Charging System Design of

a Solar Powered Mobile Manipulator

Tito Sujati
Applied Master of Renewable Energy
Engineering
Politeknik Negeri Sriwijaya
2021 International Conference on Electrical and Information Technology (IEIT) | 978-1-6654-1786-0/21/$31.00 ©2021 IEEE | DOI: 10.1109/IEIT53149.2021.9587401
Tresna Dewi Rusdianasari
Electrical Engineering Department Renewable Energy Department
Politeknik Negeri Sriwijaya Politeknik Negeri Sriwijaya
Palembang, Indonesia Palembang, Indonesia

Palembang, Indonesia tresna_dewi@polsri.ac.id rusdianasari@polsri.ac.id

tsujati@bukitasam.co.id

Abstract— The implementation of robots in the agriculture
industry can improve farmers' life quality and ease their work
burden. The solar-powered mobile manipulator is a promising
application of digital farming. This paper designs a charging
system installed on a mobile manipulator. This charging system
is to overcome the drawback of solar energy dependence on
irradiance. The robot can be directly powered by the sun during
sunny days using the photovoltaic effect; however, if the weather
suddenly turns cloudy and irradiance received by solar panels
is reduced dramatically, the robot can be off suddenly. Hence,
the application of an automatic charging system can be the
answer to this problem. This paper proposes an automatic
charging method while the robot is working on the farm,
removing the need for farmers to remove the battery for
charging. Farmers will undoubtedly benefit from this method in
terms of time and labor. The charging system experiment was
conducted for 10 days, where the highest efficiency is 17%, and
the lowest is 10%. Even so, the solar-powered robot is still
promising to be implemented as an agriculture robot.
eliminating the need for conventional electricity sources, and
implemented continuously as long as the sun shines. This
beneficial energy source is undoubtedly possible because
agricultural work is conducted during the day and ends before
sunset. The use of solar energy as an alternative energy source
to power agricultural robots will benefit farmers greatly, not
only by lowering long-term robot costs but also by supporting
the government's program to transition from conventional to
renewable energy [28]-[39].
This paper discusses the design of an automatic charging
system for a solar-powered mobile manipulator applied in the
agriculture scenario. The novelty of this paper is an automatic
charging method while the robot is working on the farm,
removing the need for farmers to remove the battery for
charging. The robot is supplied by two 1.5 Wp mini
polycrystalline solar panels to charge a Lithium-ion battery.

Keywords—Agriculture robot, mobile manipulator, II. METHODS

photovoltaic effect, solar-powered robot, solar energy. A mobile manipulator is a robot with a base made of a
I. INTRODUCTION mobile robot and an attached arm manipulator; hence, this
robot can move and perform anything arm robot manipulator
A mobile manipulator [1]-[4] is a type of robot that can do. The problem with this robot is that adding an arm
combines the best qualities of two types of robots: dynamic manipulator means adding more degree of freedom (DOF) to
robots, mobile robots [5]-[9], and static robots, arm robot a mobile robot. However, the robot considered in this study is
manipulators [10]-[12]. Combining these two types of robots made simple to perform its task as a harvesting robot. The
yields a robot with working arms that can move around [1]- components to build the solar-powered robot considered in
[4]. This type of robot is more straightforward than the this study are shown in Fig. 1, the charging method is given in
humanoid robot in several ways, one of which is that there is the flowchart in Fig. 2, and the schematic diagram of the
no need to consider balance because the base robot is already experimental testbed is illustrated in Fig. 3.
balanced. The robot application area is also expanded by
combining these two types of robots. Armed mobile robots are
ideal for deployment as working robots in both industry and
domestic, such as agriculture robots [13]-[24].
Agriculture is one industry that can benefit from mobile
manipulators. Mobile manipulators can assist or replace
farmers in a variety of tasks, such as harvesting. Agriculture
robots must be simple and easy to manufacture. Another
requirement is that it is energy efficient and does not place an
undue burden on farmers to provide the power source for the
robot. Relying on a battery for the power source will
significantly increase the farming cost.
Indonesian agriculture benefits significantly from the
country's tropical climate, where the sun shines all year. This
condition is not only good for plants, but it is also an endless Fig 1. PV panel installation setting.
and abundant source of energy [25][26]. As a result,
agricultural robots should be powered by solar energy,

