Mathematics in the Modern World
Module 4: Data Management
4.1 The Data
Statistics
- the science of collecting, organizing, presenting,
analyzing, and interpreting numerical data.
Functions
- characterize persons, objects, situations, and
phenomena.
- explain relationships among variables.
General Fields of Statistics
 Descriptive Statistics - aims to provide the
basic characteristics of data.
 Inferential Statistics - aims to infer or make
interpretations.
Scales of Measurement
1. Nominal Scale
- used when we want to distinguish one object
from another for identification purposes only.
- non numeric variable
- e.g: gender, religion, civil status
2. Ordinal Scale
- data are arranged in some specified order or
rank.
- e.g: stages of cancer, size of t-shirt, educational
level, satisfaction level
3. Interval Scale
- a data that there is no true zero point or fixed
beginning, it can represent values below zero.
- numeric variable
- e.g: temperature, SAT scores
4. Ratio Scale
- a value of zero which indicates cases where no
quality of variable is present.
- it never falls below zero and there is always the
presence of unit measure.
- e.g: distance, weight, height
Population (N)
- refers to the totality of observations or elements
from a set of data.
Sample (n)
- refers to one or more elements taken from the
population for a specific purpose.
Parameter
- a numerical measure that describes the
characteristic of a population.
Statistic
- a numerical measure that describes the
characteristics of a sample.
Example:
1. The Food and Nutrition Research Institute of
the Department of Science and Technology
(FNRI-DOST) surveyed 14 million Filipino
adults aged 20 and above and determined that
80% of Filipino adults are at risk of hypertension.
Parameter: The percentage of adults at risk of
hypertension out of all Filipino adults aged 20
and above.
Statistic: The percentage of 80% obtained from
the sample of 14 million adults.
2. A researcher wants to estimate the average
death age of Filipino women in the last decade
and from a sample of 100 deaths, he obtained a
sample mean age of 73.
Parameter: The mean death age taken from the
data including all Filipino women who died in
the last 10 years.
Statistic: The mean age 73 identified from the 100
samples.
Presentation of Data
- refers to the organization of information such
as measurements, numbers, names, observations,
etc. in a certain way.
1. Textual Presentation
- paragraph form; does not necessarily mean that
the presentation consists of words only but
figures can also be used as part of the
presentation.
2. Tabular Presentation
- data are summarized using tables.
Frequency and Percentage Distribution
Table - a table showing the frequency and
percentage sharing of nominal data.
3. Graphical Presentation
 Line graph - shows the relationship between
two or more sets of quantities
 - values are plotted using dots which are
called “markers” to be connected by line
segments.
 Bar graph - represented by rectangular bars.
 Pictograph - expresses its meaning through
its pictorial resemblance to a physical object.
- each object used in a Pictograph
stands for a corresponding measure.
 Pie graph - a circle (or sometimes a cylinder)
that is divided into several partitions
characterizing the categories of the data.
4.2 Measures of Central Tendency
Measure of Central Tendency
- methods that can be used to determine
information regarding the average, ranking, and
category of any data distribution.
Measures of Central Tendency
1. Mean
2. Median
3. Mode
Mean (µ)
- the average of a set of data.
- the value equal to the sum of all the values in a
data divided by the total elements in a given
data.
Formula:
Median (Md)
- the positional or middle value.
- the value of the middle when all the elements
in a set of data are arranged in either ascending
or descending order.
Formula:
Mode (Mo)
- most frequently occurring value.
- defined as the element in a set of data that has
the most number of frequencies.
Types of Mode:
 No mode - no repeating data entry
 Unimodal - a data which has one mode 4.3 Measure of Dispersion
 Bimodal - a data having 2 modes Measure of Dispersion
 Multimodal - a having 3 or more modes - help to interpret the variability of data and to
know how homogeneous or heterogeneous the
Example: data is.
If Elena's grades are as follows, calculate the
mean, median, and mode of all her grades in her Measures of Dispersion
General Education course. 1. Range
2. Standard Deviation
Understanding the Self 1.50 3. Variance
Mathematics in the Modern World 1.75
Readings in Philippine History 2.00
Art Appreciation 1.50 Range (R)
Purposive Communication 1.25 - the difference between the highest and the
lowest value in a set of data.
Mean: - most inaccurate of all the measures of variation
=
� since it bases its conclusions on the highest value
�
and lowest value only.
1.50 + 1.75 + 2.00 + 1.50 + 1.25 Formula:
= 5
R= Maximum Value - Minimum Value
8
=5
Standard Deviation ()
µ = 1.6 - describes how scattered the data are with
respect to the mean of the given data.
Median: Formula:
1.25, 1.50, 1.50, 1.75, 2.00
Md = 1.50

