Design, Development and Analysis of

Organic Rankine Cycle (ORC)

Senior Design Project Report

BY

Abdul Vasay Siddiqui

Muhammad Areeb
Muhammad Abdullah

Supervised by
Dr. Muhammad Asif

Faculty of Mechanical Engineering

GIK Institute of Engineering Sciences & Technology

June 2022
 Design, Development and Analysis of
Organic Rankine Cycle (ORC)

Senior Design Project Report

BY

Abdul Vasay Siddiqui 2018015

Muhammad Areeb 2018242
Muhammad Abdullah 2018215

Supervised by
Dr. Muhammad Asif

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

Bachelor of Science

Faculty of Mechanical Engineering

GIK Institute of Engineering Sciences & Technology

June 2022
 Faculty of Mechanical Engineering
GIK INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING SCIENCES & TECHNOLOGY
Senior Design Project Status/Completion Certificate
Group No: 13
Title: Design, Development and Analysis of Organic Rankine Cycle (ORC)
This is to certify that senior year design project has satisfied the following:

(i) The design part of the project is completed to a sufficient level. Specifically, the project
has achieved.
a.

b.

c.

(ii) The students have engaged in weekly meetings and demonstrated gradual progression of
work, meeting the 6CH requirement.
(iii) The defined Scope / Objectives are;
Sr.# Objectives KPI (min. 50%) achieved
Advisor Ext. Examiner
a. Cycle simulation on ASPEN plus.
b. Selection of working fluid for the ORC.
c. Selection and purchasing of suitable components and
instruments.
d. Modification of scroll compressor to be used as a turbine.
e. Designing and fabricating the test bench and assembling the
components on it.
f. Comparison of experimentally obtained results with simulated
results.

(iv) Based on the above score, the project stands______________. (complete/incomplete)

(v) I (Advisor) understand that the report may be subjected to external review.
______________ __________________

Advisor External Examiner

(To be filled by FYP Coordinator) Good Average Poor

(vi) Overall structure of report is in-line with the provided FME

guidelines.

(vii) Students followed the given deadlines by SDP committee

_________________

FYP Coordinator

_____________

Dean FME

i
 Faculty of Mechanical Engineering
GIK INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING SCIENCES & TECHNOLOGY

FYP Mapping with Complex Engineering Problem Attributes

Group No: 13

Title: Design, Development and Analysis of Organic Rankine Cycle (ORC)

Problem Statement: Conventional Rankine cycle are operated using steam at high pressure
and at high temperature, that requires huge energy and cost. To increase efficiency and to
reduce the cost of primary Rankine cycle, waste heat energy available at low temperature can
be utilized using ORC. To develop ORC indigenously, the Design, Fabrication and Analysis
of Organic Rankine Cycle (ORC) is essentially required.
CEP Attributes Mapping:

(Sr.#1 is mandatory and at least one from the remaining 2~9).

S. No Attribute Justification

1 Preamble
In-depth engineering knowledge
Yes. Design and development of a turbine for ORC by modifying a scroll
compressor to work as a turbine and Design of the complete ORC system
including system simulation, optimization and cost analysis. It requires
knowledge of Thermodynamics, Heat transfer, Fluid mechanics,
Instrumentation and Power plants.

2 Range of conflicting requirements Yes. Pros and cons of various refrigerants that can be used for ORC are
analyzed. These include factors such as cost, performance, environmental
impact and availability. An optimized refrigerant is selected based on these.

3 Depth of analysis required Yes. Multiple solutions or alternatives may be obtained.

4 Depth of knowledge required Yes. Research based knowledge from previous literature and other sources
is required for the design and development of ORC.

5 Familiarity of issues Yes. Issues occurred in converting scroll compressor into turbine, selecting
low temperature heat source, integration of the complete system.

6 Extent of applicable codes N/A

7 Extent of stakeholder involvement N/A

and level of conflicting
requirement

8 Consequences N/A

9 Interdependence N/A

Advisor: ________________

Signature: _______________

ii
 Faculty of Mechanical Engineering
GIK INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING SCIENCES & TECHNOLOGY

Adherence to the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)

Title: Design, Development and Analysis of Organic Rankine Cycle (ORC)

FYP Mapping with SDGs:

S. No SDG Adherence of FYP to SDG

1. No Poverty N/A
2. Zero Hunger N/A
3. Good Health and Well-Being N/A
4. Quality Education N/A
5. Gender Equality N/A
6. Clean Water and Sanitation N/A
7. Affordable and Clean Energy N/A
8. Decent Work and Economic Growth Successful implementation of ORC on an
industrial scale will lead to the
development of more power plants. This
will in turn, create more employment
opportunities and improve living standards
of people.
9. Industry, Innovation and The use of an organic fluid, such as a
Infrastructure refrigerant, into a Rankine cycle is an
innovative idea that is still not being
widely adopted in Pakistan. Further
research work into this subject and its
implementation on a large scale is
necessary as it is a cheap source of energy
and can rejuvenate the outdated energy
industry in Pakistan.
10. Reduced Inequalities N/A
11. Sustainable Cities and Communities N/A
12. Responsible Consumption and N/A
Production
13. Climate Action N/A
14. Life Below Water N/A
15. Life on Land N/A
16. Peace, Justice, and Strong Institutions N/A
17. Partnerships N/A
Note: For details, please follow
https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/sustainable-development-goals/

Dr. Muhammad Asif

Advisor

iii
ABSTRACT
Organic Rankine Cycle (ORC) can be used effectively to deal with the ever-increasing energy
crisis globally. An ORC makes use of low-grade heat sources to generate electricity. The
purpose of this project is to design and develop a working model of Organic Rankine cycle. A
complete design is constructed and simulated on Aspen Plus. The simulation results are
compared and verified with data from previous literature. R 141b is selected as the working
fluid based on several properties such as critical temperature and pressure. Results from the
simulation are optimized due to budget constraints. A working model of the ORC based on
results from the optimized simulation is constructed. The model contains two heat exchangers,
one scroll compressor modified as an expander, a pump, and a refrigerant tank. Instrumentation
of the complete cycle is done on Microsoft Visio. Testing of the model is done experimentally
to obtain results. Values for temperature and pressure at different stages of the cycle are
obtained using temperature sensors and pressure gauges. A pressure rise of 2 bar is obtained
across the pump and the evaporator increases the temperature of the working fluid by 9.2℃.
An efficiency of 4.86% is obtained which is comparable to the previous literature. Finally, a
sustainability analysis of the project is completed which includes both environmental and
social impacts, as well as a cost analysis. After optimization of the cycle on Aspen, results
show that a turbine work output of 1309 W can be obtained from the cycle with a heat input of
26.95 kW. The unit cost of electricity per kWh is 3.05 PKR which is approximately 89% lower
than the actual commercial rate of electricity in Pakistan.

Keywords: Organic Rankine cycle, low-grade heat source, R141b, electricity, energy crisis,
power generation.

iv
 Table of contents

Page
Abstract………………………………………………………………..……………iv
Table of contents …………………………………………………….……………..v
Nomenclature……………………………………………………………..………...vii
List of figures……………………………………………………………..………...viii
List of tables ……………………………………………………………..………...x

Chapter 1 Introduction……………………………………………..………….1
1.1 Background and Motivation 1
1.2 Problem Statement 6
1.3 Scope of work and expected outcomes 6
1.4 Aims and Objectives 7
1.5 Limitations 7
1.6 Report Outline 8
1.7 Project Schedule/Timeline 9
1.8 Individual and team contribution 10
Chapter 2 Literature review ………….…………………………….….……11
2.1 Literature Review 11
2.1.1 Heat Sources 11
2.1.2 Working Fluids 13
2.1.3 Current Progress on ORC in the World 14
2.1.4 Environmental effect of organic fluids 15
2.2 Inference drawn out of Literature 15
2.3 Summary 15
Chapter 3 Design and analysis ……….…………………………….….……16
3.1 Design Methodology 16
3.1.1 Design and Justification of Desired Cycle 18
3.1.1.1 Pump 18
3.1.1.2 Evaporator 18
3.1.1.3 Turbine 18
3.1.1.4 Condenser 18
3.1.2 Optimization of desired cycle 24
3.1.2.1 Summary of Optimized Cycle 28
3.2 Governing Equations 30
3.3 Geometric Modeling and Design 31
3.4 Summary 33
Chapter 4 Physical model development and testing ……………….….……34
4.1 Development Process 34
4.1.1 Turbine 34
4.1.2 Working Fluids 35
4.1.3 Evaporator 36

v
 4.1.4 Condenser 36
4.1.5 Pump 36
4.1.6 Piping System 38
4.1.7 Test Bench 39
4.2 Integration and Instrumentation 40
4.2.1 Instrumentation 40
4.2.1.1 Temperature Sensor 41
4.2.1.2 Pressure Sensor 41
4.2.2 Integration 42
4.3 Testing/Experimental Procedures 43
4.3.1 Heat source 43
4.3.2 Testing with R141b 43
4.3.3 Condenser cold water inlet 43
4.4 Summary 45
Chapter 5 Results and discussion……….…………………………….………47
5.1 Results 47
5.2 Analysis and Discussions 52
5.3 Summary 53
Chapter 6 Impact and economic analysis…………………………….….……54
6.1 Social Impact 54
6.2 Sustainability Analysis 54
6.3 Environmental Impact 55
6.3.1 Negative 56
6.3.2 Positive 56
6.3.3 Environmental analysis of different working fluids 56
6.3.4 Environmental analysis of materials used 57
6.4 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) 58
6.5 Hazard Identification and Safety Measures 58
6.6 Summary 59
Chapter 7 Conclusion and future recommendations ……………….….……60
7.1 Conclusions 60
7.2 Future Recommendations 60
References …………………………………………………………..……….……61

vi
 Nomenclature

h enthalpy (kJ/kg)

