PE XI Binder

2022
EDITION
Dr. Loveleena Nadir Dr. Anil Nadir

M.S. (Obst & Gynae) M.S. (Orth)
Specialist in Female Health Nutritionist, Yoga &
Physical Education Expert
Educational Publishers
CONTENTS
1. Changing Trends and Careers in Physical Education 1–6
Changing Trends in Sports – Playing Surface, Wearable Gear and Sports
Equipment, Technological Advancements . . . 1
2. Olympism (earlier ‘Olympic Value Education’) 7–16

Ancient & Modern Olympics . . . 7
Olympism – Concept and Olympic Values . . . 9
Olympic Symbols – Motto, Flag, Oath and Anthem . . . 11
Olympic Movement Structure – IOC, NOC, IFs, Other Members . . . 12
3. Physical Fitness, Health & Wellness

(earlier ‘Physical Fitness, Wellness & Lifestyle’) 17–26
Health – Meaning, Importance & Components/Dimensions . . . 17
Traditional Sports and Regional Games for Promoting Wellness . . . 19
4. Physical Education & Sports for CWSN 27–32

Introduction . . . 27
Concept of Disability and Disorder . . . 27
Types of Disabilities, their Causes and Nature (Cognitive, Intellectual
and Physical Disabilities) . . . 29
5. Yoga 33
Introduction to Ashtanga Yoga . . . 33
7. Test, Measurement & Evaluation 34–39

Classification of Test in Physical Education and Sports . . . 34
Test Administration Guidelines in Physical Education and Sports . . . 35
8. Fundamentals of Kinesiology & Biomechanics in Sports

(earlier ‘Fundamentals of Anatomy, Physiology and Kinesiology in Sports’) 40–47
Definition & Importance of Kinesiology and Biomechanics in Sports . . . 40
Principles of Biomechanics . . . 41
Types of Body Movements – Flexion, Extension, Abduction,
Adduction, Rotation, Circumduction, Supination & Pronation . . . 42
Axes & Planes – Concepts and their Application in Body Movements . . . 43
9. Psychology and Sports 48–53

Team Cohesion & Sports . . . 48
The Physical Education Class XI syllabus for the 2022-23 academic session has recently been
released by the CBSE. While some fresh topics have been added in the latest syllabus, some
others have been removed. This Supplement to our ‘Essentials of Physical Education’ for
Class XI contains all the new topics included in the latest syllabus. Students are advised to use
this Supplement in consonance with the book.
1 Changing Trends and Careers
in Physical Education
Changing Trends in Sports – Playing Surface, Wearable Gear and Sports

Equipment, Technological Advancements
Playing Surface
Playing surface means any outdoor or indoor area used or capable of being used for any organised
sport or recreation.
Advancements in technology and the need to maximise use of athletic playing surfaces have led
to the development of various playing surfaces. Each of these surfaces possesses specific safety
profiles and an understanding of the differences in various playing surfaces and their associated
injuries and health concerns is vital for providing care to athletes.
Advancements and changes were made in the playing surface to improve field performance and
enhance player safety. Newer playing surfaces are now very common.
Currently, these surfaces range from natural grass to multiple generations of artificial turf as well
as different types of playing courts. Today, various types of sports are played and different types
of surfaces are used for each sport. Sports are physically challenging and injuries are always a
concern. The best way to avoid injuries is to make sure that a sport is played on the right type of
surface, both indoors and outdoors. That is why surface for each sport is prepared with special care.
Types of Artificial Sporting Surfaces

From the playing viewpoint, the sports surface is very important. Nowadays, sports are played
both indoors as well as outdoors and the surfaces, naturally, vary. Traditionally, sports have been
played on natural grass surfaces. Natural grass sports surfaces were developed on open spaces set
aside for recreation as towns and cities evolved. The nature of the sporting activity determined the
requirements for the sports ground in relation to size and surface characteristics.
Outdoor Sports Surfaces

1. Artificial Turf: Artificial turf is a surface of synthetic fibres made to look like natural grass. It
is most often used in arenas for sports that were originally or are normally played on grass.
Artificial turf developed in the late 1960s as an alternative to natural grass. Astroturf, the first
artificial turf, consisted of short fibres of dense nylon carpet installed over a compacted soil
base or elastomeric foam pad. It was very firm and induced high friction. Newer artificial
turfs possess a surface with more natural feel and offer less friction. Newer turfs utilise longer
synthetic fibres with infill pellets made of rubber or granular material to mimic natural grass.
Modern filling materials resist weathering, sustain field durability and increase cushioning
and shock absorption, thus helping reduce injuries.
2 SUPPLEMENT Essentials of Physical Education—XI
Artificial turf is more durable, is easier to maintain and is cheaper in the long term. For
artificial turf, the regular upkeep involves mostly rubbing with nylon bristled brush, periodic
replacement of lost infill, and occasional removal of paint and debris build-up.
2. Polymeric Muga Sports Surfaces: An artificial grass area (MUGAs or AGPs) has a shock pad
and is either heavily doused with water before play or filled with sand or rubber crumb. These
areas are used for sports such as hockey, five-a-side football, football, lacrosse, American
football and training for activities such as athletics, rugby union and rugby league. However,
this is less suitable for hockey.
3. PVC: PVC is a very popular type of sports surface used for indoor sports facilities and
stadiums. It has a reputation of being of good quality, durable and able to withstand a lot
of pressure. PVC is also extremely flexible making it a great choice as a playing surface for
many different sports. However, these courts are not recommended for tennis or netball.
4. EPDM Rubber Sports Courts: EPDM rubber is a synthetic elastomer, formally known as
Ethylene Propylene Diene Monomer. The advantage of EPDM Rubber Sports Courts is that
they last for a longer period of time without much damage.
5. Natural Grass: Natural grass offers the most natural game-playing experience. However,
natural grass demands a lot on time, manpower and water if the need is to maintain a
consistent, clean, debris-free surface. Also, it is difficult to maintain this surface quality in
multisport environments. Environmental factors including varying temperatures, rainfall,
droughts and winter weather cause further damage. These factors have led to the development
of artificial turf over time.
Indoor Sports Surfaces

There is a range of floor surfaces available for indoor sports facilities. The various requirements of
different sports help decide the appropriate surface. Various sports played indoor, like basketball,
volleyball, handball and indoor track & field need a range of surfaces including synthetic courts,
wood courts, smooth concrete, asphalt court surfaces and rubberised tracks. For indoor running,
various surfaces (concrete, asphalt and synthetic rubber) help alter vertical acceleration and shock
absorption.
Types of Indoor Sports Surfaces

1. Maple Hardwood: Maple hardwood is the traditional choice for basketball. There are more
hardwood courts than any other type of indoor sports flooring, but the hardwood is a high-
maintenance and less versatile indoor sports surface.
2. Polyurethane Athletic Flooring: Polyurethane athletic flooring is suitable for all kinds of
climates. The flooring can be easily renovated by using a special resurfacing polyurethane
resin and possesses excellent slip and wear resistance.
3. Recycled Rubber Flooring: Rubber floors are excellent as they are made from elastic and
durable material that offers comfort, resilience and safety. Recycled rubber is a tough rubber
that is made from post-consumer rubber material. Rubber flooring is helpful in improving
the performance of the players.
4. Vulcanised Rubber: Vulcanised rubber is usually composed of a recycled underlayment with
a virgin rubber layer on top for colour. It helps reduce fatigue but is less suitable for team
events.
Changing Trends and Careers in Physical Education 3
5.
Tennis Surfaces: Though the measurements of all tennis courts are the same, the variety
of surfaces on which matches are played can be segregated into four primary types—grass
courts, hard courts, clay courts and artificial grass.
The sport was initially played only on natural grass. Wimbledon continues to be played on grass
even today. A grass surface needs a lot of care and the local environment has to be optimum.
Clay courts are generally composed of layers of crushed stone topped with fine, gritty clay.
They became popular in the 1950s and now predominate in Europe and Latin America, like
in the case of the French Open. Two types of clay courts exist—red clay, from crushed brick,
and green clay called rubico, which is harder. Clay surface permits a player to be able to slide
on the court. It, however, lowers the speed of the ball.
The third surface used to play tennis is acrylic court composed of underlying asphalt or concrete
coated with rubber for shock absorption. This surface has low maintenance needs. Since acrylic
courts are stiffer and have the highest player-surface friction, there may be an increased risk
of overall injury to lower extremities of the players, compared to other court surfaces.
Artificial grass is the fourth type where the court is a synthetic surface with the appearance
of grass. The ball moves through quickly and generally keeps low with an even bounce and
a consistent level of spin.
Natural Grass In Tennis Clay Court In Tennis
Acrylic Court In Tennis Artificial Grass In Tennis
Whilst these are the main surfaces, the ITF also has classifications for concrete, asphalt and
carpet court surfaces.
Advantages of Artificial Sporting Surfaces

The general advantages of artificial surfaces over natural surfaces can be summarised as follows:
1. Greater durability
2. More efficient use of space
3. Increased usage
4. Flexibility
5. Better overall value for money
Artificial surfaces can provide an array of cost-effective and efficient facilities to suit a wide range
of sports and physical activities.
Influence of Artificial Surfaces in Sporting Performance

Advancements in technology have brought about a dramatic change in sports. The development of
new and advanced materials has made games efficient and less injury-prone. It has also enhanced
the performance of professional athletes and even weekend warriors. Primarily, as artificial surfaces
are less prone to injury, this psychologically strengthens the athletes and allows them to play
to their full potential without fear. As synthetic surfaces become more common, the number of
recreational athletes playing on them increases. Some aspects of performance such as speed appear
to be better on artificial surfaces.
Wearable Gear and Technological Advancements

The popularity of products like smart watches and wearable tech is on the rise. Wearable technology
offers many benefits in sports. One can track health and fitness data to optimise performance and
prevent injuries by identifying danger zones and predicting risky movements or patterns. Sports
officials can ensure accuracy during games, matches and performances.
Now, more treadmills and stationary bikes are compatible with Bluetooth devices. This integration
allows users to import data, like average heart rate, and more accurately read workout stats, such
as calories burned or peak heart rate range. This kind of workout equipment provides a more
comprehensive, individualised reading for an enhanced fitness experience.
Fitness Clothing
Athleisure and specialised fitness clothes are now standard. Another advancement is reactive
clothing which includes moisture-wicking and thermal fabrics. These fabrics react to changes in
body temperature. For example, moisture wicking fabrics sense when your body becomes warm
and damp. Rather than absorbing the sweat, they react and push it outward to evaporate. Socks
are built with textile pressure sensors that calculate whether the runner is striking with their heels
or the balls of their feet.
These materials are now used in a variety of athletic wear from shirts to socks, making it easier to
live an active lifestyle no matter the temperature outside.
Technology in tracking athletic performances includes pedometers, sports watches, scales, body
fat calculators and heart rate monitors. Because of technology and availability of GPS trackers and
RFID chips, sports officials can calculate scores with instant, impartial and quantifiable data.
Head-mounted displays (HMDs) in the helmets keep race car drivers in radio contact with their crew.
Sensors installed in shoes and clothing track health and biometrics to deliver real-time results to
scoreboards.
There are many types of sensors used in sports, which include:
• Heart rate monitors to track pulse and breathing patterns
• Inertial sensors that perform human motion analysis and can be used for recovery after
injuries and accidents
• Accelerometers and gyroscopes to monitor position, rotation, acceleration and speed
• GPS (Global Positioning System) units to track velocity metrics outdoors
• LPS (Local Positioning System) units to measure velocity metrics indoors with higher accuracy
than GPS
• VBT (Velocity Based Training) sensors to track performance in the weight room
• Sleep trackers to monitor and optimise sleep patterns
• Pressure sensors to determine the frequency and accuracy of how strikes or footfalls are landing
Changing Trends and Careers in Physical Education 5
Instant replay: With this, officials can slow down and re-examine what happened during a play,
which provides a second perspective for controversial sports moments. Instant replay is used in
games like baseball, football, cricket, rugby and soccer.
RFID Chips
RFID stands for Radio Frequency Identification. RFID chips are tiny devices with
built-in antennas that relay wireless signals to tracking stations. They are used
to time individual contestants in an event.
There are two types of RFID chips used in races: active and passive chips. Active
chips have an inbuilt battery or power source and can determine the exact time
a participant crosses a specific line. Passive chips can only be used with sensors
placed in a mat because they do not have an inbuilt power source.
Automatic Ball-Strike System

