1)

What is lossless join decomposition? How to verify whether the decomposition over a relation R is
lossless? Let relation R (ABCDEG) and FDs {AB → C, AC → B, AD→E, B → D, BC → A, E →
G} and the decomposition is D = {ABC, ACDE, ADG}. Find whether it is lossy or lossless
decomposition.

Lossless join decomposition is a process of decomposing a relation into multiple smaller relations
while ensuring that no information is lost in the process. In other words, it guarantees that any
instance of the original relation can be reconstructed by joining the smaller relations back together.

To verify whether a decomposition over a relation R is lossless, you need to check if the natural join
of the smaller relations produces the original relation R. If the join of the smaller relations results in
the original relation without any additional tuples, then the decomposition is lossless.

In your example, the relation R is (ABCDEG) with the functional dependencies (FDs) {AB → C, AC → B,
AD → E, B → D, BC → A, E → G}, and the decomposition is D = {ABC, ACDE, ADG}.

To determine if the decomposition is lossless, we need to compute the natural join of the smaller
relations and compare it with the original relation R.

Joining the relations ABC, ACDE, and ADG:

ABC ⨝ ACDE = ACBDE

ACBDE ⨝ ADG = ACBDEG

The natural join of the smaller relations ABC, ACDE, and ADG yields ACBDEG, which is the same as
the original relation R (ABCDEG). No additional tuples were introduced during the join, and the
original relation R can be reconstructed. Therefore, the decomposition D = {ABC, ACDE, ADG} is a
lossless decomposition.
 2:
Give a brief on 3NF and BCNF and how do they differ. Give the Rules for a relation to be in
BCNF. Consider the following relation R with three columns: Id, Subject, and Professor. Check
whether the relation is in BCNF or not. If not decompose the relation so that the sub relations will
be in BCNF.

Id Subject Professor
101 Java Mayank
101 C++ Kartik
102 Java Sarthak
103 C# Lakshay
104 Java Mayank
3NF (Third Normal Form) and BCNF (Boyce-Codd Normal Form) are both normalization techniques
used in database design to eliminate data redundancy and improve data integrity.

3NF:

- A relation is in 3NF if it is in 2NF and there are no transitive dependencies.

- Transitive dependency occurs when a non-key attribute depends on another non-key attribute,
which itself depends on the primary key.

- To achieve 3NF, all non-key attributes should depend directly on the primary key.

BCNF:

- A relation is in BCNF if, for every non-trivial functional dependency X -> Y, X is a superkey.

- BCNF eliminates partial dependencies, where an attribute depends on only a part of the primary
key.

- It ensures that every non-trivial functional dependency is determined by the entire primary key.

Rules for a relation to be in BCNF:

1. For every non-trivial functional dependency X -> Y, X must be a superkey.

2. There should be no non-trivial functional dependencies where the determinant (X) is a proper
subset of any candidate key.

Let's analyze the given relation R (Id, Subject, Professor):

Id Subject Professor

101 Java Mayank

101 C++ Kartik

102 Java Sarthak

103 C# Lakshay

104 Java Mayank

To check if the relation is in BCNF, we need to find the functional dependencies:

- Id -> Subject, Professor (each professor teaches a particular subject)

- Subject -> Professor (each subject is taught by only one professor)

Since Subject -> Professor is a non-trivial functional dependency where Subject is not a superkey (Id
is the superkey), the relation is not in BCNF.

To decompose the relation into sub-relations that satisfy BCNF, we can split it into two relations:

Relation 1 (R1):

Id Subject

101 Java

101 C++

102 Java

103 C#

104 Java

Relation 2 (R2):

Subject Professor

Java Mayank

C++ Kartik

C# Lakshay

Now, both R1 and R2 satisfy BCNF because in R1, the candidate key (Id) determines all attributes,
and in R2, the candidate key (Subject) determines all attributes.
3:
Give a brief on Dependency Preserving decomposition. How to verify whether a decomposition
over R is dependency preserving. Check whether the relation R (A, B, C, D ) with functional
dependencies {AB –> C, C –> D, D –> A} is decomposed into R1( A, B, C) and R2(C, D) is
dependency preserving or not.
A)Dependency Preserving decomposition is a technique used in database normalization to ensure
that the functional dependencies present in the original relation are preserved in the decomposed
sub-relations. It ensures that the decomposed relations retain the same information and
dependencies as the original relation.

To verify whether a decomposition over relation R is dependency preserving, we need to check if

all the original functional dependencies can be inferred from the decomposed sub-relations.

Let's analyze the given relation R (A, B, C, D) with functional dependencies {AB -> C, C -> D, D
-> A} and the decomposition into R1 (A, B, C) and R2 (C, D).