ηcycle efficiency of cycle

ηturbine efficiency of turbine

p pressure (Pa)

q heat transfer (J)

TH upper operating temperature limit of Rankine cycle (℃)

TL lower operating temperature limit of Rankine cycle (℃)

v specific volume (m3/kg)

w work (J)

vii
 List of Figures

Fig 1-1: T-S diagram of Carnot cycle.................................................................................. 1

Fig 1-2: Ideal Rankine Cycle ............................................................................................... 2

Fig 1-3: Irreversibilities in an actual power cycle compared to ideal Rankine cycle .......... 3

Fig 1-4: Effect of lowering the condenser temperature on ideal Rankine cycle ................. 4

Fig 1-5: Effect of superheating the steam to high temperature on ideal Rankine cycle ...... 4

Fig 1-6: Effect of increasing the boiler pressure on the ideal Rankine cycle ...................... 5

Fig 1-7: Ideal reheat Rankine cycle ..................................................................................... 5

Fig 1-8: Gantt chart showing the work distribution with time. ........................................... 9

Fig 3-1: Design Methodology ........................................................................................... 17

Fig 3-2: ASPEN Plus Cycle layout ................................................................................... 19

Fig 3-3: Evaporator Input ................................................................................................. 20

Fig 3-4: Evaporator Results .............................................................................................. 21

Fig 3-5: Condenser Input ................................................................................................... 22

Fig 3-6: Condenser Results ............................................................................................... 23

Fig 3-7: Effect of Mass flow rate of working fluid on heat transfer area .......................... 24

Fig 3-8: Effect of Water inlet temperature on evaporator heat transfer area ..................... 25

Fig 3-9: Effect of water inlet mass flowrate on evaporator heat transfer area .................. 25

Fig 3-10: Turbine Results .................................................................................................. 26

Fig 3-11: Effect of Water inlet Temperature on Heat transfer area .................................. 27

viii
Fig 3-12: Effect of water inlet mass flowrate on condenser heat transfer area ................. 27

Fig 3-13: Optimized ASPEN Cycle layout ........................................................................ 29

Fig 3-14: T-s diagram of the ideal Rankine Cycle ............................................................ 30

Fig 3-15: Test bench model with all components in position ........................................... 32

Fig 3-16: Test bench model on SolidWorks with dimensions in inches ........................... 32

Fig 4-1: Sectioned view of a scroll compressor................................................................. 35

Fig 4-2: 40 plates Brazed plate Heat Exchanger (Evaporator) .......................................... 37

Fig 4-3: 40 plates Brazed plate Heat Exchanger (Condenser) .......................................... 37

Fig 4-4: Pump .................................................................................................................... 38

Fig 4-5: Test Bench ........................................................................................................... 39

Fig 4-6: Instrumentation diagram ...................................................................................... 40

Fig 4-7: Digital temperature sensor ................................................................................... 41

Fig 4-8: Pressure gauge ..................................................................................................... 42

Fig 4-9: Heat source .......................................................................................................... 44

Fig 4-10: Complete Organic Rankine Cycle ..................................................................... 45

Fig 5-1: Rankine cycle schematic ...................................................................................... 47

Fig 5-2: Effect of water inlet mass flowrate on evaporator heat transfer area .................. 49

Fig 5-3: Effect of water inlet mass flowrate on condenser heat transfer area ................... 50

Fig 5-4: Aspen cycle layout diagram................................................................................. 50

Fig 5-5: Effect of varying mass flow rate of working fluid on power output ................... 51

Fig 5-6: Effect of water inlet temperature on evaporator heat transfer area ..................... 51

ix
 List of Tables

Table 1-1: Individual and Team Contribution ................................................................. 10

Table 2-1: Summary of low-grade heat sources .............................................................. 12

Table 2-2: Comparison of thermophysical properties of different working fluids .......... 13

Table 3-1: Optimized simulation parameters .................................................................... 28

Table 3-2: Governing Equations ....................................................................................... 31

Table 4-1: Efficiencies of Working Fluids ....................................................................... 36

Table 5-1: Temperature and Pressure values .................................................................... 48

Table 6-1: Cost breakdown ............................................................................................... 55

Table 6-2: ODP and GDP of different working fluids ...................................................... 56

Table 6-3: Sustainable Development Goals ...................................................................... 58

x
 Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background and motivation

The main aim of this project is to investigate the feasibility of producing electricity using waste
heat as an energy source for Organic Rankine Cycle (ORC) with R-141b as the working fluid.

Theoretically, out of all the power generation cycles, Carnot cycle is considered to be the most
efficient. As shown in the Figure 1-1, Carnot cycle operates between two temperatures, and
consists of four processes:

1) Isothermal heat addition at a high temperature (1-2).

2) Isentropic expansion (2-3).
3) Isothermal heat rejection at low temperature (3-4).
4) Isentropic compression (4-1).
Practical implementation of Carnot cycle is not possible regardless of being theoretically the
most efficient. There are certain reasons behind it, firstly, it is impractical for a turbine and
compressor to operate in the mixed region as show by processes (2-3) and (4-1) in Figure 1-1.

Fig 1-1: T-s diagram of Carnot cycle [3]

1
Due to the impracticalities associated with Carnot cycle, Rankine cycle is considered to be an
ideal cycle for vapor power plants. The ideal Rankine Cycle as shown in Figure 1-2 includes
following 4 reversible processes:

1) Isentropic compression: saturated liquid is compressed isentropically by the pump (1-2).

2) Constant Pressure heat addition: saturated water is super heated in the boiler (2-3).
3) Isentropic expansion: super heated vapors expand isentropically in the turbine (3-4).
4) Constant Pressure heat rejection: steam is condensed in the condenser (4-1).

In the actual Rankine cycle, heat lost to the surroundings and fluid friction is significant and
hence cycle is not completely reversible as in the case of Ideal Rankine cycle. The difference
between both cycles is shown in Figure 1-3.

(a) (b)

Fig 1-2: Ideal Rankine cycle [3]

2
 (a) (b)

Fig 1-3: Irreversibilities in an actual power cycle compared to ideal Rankine cycle [3]

There are various methods through which the efficiency of the Rankine cycle could be
increased including:

1) Lowering the condenser pressure (decreasing TL): this will increase the area enclosed by
the cycle on the T-s diagram thus, the net work output and efficiency will increase as shown
in Figure 1-4
2) Superheating the steam to higher temperature (increasing TH): this will increase the net
work output and efficiency of the cycle in the same manner as mentioned in previous point.
See Figure 1-5.
3) Increasing the boiler pressure: This will increase the temperature at which the heat is being
transferred to the steam (TH). This will increase net work output and efficiency. See Figure
1-6.
4) Reheating the fluid: Expansion process takes place in multiple stages, ideally in 2 stages,
high pressure and low-pressure expansion. This also helps achieve greater efficiency as
represented in Figure 1-7.

3
 Fig 1-4: Effect of lowering the condenser temperature on ideal Rankine cycle [4]

Fig 1-5: Effect of superheating the steam to high temperature on ideal Rankine cycle [4]

4
Fig 1-6: Effect of increasing the boiler pressure on the ideal Rankine cycle [4]

Fig 1-7: Ideal reheat Rankine cycle [4]

5
The world of 21st century is making technological advancements at a very fast pace, but
extreme energy crisis is still one of the biggest challenges faced by the developing countries.
The energy crisis in these countries results in long hours of electricity load-shedding affecting
the day-to-day routine, health and wellbeing of the locals. Additionally, the electricity being
produced is very expensive for the people to afford. Conventional Rankine cycle requires
temperature up to 600°C [1], which is very costly to achieve and requires resources.

Replacing steam by organic compounds such as (Ammonia, R-134a, R-141b) would result in
production of electricity at temperature as low as 80°C [1]. Moreover, waste energy can be
effectively used for this purpose which will greatly reduce the cost of electricity. This
technology is known as Organic Rankine Cycle (ORC). Despite of having massive potential,
this technology has been neglected in developing countries. The sole motivation behind
conducting this research is to increase awareness of ORC and find viable energy production
alternates.

Working of ORC is similar to conventional Rankine cycle except for the working fluid. In the
conventional Rankine cycle, water is used as the working fluid while in ORC, any of the
organic compounds acts as the working fluid.

1.2 Problem statement

Conventional Rankine cycle are operated using steam at high pressure and at high temperature,
that requires huge energy and cost. To increase efficiency and to reduce the cost of primary
Rankine cycle, waste heat energy available at low temperature can be utilized using ORC. To
develop ORC indigenously, the Design, Fabrication and Analysis of Organic Rankine Cycle
(ORC) is essentially required.

1.3 Scope of work and expected outcomes

Scope of this project expands to power plants and all types of industries which are producing
huge amount of waste energy every day. ORC will not only utilize that waste energy efficiently
but will also help reduce global warming.

The expected outcomes of this project are:

1) Efficient use of waste energy.

2) Fabrication of a low-cost small-scale expander.
3) Optimization of results on industrial scale.
4) Physical demonstration of small-scale Organic Rankine Cycle.

6
1.4 Aim and Objectives
The aim of this project is to design a system capable of utilizing low grade heat energy to
generate electrical power. This would not only be cost efficient but would also increase the
efficiency of the process. In order to achieve this aim certain objectives were laid down which
are as follows:

1. Firstly, the cycle is simulated on Aspen plus (V8.8) to determine the suitable working
conditions and parameters which include the values for pressure and temperature at the
different stages.