An automatic ball-strike system accurately measures balls and strikes, especially in baseball and
adapted to cricket now, allowing the “robot” umpire to measure the exact points that a ball passes,
providing an accurate ball or strike call without the human judgement errors. In baseball, ball and
strikes are determined by the Hawk-Eye tracking system and the umpire has an earpiece that will
tell him if a pitch is a ball or a strike.
Sports Equipment
Technology makes sports safer. Thus, the evolution of smart helmets and other wearable tech
allows for better monitoring of potentially traumatic injuries, offering immediate and effective
medical care. Now, the materials used in sports equipment have evolved from raw materials such
as wood, twine, gut and rubber to high-technology metals, polymers, ceramics and synthetic hybrid
materials like composites.
Advances vary from the simple such as using synthetic balls to allow better grip or placing dimples
in them for greater control through the air to more advanced progressions such as tartan running
tracks and carbon fibre for pole vaulting, thus allowing for better performances.
Glass- and carbon-reinforced composites continue to replace wood and metal in fishing rods,
tennis racquets, kayak paddles, windsurfing masts and boards, hockey sticks, kites and bicycle
handlebars.
Technology has helped create improved soccer balls and soccer boots. Lighter boots, better quality
soccer balls, light weight jerseys and artificial turfs all contribute to a better game.
Technology impacts sports for disabled athletes as well. Today, para-sports incorporate technology
in everything—from motorised prosthetics to carbon fibre wheelchairs. Assistive technology helps
the visually impaired in swimming, allowing them to use a digital device that utilises infrared
beams and ultrasonic technology to deliver a signal to their goggles.
The biomechanical analysis aids to correct technique in sports such as golf, tennis and cricket. Other
advances such as the use of VO2 max or Lactate Threshold testing have helped create targeted
training zones and better physiological adaptations increasing athletic performance.
Finally, using goal line technologies, Hawkeye and video replays has become commonplace in
many elite sports. Such advances have helped ensure that sporting results are more accurate and
the athletes develop tactics and strategies and visualise their performances more accurately.
EXERCISES
1. Wimbledon is played on which surface?
(i) Grass (ii) Astroturf
(iii) Clay (iv) Acrylic
2. Traditional basketball courts are made of ... .
(i) Grass (ii) Maple hardwood
(iii) Vulcanised rubber (iv) Acrylic
3. Astroturf is made up of ... .
(i) Rubber (ii) Natural grass
(iii) Synthetic fibres (iv) Clay
4. Head-mounted displays are used by ... .
(i) Cricketers (ii) Racing car drivers
(iii) Golfers (iv) Swimmers
5. RFID stands for—
(i) Relay Device in Floors
(ii) Radio Identification in Football
(iii) Radio Frequency Identification
(iv) Rapid Floor Identification
6. French Open is played on ...................... courts.
7. RDIF chips are of ...................... and passive types.
8. Artificial pitches are ...................... durable.
9. Lawn Tennis courts can primarily be segregated into ...................... types of surfaces.
10. ...................... rate monitors are used to track pulse and breathing patterns.
11. What is the use of sensors in modern sports?
12. What advantages do artificial surfaces have in sports?
13. What advantage does vulcanised rubber floor offer is sports?
2 Olympism
(earlier ‘Olympic Value Education’)
Ancient & Modern Olympics

Our modern Olympic Games and the Ancient Olympics are different in many respects—today’s
Olympics are strictly secular, whilst the Ancient Olympics were steeped in religion; the modern
Games have 42 disciplines, compared to the six of the Classical world. Importantly today, men and
women of all nationalities are invited to compete.
Some similarities exist between the two Olympics. In both, events were held in a town or city.
Modern-day Olympics like Ancient Olympics are held every four years with participants competing
against each other. However, the Modern Olympics were not held in 1916, 1940 and 1944 during
the two world wars.
The Ancient Olympic Games

The ancient Olympic Games were a sporting event held
every four years at the sacred site of Olympia, in the western
Peloponnese, in honour of Zeus, the supreme god of the
Greek religion. The Games, held from 776 BC to 393 AD,
involved participants and spectators from all over Greece
and even beyond.
The ancient Games included running, long jump, shot put,
javelin, boxing, pankration and equestrian events.
The Games officially came to an end around 394 AD when
Roman emperor Theodosius I outlawed pagan celebrations.
From Ancient to Modern Olympics

Baron Pierre de Coubertin founded the International Olympic Committee
(IOC) in 1894, leading to the first modern Games in Athens in 1896.
He originally wanted to unveil the modern Games in 1900 in his native Paris,
but delegates from 34 countries were so enthralled with the concept that they
convinced him to move the Games up to 1896 and have Athens serve as the
Baron Pierre de Coubertin
first host.
Today, the IOC is the governing body of the Olympic Movement, with the Olympic Charter defining
its structure and authority. The first Games held under the auspices of the IOC were hosted in the
Panathenaic Stadium in Athens in 1896. The Games brought together 14 nations and 241 athletes
who competed in 43 events.
Opening of the 1896 Olympics at the Panathenaic Stadium in Athens, Greece
The modern Olympic Games or Olympics are the leading international sporting events featuring
summer and winter sports competitions in which thousands of athletes from around the world
participate in a variety of competitions. The Olympic Games are considered the world’s foremost
sports competition with more than 200 nations participating. The Games are normally held every
four years, alternating between the summer and Winter Olympics every two years in the four-year
period.
The evolution of the Olympic Movement during the 20th and 21st centuries has resulted in several
changes to the Olympic Games. Some of these adjustments include the creation of the Winter
Olympic Games for snow and ice sports, the Paralympic Games for athletes with disabilities,
the Youth Olympic Games for athletes aged 14 to 18, the five Continental games (Pan American,
African, Asian, European, and Pacific), and the World Games for sports that are not contested in
the Olympic Games. The IOC also endorses the Deaflympics and Special Olympics.
The Olympic Movement consists of international sports federations (IFs), National Olympic
Committees (NOCs), and organising committees for each Olympic Games. As the decision-making
body, IOC is responsible for choosing the host city for each Game, and organises and funds the
Games according to the Olympic Charter. The IOC also determines the Olympic programme,
consisting of the sports to be contested at the Games. There are several Olympic rituals and
symbols, such as the Olympic flag and torch, as well as the opening and closing ceremonies. Over
14,000 athletes competed at the 2016 Summer Olympics and 2018 Winter Olympics combined in
35 different sports and over 400 events. The first, second and third-place finishers in each event
receive Olympic medals: gold, silver and bronze respectively.
The Games have grown so much that nearly every nation is now represented. Every two years the
Olympics provide athletes with the chance to attain national and international fame. The Games
also provide an opportunity for the host city and country to showcase themselves to the world.
The Summer Olympics have grown from 241 participants representing 14 nations in 1896, to 11565
competitors representing 206 nations in 339 events in 2021 at Tokyo. The scope and scale of the
Winter Olympics is smaller; for example, Pyeongchang (South Korea) hosted 2,922 athletes from 92
nations in 2018.
Olympism 9
The Winter Games

The first modern Winter Olympic Games were held in 1924 in Chamonix, France. There were no
winter Olympic Games in ancient times.
The Winter Olympics were created to feature snow and ice sports that were logistically impossible
to hold during the Summer Games. Figure skating and ice hockey were the first such sports. The
IOC had decided that the Winter Games be celebrated every four years in the same year as their
summer counterpart. Separate Winter Games, first agreed upon in 1911 to be held in 1916, could
take place only in 1924 in Chamonix, France, owing to World War I. This continued through the
1992 Games in Albertville, France, but thereafter, beginning with the 1994 Games, Winter Olympics
were held every four years, two years after the Summer Olympics.
Olympism – Concept and Olympic Values

The three values of Olympism are excellence, respect and friendship.
They constitute the foundation on which the Olympic Movement
builds its activities to promote sports, culture and education with a
view to building a better world.
The idea of Olympism is expressed as “a philosophy of life, exalting
and combining in a balanced whole the qualities of body, will and
mind”.
Olympism encourages life to be based on happiness from physical
effort, the educational value of being a positive and responsible
social example and respect for fundamental ethical principles. The
idea is to use sports as a means to unite humankind harmoniously,
promote peace and preserve human dignity.
The First Winter Olympics in Chamonix, France
Excellence: This encourages everyone to give their best in every sphere of life, be it sports or
personal and professional life. Striving hard to win is important but one also needs to look at
the joys of participating, achieving one’s personal goals, striving to be and to do one’s best and
get a healthy combination of a strong body, mind and will. Excellence means doing the best one
can, always. Winning is not always vital but taking part, progressing and enjoying the healthy
combination of body, mind and will is.
Respect: This value incorporates respect for oneself, one’s body, for others, for the rules and
regulations, for the sport and the environment. With reference to sports, respect translates into
ensuring fair play and being against doping and any other unfair means.
Friendship: This focuses on sports as a tool to develop increased mutual understanding among
individuals and people the world over. The Olympic Games are designed to inspire people to be
friends no matter their differences.
CORE OLYMPIC VALUES
EXCELLENCE RESPECT FRIENDSHIP
EDUCATIONAL THEMES
Joy of effort Fair play Practising respect Pursuit of Balance between body,
Young people Fair play is a sports When young excellence will and mind
develop and concept, but it is people who live Focus on Learning takes place in
practise physical applied worldwide in a multicultural excellence can the whole body, not just
behavioural and today in many world learn help young people in the mind, and physical
intellectual skills different ways. to accept and to make positive, literacy and learning
by challenging Learning to play fair respect diversity healthy choices through movement
themselves and in sports can lead and practise and strive to contributes to the
each other in to the development peaceful personal become the best development of both
physical activities, and reinforcement of behaviour, they that they can be in moral and intellectual
movement, games fair play behaviour in promote peace whatever they do. learning. This concept was
and sport. one’s community and and international the cornerstone of Pierre
in one’s life. understanding. de Coubertin’s interest in
reviving the Olympic
Games.
Olympism is based on certain principles designed to help create positive social change.
These include:
Non-discrimination: The Olympic Movement ensures the practice of all sports to be without any
form of discrimination.
Sustainability: The Olympic Movement attempts to ensure sustainable economic, social and
environmental development.
Humanism: The Olympic Movement ensures that the practice of sports is a basic human right.
Universality: Sports belongs to everyone, so the Olympic Movement takes into account the universal
impact sports have on individuals and society.
Solidarity: The Olympic Movement is committed to developing programmes that together create
a meaningful and comprehensive social response to issues it can help address.
Alliance between sports, education and culture: The Olympic Movement is committed to promoting
the spirit of Olympism—the point at which sports, culture and education converge.
Olympism 11
Olympic Symbols – Motto, Flag, Oath and Anthem

Motto
The traditional Olympic motto was CITIUS,
ALTIUS, FORTIUS, which is Latin for FASTER,
HIGHER, STRONGER.
The motto was created in 1891 by Father Henri
Didon, a friend of Pierre de Coubertin, and
adopted by the IOC in 1894.
In 2021, a new motto of the Olympics was created.
It now reads in Latin “Citius, Altius, Fortius
– Communiter” and translates into English as
“Faster, Higher, Stronger – Together”.
Flag
The Olympic flag presented by Coubertin in 1914 is the
prototype: it has a white background, and in the centre,
there are five interlaced rings—blue, yellow, black, green,
and red. The blue ring is on the farthest left, nearest to the
pole. The Olympic symbol (the Olympic rings) stands for
the activity of the Olympic Movement and represents the
union of the five continents and the meeting of athletes
from around the world at the Olympic Games. The five
rings represented the five participating continents of the
time—Africa, Asia, America, Europe and Oceania.
Pierre de Coubertin presented it at the Olympic Congress in Paris in 1914 but the First World War
prevented the 1916 Games from being held in Berlin. As a result, it was the city of Antwerp which
saw the five-ring flag flying for the first time in 1920.
The five interlaced rings are of equal dimensions, representing the idea that all continents are equal
at the games.
Oath
The Olympic oath is: “In the name of all competitors,
I promise that we will take part in these Olympic
Games, respecting and abiding by the rules which
govern them, in the true spirit of sportsmanship,
committing ourselves to a sport without doping and
without drugs, for the glory of sport and the honour
of our teams.”
At the opening ceremony there are always three
oaths taken: one by an athlete on behalf of all
athletes; one by a coach on behalf of all coaches; one
by a judge/official on behalf of all officials.
The Olympic oath was first used at the 1920 Olympic Games in Antwerp.
Anthem
Created by Greek composer Spýros Samáaras to words written by his fellow countryman, poet
Kostís Palamás, the Olympic Anthem is in fact the oldest property of the modern Games.
“O Ancient immortal Spirit, pure father