To check if the decomposition is dependency preserving, we need to verify if all the original
functional dependencies hold in the decomposed relations.

Original Functional Dependencies:

1. AB -> C
2. C -> D
3. D -> A

Decomposed Relations:
R1 (A, B, C):
- AB -> C (Present in R1)

R2 (C, D):
- C -> D (Present in R2)
- D -> A (Not present in R2)

From the given decomposition, we can see that the dependency D -> A is not preserved in the
decomposed relations. Therefore, the decomposition of relation R into R1 (A, B, C) and R2 (C,
D) is not dependency preserving.
4)
Define multi-valued dependencies and join dependencies. Discuss the use of such dependencies in
database design.

A)
Multi-valued dependencies and join dependencies are additional types of dependencies used in
database design to capture and represent certain relationships and constraints between attributes in a
relation.

1. Multi-valued Dependencies (MVDs):

Multi-valued dependencies occur when there are multiple independent relationships between
attributes within a relation.

Formally, in a relation R with attributes A, B, and C, a multi-valued dependency exists if for every
value of A, there is a set of values of B that are independent of C, and vice versa.

MVDs are denoted as A ->-> B, indicating that attribute A determines attribute B in a multi-valued
manner. It implies that for each value of A, there can be multiple values of B associated with it, which
are independent of other attributes in the relation.

MVDs are useful in capturing and representing relationships that involve sets of values or multiple
choices. They can be employed to ensure the normalization and integrity of data, particularly in
scenarios where certain attributes have multiple values or where attribute combinations have multiple
possible values.

2. Join Dependencies:
Join dependencies arise when a relation can be expressed as the join of two or more smaller relations.

Formally, in a relation R with attributes A, B, and C, a join dependency exists if R can be decomposed
into two or more relations (R1, R2, ... Rn), and the natural join of these relations (R1 ⨝ R2 ⨝ ... ⨝
Rn) results in the original relation R.

Join dependencies are represented as (R1, R2, ... Rn) ⨝, where R1, R2, ... Rn are smaller relations
that can be joined to obtain the original relation R.

Join dependencies are useful in database design for schema optimization, query optimization, and the
physical organization of data. They help in identifying opportunities for decomposition and
normalization of relations, which can improve efficiency and reduce redundancy in the database
schema.

Both multi-valued dependencies and join dependencies provide additional tools for database designers
to analyze and capture complex relationships and dependencies between attributes in a relation,
allowing for more precise and efficient database designs.
5)B+ tree is a balanced tree data structure commonly used in file systems and databases for efficient
indexing and retrieval of data. It is an extension of the B tree, designed to optimize disk access and
minimize the number of disk I/O operations. B+ trees are particularly well-suited for large-scale
storage systems due to their efficient search, insert, and delete operations.

Differences between B tree and B+ tree:

1. Structure: In a B tree, both data and keys can be stored in the internal nodes, whereas in a B+
tree, only keys are stored in the internal nodes. Data records are stored in the leaf nodes.

2. Leaf Nodes: In a B tree, leaf nodes contain both keys and data, while in a B+ tree, leaf nodes only
contain keys and pointers to the actual data records.

3. Fanout: B+ trees have a higher fanout (number of child nodes) compared to B trees. This reduces
the height of the tree and improves search performance.

4. Sequential Access: B+ trees are optimized for sequential access, as leaf nodes are linked together
in a linked list, allowing efficient range queries and scans.

Now, let's construct a B+ tree of order 4 and perform insertions and deletions as mentioned:

Initial B+ tree (order 4):

```

/ \

/ \

3,5 7,9

/ \ / \

/ \ / \

1 3 5,6 7,9,10

```

Inserting elements 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 2, 4, 6, 8, and 10 in the given order:

```

Inserting 1:

/ \
 1,5 7,9

/ \ / \

1 3 5,6 7,9,10

Inserting 3:

/ \

1,3,5 7,9

/ \ / \

1 3 5,6 7,9,10

Inserting 5:

/ \

1,3,5 5,7,9

/ \ / \

1 3 5,6 7,9,10

Inserting 7:

/ \

1,3,5 5,7,9

/ \ / \

1 3 5,6 7,9,10

Inserting 9:

/ \

1,3,5 5,7,9,10

/ \ / \

1 3 5,6 7,9
Inserting 2:

/ \

1,3 5,7,9 10

/ \ / \

1 2 5,6 7,9

Inserting 4:

/ \

1,3,4 5,7,9 10

/ \ / \

1 2 4,5,6 7,9

Inserting 6:

/ \

1,