2. Selection of a suitable working fluid is also an important part of the research because during
this process certain factors other than thermo-physical properties are taken into consideration
such as flammability, toxicity, availability of the fluid, cost and required working pressure.

3. After all the key parameters and working conditions are finalized, suitable components and
instrumentations are selected and purchased while keeping in mind the budget limitations.

4. The scroll compressor is modified to be used as a replacement to the turbine due to the
budget limitations.

5. A test bench is designed using SolidWorks, then it is fabricated and all the components are
assembled on it.

6. Lastly, testing of apparatus is performed and the experimental results are compared with the
simulation results, as well as previous literature in order to verify the fabricated system. Also,
recommendations on how to implement the project on a large scale are provided along with a
sustainability analysis.

1.5 Limitations
As far as the limitations of this project are concerned, they are listed below:

1. All the organic fluids that are to be used in the cycle are not readily available in the market,
out of those which are available some, like R 141b, pose hazards to the environment such as
ozone depletion etc.

2. Producing electricity from the waste heat (low temperature heat sources) cannot be used as
a stand-alone method for power production. It can only be used to decrease the load of the
primary power plant due to limited supply of organic fluids as compares to that with water,
coal etc. Moreover, the power output values for ORC plants are less as compared to traditional
plants of the same capacity.

7
3. Due to budget constraints, a scroll compressor is modified to be used as an expander instead
of purchasing a turbine, this would result in decreased work output.

1.6 Report Outline

Chapter 1: This is the introduction chapter of the report containing background and motivation
of the research, timeline of the progress, and individual and combined contribution of group
members towards the project.

Chapter 2: This chapter contains literature review and covers the viable heat sources and
working fluids available to be used in ORC and current progress of this technology around the
world.

Chapter 3: This chapter explains design phase including simulation and components selection.
Optimization of cycle is done using sensitivity analysis due to cost barriers.

Chapter 4: This chapter discusses the Physical development and testing of the project. In this
section, initially the development process is discussed in which modifications and functions of
individual components is described after which the instrumentation of the apparatus is
highlighted by the use of process and instrumentation diagram, and the measuring instruments
are defined. Then the integration process of all components is elaborated. Finally, testing and
experimental procedures of the developed model are also included.

Chapter 5: This chapter contains the results obtained from the physical model of ORC as well
as simulation on ASPEN plus. Results are analyzed and explained for a better understanding
of the reader.

Chapter 6: This chapter explains the social and environmental impact of the project and also
provides a sustainability analysis in which the cost per unit of electricity is calculated. Possible
hazards and safety measure undertaken during the completion of the project are also
highlighted and sustainable development goals are discussed.

Chapter 7: This chapter states the conclusion of the project and the future recommendations
that could be helpful if further work on the project is to be done in future.

8
1.7 Project Schedule/Timeline
The Gantt chart shown in figure 1-8 describes how the work was distributed with time in
order to meet the deadlines efficiently. A longer duration was given to lengthy tasks that
required more work, while the simpler tasks were completed in a shorter period of time.

Fig 1-8: Gantt chart showing the work distribution with time

9
1.8 Individual and Team Contribution
Table 1-1 highlights the individual contribution of every member towards the completion of
the project as well as those tasks that were done by the combined effort of all team members.
An equal division of tasks was done among all the group members in order to prevent
overburdening of any member.

Table 1-1: Individual and Team Contribution

Name of group member Contribution

Abdul Vasay Siddiqui • ORC Simulation and optimization.

• Procurement of scroll compressor and condenser.
• Modification of scroll compressor as an expander.
• Design of test bench on SolidWorks and its
fabrication.
• Compilation and formatting of the final report.
Muhammad Areeb • Procurement of scroll compressor and condenser.
• Modification of scroll compressor as an expander.
• Design of test bench on SolidWorks and its
fabrication.
Muhammad Abdullah • ORC Simulation and optimization.
• Sensitivity analysis to decrease the heat
exchanging areas of condenser and evaporator.
Combined effort of all group • Literature review.
members • Design of the piping system.
• Final report writing.

10
 Chapter 2
LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Literature Review

An Organic Rankine Cycle (ORC) is a modification of the conventional Rankine cycle, with
the difference being the working fluid. An Organic Rankine Cycle consists of the same four
components as a conventional Rankine cycle namely pump, boiler (evaporator in our case),
turbine (expander in our case) and a condenser. The advantage of using an organic working
fluid is that it it can be vaporized at temperatures and pressures as low as 80 °C [1], which is
significantly lower than the temperature at which water reaches its superheated state, around
600 °C. This results in less energy being consumed in bringing the fluid to its superheated
state, thus increasing the overall efficiency of the cycle. Also, organic fluid can be condensed
at temperatures and pressures higher than that of water, thus less overall enthalpy is required
for complete cycle which results in further increase in efficiency.

2.1.1 Heat Sources

The main advantage of an ORC is that it requires less amount of heat input, hence low-grade
heat sources can be utilized to supply energy in order to bring the working fluid to a
superheated state. There are several sources available for this purpose namely solar power,
biogas, waste heat from various sources and geothermal energy.

When utilizing solar power, sunlight incident on earth’s surface is gathered through solar
collectors and is then used to achieve a superheated state of the working fluid. Solar energy
can provide heat up to 300 °C [2] and since organic fluid only requires around 80 °C to reach
superheated state, solar power is a viable heat source. The main advantage is that since solar
power is a renewable source of energy, it emits no pollutants and no harmful gases hence it is
an environmentally friendly source.

Biogas is obtained when plants, wood, or animal manure are burned. It can also be used for the
purpose of vaporizing the working fluid. It is also a renewable source of energy however, it
damages the environment by releasing toxic gases like oxides of Carbon and Nitrogen, volatile
organic compounds etc., resulting in increased air pollution [3].

11
Waste heat from various industries is also a viable option for ORC, however for that to happen,
the ORC plant must be constructed near other power plants to minimize costs. This source has
no negative effect on the environment as no harmful gases are released [4] and results in
reduction of the cost because energy input is lowered. Thus, increasing efficiency.

Lastly, geothermal energy can also be considered as a possible heat source. Chilled water is
pushed into Earth’s crust, which heats up due to exchanging heat with the heat trapped inside
the earth’s surface thus increasing the temperature of water. Therefore, the steam rises to the
surface. However, one disadvantage associated with that is it can only be used at specific
locations where earth’s surface is thin enough to let heat pass. A summary of all the heat
sources is shown in Table 2-1.

Table 2-1: Summary of low-grade heat sources

Heat Sources Advantages Disadvantages

Solar Power It is a renewable source of energy, Solar collectors and other equipment
emits no pollutants and no harmful can prove to be expensive.
gases hence it is environmentally
friendly.

Biogas It is a renewable source of energy. Damages the environment by releasing

toxic gases like oxides of carbon,
nitrogen, volatile organic compounds.
[3]

Waste heat from It has no negative effect on the ORC plant must be constructed near
industries environment since no harmful gases other power plants to minimize costs.
are released while using it [4] and
results in reduction of the cost
because energy input is lowered.

Geothermal energy It is a renewable source of energy. It can only be used at specific locations
where earth’s surface is thin enough to
let heat pass.

12
2.1.2 Working Fluids

Many organic fluids can be used in Organic Rankine cycle. These working fluids differ based
on properties such as critical temperature, critical pressure, boiling point, freezing point,
viscosity, density, toxicity. Chemical properties also play a major role in selection of the fluid
as some fluids become highly reactive at elevated temperatures or pressures [5]. Most fluids
pose a hazard to the environment, hence they can also not be selected for our project.

Table 2-2 summarizes the Critical temperature, Critical pressure, Triple point temperature and
boiling point of various potential fluids and compares with those of water. The critical
temperature shows the temperature of a vapor above which it cannot be liquefied when the
pressure is increased. The critical pressure is the pressure needed to liquefy the vapor at critical
temperature. The triple point temperature is the temperature at which the fluid co-exists in three
states i.e. solid, liquid and gas. Ideally, we want to select fluids that have the lowest critical
temperature and pressure so that the least amount of energy is used in bringing them to a
superheated state.

From Table 2-2 it is evident that organic fluids have much lower critical temperature and
pressures and boiling points than water. R-143a is the fluid with the least critical temperature
and pressure.

Table 2-2: Comparison of thermophysical properties of different working fluids [5]

Working Fluid Water R-143a R-141b R-245fa R-114 R-600

Critical Temperature (K) 647 346.1 477.4 427.1 418.9 425.1

Critical Pressure (MPa) 22.06 3.761 4.25 3.65 3.289 3.8

Triple point temperature (K) 273.1 161.34 169.9 170 179 134.9

Boiling Point at 1atm (K) 373.13 225.5 305.2 288.45 276.9 272.6

13
2.1.3 Current Progress of ORC in the world

At present, a lot of work is being done on the use of ORC cycle globally. Kosmadakis et al. [2]
developed the small-scale ORC combined with solar unit. Li et al. [6] analyzed small-scale
ORC using R-245fa as the working fluid and waste heat source to heat the fluid. At higher heat
source temperature, the overall thermal efficiency of the system increased. Kezrane et al. [8]
investigated and compared five organic working fluids and achieved maximum efficiency of
13.16% with iso-pentane. Darvish et al. [9] did simulations for thermodynamic performance
of ORC that uses low grade heat. Nine working fluids were considered out of which only two
proved to be efficient. With temperature input of 120°C, the efficiency for R134a and iso-
butane was 19.6% and 20.3% respectively, which is a considerably high number. Van Long
Lee [11] conducted a performance optimization analysis on ORC using low global warming
potential organic fluids. Each fluid had its own benefit like highest system efficiency was
obtained when R152a was used. Similarly, maximum power output of 4.1kW was obtained
with R1234ze.