Of beauty, of greatness and of truth,
Descend, reveal yourself and flash like lightning here,
within the glory of your own earth and sky.
At running and at wrestling and at throwing,

Shine in the momentum of noble contests,
And crown with the unfading branch
And make the body worthy and ironlike.
Plains, mountains and seas glow with you

Like a white-and-purple great temple,
And hurries at the temple here, your pilgrim,
O Ancient immortal Spirit, every nation.”
Olympic Movement Structure – IOC, NOC, IFs, Other Members

The three main constituents of the Olympic Movement are the International Olympic Committee
(IOC), the International Sports Federations (IFs) and the National Olympic Committees (NOCs).
International Olympic Committee

The IOC was created by Pierre de Coubertin, on 23 June, 1894 with Demetrios Vikelas as its first
president. As of February 2022, its membership consists of 105 active members, 45 honorary
members and one honour member (Henry Kissinger). The IOC is the supreme authority of the
worldwide modern Olympic Movement.
The first IOC at the 1896 Athens Games
According to the Olympic Charter, the members of the IOC “represent and promote the interests of
the IOC and of the Olympic Movement in their countries and in the organisations of the Olympic
Movement in which they serve.”
Its role is to supervise, support and monitor the organisation of the Games, ensure that they run
smoothly and make sure that the rules of the Olympic Charter are respected.
Olympism 13
The Executive Board, founded in 1921, consists of the IOC President, four Vice-Presidents and ten
other members. All the members of the Executive Board are elected by secret ballot, by a majority
of votes cast, for a four-year term.
As the leader of the Olympic Movement, the IOC acts as a catalyst for collaboration between
all parties of the Olympic family, from the National Olympic Committees, the International
Federations, the athletes and the Organising Committees for the Olympic Games to the Worldwide
Olympic Partners, broadcast partners and United Nations (UN) agencies, and shepherds success
through a wide range of programmes and projects. On this basis, it ensures the regular celebration
of the Olympic Games, supports all affiliated member organisations of the Olympic Movement and
strongly encourages, by appropriate means, the promotion of the Olympic values.
The IOC is the governing body of the National Olympic Committees (NOCs) and of the worldwide
“Olympic Movement”, the IOC’s term for all entities and individuals involved in the Olympic
Games. As of 2020, there are 206 NOCs officially recognised by the IOC. The current president of
the IOC is Thomas Bach.
The IOC organises the modern Olympic Games and Youth Olympic Games (YOG), held in summer
and winter, every four years. The first Summer YOG were held in Singapore in 2010 and the first
Winter YOG in Innsbruck in 2012.
Until 1992, both summer and Winter Olympics were held in the same year. After that the IOC
shifted the Winter Olympics to the even years between Summer Games, to provide sufficient time
for planning the two events.
The stated mission of the IOC is to promote the Olympics throughout the world and to lead the
Olympic Movement:
• To encourage and support the organisation, development and coordination of sports and
sports competitions;
• To ensure regular celebration of the Olympic Games;
• To cooperate with the competent public or private organisations and authorities in an attempt
to place sports at the service of humanity and, thereby, promote peace;
• To act against any form of discrimination affecting the Olympic Movement;
• To encourage and support the promotion of women in sports at all levels and in all structures
with a view to implementing the principle of equality of men and women;
The IOC is currently headquartered in Vidy, Lausanne.
Honours
In addition to the Olympic medals for competitors, the IOC awards a number of other honours.
• The Pierre de Coubertin medal is awarded to athletes who demonstrate a special spirit of
sportsmanship in Olympic events.
• The Olympic Cup is awarded to institutions or associations with a record of merit and
integrity in actively developing the Olympic Movement.
• The Olympic Order is awarded to individuals for exceptionally distinguished contributions
to the Olympic Movement. It has superseded the Olympic Certificate.
• The Olympic Laurel is awarded to individuals for promoting education, culture, development
and peace through sports.
• The Olympic town status has been given to some towns that have been particularly important
for the Olympic Movement.
International Sports Federations

International Sports Federations (IFs) are responsible for the integrity of their sport on the
international level.
The International Sports Federations are international non-governmental organisations recognised
by the IOC as administering one or more sports at the world level. The national federations
administering those sports are affiliated to them. While conserving their independence and
autonomy in the administration of their sports, the IFs seeking IOC recognition must ensure that
their statutes, practices and activities conform to the Olympic Charter.
The IFs have the responsibility to manage and monitor the everyday running of the world’s various
sports disciplines, including the practical organisation of events during the Games. The IFs must
also supervise the development of athletes practising these sports at every level. Each IF governs
its sport at world level and ensures its promotion and development. They monitor the everyday
administration of their sports and guarantee the regular organisation of competitions as well as
respect for the rules of fair play.
The IFs may formulate proposals addressed to the IOC concerning the Olympic Charter and the
Olympic Movement in general, including the organising and holding of the Olympic Games;
give their opinions concerning the candidatures for organising the Olympic Games, particularly
concerning the technical capabilities of the candidate cities; collaborate in the preparation of the
Olympic conferences; and participate in the activities of the IOC commissions.
Association of Federations
In order to discuss common problems and decide on their event calendars, the summer federations,
the winter federations and the recognised federations have formed associations. They are: the
Association of Summer Olympic International Federations (ASOIF), the Association of International
Olympic Winter Sports Federations (AIOWF) and the Association of IOC Recognised International
Sports Federations (ARISF).
Recognised Federations:
• Badminton World Federation (BWF)
• Fédération Internationale de Football Association (FIFA)
• International Basketball Federation (FIBA)
• International Biathlon Union (IBU)
• International Bobsleigh and Skeleton Federation (IBSF)
• International Boxing Association (IBA)
• International Canoe Federation (ICF)
• International Equestrian Federation (FEI)
• International Fencing Federation (FIE)
• International Golf Federation (IGF)
• International Gymnastics Federation (FIG)
• International Handball Federation (IHF)
• International Hockey Federation (FIH)
• International Ice Hockey Federation (IIHF)
• International Judo Federation (IJF)
Olympism 15
• International Luge Federation (FIL)

• International Modern Pentathlon Union (UIPM)
• International Shooting Sport Federation (ISSF)
• International Skating Union (ISU)
• International Ski Federation (FIS)
• International Ski Mountaineering Federation
• International Surfing Association
• International Swimming Federation (FINA)
• International Table Tennis Federation (ITTF)
• International Tennis Federation (ITF)
• International Volleyball Federation (FIVB)
• International Weightlifting Federation (IWF);
• The International Federation of Sport Climbing
• Union Cycliste Internationale (UCI)
• United World Wrestling (UWW)
• World Archery Federation (WA)
• World Athletics
• World Curling Federation
• World DanceSport Federation (WDSF)
• World Rowing (FISA)
• World Rugby
• World Sailing (WS)
• World Skate
• World Taekwondo (WT)
• World Triathlon (TRI)
National Olympic Committees

There are 206 NOCs. The IOC is the sole authority to recognise an NOC. Together with the
International Sport Federations, the NOCs are a constituent of the Olympic Movement under the
leadership of the IOC. The mission of the NOCs is to develop, promote and protect the Olympic
Movement in their respective countries, in accordance with the Olympic Charter.
Its role is to supervise, support and monitor the organisation of the Games; ensure that they run
smoothly; and make sure that the rules of the Olympic Charter are respected.
The Indian Olympic Association (IOA) is the body responsible for selecting athletes to represent
India at the Olympic Games, Asian Games and other international athletic meets and for managing
the Indian teams at these events. The Indian Olympic Association is currently governed by a
32-member Executive Council, headed by President. The members of IOA include National
Sports Federations, State Olympic Associations, IOC members and other select multi-sport
organisations.
EXERCISES
1. Ancient Olympics were held after how many years?
(i) Two (ii) Three
(iii) Four (iv) Six
2. What era were the Ancient Olympics held in?
(i) 8th century BC to the 4th century AD (ii) 6th century BC to the 14th century AD
(iii) 8th century AD to the 12th century AD (iv) 8th century BC to the 1st century AD
3. How many disciplines do the modern Olympics have?
(i) 30 (ii) 36
(iii) 42 (iv) 55
4. How many colours does the Olympic flag have on it?
(i) Four (ii) Five
(iii) Six (iv) Seven
5. Until which year were both the Summer and Winter Olympics held in the same year?
(i) 1984 (ii) 1992
(iii) 1996 (iv) 1896
6. The Olympic flag has ...................... rings.
7. The IOC was created by Pierre de Coubertin on ...................... .
8. The Olympic oath is taken ...................... times at the opening ceremony.
9. There are ...................... main constituents of the Olympic movement.
10. The Olympic flag first flew at the ...................... Olympics.
11. What is the role of International Sports Federations?
12. Write a brief note on the Indian Olympic Association.
13. Write a brief note on the concept of Olympism.
3 Physical Fitness, Health & Wellness
(earlier ‘Physical Fitness, Wellness & Lifestyle’)
Health – Meaning, Importance & Components/Dimensions

According to the World Health Organisation Constitution, “Health is a state of complete physical,
mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity.”
This is an interesting definition as people tend to feel they are healthy simply when they do not feel
ill. This definition clearly describes that health is much more and involves feelings of happiness,
social interaction and energy. Currently, health is used interchangeably with wellness.
The components of health are:
Fitness
Fitness can be defined as ‘the ability to meet the demands of the environment’ and relates to
how physically demanding life is. Therefore, a person doing an office job requires lower levels
of physical fitness than an Olympic athlete. With so many people working in non-physical
or sedentary jobs, this means that the fitness requirements of society decrease, leading to a
heavier and less mobile society. In this negative context, health levels tend to decrease and
people exercise less.
Exercise
Exercise can be defined as ‘a form of physical activity done to improve health or fitness or both’.
It is recommended that adults and children follow different activity routines in order to maintain
good health and fitness.
Adults: Five sessions of 30 minutes of activity per week. The activity should be physical enough
to cause the adult to breathe more deeply and to begin to sweat.
Children and young people: Seven sessions of 60 minutes per week. At least two of these sessions
should be of high intensity exercise such as running, jumping or cardiovascular-based sports. The
seven sessions may be spread over the course of a week.
In this context, it becomes essential that physical
exercise is built into the structure of a typical day.
Good examples of this are walking or cycling
together to work or to school, taking part in games
together in the back garden and participating in
active experiences at the weekend such as walking
in the countryside or going for a bike ride. Children
learn a great deal from their parents. Therefore, it
is important that parents become active role models
and provide opportunities to their children.
GOOD Health
Good Appetite
Good Sleep
Clear Excretion
Clear Senses, Alertness
Cheerful, Optimism
Good Stress Management
Enhanced Immunity
Vitality +
If a person does not take part in regular physical activity, exercise or sport, then they are at risk of
a number of illnesses and negative effects such as:
• Weight gain or obesity
• Heart disease
• Hypertension (high blood pressure)
• Diabetes
• Depression
• Increased risk of osteoporosis
• Loss of muscle tone
• Stress
• Atherosclerosis
• Poor self-esteem
• Poor body image
An active, Increased levels A sedentary Decreased levels

healthy lifestyle of exercise lifestyle of exercise
Positive Negative
Good health Increased levels Poor health Decreased

of fitness levels of fitness
Physical Fitness, Health & Wellness 19
Measurement of Health and Fitness