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 This robot considers object detection using image TABLE I. TOTAL POWER NEEDED TO SUPPLY THE ROBOT
processing in Raspberry Pi to differentiate the target fruit from Power
its background. The images are taken by PI camera and sent Component
I (A) V Watt
to Raspberry Pi. The image processing result is fruit position 4 HC-SR 04 Ultrasonic Sensors 0.06 5 0.3
given as target X and Y coordinates. This fruit position is Raspberry PI 2 5 10
inputted to Arduino mega that moves the DC motor attached Arduino Mega 2560 0.05 5 0.25
to the wheels to move the base. The robot moves to the target, 4 MG 556 Servo Motor 0.8 5 40
and the robot stops in from of the fruit. As the fruit is nearby, 2 SG 90 Servo end effector 0.1 5 0,5
4 DC Motors 0.8 5 4
the servo motors that move the links on the arm robot
Total 55.05
manipulator are activated by Arduino mega and stops as the
distance sensor senses the minimal distance between the
gripper (end-effector) and the fruit. The arm robot cut the fruit, Based on Table 1, the most frequently supplied loads are
put it in a basket, and move to the next plant/small tree. Arduino, Raspberry Pi, ultrasonic sensors, and DC motors,
which are used as the driving wheel of the mobile arm robot
The produced electricity from the panel is stepped down
to search for objects to be taken with a power of 10.55 Watt,
to be 12 Volts to ensure the components' electricity supply is
while the servo motors only operate when the object to be
met but not exceeding the limit voltage. Table 1 shows the
harvested is detected; hence, the process of cutting and
electricity supply needed from every component installed on
gripping can be started. The robot then searches for the object
the robot. Table 1 is necessary to design how much power is
to be captured once more.
needed and how many panels are required to supply the
demand. The power supply is battery charged by two 1.5 Wp
mini solar panels.

Fig 3. The schematic diagram of the experimental testbed.

Fig. 3 illustrates the schematic diagram of the

experimental testbed shown in Fig 4, where a solar power
meter is required to measure how much irradiance is received
by the solar panels and to show the efficiency of the charging
system designed in this study. Other measurement devices
used in this research are volt and ampere meter and
thermometer digital to monitor the temperature of solar panel
surface.

Fig 2. Flowchart of charging system design.

Fig. 2 shows the flowchart of the charging system design.

The charging system is automatically activated when the
robot’s battery capacity is below 10V, and the charging
system stops when the battery capacity is more than 10V. This
charging system is equipped with a voltage sensor to indicate
the battery capacity and ensure the battery is not overcharged
or undercharged. Fig 4. The designed solar-powered mobile manipulator.