Lie [13] modified the turbine and experimentally investigated the efficiency of the ORC. A
maximum ORC efficiency of 6.8% was obtained when the temperature difference between hot
and cold stream was 70°C. Muhammad et al. [14] did an experimental investigation with low-
grade heat source for small-scale ORC. With R24fa as a working fluid, maximum of 1.016kW
power output was obtained. They also investigated the effect of super heating the fluid at inlet
of the expander. The results showed that increasing the temperature of superheated fluid by 1
°C reduces thermal efficiency of system by 0.021% hence it is best to use low grade heat
source. Wang et al. [10] analyzed different organic fluids and compared their results for a fixed
net power output of 10kW. They studied the thermodynamic performance of different fluids
using simulations.

QiuLiu et al. [15] did market research on the expanders and concluded that scroll and vane
expanders were the best possible choice for the 1-10kW power output. The difference between
both type of expanders is that the vane compressor uses centrifugal motion to generate
compressed air instead of using the reciprocating motion of a piston pump whereas a scroll
compressor is a specially designed compressor that works in a circular motion, as opposed to
up-and-down piston action. Galloni et al. [16] designed a small-scale ORC with R-245fa as a
working fluid and scroll expander for generation. The experiments showed that maximum
power output obtained was about 1.2kW with ORC efficiency close to 9%.

Declaye et.al [17] did an experimental study and used scroll compressor as an expander in
ORC with R-245fa as working fluid. The inlet pressure was varied from 9 bar to 12 bar. Their
results showed maximum cycle efficiency equal to 8.5%, with net power output equal to
1.8kW. Cambi et al. [18] did an experimental and analytical performance evaluation on scroll
compressor when used as an expander for small-scale ORC. R-410A was used as a working
fluid and the efficiency of 6.5% was obtained.

14
2.1.4 Environmental effect of organic fluids

Shukun et al. [19] did a comparison of ORC and coal-fired thermal power plant and concluded
that organic working fluid was considerably superior compared to coal-fired plants because it
had much lesser global warming potential and did less amount of damage to the environment.
Gli [20] performed environmental impact analysis on ORC and included in his study the
potential fluids have for global warming. He found that at constant turbine work output of
30kW, a total of about 28% emission is produced from leakages. Conclusion was drawn that
increasing the pump or turbine efficiency from 75 to 90% can give a 10–16% emission
reduction.

2.2 Inference drawn out of Literature

Solar power and waste heat from industries are the best possible choices for heat sources as
they have almost no ozone depletion potential and, utilizing waste heat results in reduction of
cost which increases efficiency. Moreover, R-143a has the lowest critical temperature and
pressure hence it will require the least amount of energy in reaching a superheated state. R245fa
and R141b produce the highest efficiency of the cycle based on previous literature. In this
report, a small scale ORC is analyzed and simulations are carried out on Aspen plus. Inlet and
outlet parameters for different components are determined by evaluating results obtained from
the simulation. Due to cost barrier, purchasing a turbine is not possible hence according to
literature, scroll compressors when modified as expanders can produce work output of 1 to
10kW. Therefore, it is utilized in the cycle instead of a turbine.

2.3 Summary
An ORC requires temperatures around 80°C to superheat the working fluid instead of
conventional Rankine cycle that requires temperatures in excess of 600°C to superheat water.
Various heat sources can be used to achieve these temperatures, out of which Solar energy and
waste heat from industries proved to be the most viable. However, we will use a boiler with
two heating elements present in the Fluid Mechanics lab FME as our heat source. Many organic
working fluids can be used and they are selected based on properties such as critical
temperature, critical pressure, boiling point, freezing point, viscosity, density, toxicity,
chemical reactivity and how environmentally friendly they are. R141b and R245fa were
identified as possible working fluids that can be used.

15
 Chapter 3
DESIGN AND ANALYSIS

3.1 Design Methodology

The organic Rankine cycle was designed on Aspen plus software. Initially, a general design
was made which was later optimized with regards to available resources. Aspen plus software
is used by multiple industries (e.g. power industry) as a process modeling tool which is used
for optimization and performance analysis. The software allows user to build process model
and simulate it using complex mathematical equations. Furthermore, the software comes with
world’s largest database of pure components and chemical, electrolytes, solids, and polymers.

Process simulation fundamentally focuses on physical and chemical characteristics of how

operations will work. It is the process of designing industrial processes on the computer by
breaking it into constituent units for individual performance monitoring. Process
characteristics such as flowrates, pressures and temperature are predicted using analytical
tools. The computer aided software uses physical relationships such as thermodynamic
equilibrium using information from its database such as steams tables and equipment sizes etc.

The computer aided simulation helps designer test process and analyze it for flaws before
making a physical model. This helps reduce cost as flaws can be fixed easily in simulation and
optimization can be done easily by changing conditions. The components selected for this
project are pump, evaporator, turbine, and condenser. These components were selected using
past literature. The conditions and specifications used were decided keeping in mind
application of this project.

The overall design methodology for the project is shown in figure 3-1. Firstly, the objective of
the project was defined. Next, literature review was performed where research was carried out
related to low grade heat sources, working fluid and current progress of ORC globally. Next,
simulations were done on Aspen Plus and the cycle was later optimized due to budget
constraints. Purchasing of scroll compressor and its modification is done and now, a condenser
has to be purchased. After procurement, integration and instrumentation would be done and
the results would be experimentally validated. Documentation of the whole process would be
the last step.

16
Fig 3-1: Design Methodology

17
3.1.1 Design and Justification of Desired Cycle:

Figure 3-2 shows the ideal cycle for ORC. Two fluids were considered for the simulation:
Water and R141b. The properties used in simulation comes from database of Aspen plus itself.
In the first step, components were placed in flowsheet and connected with each other. The
details of individual components are as follows:

3.1.1.1 Pump

The desired increase in fluid pressure was required to be of 0.1 MPa for the working fluid. To
achieve this pressure, discharge pressure of 0.3 MPa for the pump was set. For this input, the
required work input from the pump is of 287 watts, as shown by figure 3-2.

3.1.1.2 Evaporator

To configure the evaporator, hot water was chosen as heating fluid entering at 80°C using
shortcut method and counter current flow direction as it provides better result compared to
concurrent configuration. This is shown in figure 3-3. The heat exchanger (evaporator) was
used to get the working fluid to super-heated state. The volume flowrate of hot water was kept
at 0.00667 𝑚3 /𝑠

Results from simulation as shown in figure 3-4, state that that the heat exchange area required
is 16.7 sqm and working fluid leaving the evaporator was found to be at 72°C. This temperature
was calculated using thermodynamic equations of heat exchanger (NTU method).

3.1.1.3 Turbine

The working fluid enters turbine at superheated state, otherwise causing damage to the blades
of the turbine; thus, vapor fraction was set to be at 1. Isentropic efficiency of 0.72 [5] was used
for the turbine and output of 6490 watts was found with discharge pressure to be 0.2 MPa. This
is shown in figure 3-2.

3.1.1.4 Condenser

A condenser is used to get the working fluid temperature below saturation temperature in order
to achieve subcooled state. Shortcut method and counter current flow direction was used. This
is shown in figure 3-5. Cooling was achieved using cold water at 15°C and 0.1 MPa pressure.

18
Fig 3-2: ASPEN Plus Cycle layout

19
The temperature of water increased to 22°C, causing a temperature drop of 4.2K in the working
fluid. Heat exchange area of condenser was found to be 7.40416 𝑚2 . This is shown in figure
3-6.

Fig 3-3: Evaporator Input

20
Fig 3-4: Evaporator Results

21
Fig 3-5: Condenser Input

22
Fig 3-6: Condenser Results

23
3.1.2 Optimization of desired cycle

Due to budget constraints, some changes had to be made to the cycle which resulted in a
decrease in work output, and hence, the efficiency reduced.

The first problem was regarding the heat transfer area of the evaporator which was 16.7𝑚2 , a
heat exchanger with this amount of heat transfer area is extremely expensive and cannot be
bought with our limited budget. Hence a sensitivity analysis was performed between mass flow
rate of the working fluid and heat transfer area required along with inlet temperature of the hot
water at the evaporator and heat transfer area required. The results are shown in figures 3-7
and 3-8 respectively. It is evident that reducing the mass flow rate of working fluid reduces the
heat transfer area of evaporator required. Moreover, increasing the temperature of hot water at
evaporator inlet reduces the heat transfer area of evaporator required.

Mass flow rate of hot water at evaporator inlet is also an important factor in determining
evaporator heat exchange area. A sensitivity analysis between mass flow rate of water at
evaporator inlet and heat exchange area was performed. The results are shown in figure 3-9.

Hot water inlet temperature can be raised up to 80°C very easily by utilizing the two-heating
element boiler present in Fluid Mechanics lab FME and its mass flow rate is set at 1.2 kg/s
according to figure 3-9, which is easily achievable. An optimized value of 0.11 kg/s mass flow
rate of working fluid and hot water inlet temperature of 80°C and mass flow rate of 1.4 kg/s
resulted in heat transfer area of evaporator of 1.3𝑚2 as shown in figure 3-8 and 3-9. This is a
reasonable value and hence a heat exchanger of 1.5𝑚2 area can be utilized in the ORC.