Mode:
Mo =No mode

Variance (2)
- almost similar and equal to the square of
standard deviation.
- measure the spread of the data with respect to
the mean.
Formula:

Example:
If Elena's grades are as follows, calculate the
mean, median, and mode of all her grades in her
General Education course.

Understanding the Self 1.50

Mathematics in the Modern World 1.75
Readings in Philippine History 2.00
Art Appreciation 1.50
Purposive Communication 1.25
Range: 4.4 The Linear Correlation: Pearson r
= max. value - min. value Product-moment Correlation Coefficient or
= 2.00 - 1.25 Pearson r
R = 0.75 - a statistical tool that can determine the linear
association between two distributions or groups.
Standard Deviation: - can only establish the strength of association or
correlation but can never justify any causal
relation that may appear or seem obvious.
Formula:

1.50 - 1.60= (-0.10)2 = 0.01

1.75 - 1.60= (0.15)2 = 0.02
2.00 - 1.60= (0.40)2 = 0.16
1.25 - 1.60= (-0.35)2 = 0.12
1.50 - 1.60= (-0.10)2 = 0.01
Total: 0.32 where:
xy = raw data
0.32 x = mean of x
= 5 y = mean of y
= 0.06 N = no. of subjects or data
 = 0.24 SDx = standard deviation of x
SDy = standard deviation of y
Variance (short cut):
= (0.24)2
2 = 0.06 The Pearson r value may provide 3 possible
scenarios:
1. r value is positive = positive correlation
2. r value is negative = negative correlation
3. r value is around 0 = no linear correlation

Note: Pearson r does not generate a value less

than -1 or more than +1.

Guilford’s Interpretation for r values:

R value Interpretation
less than .20 negligible
.20 - .39 low
.40 - .69 moderate
.70 - .89 high
.90 - 1.00 very high

Example:
Is there is a correlation between hours of study
and grades of students?

Student Hours of Study(x) Grade (y)

A 15 2.75
B 35 1.25
C 05 3.00
D 20 2.50
E 30 1.50
 F 40 1.00 4.5 The Least-Squares Regression
G 20 2.25 Analysis
H 25 1.75 Regression Analysis
I 25 2.00 - not only can connect and associate some
J 08 3.00 observable patterns, it also permits us finally
make basic predictions.
Bivariate Scatter Plot
- a bivariate simply means that we can
graphically represent two variables (x and y)
in a scatter plot wherein each point in a
scatter plot represent a pair of scores.
Formula:
�� = 397.75
N = 10
x = 22.3
y = 2.1
SDx = 10.56
SDy = 0.68
397.75
− (22.3) (2.1)
r = 10
(10.56) (0.68)

r = - 0.979 = very high relationship

Example:
Is there is a correlation between hours of study
and grades of students?

Student Hours of Study (x) Grade (y)

A 15 2.75
B 35 1.25
C 05 3.00
D 20 2.50
E 30 1.50
F 40 1.00
G 20 2.25
H 25 1.75
I 25 2.00
J 08 3.00

Predict the grade of students who spent the

following weekly study hours: 37, 22, and 8.