1. Stamina: Stamina is the mental and physical ability to perform an activity for an extended
period, without getting tired and even feeling energetic after the session. To build stamina,
recovery time should be reduced between sessions of exercise. Also, repetitions and intensity
of exercise should be increased.
2. Flexibility: Being flexible is another crucial aspect of being healthy and fit. Flexibility permits
joints or muscles to move in a wide range of motion. It aids performance of daily activities
and helps avoid injuries. Flexibility varies with age and exercising is a great way to enhance
it. Yoga and stretching exercises increase flexibility, thus helping increase mobility and range
of motion.
3. Strength: Strength enables everyday activities. Strong muscles protect joints from injury
while lifting heavy weights and contribute to better balance, hence reducing risk of falls.
Good muscle improves body composition. Bodyweight exercises and lifting weight is the best
way to increase muscular strength. Uphill walking and cycling also help.
4. Balance: Balance is the body’s ability to maintain the centre of gravity, thus helping prevent
falls during exercise and activity. As we grow older, it becomes even more essential to have
a good balance. Strengthening the lower body and core improves balance.
5. Posture: A good body posture improves the personality and optimises bone and joint
alignment. This helps reduce wear and tear in muscles and ligaments. Slouching, locking
of knees and rounding of shoulders are unhealthy body postures and increase the risk
of arthritis, osteoporosis and cervical pain. Yoga and strength training exercises improve
posture. Conscious attention to posture while walking and sitting helps.
Traditional Sports and Regional Games for Promoting Wellness

Traditional games are the games that are traditional to our cultures, from dances to ball games
and water sports. Traditional Sports and Games (TSG) are today recognised by UNESCO as World
Intangible Heritage. Also known as indigenous games, they are a very important part of our
heritage and culture as they preserve age-old traditions. Indigenous games have an origin which
is steeped very deeply in our past.
Traditional games as a form of physical activity are beneficial as they help increase heart rate, oxygen
consumption and stabilise blood pressure. They are extremely important for cardiovascular health,
especially in children. Traditional children’s games aid in developing a spirit of cooperation and
help children interact positively, control themselves, develop empathy for friends, obey rules and
respect others. Traditional games also have a good impact on developing children’s emotional and
social skills. Any sport or game should be given an important place in the routine and curriculum of
a child. Sports help to build physical and mental strength of the players. However, with traditional
games, the biggest advantage is their simplicity and cost effectiveness. No expensive infrastructure
is required. Aside from a couple of games like Kabbadi and Kho-kho, the others are pretty much
localised. The true essence of these games lies in their accessibility and ease of play.
Traditional games have a social and cultural aspect as well. Children form a bond that helps them
build social and cultural relationships. These games bring together children from different families,
religions and social backgrounds, both from rural and urban areas. An understanding of team spirit
gets nurtured through these traditional games.
Finally, traditional games in India have a rustic and local flavour to their method and techniques.
The names as well as the style of playing are steeped heavily in the local, regional and
cultural nuances of the surroundings. Hence, they are always much more than mere pastimes.
They become a means of building teams, characters, strategies and a deeper understanding of true
core values.
Inclusion of any sport or game in the daily routine of a child has immense importance in the growth
and development of their personality. A child becomes robust as well as mentally and physically
strong by participating in sports and physical activities. Similarly, traditional Indian games play a
vital role in the overall growth of a child.
Top ten benefits of playing traditional Indian games are:
1. Traditional Indian games teach a child optimal use of resources.
2. They enhance mental strength.
3. They build a problem-solving attitude.
4. They teach a child how to interact socially.
5. They improve hand-eye coordination.
6. They make a child more disciplined.
7. They build winning spirit.
8. Traditional Indian games help promote our culture.
9. They help a child make new friends.
10. These games keep children happy and positive.
India has a vast history of these traditional and regional games, both indoor and outdoor.
Among the most common are:
1. Kabaddi: Kabaddi is a game played without
any gear or equipment and is based on pure
strength and strategy. Played between two
teams, the game involves a single player
from each team trying to touch down and
break into the opponent team’s side of the
court. The player needs to touch as many
players of the opposite team as possible while
attempting to return to their half of the field,
all the while chanting ‘kabaddi’.
2. Kho-kho: Kho-kho is another popular traditional sport invented and developed in ancient
India. After Kabaddi, it is the most prevalent tag game in the subcontinent. Traditionally, it
was known as Rathera.
A team sport, Kho-kho is particularly popular in schools. It consists of two teams. The game
involves 12 nominated players out of a total of 15. Nine members of the first team sit,
alternating in the direction they face, while three players from the other team run around
them to avoid being touched. The aim is for the sitting team to catch as many from the
running team. A player from the sitting team starts the game and touches their teammate to
continue the chase. The team that takes the shortest time to tap all the opponents in the field
wins. As a sport, it requires strategy and presence of mind.
3. Kancha or Lakhoti: Played with marbles,

Kanchas or Lakhoti is also known as Golli
or Goti. Kancha is an inexpensive traditional
game invented in India. A favourite amongst
youngsters, it is played using dark green glass
marbles colloquially known as ‘kanchas’.
The game is about trying to strike a particular
marble amidst many, using another marble.
The striker marble is held between the middle
finger of one hand and pulled by another
before release. The target marble along with
other marbles is placed in a circle and has to be struck from a distance. In another version,
Kancha is almost played like a miniature version of golf where the player has to send their
marble into a hole a couple of yards away from them. Traditionally, the winner of the game
takes away all kanchas from the losing players. There is no set limit to the number of players
who can play this game.
Kancha is popular as the marbles are inexpensive and the game can be played on any surface
and in any weather.
4. Hopscotch or Nondi: The Indian version of

Hopscotch, one of the most well-known
childhood games of all time, is called Nondi
(in Tamil Nadu), Stapoo and Kith kith. A
ladder-shaped pattern is drawn on the floor
and every box is numbered from one to six or
sometimes from one to eight or ten. A small
piece of stone or any other flat object is then
thrown on any of the drawn grids. The player
must hop their way to the numbered block
without touching the edges of any of the grid.
5. Gilli Danda: An amateur sport, Gilli Danda

is one of the most thrilling traditional Indian
games invented on the Indian subcontinent
around 2,500 years ago. It is also known as
Lippa in some parts of the country.
This Indian game requires two sticks. The
smaller, oval-shaped wooden piece is called
“gilli“ whereas the longer one is termed as
“danda”. Using the danda, the player needs
to hit the gilli at the raised end, which flips it
into the air. While it is in the air, the player
hits the gilli again, as far as possible. Then, the player is required to run and touch a point
(decided already) outside the circle before the gilli is taken by an opponent. The secret of
winning this game is all in the technique of raising and hitting gilli. There are no strict rules
about the upper limit of the number of players. It can be played by a minimum of four
players or even a hundred players or more.
6. Lattoo: Another popular traditional Indian

game is lattoo, which literally means the
spinning top. This game is simple to play if
one has the right skills. This Indian game is
all about making the top spin smoothly and
for the longest amount of time.
There are various modifications and
techniques associated with this simple
looking yet scientific game, like lifting the
moving top off with the string, rolling the top
on the string and many more. The tops were
earlier made of clay but were later replaced
with wood. However, with advancements in technology, one can find many different varieties
of tops today in the market.
7. Chaupar: One of the oldest indoor games

of India, Chaupar finds mention in the epic
Mahabharata. Also called Pachisi, this board
game was extremely popular in ancient times.
Pachisi can be better understood as an older
version of the modern-day Ludo.
It consists of a cross-shaped board that
is either made of cloth or wool. Chaupar
requires cowry shells and wooden pawns.
Each player has four pawns and six cowry
shells. The shells determine players’ moves.
The dice is rolled and the players strategise
the movement of their pawns.
Home or Ghar is at the centre of the board. The centre column on each arm of the cross is the
“home column” for each player’s men. The flower drawn on the left of the home column is
the starting point for each player.
8. Pallankuli: An indoor game, Pallankuli finds

its origins in South India. Played earliest in
Tamil Nadu, the game spread throughout the
southern states and even to Sri Lanka and
Malaysia.
Played on a board that consists of rounded
or cup-like columns, the game is played
with seeds or shells. The idea is to move the
shells or seeds from one cup to another in a
clockwise direction till the cups are empty.
9. Lagori: Lagori or Lingocha is another interesting traditional game invented in India in ancient
times. This game is also known as Pithoo or Satoliya.
It involves a ball (preferably a rubber ball) and a pile of seven flat stones stacked upon one
another.
It is generally played between two teams, with a minimum of three players and a maximum
of nine on each team. Each team gets nine chances, three players getting three chances each,
to knock down the stones that are stacked vertically, from a distance of about 20 ft. If one
team is unable to knock down the stones, the next team gets a chance to throw. The objective
of the defensive team is to strike any player of the throwing team with the ball, below knee
level. There are no fixed rules for the number of players or match duration. Matches are
usually played for a fixed number of points, about seven to ten.
10. Antakshari: This is a common game at family functions, social events and train journeys.
Perfect for any occasion, it consists of two teams. The first team starts singing and the last
letter of where they leave off the song is the letter that the other team picks up and begins a
new song with. There is no time limit to the game and it can go on for as long as the teams
wish. The game lightens up the mood with rhythm and music.
It is the best way to spend time in a fun-filled manner. One needs to have a good knowledge
of songs to do well in this game, although the art of good singing is not essential which makes
this game even more entertaining.
11. Gutte: Gutte is a casual Indian game played in

the rural parts of the country. This traditional
game is equally popular both among children
and adults. This game is usually played at
leisure.
This simple game involves five pieces of small
stones. It requires you to toss and spin one
stone in the air and pick the other stones from
the ground before the airborne stone touches the
ground. The process is repeated with two stones,
then three, four and finally five, until an airborne
Gutte strikes the ground. The process gets trickier when there is more than one stone in the air.
The beauty of this traditional game lies in its simplicity and inexpensiveness. Moreover, any
number of people can play this game.
12. Aankh Micholi: Aankh Micholi is a variation of another popular Indian game—Chhuppan
Chhuppai. Played mostly by children between 5 and 12 years of age, it is gender-neutral.
One of the players, called the denner, is blindfolded with a piece of cloth. The denner has
to catch hold of one of the other players while being blindfolded. All other players scatter
around in the open space and avoid the denner so that they do not get caught. The players are
allowed to make sounds to give hints to the denner for directions. The denner’s turn comes
to an end as soon as he/she is able to catch one of the players. This player now becomes the
denner for the next turn and the game continues till all players decide unanimously to end
the game.
In some variations of this game, once the denner catches another player, he/she also has to
identify the player correctly. Unless correctly identified, he/she continues to be the denner
in the game and the game continues.
This game helps in developing the sensory skills, alertness and a sense of sound in
the players. The denner or the blindfolded player has to make judgement of space based on
his/her hearing abilities. This helps the denner in developing skills to be always alert and
have a sense of sound. This game also helps in developing tactile sense.
Traditional Indian Games Today