Fig 3-7: Effect of Mass flow rate of working fluid on heat transfer area

24
 1.4

1.2

1
Area (SQM)

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 50 100 150 200 250
Hot water Temperature (oC)

Fig 3-8: Effect of Water inlet temperature on evaporator heat transfer area

Fig 3-9: Effect of water inlet mass flowrate on evaporator heat transfer area

25
Moreover, since an actual turbine is very expensive to procure, a scroll compressor of 2-ton
capacity was bought and is being modified to be used as an expander in place of the turbine.
As this is just an alternative to the actual turbine, the actual efficiency could not be achieved.
To incorporate this issue, the isentropic efficiency was reduced to 0.5. This value was used
from already available results of past literature that were obtained when using a scroll
compressor as a replacement to the turbine [18]. The work output obtained is shown in figure
3-10.

Similarly, a sensitivity analysis was done between the inlet temperature of cold water at the
condenser and heat transfer area required. The results are shown in figure 3-11. It is evident
that reducing the water inlet temperature at condenser reduces the heat transfer area required.
Cold water line in Fluid Mechanics lab will be used to provide cold water to condenser. Mass
flow rate of cold water at condenser inlet is also an important factor in determining condenser
heat exchange area. A sensitivity analysis between mass flow rate of water at condenser inlet
and heat exchange area was performed. The results are shown in figure 3-12. An optimized
value of mass flow rate of 1.7 kg/s is selected using the figure.

Fig 3-10: Turbine Results

26
 9

6
Area(SQM)

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Cold water Temperature(oC)

Fig 3-11: Effect of Water inlet Temperature on Heat transfer area

Fig 3-12: Effect of water inlet mass flowrate on condenser heat transfer area

27
3.1.2.1 Summary of Optimized Cycle

According to figure 3-13, cold water inlet was set to 15°C at atmospheric pressure at the
condenser. Water exchanged heat with R141b and its temperature increased to 18°C.
Meanwhile, the working fluid’s temperature reduced from 48°C to 32°C into subcooled state.
The pump increases the pressure of the working fluid by 2 bar and requires an input of 61W.

Hot water inlet was set to 80°C at the evaporator. Water exchanged heat with R141b and its
temperature reduced to 75°C. Meanwhile, working fluid’s temperature increased from 32°C to
67°C where it achieved a superheated state. Hence it is evident that a very low temperature is
required to bring the refrigerant into superheated state, whereas for water, around 600°C is
required. A heat input of 26.95 kW is needed to achieve this.

After expansion in the turbine, the temperature of the working fluid reduces from 67°C to 48°C
and the turbine produces a work output of 1309W. This is the final optimized cycle simulation
on ASPEN Plus, as shown in figure 3-13. The physical model will be constructed based
parameters from this cycle. Table 3-1 shows a summary of the different parameters that are
obtained from the optimized simulation.

Table 3-1: Optimized simulation parameters

Parameter Set value

Cold water inlet temperature (℃) 15

Cold water outlet temperature (℃) 18

Pump inlet pressure (bar) 1

Pump outlet pressure (bar) 3

Hot water inlet temperature (℃) 80

Hot water outlet temperature (℃) 75

Heat exchanging area of evaporator (𝒎𝟐 ) 1.3

Heat exchanging area of condenser (𝒎𝟐 ) 1.9

Hot water inlet flowrate (kg/s) 1.4

Cold water inlet flowrate (kg/s) 1.7

28
Fig 3-13: Optimized ASPEN Cycle layout

29
3.2 Governing Equations
Instead of solving the equations on Engineering Equation Solver (EES), Aspen Plus was used
for modelling and simulation of the cycle. Table 3-1 lists all the equations that are used for
evaluating key parameters of the cycle. These equations are designed according to the ideal
Rankine cycle, which is shown in figure 3-14. It must be noted that the values obtained for
energy and work are in terms of KJ/kg. To obtain absolute values, mass flow rate should be
applied to these values.

For equation 3.1, 𝑣1 and 𝑣2 are the same since an isentropic process is assumed. To calculate
the enthalpy of the fluid at state 2, equation 3.2 is used. Heat exchange inside the evaporator
can be found using equation 3.3. To calculate work output of the turbine, equation 3.4 is used.
For calculating the overall efficiency of the cycle, equation 3.5 is used. Further, equation 3.6
and 3.7 are used to find the isentropic efficiencies of the turbine and the pump respectively.

Fig 3-14: T-s diagram of the ideal Rankine Cycle [5]

30
Table 3-2: Governing equations

Parameter Equation

Work input to the pump 𝑤12 = (𝑝1 + 𝑝2 )𝑣1 (3.1)

Enthalpy at pump outlet ℎ2 = ℎ1 + 𝑤12 (3.2)

Heat input to the evaporator 𝑞23 = (ℎ3 − ℎ2 ) (3.3)

Work output of Turbine 𝑤34 = ℎ3 − ℎ4 (3.4)

Efficiency of the cycle 𝑊34 − 𝑊12

𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 = (3.5)
𝑞23

Isentropic efficiency of Turbine ℎ3 − ℎ4

𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒 = (3.6)
ℎ3 − ℎ4𝑠

Isentropic Efficiency of Pump ℎ2𝑠 − ℎ1

𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝 = (3.7)
ℎ2 − ℎ1

3.3 Geometric Modeling and Design

Figure 3-15 on the next page shows the designed model of the Test bench on SolidWorks with
Scroll compressor, two heat exchangers and pump attached, along with refrigerant R141b tank.

Figure 3-16 on the next page shows the designed model of the Test bench on SolidWorks with
dimensions. All the dimensions are in inches.

31
 Expander Evaporator

Condenser

Refrigerant Tank
Pump

Fig 3-15: Test bench model with all components in position

Fig 3-16: Test bench model on SolidWorks with dimensions in inches

32
3.4 Summary
This chapter discusses the designing and simulation stage of ORC using Aspen plus software.
It describes the manner in which the cycle was made and components were configured for the
simulation. The results show that a work-output of 6490W was achieved but due to economic
barrier changes had to be made which are explained and justified. The results achieved through
downsizing show a work-output in turbine of 1309W, which is mainly due to reduction in heat
exchanging areas of condenser and evaporator.

33
 Chapter 4

PHYSICAL MODEL DEVELOPMENT AND TESTING

4.1 Development Process

Certain conditions had to be kept in mind during the procurement and fabrication process of
the apparatus. First of all, the major constraint which had a huge impact on all the processes
was cost as there was a limited budget. Moreover, everything had to be accomplished in a
limited time period. Thus, acknowledging all the constraints and safety conditions, some of the
selected components had to be modified before the assembly process. The specifications and
modifications of the components are as described below.

4.1.1 Turbine

Power generation being the objective of the Organic Rankine Cycle, turbine is the most
important component in it. Essentially a turbine is bought from the market according to the
specifications of the user. But in this case, due to budget limitation, an actual turbine could not
be bought. Hence after some research and market survey it was decided that a 2 ton scroll
compressor would be modified and operated in reverse direction to be used as an expander.
Firstly, the compressor was dissected from the bottom to expose the rotating shaft and then the
extra load on the shaft, which included the rotor and the magnetic coil, was detached to
facilitate the shaft rotation. A check valve in the compressor prevents the back flow of the
fluid, hence the check valve was removed to enable the fluid to flow in through the discharge
port. After this, the compressor had to be sealed back to prevent leakage while keeping the
shaft exposed and able to rotate with minimum friction. For this purpose, the bottom plate was
modified by attaching a hollow circular bushing, which was fitted with a bearing seal and a
ball bearing through which the shaft would pass, while being able to rotate without hindrance
and leakages. Afterwards, this plate was welded on the bottom of the compressor. Sectioned
view of a scroll compressor is shown in figure 4-1.

34
 Fig 4-1: Sectioned view of a scroll compressor [25]

4.1.2 Working Fluids

An organic compound is used as a working fluid in the Organic Rankine cycle. According to
the work of David Meyer [22], initially R245fa was considered because it provided the highest
efficiency amongst all the alternatives. However due to the unavailability of this fluid in
Pakistan and its high-pressure requirement, the second-best alternative, R141b, was selected,
because it was readily available and could be used at lower pressures, considering the safety
of the system. Table 4-1 compares the efficiencies of different organic fluids that can be used.

35
 Table 4-1: Efficiencies of Working Fluids [22]
Fluids System Efficiency
R-134a 5.0 %
R-245fa 6.0 %
R-141b 5.7 %
R-600 5.4 %

4.1.3 Evaporator

Multiple types of heat exchanger are available in the market such as shell and tube, brazed
plate and tube and fin, out of which the most suitable one to the research had to be selected.
The use of a low-grade heat source led to the requirement of a high efficiency heat exchanger
hence a brazed plate heat exchanger was selected because of its ability to provide a high
efficiency with a compact geometry [24]. According to the software optimized results shown
in chapter 3, a heat transfer area of 1.3 m2 was required. Keeping in mind the heat wastage to
environment and other problems that would occur in non-ideal actual conditions, a SWEP
B8H Plate Heat Exchanger consisting of 40 plates and a heat transfer area of 1.5 m2 was used,
as shown in figure 4-2.

4.1.4 Condenser

For the purpose of sub-cooling of the working fluid, another brazed plate heat exchanger was
bought because of its ability to provide a high efficiency with compact geometry. According
to the software optimized results shown in chapter 3, a heat transfer area of 1.9 m2 was
required. Keeping in mind the heat wastage to environment and other problems that would
occur in non-ideal actual conditions, a SWEP B8H Plate Heat Exchanger consisting of 40
plates and a heat transfer area of 2.0 m2 was used, as shown in figure 4-3.

4.1.5 Pump

The pressure of the working fluid had to be increased from 1 bar to 3 bar, which is by a value
of 0.2 megapascals. Hence a centrifugal pump with a head of 50 meters was selected to fulfil
this purpose, as shown in figure 4-4.