� = 223
� = 21
�� = 397.15
�2 = 6089
N = 10 4.6 Propositions and Connectives
Proposition
- a declarative sentence that is either true or false,
Slope (m): but not both.
m=
10 (397.15) − (223) (21) Example:
10 (6089) − (49729)
3 is an odd integer.
Quezon City was once the capital of the
m = - 0.0632
Philippines.
12 divided by 4 is equal to 3.
y-intercept (b):
(21) − (−0.0632) (223)
b= 10  An acceptable proposition is given the
decision value true (or 1), while an
b = 3.5094 unacceptable statement is assigned a
decision value false (or 0). An array of
When a student spends 37 hours on studying: decision value (truth value) is called a logical
y = mx + b matrix (or truth table).
y = (-0.0632) (37) + 3.5094
y = 1.171 Negation
- Let p be a proposition. The statement “It is not
When a student spends 22 hours on studying: the case that p” is another proposition, called the
y = mx + b negation of p, denoted by ¬p. the proposition ¬p
y = (-0.0632) (22) + 3.5094 Is read “not p”.
y = 2.119
Example:
When a student spends 8 hours on studying: 1. p : 2 is an even integer
y = mx + b ¬p : It is not the case that 2 is an even integer
y = (-0.0632) (8) + 3.5094 or 2 is not an even integer.
y = 3.0038
2. p : 3 is an odd integer
¬p : It is not the case that 3 is an odd integer
or 3 is not an odd integer.

Truth Matrix (Negation)

p ¬p
T F
F T

Logical Operators
1. Conjunction
- Let p and q be propositions. The proposition “p
and q” denoted by p ^ q, is the proposition that
is true when both p and q are true and is false
otherwise. The proposition p ^ q is called the
conjunction of p and q.

Example:
1. p : 2 is an even integer
q : 3 is an odd integer
p ^ q : 2 is an even integer and 3 is an odd
integer
2. p : 4 is a rational number 2. p : 4 is a rational number
q : 2 is not a rational number q : 2 is not a rational number
p ^ q : 4 is a rational number and 2 is not a p ⇒ q : If 4 is a rational number then 2 is not a
rational number rational number

Truth Matrix (Conjunction) Truth Matrix (Implication)

p q p^q p q p⇒q
T T T T T T
T F F T F F
F T F F T T
F F F F F T

2. Disjunction 4. Bi-Conditional
- Let p and q be propositions. The proposition “p - Let p and q be propositions. The bi-conditional
or q”, denoted by p v q, is the proposition that is p ⇔ q is the proposition that is true when p
false when both p and q are false and true and q have the same truth values, and is
otherwise. The proposition p v q is called the false otherwise.
disjunction of p and q.
Example:
Example: 1. p : 2 is an even integer
1. p : 2 is an even integer q : 3 is an odd integer
q : 3 is an odd integer p ⇔ q : 2 is an even integer if and only if 3 is an
p ∨ q : 2 is an even integer or 3 is an odd integer odd integer

2. p : 4 is a rational number 2. p : 4 is a rational number

q : 2 is not a rational number q : 2 is not a rational number
p ∨ q : 4 is a rational number or 2 is not a p ⇔ q : 4 is a rational number if and only if 2
rational number is not a rational number

Truth Matrix (Disjunction) Truth Matrix (Bi-Conditional)

p q pvq p q p⇒q q⇒p p⇔q
T T T T T T T T
T F T T F F T F
F T T F T T F F
F F F F F T T T

3. Implication
- Let p and q be propositions. The implication p
⇒ q is the proposition that is false when p is
true and q is false, and true otherwise. In
this implication p is called the premise or the
hypothesis, and q is called the consequence or
conclusion.
Example:
1. p : 2 is an even integer
q : 3 is an odd integer
p ⇒ q : If 2 is an even integer then 3 is an odd
integer
5. Exclusive or
- Let p and q be propositions. The exclusive or
of p and q denoted by p ⊕ q is the
proposition that is true when exactly one of p
and q is true and is false otherwise.
Example:
1. p : 2 is an even integer
q : 3 is an odd integer
p ⊕ q : Either 2 is an even integer or 3 is an odd
integer
2. p : 4 is a rational number
q : 2 is not a rational number
p ⊕ q : Either 4 is a rational number or 2 is
not a rational number

Truth Matrix (Exclusive or)

p q p⊕q
T T F
T F T
F T T
F F F

Tautology, Contradiction, Contingency

Tautology
- A tautologous statement is one which has only
the decision value 1.
Contradiction
- A contradictory statement is one which is
always false.
Contingency
- A contingent statement is either a tautology or
a contradictory.