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 Fig. 4 shows the mobile manipulator considered in this
study. The robot dimension is 26 cm in height, and the width
is 14 cm. The size of the installed solar panel is 11.5 x 8.5 cm
within a capacity of 1.5 Wp. Two polycrystalline solar panels
are installed to charge the robot. The battery used is a 3.7 Volt
Lithium-ion with the dimension of 6 x 7.5 x 2 cm, and the
capacity is 2609 mAh. The total robot weight is 2 kg.
A solar panel is a device that can generate electricity
directly using the photovoltaic effect. The electricity is
produced when the photon from sunlight hits the panel. As
the most used semiconductor material, the electrons in silicon
are excited and move to the positive side (conduction band),
and holes move to the negative side. These motions bring an
electric charge (q), and as long as the electrons and holes
moving, electricity is produced [40]. The generated current
(I) by these motions is given by [40]
V + IR
I=I −I e −1 −
R (1)
where I is the photocurrent, I is the saturation current A,
R is series resistance, R is shunt resistance, I is voltage-
dependent current due to recombination, and V is voltage.
The open-circuit voltage (V ) generated is [40]
V = ln +1 . (2)
!
The charging system performance of a solar panel is
defined by power output and efficiency produced. The
efficiency ("##) of a solar panel is [40]
P ()
Eff = x100%,
P* (3)
where P* is the input power and P () is the output power.
III. RESULT AND DISCUSSION
The charging system considered in this study is shown in
Fig. 5, which consists of solar panels, batteries, and
measurement devices. The experiment was conducted 10
times in 10 days. The input and output system is defined by
Eq. 1-3, wherein in this study, the generated current is given
as solar panel current (I ), the generated voltage is solar panel
voltage (V ), and the produced power is solar panel power (P ).
The current, voltage, and power measured after the panel is
installed on the robot and supply power to the robot are
defined as robot current (I0 ), voltage (V0 ), and power (P0 ).
Fig 5. The designed solar-powered mobile manipulator.
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Even though the experiment was conducted for ten days,
Fig. 6 only shows the irradiance received by panels in 5 days
to simplify the presentation. Five days of irradiance is enough
to show the weather condition in Palembang, South Sumatra.
The peak irradiance is from 10.00 AM to 02.00 PM; however,
the electricity is generated from 08.30 AM to 04.30 PM.
Hence, the experiment in this study is conducted from 08.30
AM to 04.30 PM.
Fig 6. Irradiance during 5 days of charging experiment.
Figs. 7 and 8 show the comparison of the current produced
by the solar panel (I ) and the current charged to the robot
(I0 ).). The current produced by the solar panel is higher than
the current charged to the battery; hence, a step-down
transformer is required to step down the current according to
sensors and other ICs installed on the robot.
Fig. 7 shows the current from 08.30 AM to 12.00 PM, and
Fig. 8 is from 12.00 PM to 04.30 PM. The ups and downs of
current produced are highly affected by the amount of
irradiance received by the panel. During sunny weather, the
panel produces high energy, and during cloudy one, the
currents are lower. This is one of the drawbacks of using solar
energy.
The use of a direct solar-powered robot is extremely risky
because, while Indonesia has ideal conditions for solar energy,
the weather can change at any time [27]. The robot can
abruptly shut down when it becomes cloudy, resulting in a
significant reduction in irradiance. Hence, it is necessary to
store the solar energy in a storage system, such as a battery.
The problem with the tropical area is that the temperature can
be high, and this condition can lead to an overheated surface
panel [40]. The excellent condition for solar panel application
is on the highland where the temperature is low but high
irradiance received by the panel [29].
Fig 7. Comparison of current produced by solar panel (Is)
and current charged (Ir) to the robot from 08.00 AM – 12.00
PM.
 Fig 8. Comparison of current produced by solar panel (Is)
and current charged (Ir) to the robot from 12.00 PM–04.30
PM.
Fig 9 illustrates the comparison of produced voltage by Fig 11. Irradiance effect on power produced by the solar
solar panel (V ) and voltage charged to the robot (V0 ). Fig 9 panel.
shows that the voltage produced is also fluctuating during the
day relative to the amount of irradiance. However, the voltage TABLE II. AVERAGE POWER AND EFFICIENCY RECAPITULATION
charged to the robot is relatively stable. The produced voltage
for 5 days is shown in Fig 10, and the charged voltages are No Date Eff
stable for 5 days. 1 5/11/2021 14%
2 5/12/2021 14%
3 5/13/2021 13%
4 5/14/2021 12%
5 5/15/2021 10%
6 5/16/2021 12%
7 5/17/2021 10%
8 5/18/2021 17%
9 5/19/2021 12%
10 5/20/2021 13%

The use of solar energy as a source of agricultural robots

Fig 9. Comparison of voltage produced by solar panel (Is)
and voltage charged (Ir) to the robot.
appears to be very promising. However, solar energy still has
many limitations, one of which is that the weather can change
drastically in a single day, making it impossible to use solar
energy directly to power robots. When the weather turns
cloudy, the robot's supply stops automatically, and the robot
is off; a battery charged with solar energy is necessary as the
storage system. The highest efficiency of the charging system
in this study during the 10 days of experiments is 17 %, and
the lowest is 10%. Despite its limitations, solar power can be
expected to be an abundant alternative energy source for the
foreseeable future [28]-[39].

Fig 10. Vr and Vs during 5 days of the experiment.
The effect of irradiance on power produced by solar panels
and power charged to the battery is shown in Fig. 11. Another
drawback of solar energy is that the efficiency is still very low.
The efficiency (Eff) of the charging system for 10 days is
shown in Table 2.
IV. CONCLUSION
This paper discusses the design of a charging system to
power a mobile manipulator deployed in the agriculture
industry. The experiment was conducted for 10 days to show
the effect of weather on the charging system and investigates
the possibility of directly powering the robot using solar
energy. However, implementing direct solar power to move
the robot is challenging due to the weather variation during the
day, which is very risky. If the weather is sunny, the supply to
drive the robot will be stable; however, if the weather turns
cloudy, the robot will be off suddenly. During 10 days of the
experiment, the highest efficiency of the charging system is
17%, and the lowest is 10%. Even so, the solar-powered robot
is still promising to be implemented in the agriculture
industry.

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