36
Fig 4-2: 40 plates Brazed plate Heat Exchanger (Evaporator) [21]

Fig 4-3: 40 plates Brazed plate Heat Exchanger (Condenser) [23]

37
 Fig 4-4: Pump [24]

4.1.6 Piping System

The material of the pipes in an ORC has a direct impact on the overall efficiency of the project,
hence it’s critical to weigh all options and account for the factors that will affect the material
selection process. These factors include:

1. The type of fluid that will be transported:

Fluid used in our project is R141-b, which is a non-corrosive substance so there are a
few available options which include PVC, Copper, Mild Steel Schedule 40 and
Galvanized Iron IIL Medium.

2. Pressure and temperature of the fluid:

The working fluid in our system will reach a maximum pressure of 0.3MPa and a peak
temperature of 70⁰C, which makes it clear that the PVC pipes are not suitable for the
current application because they cannot sustain such high temperatures. Whereas, rest
of the three materials can be safely used due to their high melting point and a pressure
tolerance limit of up to 10MPa.

3. Cost:
This was a small-scale project with a limited budget, which made the cost of material
a critical factor. Due to the high prices of copper and mild steel pipes it was finally
decided that galvanized iron pipes would be used.

38
The next step was to select the diameter of the pipe. For successful operation of this apparatus,
the working fluid was required to flow with a high velocity, hence a ½ inch diameter was
selected due to the inverse relation between diameter and velocity. Additionally, this was also
cross checked through software simulation of the piping system.

4.1.7 Test Bench

After the modification of individual components, they had to be integrated together, so a test
bench was designed on which the whole cycle would be constructed. The design was based on
the placement and dimensions of components. Angle iron rods of 1x1 inch were used to ensure
the strength of the bench because of heavy weight components. The components were placed
on thick plywood sheets to minimize the vibrations caused by moving components. Wheels
were attached to facilitate moving of the apparatus.

Fig 4-5: Test Bench

39
4.2 Integration and Instrumentation

4.2.1 Instrumentation

An instrumentation diagram was designed using Microsoft Visio 13.0, as shown below in
figure 4-6. Accordingly, the measuring instruments were selected, the details of which are as
follows.

Fig 4-6: Instrumentation diagram

40
4.2.1.1 Temperature Sensor

A digital LCD probe thermometer as shown in figure 4-7 was used after every component to
monitor the temperature change of the working fluid. The specifications of the temperature
sensor used are as follows:

• Temperature range: -50 ~ + 80 Degrees.

• Accuracy: +/-01 Degrees.
• Distinguishing temperature: 0.1 Degrees.
• Power: DC1.5V AG13 button batteries.
• Size:48 x 28 x 15(mm)

4.2.1.2 Pressure Sensor

A glycerin filled, stainless steel pressure gauge with a dial size of 4 inches as shown in figure
4-8 was selected to be used after all the components to monitor their performance. The selected
gauge had the capability of measuring pressure up to 1.6 megapascals of fluids including oil,
gas and water. A gauge capable of measuring only gas pressure, which was although cheaper,
could not be used as in this project the working fluid is present in both vapor and liquid states.

Fig 4-7: Digital temperature sensor

41
 Fig 4-8: Pressure gauge

4.2.2 Integration

Once the instruments were finalized and bought, the assembly of complete cycle was done. A
valve was coupled to the pump’s outlet to vary the working fluid mass flowrate. Two T-joints
were also connected to attach pressure and temperature sensors. Pressure sensor was screwed
into T-joint and temperature sensor was attached by inserting its probe into T-joint through gas
nozzle which was sealed by silicon and magic epoxy.

A connection was made to bypass the expander so that the fluid would pass from the evaporator
to the condenser directly, until the superheated state is achieved. The bypass connection was
necessary because if subcooled fluid passes through the expander, the expander would choke
and the fluid would leak.

The condenser was connected to the tank containing R141b and was placed at height greater
than that of the pump to avoid cavitation. Cavitation is a phenomenon in which the static
pressure of a liquid reduces to below the liquid's vapor pressure, leading to the formation of
small vapor-filled cavities in the liquid. Between every two components, two T-joints were
coupled for temperature and pressure sensors along with a union to make the piping separable.

42
4.3 Testing/Experimental Procedures

4.3.1 Heat source

The requirement as per the application is approximately 80oC, hence a heat source capable of
producing such high temperature was searched in FME Labs. Initially a heat source with eight
heating elements was tested and found to be capable of fulfilling the requirements. However,
due to some administrational issues, this heat source could not be used. Hence a boiler with
dual heating elements present in Fluid Mechanics lab was tested and found to be capable of
producing hot water temperature upto 85oC. Hence this heat source was finalized. This boiler
is shown in figure 4-9.

4.3.2 Testing with R141b

Once the apparatus was set in place and connected with the heat source, the system was charged
with R141b. Pipes were connected from both the heat source to the evaporator and the cold
water to the condenser. The fluid was circulated in the system while bypassing the expander
until the superheated vapors were formed. The temperature and pressure of the working fluid
were monitored to identify the current state of the fluid. A physical arrangement of the system
is shown in figure 4-10.

4.3.3 Condenser cold water inlet

As per the optimized simulation results in chapter 3, cold water inlet into the condenser should
be at a temperature of 15 oC and should have a mass flow rate of 1.7 kg/s. Initially it was
decided that the cold water line in NFRC lab, which is capable of producing cold water at the
required temperature and flow rate would be utilized. However, due to administrational issues,
it could not be used. Therefore, due to the unavailability of any other alternative, it was decided
that the cold water line present in Fluid Mechanics lab would be utilized. Although the required
temperature could be achieved using this line, it could only produce a mass flow rate of 0.5
kg/s. This led to certain ramifications which are explained further in chapter 5.

43
Fig 4-9: Heat source

44
 Fig 4-10: Complete Organic Rankine Cycle

4.4 Summary
This section covers the development and testing of the physical model of Organic Rankine
Cycle. A 2 ton scroll compressor was modified to be used as a turbine, brazed plate heat
exchanger consisting of 40 plates with a heat exchanging area of 1.5 m2 was selected as an
evaporator, and another brazed plate heat exchanger consisting of 40 plates with a heat
exchanging area of 2.0 m2 was selected as a condenser. A centrifugal pump with a head of 50
meters was selected to pump the organic fluid which, in our case, is R141b. Keeping in mind
the sizes of the components a test bench was designed and fabricated. To make connections
between the components, galvanized iron pipe of IIL Medium grade and ½ inch diameter was
selected.

45
Instrumentation diagram was designed using Microsoft Visio, and according to that the
required instruments were placed. After finalizing and purchasing the instruments, the
assembly of complete cycle was done on test bench. All the components were connected
through GI pipe with two Tee-joints in between every two components to attach pressure and
temperature sensors, and a union to make the piping separable. After selecting a boiler with
two heating elements as a heat source, the system was tested with R141b.

46
 Chapter 5

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

5.1 Results
The apparatus was connected with the heat source and cold water supply using pipes as shown
in figure 4-10. The pumps were powered on and hot water, as well as cold water supply valves
were opened. Refrigerant was allowed to flow into the system by opening the inlet and exit
valves connected to refrigerant tank. Initially, the bypass valve was opened and the valve
connecting the expander to evaporator was closed. Readings were observed and noted on the
pressure gauges and temperature sensors to check if the superheated state was achieved. The
readings are shown in Table 5-1 and the different stages are depicted on figure 5-1.

Fig 5-1: Rankine cycle schematic

47
Table 5-1: Temperature and Pressure values

State Temperature (oC) Pressure (bars)

1 20.2 1.1

2 20.4 3.1

3 29.6 3.0

4 25.0 1.0

As it is evident from Table 5-1, these readings differ from those provided by simulation in
chapter 3. This is mainly due to two reasons.

The first one is that due to the unavailability of the eight heating element boiler in NFRC Lab,
one extra pump had to be connected with the outlet of the heat source in Fluid Mechanics Lab
to achieve the desired flow rate. However, this pump was unable to produce the required flow
rate of 1.4 kg/s and was only able to produce a flow rate of 0.5 kg/s. This pump could not be
replaced with any other pump because it was the only available option after surveying the FME
labs. Although this heat source was able to produce the required temperature of 80℃, not
having the required flow rate meant that a larger heat exchanging area of the evaporator would
be required. It can be seen from figure 5-2 that at the available flow rate of 0.5 kg/s of hot
water, an evaporator with a heat exchanging area of 1.65𝑚2 is required, whereas the available
evaporator had a heat exchanging area of 1.5𝑚2 which is insufficient to meet the requirements.
It was not possible to purchase another heat exchanger of a greater heat exchanging area due
to our budget constraints. Therefore, the working fluid was unable to achieve a superheated
state.

The second reason is that due to the unavailability of the cold water line in NFRC lab, the cold
water line in Fluid Mechanics lab was utilized. Although it was capable of producing cold
water at 18℃, This line had a flow rate of 0.5 kg/s only. Whereas according to the simulation
results in chapter 3, a flow rate of 1.7 kg/s was required. This lower flow rate, combined with
the unavailability of a pump meant that a larger heat exchanging area of the condenser would
be required. It can be seen from figure 5-3 that at the available flow rate of 0.5 kg/s of cold
water, a condenser with a heat exchanging area of 3.0𝑚2 is required, whereas the available
condenser had a heat exchanging area of 2.0𝑚2 which is insufficient to meet the requirements.
It was not possible to purchase another heat exchanger of a greater heat exchanging area due
to our budget constraints. Therefore, the working fluid was unable to achieve a subcooled state
and the required values of temperature and pressure were not achieved.