In spite of technology overpowering our lives today, childhood games are alive and important.
Children often meet up in the evenings to play. While some play modern games like cricket and
football, many still play traditional games.
Some traditional games such as Kabaddi have made a resurgence because of the backing of sponsors
and sports channels and are now being showcased on a bigger scale. Similarly, Kho-kho is also
becoming a more popular game, especially in schools.
Traditional games offer a social and cultural aspect too—children get to build social and cultural
bonds. While belonging to different families, religions and social backgrounds, these games bring
them together. An understanding of real team spirit develops, unconsciously, through these simple
traditional games.
List of Top 23 Traditional Indian Games
S.No. Traditional Indian Games Originated/Popular in which state
1. Gilli Danda/Lippa Gujarat
2. Satoliya/Pithoo/Lagori Karnataka
3. Kancha or Lakhoti Bihar
4. Kho-kho Tamil Nadu
5. Gutte Tamil Nadu
6. Hopscotch or Nondi Tamil Nadu
7. Lattoo Several Indian Villages
8. Antakshari Sri Lankan Tamil Radio, now a family pastime
9. Hide and Seek/Aankh Micholi Played pan-India by kids
10. Chaupar/Pachisi Punjab, Haryana and Rajasthan
11. Kabaddi Tamil Nadu
12. Pallankuli South India
13. Maram Pitti/Picchi Banti Originated in Tamil Nadu, it is an Indian version
of dodgeball. It is played with a rubber or tennis
ball.
14. Anchankal/Kallankal/5 Stones Ancient Asia
15. Ashtapada (8 Squares) It is an Indian board game that predates Chess and
was mentioned on the list of games that Gautama
Buddha used to play.
16. Chaturanga Unknown (Somewhat like Chess and Ashtapada)
17. Snakes and Ladders Ancient India
18. Vish Amrit Many Parts of India
19. Kokla Chapaki/Ghoda Badam Punjab
20. Posham Pa Rural India
21. Dhopkel Assam
22. Carrom Patiala, Punjab
23. Raja-Mantri-Chor-Sipahi Pan-India
EXERCISES
1. In healthy adults, how many thirty-minute activity sessions per week are recommended?
(i) Six (ii) Five
(iii) Seven (iv) Three
2. The game of Kanchas is played with balls of what material?
(i) Cork (ii) Stone
(iii) Marble (iv) Glass
3. Chaupar is played on a cloth or board of how many arms?
(i) Two (ii) Three
(iii) Four (iv) Six
4. In the game of Kho-kho, how many players are sit on their knees at a time?
(i) Six (ii) Nine
(iii) Twelve (iv) Three
5. Antakshari is a game that involves:
(i) Balls (ii) Songs
(iii) Sticks (iv) Glass marble ball
6. Physical fitness is the ability to carry out tasks without undue ...................... .
7. Pithoo or Lagori has ...................... stones piled up on each other.
8. In Gilli Danda, the smaller wooden piece is called ...................... .
9. In the game of Ashtapada, there are ...................... squares.
10. Wellness has ...................... components.
11. Discuss briefly the physical component of wellness.
12. Discuss how yoga combines exercise and spirituality.
13. Why are traditional Indian games important?
4 Physical Education & Sports for CWSN
Introduction
All of us have unique abilities as individuals. Our capacity to contribute to the world is real and
every person can make a difference. The ability to be active and indulge in sports varies with
physical and intellectual capacity. There is a special place in sports for those that are differently
abled and suffer from some mental or physical handicap, which can either be by birth or may occur
later following an accident or some other unfortunate incident. All of us have an equal right to
participate in sports and lead an active and healthy life, notwithstanding our disabilities. Modifying
sports to suit those who are differently abled, physically or mentally, is now a reality and more
such events are being organised.
Children With Special Needs (CWSN) are defined as children who have a disability or a combination
of disabilities that makes learning or other activities difficult. Special-needs children include those
who have:
1. Mental Retardation, which causes them to develop
more slowly than other children.
2. Speech and Language Impairment, such as a problem
expressing themselves or understanding others.
3. Physical Disability, such as vision problem, cerebral
palsy, or other conditions.
4. Learning Disabilities, which distort messages from their
senses.
5. Emotional Disabilities, such as anti-social attitude or
other behavioural problems. Children with Special Needs
Differently-abled sportspersons are an inspiration to everyone and demonstrate that all challenges
can be overcome if one is determined. Sports and physical education offer these differently-abled
people a chance to participate in sports activities and lead a fuller life. While sports is important
in everyone’s life, it is of great significance to a person with some disability.
Sports can not only have a rehabilitative influence on the body but also helps in rehabilitating those
with a disability in society. Furthermore, sports teaches us to be independent. Today, people with
disabilities participate in high-performance as well as in competitive and recreational sports.
Concept of Disability and Disorder

All of us aspire to be in peak health, mentally and physically, and well adjusted, emotionally and
socially, to society we live in.
However, many of us have challenges ranging from visual impairment to disabilities that prevent
us from leading a normal life. Others may suffer from no physical ailment but face mental or
emotional challenges.
Disability is not the same as a disorder, though often we erroneously use them interchangeably.
Thus, it is important to understand and differentiate between disability and disorder.
Disability
A disability is any continuing condition that restricts one from performing everyday activities.
The main categories of disability are physical, sensory, psychiatric, neurological, cognitive and
intellectual. Many people have multiple disabilities. A physical disability is the most common type,
followed by intellectual and sensory disability. Physical disability generally relates to disorders of
the musculoskeletal, circulatory, respiratory and nervous systems.
Sensory disability involves impairment in hearing and vision. Neurological and cognitive disabilities
include acquired disabilities such as multiple sclerosis or traumatic brain injury. Intellectual
disability includes intellectual and developmental disability which relates to difficulties with
thought processes, learning, communicating, remembering information and using it appropriately,
making judgements and problem-solving. Intellectual disability is a result of interaction between
developmentally attributable cognitive impairment, attitudinal and environmental barriers.
Psychiatric disorders resulting in disability may include anxiety disorders, phobias or depression.
World Health Organisation defines disabilities as:
Disabilities are an umbrella term, covering impairments, activity limitations, and participation
restrictions. An impairment is a problem in body function or structure; an activity limitation is a
difficulty encountered by an individual in executing a task or action; while a participation restriction
is a problem experienced by an individual in involvement in life situations. Disability is thus not
just a health problem. It is a complex phenomenon, reflecting the interaction between features of a
person’s body and features of the society in which he or she lives.
Oxford English Dictionary defines disability as “a physical or mental condition that limits a person’s
movements, senses, or activities.’’
Merriam Webster Dictionary’s definition of disability is “a physical, mental, cognitive, or developmental
condition that impairs, interferes with, or limits a person’s ability to engage in certain tasks or
actions or participate in typical daily activities and interactions.’’
Cambridge Dictionary defines disability as “an illness, injury, or a condition that makes it difficult
for someone to do the things that other people do.’’
Collins dictionary defines disability as “a permanent injury, illness, or physical or mental condition
that tends to restrict the way someone can live their life.’’
Most disabilities are not curable and tend to be permanent. But we have had great intellectuals with
severe disabilities such as Stephen Hawking, John Nash, Helen Keller, etc.
Disorder
It generally refers to physical or mental disorders. These are mostly gradual in onset and start
disturbing normal lives in most cases before manifesting themselves.
Collins Dictionary defines a disorder as “a disorder is a problem or illness which affects someone’s
mind or body.”
Oxford English Dictionary defines it as “an illness that disrupts normal physical or mental functions.’’
Merriam Webster Dictionary defines disorder as “an abnormal physical or mental condition.’’
Most disorders, especially mental disorders, may be amenable to treatment and be temporary,
though a few last a lifetime. If disorders are not treated promptly, they may turn into disability.
Physical Education & Sports for CWSN 29
Types of Disabilities, their Causes and Nature (Cognitive, Intellectual

and Physical Disabilities)
Disabilities are of differing severity and types. Some are born with a disability while some become
disabled during their lives. Three main types of disabilities are cognitive, intellectual and physical.
Cognitive Disability
Cognitive disability, earlier called mental retardation and now known as general learning disability,
is a term used when a person has certain limitations in mental functioning and in skills such as
communication, taking care of themselves and social skills. Common causes of cognitive disorder
include substance abuse and physical injury. Physical injuries and excessive use of drugs or
alcohol cause cognitive disability. Generally, a person with a cognitive disability has greater
difficulty with even simple mental tasks. Traumatic brain injury and genetic disorders may lead
to cognitive disabilities. People with cognitive disabilities need assistance in almost every aspect
of their daily lives.
There are at least two ways to classify cognitive disabilities—functional disability and clinical disability.
Cognitive disabilities include autism, down syndrome, traumatic brain injury (TBI), attention deficit
disorder (ADD), dyslexia (difficulty in reading) and dyscalculia (difficulty with maths).
Some of the main categories of functional cognitive disabilities include deficits or difficulties with:
1. Memory
2. Problem-solving
3. Attention
4. Reading, linguistic and verbal comprehension
5. Maths comprehension
6. Visual comprehension
Memory: It refers to the ability of a user to recall what they have learned over time. Memory can be
immediate memory, short-term memory and long-term memory. Some individuals with cognitive
disabilities have difficulties with one, two, or all three of these memory types.
Hyperactivity Syndromes: Here, the sufferer has a very small attention span. They are constantly on
the move, restless and fidgety. Poor concentration is seen.
Dyslexia: Difficulty or inability to read, write or speak is classified as dyslexia.
Intellectual Disability
Experts define intellectual disability as:
“…significantly sub-average general intellectual functioning, existing concurrently with deficits
in adaptive behaviour and manifested during the developmental period, that adversely affects a
child’s educational performance.” (Rosa’s Law, signed by President Obama in October 2010)
Intellectual disability results in below-average intelligence quotient (IQ) and mental ability and
lack of skills necessary for learning, problem-solving, judgement, communication and independent
living. This disability becomes apparent before 18 years of age. Intellectual disabilities lead to
slowing down of learning skills.
IQ (intelligence quotient) is measured by an IQ test. The average IQ is 100, while a person with
intellectual disability has an IQ of less than 70-75.
To label a person as intellectually disabled, one must have a low IQ and limitations in at least
2 of the following activities: communication, self-direction, social skills, self-care, use of community
resources and maintenance of personal safety.
The primary manifestations of intellectual disability are:

