is passed. The lower end contains a large bearing that fits around the crankshaft journal. A fresh air-fuel mixture must be admitted to the engine and, once burned, the waste products exhausted. This can be done by using ports that are alternately covered and exposed by the piston (two-stroke cycle design) or by using poppet valves to open and close the port openings (four-stroke cycle design). The camshaft, found in four-stroke engines, is designed to open the valves the right amount at the right time. The valve train consists of all of the components that work together to transform the rotation of the crankshaft into the opening and closing of the valves. During the nonpower strokes, the inertia of the heavy flywheel keeps the crankshaft spinning and smoothes engine operation. ‘Allsmall gasoline engines have some provision for spinning the crankshaft during engine starting. This can be a recoil rope starter assembly or an electric starter, To make hand cranking easier, some small engines havean automatic compression release mechanism on the camshaft. This device lifts the exhaust valve slightly during cranking and releases part of the compression pressure. Review Questions OH Answer the following questions on a separate sheet of paper. 1. Name the two main sections of a cylinder block. 2. Why are aluminum cylinder blocks sometimes cast around a steel sleeve? 3. The crankshaft converts the the piston into rotary motion. 4. Allof the following are used as crankshaft main bearings, except: A. bushings. B. roller bearings. C. lip bearings. D. ball bearings. 5, What type of material is most commonly used in piston construction? 6. The ridges between the piston grooves are known as the piston motion of 7. What is the purpose of the piston skirt? 8, Explain why pistons have both compression rings and an oil control ring. 9. True or False? Floating piston rings are installed with their end gaps aligned. are placed in grooves in the piston pin bosses to prevent the pin from rubbing on the cylinder surface. 10, 11. A piston pin may turn in. A. piston bosses B. bushings C. needle bearings D. None of the above. 12, Name the three types of friction bearings used in the big end of the connecting rod. bearings use rollers or balls to reduce friction between moving parts. 13. 14, Four-stroke engines use close port openings. to open and5. w, 18, 19, 8B valves are used in some two-stroke. engines to control fuel flow directly into the crankcase. A. Reed A B. Rotary C. Both Aand B. D. Neither A nor B. . Explain the function of a camshaft. a In some engines, a(n) — is located between the camshaft lobe and the valve stem. Describe the three types of valve train configurations found in small engines. 3 What is the purpose of the starter assembly? Automatic compression release mechanisms lift the slightly during cranking to release part of the compression pressure. Section 2 Basics of Engine Operation Suggested Activities Disassemble an engine and identify the parts discussed in this chapter. Carefully analyze the function of each part as it relates to the others. Write to manufacturers of small gasoline engines requesting specifications for the models they produce. Write a report on the types of pistons, connecting rods, and crankshafts they use. }. Prepare a display of the major components of a small gasoline engine. Use actual parts, photos, drawings, and cutaways to show the principal use of each part.C H AP TER 6 Engine Components Name Date Class Learning Objectives After studying this chapter, you will be able to: ‘+ Identify the basic components of a small engine and describe the function of each component. * Describe engine block variations. * Describe the construction and operation of the crankshaft. * Explain piston design considerations and differentiate between types of piston rings. * Describe connecting rod and bearing variations. * Identify common valve train configurations. Instructions: After studying the chapter, complete the following questions and problems. 1. The component that keeps all other engine parts in line L isthe 2. The engine block is made up of two sections. Name them. 3. What are the advantages to an aluminum cylinder block? 4, Alll air-cooled engines have on the outside of the 4. cylinder block and cylinder head. 5. The crankshaft must be strong enough to withstand the 5, rotational forces of the : 6. The crankshaft converts the reciprocating motion of the 6 piston into___ motion. Conyighby Te Gooenear ex Co, Small Gas Engines Workbook 357 Oneend of the crankshaft is tapered to receive the 7 A. journal B. throw C. flywheel D. seal 8. Crankshaft ___help offset the unbalance created by 8. the force of the reciprocating mass. 9. Name the three types of crankshaft main bearings used in small gas engines. 10. The piston must have adequate clearance in the cylinder 10. toallow for__. 1. What is the function of the piston rings? 12, Identify the parts of the engine piston shown below. 12. FROM ROO Sb 13, The ridges between the piston ring grooves are called 13. 14. The piston acts asa hinge between theconnecting 14. rod and the piston, and holds the two together. A. lands B. head C. tings D. boss 15, What are the benefits of a cam-ground piston? 36 Small Gas Engines Workbook Copyrightby The Gooshoart:Nieox Co, Ine.Name _ 16. The sides of the piston that are forced against the cylinder wall are called the surfaces. 17. What causes piston slap? Chapter 6 Engine Components 16. 18. Pistons in a loop scavenged two-stroke engine will have a___ head. A. domed B. wedge-shaped C. flat D. None of the above. 19. Without the piston could not compress the fuel charge properly. 18. 19. 20, Name the two types of piston rings found in small gas engines and explain the function of each type. 21, The opening between the ends of the piston rings is known as the ting end _. a. 22. Why are the piston rings pinned in some two-stroke engines? 23, The end gaps of floating piston rings are to 23, prevent possible oil flow through the series of gaps to the combustion chamber. 24. ‘The piston __ secures the connecting rod to the piston. 24, 25, Snap rings keep a(n) ___ piston pin in place. 25. 26. The connecting rod attaches the piston to the _. 26. 27. Friction bearings have smooth surfaces that help 27. reduce friction between moving parts. 28. Name the three types of friction bearings. 29. Bearing inserts havea locating ___thatpreventsthem 29. from turning in the connecting rod end. CCopyight by The Goeaheariiox Co, Ine Small Gas Engines Workbook 3730. How do antifriction bearings differ from friction bearings? 31. Name the two types of valves used in two-cycle engines to control fuel flow into the crankcase. 32. Four-cycle engines use ___ valves to control the flow of 32, fuel into the cylinder and exhaust gases out of the cylinder. 33. Avalve____isused with each valve foundonafourcycle 33. engine to hold it firmly against its seat. A. keeper B. lock C. spring D. washer 34. What is the function of a camshaft? 35. Identify the three main types of valve train configurations 35. A. shown in the figure below. B c _ Rocker arm Piston), Piston. Valve lifter Camshaft Valve lifter Camshaft A B 38 Small Gas Engines Workbook CCopitigh by The Goodhast lex Oo, IeChapter 6 Engine Components Name 36. Explain how a rewind starter assembly works. 37, Some engines are equipped with an automatic 37. release mechanism to make hand cranking easier. A. spark B. compression C. combustion D. None of the above. 38. What is the purpose of the flywheel? Research and write complete answers to the following questions. 39. Identify the different materials used in the manufacture of piston rings and list the advantages of each. 40. Explain how the shape of the camshaft lobes affects valve timing, lift, and duration. ‘Sony by The Goodnoar-wiex a, ne Small Gas Engines Workbook 3940 Small Gas Engines Workbook