48
Due to the working fluid not reaching superheated state, the expander got choked and the
refrigerant could not expand properly in its scrolls, which resulted in the shaft being unable to
rotate and produce work. Since we were unable to obtain the work output experimentally,
further work through simulation on ASPEN plus was carried out. The cycle constructed for
this purpose is shown in figure 5-4. The effect of varying mass flow rate of refrigerant on the
power output was performed. This is shown in figure 5-5. It is evident from the figure that
increasing mass flow rate of the working fluid increases the power output but also causes an
increase in heat exchanging area. Therefore an optimized value of mass flow rate had to be
selected. In our cycle, a mass flow rate of 0.11 kg/s was being used which resulted in a power
output of 1.3 kW.

1.5

1.45

1.4
Area(SQM)

1.35

1.3

1.25

1.2
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Hot water mass flowrate (Kg/sec)

Fig 5-2: Effect of water inlet mass flowrate on evaporator heat transfer area

49
 4

3.5

3
Area (SQM)

2.5

1.5

1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Cold water mass flowrate (Kg/sec)

Fig 5-3: Effect of water inlet mass flowrate on condenser heat transfer area

Fig 5-4: Aspen cycle layout diagram

50
 7

5
Output (KW)

0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
R141B mass flowrate (Kg/sec)

Fig 5-5: Effect of varying mass flow rate of working fluid on power output

1.4

1.2

1
Area (SQM)

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 50 100 150 200 250
Hot water temperature (oC)

Fig 5-6: Effect of water inlet temperature on evaporator heat transfer area

51
5.2 Analysis and Discussions
The results of our simulation show that Organic Rankine cycle is reliable to be used at an
industrial scale. The cycle shown in figure 5-3 has an efficiency of 4.86%. While calculating
the efficiency, work input of the pump was not included as it is considered to be negligible
compared to the main input in the form of heat at the evaporator.

𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
𝜂= (5.1)
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡

1309
𝜂= × 100 = 𝟒. 𝟖𝟔%
26957

This efficiency is comparable to the previous work where efficiency of 6.8% was achieved by
Lie [13] where the difference between hot and cold streams of water was 70 ℃. In our case,
the hot water stream is at 80℃ while the cold water stream is at 15℃, which amounts to a
difference of 65℃. This shows that when the difference between hot and cold water streams is
increased, the efficiency of the system increases.

Furthermore, the main reason for such a low efficiency of the cycle is that due to budget
constraints, we have used a scroll compressor modified as an expander in the cycle. If an actual
turbine had been used, the efficiency would have been higher because frictional and
mechanical losses are greater in the expander as compared to a turbine. To increase the
efficiency of the cycle, there are many parameters that can be adjusted to achieve the maximum
possible output using minimum input energy. For this purpose, sensitivity analysis was done
to establish the relationship between work output and flowrate as shown in figure 5-4. It
illustrates that an increase in mass flow rate increases the work output but it also leads to an
increase in heat exchanging area. To counter this problem, the temperature of the hot water
entering the evaporator was increased and as shown in figure 5-5, this led to an exponential
decrease in heat exchanging area.

This cycle can be optimized to be used as a secondary power source at the industrial scale, in
which it will not only reduce the load on the primary power source but also reduce cost. For
this cycle, many forms of energy can be used as a heat source. It ranges from biomass to
industry waste heat which can be used to achieve the desired amount of heat for the process.
For the purpose of sustainability and environmental benefits, a solar heat collector can used in
place of the boiler. In the modern world, renewable energy resources are the best choice to
produce electricity without harming the atmosphere and providing the results.

52
The working principle of solar collector is such that it absorbs solar radiation and converts it
into useful energy. This energy in the form of heat is used to increase the temperature of the
working fluid. This project was developed on a small scale, but the main aim is to increase its
output to an industrial scale.

5.3 Summary
This section states and evaluates the results obtained experimentally while performing testing
of the system as well as those obtained when further simulation was done on ASPEN plus. Due
to some administrational issues, there was an unavailability of the desired hot and cold water
source which prevented us from achieving the ideal results experimentally. The above
mentioned cycle provided an efficiency of 4.86% which is comparable to previous literature.
Methods of improving this efficiency are discussed and alternate sources of heat are indicated
as well.

53
 Chapter 6

IMPACT AND ECONOMIC ANALYSIS

6.1 Social Impact

This project addresses the problem of the ever-increasing power crisis and proposes to solve it
partially, by designing a system which will decrease the load on the main power grid, and also
utilize low grade heat sources to produce energy. The main aim of an Organic Rankine Cycle
is to be used as a secondary power supply operating at a much lower cost as compared to the
primary line. Moreover, electricity is produced at about 600°C in a convectional steam power
plant which poses more hazards to the workers when working at such elevated temperatures.
Since ORC works at about 80°C, this concern should not be an issue either. Moreover, since
waste heat from different industries is utilized as the heat source in an ORC, this waste heat is
prevented from being released into the atmosphere, which reduces the overall temperature and
causes reduction in global warming.

6.2 Sustainability Analysis

The increasing energy crisis along with the increase in the prices of electricity and raw
materials in developing countries have forced many industries to shut down, which is
worsening the already falling economy. Hence the Organic Rankine Cycle can prove important
in helping these industries survive by proving a relatively cheaper source of power generation
and by increasing their efficiencies. It uses either solar flux or the waste heat generated by
industries to generate electricity. Solar heat is a renewable source of energy and does not emit
any pollutants or toxic gases which is beneficial for the environment. Moreover, fossil fuels,
which are depleting at a very quick rate globally are not utilized as a source of heat.

The total cost incurred on the development of this system was approximately Rs. 58,000. The
cost breakdown is illustrated below in table 6-1.

54
 Table 6-1: Cost breakdown
Project Phase Expenditure (PKR) Details

Working Fluid (R141b) 15,000 10kg cylinder of R141b

Instrumentations 2,000 Pressure gauge and Temperature sensors

Mechanical Components 24,000 Scroll Compressor and Condenser

Test bench 3,500 Material for the test bench

Fittings and piping 8,500 T’s, L bends, unions, nipples, Teflon, valves

Miscellaneous Charges 5,000 Transportation, Labour etc.

Total Cost 58,000

The developed system is capable of producing approximately 1.3 kW of electricity for about 8
hours per day. Estimating a life of 5 years for the project, the total energy that it would produce
in its lifetime is calculated below.

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦(𝐾𝑊ℎ) = 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 × 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 (6.1)

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦(𝐾𝑊ℎ) = 1.3 × 8 × 365 × 5 = 𝟏𝟖, 𝟗𝟖𝟎 𝑲𝑾𝒉

So the cost of electricity per KWh would be:

(𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡)

𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 = (6.2)
(𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑)

58000
𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 = = 𝟑. 𝟎𝟓 𝒑𝒌𝒓/𝑲𝑾𝒉
18980

The average price of commercially available electricity in Pakistan is approximately 27.78

Pkr/KWh, which proves that the proposed system can produce cheaper electricity and increase
the efficiency of the industries involved. The percentage decrease in cost of electricity is shown
below:

27.78−3.05
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐷𝑒𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑃𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑒 = × 100 = 𝟖𝟗. 𝟎% (6.3)
27.78

55
6.3 Environmental Impact

6.3.1 Negative

The working fluid selected is R141b, which has a potential for ozone depletion and will also
cause global warming if the fluid is exposed to the environment due to leakages. Hence it is
important to ensure there are no leakages in the physical model. R141b is not the best choice
when speaking about the environmental perspective. Due to the unavailability of R245fa in
Pakistan, R141b was selected. Since R141b is a chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) compound, this
fluid affects the environment by depleting the ozone due to which it was banned from being
used for large scale commercial projects in January 2016.

6.3.2 Positive

Dual heating element boiler in Fluid Mechanics lab is being used as a heat source. This source
is environmentally friendly and does not release harmful gases into the environment, unlike
biogas or some other heat source.

6.3.3 Environmental analysis of different working fluids

Table 6-2 shows the Ozone Depletion Potential (ODP) and Global Warming Potential (GWP)
for different working fluids that can be used in the Organic Rankine Cycle. From the table it
can be seen that R-143a and R-245fa have no ozone depletion potential but a very high global
warming potential. Meanwhile R-141b has a moderate value of both ODP and GDP.

Table 6-2: ODP and GDP of different working fluids [28]

Working Fluid Ozone Depletion Potential (ODP) Global Warming Potential (GWP)

R-143a 0 4300

R-141b 0.11 725

R-245fa 0 1030

R-114 1 3.9

R-600 0 2729

56
6.3.4 Environmental analysis of materials used

The materials used for fabrication are listed as follows:

1) Mild Steel – used in manufacturing the test bench and welding of the compressor
during the modification.

2) Galvanized Iron (IIL Grade) – used in the pipes and fittings and for connections
amongst the components.

3) Aluminium – compressor is made from Aluminium.

4) R141b – used as the working fluid.

5) Rubber seals are used to prevent leakages at various places.

The environmental hazards associated with manufacturing of steel includes emissions for
Carbon Monoxide (CO), Oxides of Sulphur (SOx), Oxides of Nitrogen (NOx) and particles
e.g. PM2.5 etc. These air emissions are responsible for the greenhouse effect which ultimately
leads to ozone depletion. Apart from this, waste material from steel mills often called as slag
(Sulphur dioxide and Hydrogen Sulphite) easily reaches the landfill sites hence making
conditions unfavourable for agriculture. Since zinc is an element naturally existing in the
environment, the use of hot-dip galvanized iron to make pipes is not disruptive or harmful to
the eco-system. [16]

The process used to convert raw Bauxite to Aluminum consumes a large amount of water and
electricity. As reported by the environmental protection cell, during the smelting process a total
of 92000 harmful chemicals per fluorocarbon containing Carbon dioxide are released into the
atmosphere which ultimately amplifies the ozone depletion.