• Slow acquisition of new knowledge and skills
• Immature behaviour
• Limited self-care skills
People with severe intellectual disability are likely to require life-long support. Early signs include:
• Delayed sit-up, crawling, or walking
• Late talking
• Trouble remembering
• Difficulty with social rules
• Trouble thinking logically
Intellectual disabilities often lead to altered/decreased reasoning, learning and judgement.
Physical Disability
This is a limitation on the person’s ability to perform physical functions such as walking, running
or functional dexterity and stamina. Disorders such as breathing disorders, sleeping disorders,
epilepsy or visual impairment also get classified as physical disabilities. Physical disabilities are
further subdivided into motor (movement-related) disability or sensory (feeling-related) disability.
Physical disability can be musculoskeletal or neuromuscular type.
Musculoskeletal Disability: It occurs when the person has a problem in bones or muscles.
This can occur in the following cases:
1. Deformity in any body part.
2. Genetic bone diseases such as Osteogenesis Imperfecta. This is a disorder where growing
bones become weak and cause postural deformities.
3. Muscle diseases like muscular dystrophy that causes the muscles to gradually become weak.
Neuromuscular Disability: This is the result of an illness or a disorder of the nervous system which
results in muscle disorders.
Examples include:
Cerebral Palsy: Generally caused at the time of birth, this affects movement of various body parts.
There is difficulty in body movement and muscular coordination, leading to altered behaviour or
difficulty in speaking, eating, etc.
Spina Bifida: Is a birth defect in the spine. Lower limbs are weak or even paralysed. Loss of control
over urination and passing stools is common.
Poliomyelitis: This used to be a scourge of India and was a leading cause of disability. Now eradicated
in India, polio used to lead to weakness/paralysis of lower limbs causing walking problems and
limping, etc.
Stroke: When blood supply to the central nervous system, especially the brain, is blocked, it leads
to physical as well as sensory disability.
Head Injury: Injuries to head, mostly by accident, lead a person to become disabled as they may
face difficulty in motor or sensory functions.
Spinal Cord Injury: Caused mostly because of trauma, these injuries lead to paralysis from which
a person may or may not recover. In most cases, people lose control over the bladder and bowel
function and are either unable to stand or have extremely poor and unsteady gait.
Physical Education & Sports for CWSN 31
Causes of Disability
Disability may be present at birth or acquired later in life. Some prominent causes of disability
are:
1. Genetic: Specific genetic and chromosomal conditions, such as down syndrome, fragile
X syndrome and Phenylketonuria are well-known causes of disability.
These result from abnormalities of genes inherited from parents, errors when genes combine,
or from other disorders of the genes caused during pregnancy by infections, overexposure to
X-rays and other factors.
2. Poverty: Poverty leads to an increased risk of malnutrition and childhood diseases. Poverty
causes children to grow up in disadvantaged positions. Lack of food, unstimulating
environment and inadequate health care all contribute to enhanced disability.
Disability and poverty go hand in hand because those living in poverty are more likely to
be exposed to dangerous environments with low-quality housing, in areas prone to natural
disasters, dangerous traffic and/or higher rates of conflict. People living in poverty are also
more likely to undertake high-risk work. All these conditions significantly increase someone’s
chances of being disabled by malnutrition, disease or injury. In turn, disabled people often face
discrimination in education, training and employment, thus decreasing income opportunities
leading to further poverty.
3. Accidents: Road accidents, workplace accidents, natural disasters are all causes of disability.
Sports accidents as in skiing or car or motorcycle racing may cause permanent disability.
4. Malnutrition: Malnutrition leads to both mental and physical disabilities. Less the nutrition
in food, more likely it is that health issues will occur. Malnutrition often leads to poor growth,
being underweight, bad skin & teeth, muscle weakness, learning disabilities and fragile bones.
Also present will be learning disabilities and poor attention span. Low immunity leads to
frequent and debilitating sickness.
5. Environment: Many chemicals in our environment cause damage to the central nervous
system which can lead to developmental disabilities. The environment impacts development
of intellect and thus leads to autism and linked disorders. Toxic chemicals and pesticides
cause birth defects and are a cause of quite a few disabilities. Environmental contamination
with hazardous chemicals like mercury and lead causes disabilities. Nuclear leakage/chemical
leakage from industrial plants has often caused mass casualty and disability. Harmful
chemical-laden working environment is also a cause of disabilities. Dangerous machinery or
tools at workplace may cause disability in case of an accident.
6. Diseases: Long-term disabilities often arise from diseases such as diabetes, cancer and
heart problem. Limitation in day-to-day activities and functioning of the body parts affect
a person. Mental diseases like depression and schizophrenia also contribute to human
disabilities.
7. Health Care: Improper or untimely medical help may cause long-term or even permanent
disability. Proper care at the time of delivery of newborn can prevent a lot of conditions
such as cerebral palsy or even autism and birth fractures. Proper immunisation also helps in
preventing many debilitating diseases like we have done in the case of polio—a disease that
was once a leading cause of disability in India. Timely treatment of injuries leads to complete
recovery and can prevent a lot of disabilities.
8. Lack of Education: It is an indirect cause of disability. Ignorance causes people to
underestimate the severity of their illness until it ends in permanent damage and disability.
Ignorance prevents timely attention to sickness as well as lack of precautions. Ignorance
increases dependence on non-scientific treatments and the result is disability.
EXERCISES
1. A person with intellectual disability has an IQ of less than:
(i) 250 (ii) 70–75
(iii) 100 (iv) 175
2. Which of these are causes of disability?
(i) Genetic causes (ii) Malnutrition
(iii) Injury (iv) All of these
3. Malnutrition leads to:
(i) Physical debility (ii) Mental debility
(iii) Neither (iv) Both
4. Cerebral palsy is a type of which disability?
(i) Mental (ii) Neuromuscular
(iii) Muscular (iv) Bony
5. Cognitive disability is also known as ...................... retardation.
6. Sensory disability effects vision and ...................... .
7. Polio is a disease that affects ...................... limbs.
8. Dyscalculia is difficulty with ...................... .
9. Dyslexia is the inability to ...................... and write.
10. Define Children With Special Needs (CWSN).
11. Mention in brief the types of disabilities.
12. Write a brief note on intellectual disabilities.
5 Yoga
Introduction to Ashtanga Yoga

Ashtanga Yoga is an eight-limbed path towards achieving the state of Yoga, also known as Samadhi.
The definition of Ashtanga Yoga is found in the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali, an ancient text on the
theory and practice of Yoga thought to have been compiled in about 200 BC by Sage Patanjali.
Ashtanga Yoga focuses on muscle training and develops physical strength. Practising Ashtanga
Yoga rejuvenates the body, making it stronger, toned, and more flexible and controlled.
The difference between Hatha Yoga and Ashtanga Yoga is that while Hatha Yoga starts off with
physical postures that eventually lead to a better meditation practice, Ashtanga Yoga first focuses
on self, and then moves on to physical postures and meditation.
7 Test, Measurement & Evaluation
Classification of Test in Physical Education and Sports

Test: A test is a tool which is used to evaluate the skills, performance and reliability of the task
completed by a sportsperson.
Measurement: Measurement is collection of data about a sportsperson’s performance or task
completed by him/her by using a test.
Fitness assessments are a series of tests that measure and monitor students’ physical fitness level. The
series of tests assess the five components of physical fitness that make up total fitness: cardiovascular
endurance, muscular strength, muscular endurance, flexibility and body composition.
Testing is a part of learning and shows the students what they know and what they can do. Test
results show student strengths as well as weaknesses, thus enabling them to focus on areas wherein
they can excel.
Importance of Test and Measurement:
• To frame the objectives.
• To evaluate the learners.
• To evaluate the teaching program.
• To know the capacities and abilities of the participants.
• To discover the needs of the participants.
Use of Test Data

The data which tests provide is compared to standards. This, in turn, helps in comparisons with
the general population. Fitness tests are only relevant when the scores are compared to existing,
standard data. For highly trained athletes, the comparisons will be of their fitness data with that
of other athletes or even their own previous fitness test performances.
While there are many methods to classify tests in Physical Education and sports, the most widely
accepted method is to focus on two main facets, namely health and skills.
COMPONENTS OF PHYSICAL FITNESS

Health-related Skill-related
Cardiovascular endurance Agility
Muscular endurance Speed
Muscular strength Reaction time
Flexibility Balance
Body composition Coordination
Power
Test, Measurement & Evaluation 35
Health-related Components
These are five in number for most tests:
•
Cardiovascular endurance: The ability of the heart, lungs and blood to transport oxygen
•
Muscular endurance: The ability to use voluntary muscles repeatedly without tiring
•
Muscular strength: The amount of force a muscle can exert against a resistance
•
Flexibility: The range of motion (ROM) at a joint
•
Body composition: The percentage of body weight which is fat, muscle and bone
Skill-related Components
The six most commonly used skill parameters are:
•
Agility: The ability to change the position of the body quickly and control the movement
•
Speed: The ability to put body parts into motion quickly
•
Reaction time: The time taken to respond to a stimulus
•
Balance: The ability to maintain the body’s centre of mass above the base of support
•
Coordination: The ability to use two or more body parts together
•
Power: The ability to perform strength performances quickly
Some classifications are more extensive and focus on eight different facets:
1. Motor ability tests
2. Physical fitness tests
3. Physical capacity tests
4. Physical efficiency tests
5. Physical intelligence tests
6. Strength tests
7. Proficiency tests
8. Achievement tests
Test Administration Guidelines in Physical Education and Sports

Motor fitness is a term that describes an athlete’s ability to perform effectively during sports or
other physical activity.
Test 1: 50 m Standing Start
Test 2: 600 m Run/Walk
Test 3: Sit and Reach Flexibility Test
Test 4: Partial Curl-up Test
Test 5: Push-ups (Boys)
Test 6: Modified Push-ups (Girls)
Test 7: Standing Broad Jump
Test 8: Agility–4 × 10 m Shuttle Run
Administration of Tests
These tests can be administered indoors or in a gymnasium.
TEST NO. 1—50 m Standing Start:
Purpose: The aim of this test is to determine acceleration and speed.
Equipment required: Measuring tape or marked track, stopwatch, cone markers, flat and clear
surface of at least 70 metres.
Procedure: The test involves running a single maximum sprint over
50 metres, with the time recorded. Start from a stationary standing
position (hands cannot touch the ground), with one foot in front of the
other. The front foot must be behind the starting line. Once the subject is
ready and motionless, the starter gives the instructions “set” then “go”.
TEST NO. 2—600 m Run/Walk: This is to be organised on a track or
on a field where the marking is laid out. A distance of 600 metres is to
be covered. Walking is permitted but the time to cross the finish line is
counted. The objective is to cover 600 metres in the shortest time.
TEST NO. 3—Sit and Reach Flexibility

fingertips aligned
Test: The sit and reach test is a common
measure of flexibility; it specifically
measures the flexibility of the lower
feet slightly apart and
back and hamstring muscles. This test is
flat against the step
important because tightness in this area
is implicated in lumbar lordosis, forward
remove shoes
pelvic tilt and lower back pain.
TEST NO. 4—Partial Curl-up Test: The legs straight
partial curl-up abdominal fitness test
requires the subjects to perform as many
sit-ups as possible following a set rate.
Purpose: The curl-up test measures abdominal strength and endurance, which is important in back
support and core stability.
Equipment required: A flat, clean, cushioned surface, recording sheets, pen.
Procedure: The starting position is lying on the back with knees
flexed and feet 12 inches from the buttocks. The feet cannot be
held or rest against an object. The arms are extended and are
rested on the thighs. The head is in a neutral position. The subject
curls up with a slow controlled movement, until the shoulders
come off the mat two inches, then back down again. One complete
curl-up is performed every three seconds (1.5 seconds up and 1.5 seconds down, with no hesitation)
and this is continued until exhaustion (e.g., the subject cannot maintain the rhythm). There is no
pause in the up or down position; the curl-ups should be continuous with the abdominal muscles
engaged throughout.
Scoring: Record the total number of curl-ups. The completion of one complete curl-up counts as one.
Advantages: This test is simple and quick to perform requiring minimal equipment, and large
groups may be tested at once.
TEST NO. 5—Push-ups (Boys): Keeping muscles toned and strong is important. Since a child’s
muscles, bones and tendons are still growing, lifting weights may pose an injury risk. But body
weight exercises like push-ups are safe and effective.
Step 1. Stand 2 or 3 feet away from a wall with your feet positioned a little wider than shoulder-
width. Lean forward so your weight is on your hands on the wall. Perform push-ups on the
wall until you are comfortable with the motion. Move your feet back a little farther when
this movement becomes easy for you.
Step 2. Practice getting your body into the plank position required for a push-up by doing a
stationary elbow plank. Get on the floor, and rest on both elbows and toes with your body
stiff and straight off the floor. Practice keeping your bottom down, but don’t let it sag, as
these are problems many kids experience when they first try push-ups.
Step 3. Position yourself in the same plank position, but take your elbows off the floor and place
your hands there instead with your palms facing down. Lower your body straight down
until your chest almost touches the floor, and then push back up to the plank position.
Keep your head up and gaze straight ahead.
Step 4. Place your knees on the floor instead of your feet if you want to perform the real movement
but can’t push all your weight up from the plank position. Bend your legs so your feet are
up off the floor as you perform the push-ups.
TEST NO. 6—Modified Push-ups (Girls): Modified push-ups are push-ups done with knees on
the floor.
To do these, the procedure is as follows:

1. Begin in a kneeling position on a mat with hands below shoulders and knees behind hips so
back is angled and long.
2. Tuck toes under, tighten abdominals, and bend elbows to lower chest toward the floor. Keep
your gaze in front of your fingertips so neck stays long.
3. Press chest back up to start position.
4. Repeat for desired number of repetitions.
Benefits include strong and toned arms, great start-up before doing a full push-up, strong chest
and upper back and increased core strength.
TEST NO. 7—Standing Broad Jump: The standing long jump is also known as the standing broad
jump. In performing the standing long jump, the jumper stands at a line marked on the ground
with feet slightly apart. The athlete takes off and lands using both feet, swinging the arms and
bending the knees to provide forward drive. Not only used as a test but correctly implemented
into a workout programme, the broad jump movement can be a highly functional way to improve
overall athletic performance. The biggest benefit of the broad jump is that it helps athletes improve
lower body power.
TEST NO. 8—Agility–4 × 10 m Shuttle Run: This test measures agility and speed while running
between two lines 10 m apart to pick up small blocks.
Purpose: This is a test of speed, body control and the ability to change direction (agility).
Equipment required: Two wooden blocks for each runner (each block should measure 10 × 5 × 5
cm), marker cones or marking tape, measurement tape, stopwatch, a flat non-slip surface with two
lines 10 metres apart.
Procedure: Mark two lines 10 metres apart using marking tape or cones. The two blocks are placed
on the line opposite the line they are going to start at. On the signal “ready”, the participant places
their front foot behind the starting line. On the signal “go!”, the participant sprints to the opposite
line, picks up a block of wood, runs back and places it on or beyond the starting line. Then turning
without a rest, they run back to retrieve the second block and carry it back across the finish line.
Two trials are performed.
Scoring: Record the time to complete the test in seconds to the nearest one decimal place. The score
is the better of the two times recorded. A trial is void if a block is dropped or thrown.
Advantages: This test can be conducted on large groups relatively quickly with minimal equipment
required.
EXERCISES
1. How many health-related components are there?
(i) Four (ii) Five
(iii) Six (iv) Seven
2. The distance between the two lines in agility shuttle run is how many metres?
(i) Eight (ii) Ten
(iii) Twelve (iv) Fifteen
3. Which of these is not a health-related component in testing?
(i) Speed (ii) Flexibility
(iii) Body composition (iv) Muscular strength
4. Sit and reach test is used to measure:
(i) Muscle strength (ii) Speed
(iii) Flexibility (iv) Balance
5. Coordination is defined as:
(i) The ability to follow coach’s instructions
(ii) The ability to use two or more body parts together
(iii) The ability to play as a team member
(iv) The ability to run fast
6. The range of motion (ROM) at a joint is called ...................... .
7. The percentage of body weight which is fat, muscle and bone is measured as body ...................... .
8. Modified push-up is used in case of ...................... gender.
9. 50 m Standing Start test measures ...................... and speed.
10. Standing Broad Jump helps improve ...................... .
11. What is a Partial Curl-up test used to measure?
12. What differentiates Push-up test and Modified Push-up test?
13. What are the constituents of Motor Fitness test?
8 Fundamentals of Kinesiology & Biomechanics in Sports
(earlier ‘Fundamentals of Anatomy, Physiology and Kinesiology in Sports’)
Definition & Importance of Kinesiology and Biomechanics in Sports

Historically, physical education and sports trainers and coaches have always focused on improving
performance, attaining higher goals and cutting down time needed to achieve the winning target.
Efficient and effective movement to get optimum results has been the focus of much research and
concern.
Kinesiology refers to the whole scholarly area of human movement study, while biomechanics is
the study of motion and its causes in living things. Biomechanics is the science of movement of
a living body, including how muscles, bones, tendons and ligaments work together to produce
movement. Biomechanics is part of the larger field of kinesiology, specifically focusing on the
mechanics of the movement. Biomechanics provides key information on the most effective and
safest movement patterns, equipment and relevant exercises to improve human movement.
Simply put, kinesiology is the study of movement. It includes physics, biomechanics, physiology,
biology and chemistry.
Kinesiology Biomechanics
Study of motion Study of the mechanics of life
Includes motor control, neural science, etc. Includes mechanics of blood flow, cellular mechanics,
movement biomechanics
Movement Biomechanics is a part of Kinesiology.
Meaning and Importance of Biomechanics in Sports

Biomechanics is the science of study of the mechanical movements related to the human body.
Dictionary.com defines biomechanics as “the study of the action of external and internal forces on
the living body, especially on the skeletal system”. Collins Dictionary defines biomechanics as “the
study of the mechanics of the movement of living organisms”.
Giovanni Alfonso Borelli is often described as the “Father of biomechanics”. His publication in 1680
extended to biology the rigorous analytical methods developed by Galileo in the field of mechanics.
He was the first to explain muscular movement and other body functions according to the laws of
statics and dynamics. Biomechanics, thus, is focused on the application of the laws of mechanics
and physics to human performance, in order to gain a greater understanding of performance in
athletic events through modelling, simulation and measurement. Biomechanics can play a crucial
role in both injury prevention as well as performance enhancement. It is important for athletes of
all ages and skill levels to understand the importance of education in developing proper mechanics.
Biomechanical analysis can benefit athletes of all ages and skill levels.
The study and consequent application of biomechanics is designed to optimise performance and
achieve the highest possible results. Currently, all sportspersons train with an eye on the important
aspects of their preferred sport. By applying various laws such as the law of projectile, we can
improve athletic performance in sports such as javelin throw and jumping events. Study of these
facets can also help prevent sports injuries.
Fundamentals of Kinesiology & Biomechanics in Sports 41
Principles of Biomechanics
Biomechanics, being the science of movement of a living body, including how muscles, bones,
tendons and ligaments work together to produce movement, is comprised of five main components.
These are:
1. Motion, which is the movement of the body or an object through space.
2. Force, which is a push or pull that causes a person or object to speed up, slow down, stop or
change direction.
3. Momentum, which is a product of the velocity and weight of an object as it moves. There are
two types of momentum in sports—Linear momentum, where the momentum is in a straight
line and Angular momentum, which is the rotational momentum created by the rotations of
the various body segments.
4. Lever, which is a rigid object, used with an axis to either multiply the mechanical force called
effort, or resistance force called load when applied to it. In the human body, the arms and
legs act as levers. A lever system is made up of three parts—an effort, a load and a fulcrum.
In the human body, the effort is provided by the muscle, the load is the weight of the body
and the fulcrum is the joint at which the movement is taking place.
5. Balance, which refers to stability. The alignment of the body’s centre of gravity over the base
of support determines the balance of the human body and a good balance is important for
many sporting and exercise activities.
There are seven principles in biomechanics. These are:
Principle 1: Stability
The lower the centre of mass, the larger the base of support; larger the base of support, the closer
the centre of mass to the base of support; and the greater the mass to the base of support and the
greater the mass, the more the stability increases.
Principle 2: Maximum Effort

The production of maximum force requires the use of all possible joint movements that contribute
to the action desired.
Principle 3: Maximum Velocity

The production of maximum velocity requires the use of joints in sequence—largest first to the
smallest last.
Principle 4: Impulse
The greater the applied impulse, the greater the increase in velocity.
Principle 5: Reaction
Movement usually occurs in the direction opposite that of the applied force.
Principle 6: Angular Motion

Angular motion is produced by the application of force acting at some distance from an axis to
create torque. This principle is also known as the principle of the production of angular motion.
Principle 7: Angular Momentum
Angular momentum is constant when an athlete or object is free in the air. This principle is also
known as the principle of conservation of angular momentum and its key component is the fact
that once an athlete is airborne, they will travel with constant momentum.
Types of Body Movements – Flexion, Extension, Abduction, Adduction,

Rotation, Circumduction, Supination & Pronation
The human body is capable of a multitude of movements. These take place at the joints and include
rotation, circumduction, angular and gliding movements.
1. Gliding Movements: These occur as relatively flat bone surfaces
move past each other but they produce very little movement of the
bones. Gliding joints are located between the surfaces of two flat
bones that are held together by ligaments. Some of the bones in the
wrists and ankles move by gliding against each other.
2. Angular Movements: These movements are produced when
the angle between the bones of a joint changes. These include
Gliding
flexion, extension, hyperextension, abduction, adduction and
circumduction. These are typical of the long bones. This movement
causes the angle between the two bones to increase or decrease Gliding movements at the wrist
and is found in joints such as hip and shoulder.
Flexion: This is the movement of a joint where the angle between the bones decreases and the
bones come close together. For example, when we bend our forearm to touch our arm at the elbow.
Extension
Extension
Flexion Extension Extension Flexion
Extension Flexion
Flexion
Extension
(a) and (b) Angular movements: flexion (c) Angular movements: flexion (d) Angular movements:
and extension at the shoulder and and extension of the neck flexion and extension of the
knees vertebral column
Extension: This is the movement where the angle between the bones increases. It is the opposite
of flexion. Thus, if we straighten out our forearms at the elbow from the bent position, we are
causing extension at the elbow.
Abduction: This movement involves taking a body part away from the midline of the body.
Thus, when we lift up our arms over the shoulders, we are doing abduction.
Adduction: This movement brings the limbs close to the midline of the body. Thus, when we
bring down our arms from the shoulders, we are doing adduction.
3. Circumduction: Circumduction happens
when a bone moves at its head in its joint
cavity. Hip and shoulder joints exhibit this
Circumduction
the most. This movement combines most
of the angular movements in a circular
fashion.
Circumduction
(a) Shoulder joint (b) Hip joint
4. Rotation: The bone here moves around an axis without

changing its axis. Thus, when we twist our head from side to
side or just move our shoulders in a shrugging movement,
we are performing rotation.
Left Right
Rotation Rotation
Lateral
Medial Rotation
Lateral
Rotation
Rotation
Medial
Rotation
(a) Atlanto-axial joint (b) Shoulder joint (c) Hip joint
5. Supination: This movement involves the wrist Palm anterior Palm posterior
moving forward in a fashion where the palm is facing
upwards.
6. Pronation: This movement is the opposite
of supination and causes the palm to face
downwards.
Supination Pronation
Axes & Planes – Concepts and their Application in Body Movements

Planes
In biomechanics, every motion of the body is described starting from the anatomical position. The
anatomical position is when a person is standing upright looking straight ahead, arms at the side
with palms facing forward, the feet slightly apart at the heels and toes pointing forward.
There are three Anatomical or Cardinal Planes in the anatomical position, as described below.
50% of 50% of 50% of 50% of

body mass body mass body mass body mass
Frontal Plane
50% of
body mass
Sagittal Plane Transverse Plane
50% of
body mass
Sagittal Plane or Median

This plane divides the body into two sides (left and right); it cuts the body into
left and right halves. Forward and backward movements of the human body
generally occur at this plane. The plane may be at the centre of the body and
split it into two halves (mid-sagittal) or away from the midline and split it into
unequal parts (para-sagittal). Sagittal plane motion would include forward and
backward motions, like sit-ups, back extensions or biceps curls. The sagittal plane
cuts through the centre of the body, so the motion is front to back or back to front,
including straight forward running.
Sports that use this plane of movement are kicking a football, chest pass in netball,
walking, jumping, squatting.
Frontal or Coronal Plane

This plane is the second plane of the human body. Also known as the coronal
or longitudinal plane, this area comprises an imaginary line cutting vertically
through both shoulders. It bisects the body into front and back portions.
Movements that occur in the frontal plane are lateral or side-to-side movements.
These include:
Abduction: Moving (or moving a limb) laterally and away from the midline of
the body.
Adduction: Moving (or moving a limb) towards the midline of the body.
Frontal plane movement patterns are fundamental to sports such as football,
soccer, hockey and basketball where the player is shuffling, laterally moving
across the field, rink or court.
Transverse or Horizontal Plane

This plane is the third plane of the human body. It divides the body into upper and lower portions.
Movements of rotation such as twisting movements occur in the transverse plane.
Transverse plane movements include:

Rotation: Moving the torso or a limb around its vertical axis
Pronation: Rotating the forearm or foot to a palm-side or foot-side
down position.
Supination: Rotating the forearm or foot to a palm-side or foot-side
up position.
Examples of this movement in sports include 360 twists on trampoline,
an ice skater spinning or discus thrower rotating.
Diagonal patterns of movement occur when components of all three
cardinal planes of motion are combined at the same time.
Axes
An axis is a straight line around which an object rotates. Movement
at the joint takes place in a plane about an axis. Whereas the cardinal
planes are used to describe the spatial zones in which the body
moves, the axes describe the main pivotal/rotational points of body
C
movement. Sagittal
Axis Frontal
There are three axes of rotation: Axis
C = Center of Mass
Transverse
Axis
Sagittal Axis
Also known as the anterio-posterior axis, this is an imaginary line that passes horizontally from
posterior to anterior and is formed by the intersection of the sagittal and transverse planes. Amongst
the examples of movement could be shoulder abduction and adduction. Likewise, side bending of
the neck and its abduction and adduction are other examples.
For example, when a person performs a cartwheel, they are rotating about the sagittal axis.
Frontal Axis
It passes horizontally from left to right, through the centre of the body, and is formed by the
intersection of the frontal and transverse planes. For example, when a person performs a somersault,
they rotate around this axis. Abduction and adduction movements occur around this axis, for
example, jumping jack exercises, raising and lowering arms and legs sideways. Shoulder elevation,
neck flexion and extension are some other examples. Flexion and extension of the elbow joint is a
very good example of movement of the forearm on the frontal axis.
Vertical Axis
It passes vertically from inferior to superior and is formed by the intersection of the sagittal and
frontal planes. For example, when a skater performs a spin, they are rotating around the vertical
axis. Shoulder external rotations, internal rotation, rotation of the head are also good examples of
movement in the vertical axis.
EXERCISES
1. The plane that divides the body into front and back halves is called:
(i) Frontal (ii) Sagittal
(iii) Transverse (iv) Coaxial
2. Kicking a football involves which plane?