57
6.4 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)

Table 6-3: Sustainable Development Goals

S. No SDG Adherence of FYP to SDG

8. Decent Work and Economic Growth Successful implementation of ORC on an

industrial scale will lead to the
development of more power plants. This
will in turn, create more employment
opportunities and improve living
standards of people.

9. Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure The use of an organic fluid, such as a

refrigerant, into a Rankine cycle is an
innovative idea that is still not being
widely adopted in Pakistan. Further
research work into this subject and its
implementation on a large scale is
necessary as it is a cheap source of energy
and can rejuvenate the outdated energy
industry in Pakistan.

Sustainable development goals and their relation to the project are provided in table 6-3. Efforts
were made to attain as many sustainable development goals as possible. The per unit cost of
electricity obtained was kept as low as possible to provide affordable energy to the people.
This was done by using cost effective components in the ORC. Moreover, recommendations
are provided to implement ORC on an industrial scale which will lead to creation of job
opportunities.

6.5 Hazard Identification and Safety Measures

The major hazard associated with the project was due to the use of hot water to elevate the
temperature of the working fluid in the evaporator. Since water at about 80℃ was coming from
a large tank, it was necessary to maintain a safe distance from the tank otherwise it could lead
to skin burns of a very high degree. The pipes containing the hot water were properly insulated.
Safety gloves were worn before touching the hot pipes. All the work was done under expert
supervision to avoid any major accident. Since the working fluid, R141b is at a very low
temperature, it had to be handled carefully using gloves because it can cause frostbite if it
comes in contact with the skin. Lastly, to avoid fatigue and lack of consciousness, working for
longer working hours was also avoided and breaks were taken in between work to utilize the
available time effectively.

58
6.6 Summary
This chapter provides the social impact, sustainability analysis, environmental impact, hazards
associated and the related safety measures that were practiced while fabricating/testing the
project. Focus is also given to sustainable development goals and how the project is related to
these. We aimed to design a cost-effective, user-friendly machine while following the safety
guidelines. The machine is fixed on a test bench and wheels are attached so that it can be moved
easily and swiftly under any circumstance.

59
 Chapter 7

CONCLUSION AND FUTURE RECOMMENDATIONS

7.1 Conclusions

The main objective of this project was to design, fabricate and analyze an Organic Rankine
cycle using a low temperature heat source. The design phase was completed using Aspen Plus
software, on which a desired cycle was initially developed but then, owing to a limited budget,
an optimized cycle was designed. To cut down the cost, the mass flow rate of working fluid
was decreased which helped in reducing the area of heat exchanger and the temperature of the
heat source. Moving forward, the fabrication stage was completed by modifying the scroll
compressor into an expander, purchasing the condenser, working fluid and constructing the
test bench. Integration of the components was done using galvanized iron pipes and fittings to
connect all the components in the form of a cycle. Pressure gauges and temperature sensors
were attached. The results illustrate that the apparatus under consideration could be capable of
utilizing the waste heat to overcome the energy deficiency by providing electricity at a cost of
3.05 Pkr/kWh, which is about 89.0% lower than the commercially available electricity.

7.2 Future Recommendations

There may be several limitations present in our research, hence further research on this topic
can prove to be beneficial. The system should be tested using different fluids, other than R141b
in order to optimize the use of heat energy, increase the efficiency and maximize the output.
Better components such as an actual turbine can be used instead of the expander that we used
to increase efficiency and power output. Additionally, a heat source capable of producing hot
water at higher temperature and flow rate could be utilized, which would result in needing an
evaporator of smaller heat exchanging area, thus reducing the cost. The same principle can be
applied to the condenser in which a cold water source capable of producing lower temperature
and higher mass flow rate can be utilized. This would reduce the condenser heat exchanging
area and ultimately, reduce cost. Moreover, after the small-scale model is finalized, efforts
must be done to implement it on an industrial scale to help solve the problem of energy
shortfall.

60
 References

[1] N. Okita, T. Takahashi, K. Nishimura (2017), Steam turbines for solar thermal and other renewable
energies [J]. Advances in Steam Turbines for Modern Power Plants, 52 (3): 487-500.

[2] G. Kosmadakis, D. Manolakos, G. Papadakis (2016), Developments on Small-Scale Organic Rankine

Cycle (ORC) Systems [J]. Journal of Fundamentals of Renewable Energy and Applications, 33 (16):
55-77.

[3] EIA, U.S. Energy Informaion Administration [W], accessed 26 October 2021, from
https://www.eia.gov/energyexplained/biomass/.

[4] U. Muhammad, M. Imran, D. H. Lee, B. S. Park (2015), Design and experimental investigation of a 1
kW organic Rankine cycle system using R245fa as working fluid for low-grade waste heat recovery
from steam [J]. Energy Conversion and Management, 46 (16): 1089-1100.

[5] K. Jayakumar (2016), Investigation of Organic Rankine Cycle Using Different Working Fluids for
Conversion of Low Grade Heat Sources [D]. Malaysia: Universiti Teknologi Petronas.

[6] L. Li, Y. Ge, X. Luo, S. Tassau (2017), Experimental investigations into power generation with low
grade waste heat and R245fa Organic Rankine Cycles (ORCs) [J]. Applied Thermal Engineering, 32
(1): 815-824.

[7] Ruiqi Wang (2019), Comparative Analysis of Small-Scale Organic Rankine Cycle Systems for Solar
Energy Utilisation [J]. Energies, 22 (5): 829.

[8] Cheikh Kezrane (2018), Comparison of different Organic Rankine Cycle for power generation using
waste heat [J]. European Journal of Electrical Engineering, 17 (9): 151-169.

[9] Kamyar Darvish (2015), Selection of Optimum Working Fluid for Organic Rankine Cycles by Exergy
and Exergy-Economic Analyses [J]. Sustainability, 16 (4): 15362-15383.

[10] Wang (2011), Study of working fluid selection of organic Rankine cycle (ORC) for engine waste heat
recovery [J]. Energ, 11 (5): 3406-3418.

[11] Van Long Le (2014), Performance optimization of low-temperature power generation by supercritical
ORCs (organic Rankine cycles) using low GWP (global warming potential) working fluids [J]. Energy,
33 (3): 513-526.

[12] Vanslambrouck (2012), Efficiency Comparison between the Steam Cycle and the Organic Rankine
Cycle for Small Scale Power Generation [C]. Renewable Energy World Conference and Expo: USA.

[13] G. Pei, Wang, J. Ji (2011), Construction and dynamic test of a small-scale organic rankine cycle [J].
Energy, 43 (9): 3215-3223.

[14] Pantaleo (2019), Thermoeconomic optimisation of small-scale organic Rankine cycle systems based on
screw vs. piston expander maps in waste heat recovery applications [J]. Energy Conversion and
Management, 56 (16): 1-18.

[15] G. Qiu, H. Liu, S. Riffat (2011), Expanders for micro-CHP systems with organic Rankine cycle [J].
Applied Thermal Engineering, 19 (5): 3301-3307.

61
[16] E. Galloni, G. Fontana, S. Staccone (2015), Design and experimental analysis of a mini ORC (organic
Rankine cycle) power plant based on R245fa working fluid [J]. Energy, 55 (12): 768-775.

[17] S. Declaye, S. Quoilin, L. Guillaume, V. Lemort (2013), Experimental study on an open-drive scroll
expander integrated into an ORC (Organic Rankine Cycle) system with R245fa as working fluid [J].
Energy, 55 (2): 173-183.

[18] M. Cambi, R. Tascioni, L. Cioccolanti, E. Bocci (2017), Converting a comercial scroll compressor to an
expander: Experimental and analytical performance evaluation [J]. Energy Pocedia, 32 (16): 363-370.

[19] Shukun Wang (2019), Ecological cumulative exergy consumption analysis of organic Rankine cycle for
waste heat power generation [J]. Journal of Cleaner Production, 218 (55): 543-554.

[20] G. Li (2019), Organic Rankine cycle environmental impact investigation under various working fluids
and heat domains concerning refrigerant leakage rates [J]. International Journal of Environmental
Science and Technology, 1 (16): 431-450.

[21] B. V. Datla, J. J. Brasz (2014), Comparing R1233zd And R245fa For Low Temperature ORC
Applications [C], International Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Conference: Indiana.

[22] D. Meyer, C. Wong, D. S. Krumdieck (2013), Designa nd build of a 1 kilowatt Organic Rankine cycle
power [C]. 35th New Zealand Geothermal Workshop: New Zealand.

[23] E. Oralli, I. Dincer, C. Zamfirescu (2011), A study on scroll compressor conversion into expander for
Rankine cycles [J]. International Journal of Low-Carbon Technologies, 6 (1): 200–206.

[24] F. Antônio, E. Carvalho (2015), Modeling and Design of Plate Heat Exchanger [C]. Heat Transfer
Studies and Applications: Croatia.

[25] S. Y. Yoo, D. W. Lee (2004), An Experimental Study on Performance of Automotive Condenser and
Evaporator [C]. International Refrigeration and Air Conditioning: Indiana.

[26] G. Pei, J. Li, Y. Li, D. Wang, J. Ji (2011), Construction and dynamic test of a small-scale organic
rankine cycle [J]. Energy, 46 (9): 156-176.

[27] Oni, R., Najafi, G., Bellos, E., Rajaee, F., Said, Mazlan (2021), A review of Industrial Waste Heat
Recov Recovery System for power generation with organic Rankine Cycle: Recent challenges and future
future outlook [J]. Journal of Cleaner Production, 78 (22): 287-299.

[J]=Journal Article [D]=Dissertation/Thesis [C]=Conference proceeding [W]=Webpage

62