(i) Transverse (ii) Frontal
(iii) Sagittal (iv) None of these
3. Flexion and extension of the elbow joint occur in which axis?
(i) Frontal (ii) Vertical
(iii) Sagittal (iv) Transverse
4. When a skater performs a spin, they are rotating around which axis?
(i) Frontal (ii) Oblique
(iii) Vertical (iv) Sagittal
5. Which of the following is not a component of biomechanics?
(i) Motion (ii) Force
(iii) Momentum (iv) Somersault
6. Biomechanics is the study of ...................... and its causes in living things.
7. The sagittal plane divides the body into ...................... and ...................... .
8. Rotation of the head occurs on the ...................... axis.
9. In cartwheel, rotation is about ...................... axis.
10. Kinesiology is the study of ...................... .
11. What is the description of the anatomical position?
12. Mention briefly the role of various axes in sports.
13. What is importance of biomechanics in sports?
9 Psychology and Sports
Team Cohesion & Sports

Team cohesion is defined as a “Dynamic process which reflected in the tendency for a group to
stick together and remain united in the pursuit of goals and objectives” (Carron, 1982).
Team cohesion is also defined as “an individual’s sense of belonging to a particular group and
his or her feelings of morale associated with membership in groups”. Group cohesion can also be
defined as the attractiveness of the group to its members. Sportspersons will be attracted to a team
if it offers something they need.
Team
Cohesion
Motivation Performance
Personal
Satisfaction
Cohesion creates a strong sense of commitment to goals, which motivates higher individual effort
and performance. Cohesion leads to better communication, in a more positive fashion with better
results.
Increased
performance
Increased
morale
Increased
self-esteem
Highly cohesive
teams
Cohesion is essentially to help a team work well together and is crucial for a sports team to be
successful. Successful team cohesion in sports is influenced not only by an individual’s view of
the team but also by how well individual athletes perform as well as how successful the team is
at working together. Team cohesion is useful as it can both improve performance and motivation
of a team. If a team works well together, it improves their cohesion which, in turn, improves
performance and personal satisfaction.
Psychology and Sports 49
Team cohesion in sports is built by a few factors which include:

1. Open lines of communication between the coach and the sportsperson as well as among the
team members themselves. The coaches need to be clear about team members’ responsibilities
and practice and tournament expectations. Strategy needs to be discussed among team
members and they should arrive at a mutual consensus. Team members should be respectful
to one another.
2. All team members should know their role in the team. Teamwork can be spoilt by those team
members who are not crystal clear about their individual roles. There should be no ambiguity
about each player’s role in the team. Team members should also be able to talk to each other
about what they expect from their teammates. They need to discuss and encourage each other
after any error.
3. There must be a team mission. Team members should be so focused on achieving their
goals as if they are on a mission. When team members are focused on goals, they become
committed and take ownership of the team.
4. There ought to be a team identity that is different from any other team’s identity. When a
team feels unique, its performance improves. Establishing team rituals—cheer leaders, warm-
up routines, unique drills—helps.
5. Socialising to get to know and respect each other also proves beneficial.
6. Having a common goal to be achieved together that people buy into and invest in emotionally.
7. Creating dependencies on each other so that no player feels or acts in isolation.
8. Generating pride and belief in a project shared among all team members.
Team cohesion impacts sports performance. Team cohesion positively predicts team performance.
In turn, team performance positively predicts team cohesion. Teams that are more cohesive perform
better.
Factors that Affect Cohesion
There are many factors that affect team cohesion. These include:
1. The environment (e.g., social and physical)
2. Personal factors (e.g., personality)
3. Team factors (e.g., norms)
4. Leadership factors
How to Improve Team Cohesion

Given below are the key steps to be followed to establish and improve team cohesion:
1. Set team goals
2. Set individual goals
3. Provide feedback to individuals as well as the team
4. Listen to the feedback of athletes/players
5. Work together to achieve the goal
6. Reward effort and performance
7. Recognise improvement
8. Create a professional environment for success goals
There are two types of cohesion in sports—task cohesion and social cohesion. When both are
combined in a team, chances of success improve tremendously.
Social cohesion produces team unity with teammates liking each other personally while task
cohesion depends more on athletes rallying round a common cause regardless of their feelings
for each other.
Task cohesion is when a coach shares a set goal/objective with the team with a success criterion
whereas social cohesion is how well a team interacts. Both operate independently of each other and
it is important for the difference to be understood.
Winning teams have great task cohesion. A low social cohesion decreases chances of a win. Task
cohesion adds to the possibility of success. The more time the whole team spends together, the
more cohesion is felt. A team meeting every time, even briefly, before practice helps cultivate team’s
sense of bonding.
The Five Behaviours of a Cohesive Team
RESULTS
ACCOUNTABILITY
COMMITMENT
CONFLICT
TRUST
The five behaviours of a cohesive team, if maximised, lead to a unit that operates very efficiently
and effectively in an optimum fashion.
The behaviours of a cohesive team are:
1. Trust
2. Conflict
3. Commitment
4. Accountability
5. Results
Each behaviour in the model builds upon the previous and supports the others.
1. Trust One Another: Members of highly successful teams trust one another on a fundamental,
emotional level, and are comfortable if apprised of their weaknesses, mistakes, fears and
behaviours. They need to be completely open with one another, without fear.
RESULTS
ACCOUNTABILITY
COMMITMENT
CONFLICT
TRUST
Vulnerability-based trust (the ability to expose one’s weaknesses) is the key to building
relationships so that the team is able to withstand and benefit from challenges that every
team faces.
2. Engage in Conflict Around Ideas: Members of teams who trust one another are not afraid
to challenge ideas that differ from theirs. It is desirable to be able to disagree with, challenge
and question each other so the best answers are found, thereby helping make great decisions.
Conflict is sometimes considered dangerous for a team because it can lead to some hard
feelings. However, once the team has relationship trust, members can be honest about their
views.
RESULTS
ACCOUNTABILITY
COMMITMENT
CONFLICT
TRUST
This makes the conflict constructive. Constructive conflict ensures a free discussion on all
points of view and all the aspects of an issue. A team without conflict tends to shut out
valuable feedback which can lead to poor decision-making.
3. Commit to Decisions: Teams conflict to gain commitment to decisions even when various
members of the team initially disagree. Since all opinions and ideas are put on the table to
be discussed and considered, team members become confident that every possible thought
process has been accommodated.
RESULTS
ACCOUNTABILITY
COMMITMENT
CONFLICT
TRUST
Gaining commitment from team members may not always be based on consensus. Consensus
often means unwilling compromise and is sometimes detrimental to best results. Commitment
comes with clarity of purpose. Once a team chooses an idea, they will pursue it with
commitment as every member understands why the idea was selected and supports it.
4. Hold One Another Accountable: Teams
committed to decisions and high performing
levels accept holding each other accountable for RESULTS
sticking to those decisions and standards. Also,
each member of the team behaves like a leader ACCOUNTABILITY
and feels accountable.
Traditionally, this is the most difficult behaviour COMMITMENT
for a team to master. Most will never get to the
point where each team member routinely holds CONFLICT
all other members accountable. Reaching and
maintaining the previous three steps will make TRUST
accountability easier so it can become part of a
team’s overall action.
5. Focus on Achieving Collective Results: Team members after trusting each other, engaging in
conflict around ideas and having gained commitment to decisions are free to hold one another
accountable. This helps achieve collective results as individual needs and agendas are set aside
and focus is shifted to collective achievement. The temptation to place their departments, career
aspirations or status ahead of the collective results takes a back seat as a result.
RESULTS
ACCOUNTABILITY
COMMITMENT
CONFLICT
TRUST
Achieving team objectives needs a team! Each member of the team is focused on achieving the
team’s goal. The team goal becomes more important than any personal goals and everyone feels
rewarded by being part of the team result. The whole team thus wins!
EXERCISES
1. Team conflict ultimately leads to better team cohesion:
(i) True (ii) False
2. Which of these is not a characteristic of team cohesion?
(i) Trust (ii) Conflict
(iii) Ego (iv) Accountability
3. To achieve and improve team cohesion, which of the following is not required?
(i) Team goals
(ii) Individual goals
(iii) Feedback to individuals as well as the team
(iv) Listening only to the team captain
4. In sports, the two types of cohesion are ...................... cohesion and social cohesion.
5. A cohesive team is governed by ...................... types of behaviours.
6. Team cohesion improves ...................... and motivation in a team.
7. What factors influence team cohesion?
8. What is team cohesion and how many types are there?
9. Write a brief note on task cohesion.

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2022

Dr. Loveleena Nadir Dr. Anil Nadir

2. Olympism (earlier ‘Olympic Value Education’) 7–16

3. Physical Fitness, Health & Wellness

4. Physical Education & Sports for CWSN 27–32

7. Test, Measurement & Evaluation 34–39

8. Fundamentals of Kinesiology & Biomechanics in Sports

9. Psychology and Sports 48–53

Changing Trends in Sports – Playing Surface, Wearable Gear and Sports

Types of Artificial Sporting Surfaces

Outdoor Sports Surfaces

Indoor Sports Surfaces

Types of Indoor Sports Surfaces

Natural Grass In Tennis Clay Court In Tennis

Acrylic Court In Tennis Artificial Grass In Tennis

Advantages of Artificial Sporting Surfaces

Influence of Artificial Surfaces in Sporting Performance

Wearable Gear and Technological Advancements

Automatic Ball-Strike System

Ancient & Modern Olympics

The Ancient Olympic Games

From Ancient to Modern Olympics

Opening of the 1896 Olympics at the Panathenaic Stadium in Athens, Greece

The Winter Games

Olympism – Concept and Olympic Values

The First Winter Olympics in Chamonix, France

CORE OLYMPIC VALUES

EXCELLENCE RESPECT FRIENDSHIP

Olympic Symbols – Motto, Flag, Oath and Anthem

“O Ancient immortal Spirit, pure father

At running and at wrestling and at throwing,

Plains, mountains and seas glow with you

Olympic Movement Structure – IOC, NOC, IFs, Other Members

International Olympic Committee

The first IOC at the 1896 Athens Games

International Sports Federations

• International Luge Federation (FIL)

National Olympic Committees

Health – Meaning, Importance & Components/Dimensions

An active, Increased levels A sedentary Decreased levels

Good health Increased levels Poor health Decreased

Measurement of Health and Fitness

Traditional Sports and Regional Games for Promoting Wellness

3. Kancha or Lakhoti: Played with marbles,

4. Hopscotch or Nondi: The Indian version of

5. Gilli Danda: An amateur sport, Gilli Danda

6. Lattoo: Another popular traditional Indian

7. Chaupar: One of the oldest indoor games

8. Pallankuli: An indoor game, Pallankuli finds

11. Gutte: Gutte is a casual Indian game played in

Traditional Indian Games Today

Concept of Disability and Disorder

Types of Disabilities, their Causes and Nature (Cognitive, Intellectual

The primary manifestations of intellectual disability are:

Introduction to Ashtanga Yoga

Classification of Test in Physical Education and Sports

Use of Test Data

COMPONENTS OF PHYSICAL FITNESS

Test Administration Guidelines in Physical Education and Sports

TEST NO. 3—Sit and Reach Flexibility

To do these, the procedure is as follows:

Definition & Importance of Kinesiology and Biomechanics in Sports

Meaning and Importance of Biomechanics in Sports