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Design and Analysis of Fixed-Wing UAV
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Design and Analysis of a Fixed Wing Unmanned
Aerial Vehicle
Mini-Project Report
Submitted by
Sl. No. Reg. No. Student Name

1. 17ETAS012007 Deeksha Rao
2. 17ETAS012402 Gaurav
3. 17ETAS012057 Pradhyum S
4. 17ETAS012058 Suraj Soni
5. 17ETAS012061 Thejas Aradhya
Supervisor/s: Prof.H.K Narahari
August – 2020
B. Tech
FACULTY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
M.S. RAMAIAH UNIVERSITY OF APPLIED SCIENCES
Bengaluru -560 054
Design and Analysis of a fixed wing Unmanned Aerial Vehicle
i
FACULTY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
Certificate
This is to certify that the Project titled “Design and Analysis of a Fixed
Wing Unmanned Aerial Vehicle” is a bonafidework carried out in the
Department of Automotive and Aeronautical Engineering by
Mr./Ms.____________________ bearing Reg. No. __________________
in partial fulfilment of requirements for the award of B. Tech. Degree in
Aerospace Engineering of M.S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences.
August – 2020
Prof.H.K. Narahari
Supervisor
Dr. Raja R Dr.H.M. RajashekaraSwamy

Professor &Head Dean-FET
Dept. ofAAE
i
M.S.Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences – Faculty of Engineering and Technology (FET)
Declaration
Design and Analysis of Fized-Wing Unmanned Aerial Vehicle
The project work is submitted in partial fulfillment of academic requirements for the
award of B.Tech. Degree in the Department of Automotive and Aeronautical Engineering
of the Faculty of Engineering and Technology of M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied
Sciences. The project report submitted herewith is a result of our work and in
conformance to the guidelines on plagiarism as laid out in the University Student
Handbook. All sections of the text and results which have been obtained from other
sources are fully referenced. We understand that cheating and plagiarism constitute a
breach of University regulations, hence this project report has been passed through
plagiarism check and the report has been submitted to the supervisor.
Sl. No. Reg. No. Student Name Signature

1. 17ETAS012007 Deeksha Rao
2. 17ETAS012402 Gaurav
3. 17ETAS012057 Pradhyum S
4. 17ETAS012058 Suraj Soni
5. 17ETAS012061 Thejas Aradhya
Date: 13th August 2020
i
Acknowledgment
Our prime acknowledgment would be towards our academic supervisor Dr. H. K.

Narahari, Professor, Department of Automotive and Aeronautical Engineering, MSRUAS
who propelled the project towards success with ample encouragement and assistance.
This project wouldn’t have reached the stage of completion without his timely guidance
and his impeccable knowledge.
We would also like to acknowledge the encouragement and support bestowed upon by
Dr. Raja. R, Professor, and Head, Department of Automotive and Aeronautical
Engineering, MSRUAS.
Our heartfelt gratitude goes out to Dr. H.M Rajashekhara Swamy, Dean, Faculty of
Engineering and Technology, MSRUAS, for providing us with an opportunity to take up
such a project.
We would also like to express our sincere gratitude to all the faculty members of the
Department of Automotive and Aeronautical Engineering, MSRUAS for their timely and
benevolent assistance during hard times.
We are extremely grateful to the management of MSRUAS for facilitating the

requirement(s) of the project.
We also extend our sincere gratitude to all those who directly and indirectly helped us in
completing this project.
Design and analysis of a fixed wing unmanned aerial vehicle

ii
Executive Summary
The concept of using Unmanned Aerial Vehicles for Aerial surveillance is and has
acquired a lot of importance in the military as well as public sectors. The use of fixed-
wing UAVs for surveillance has gained popularity due to its numerous capabilities such
as endurance and range to name a few.
The present work concentrated on developing a conceptual design procedure for fixed-
wing UAVs applying various methodologies and approaches. With the outcome of the
current work, the conceptual design of fixed-wing conventional configuration UAV with
an electric propulsion system can be accomplished.
The performance requirements of the UAV developed in the current design procedure
were used to generate the constraint diagram. The wing as well as the control surfaces
were designed based on required parameters and modeled using CAD software. Further
structural, performance as well as stability analysis was performed to validate the
results. The UAV was analyzed using Computational Fluid Dynamics as well.
The project aims at finding an optimum design for a fixed-wing drone keeping in mind
not just the optimum performance parameters but the fabrication costs as well.

iii
Table of Contents
Declaration ............................................................................................................................. i
Acknowledgment ................................................................................................................... ii
Executive Summary............................................................................................................... iii
Table of Contents.................................................................................................................. iv
Motivation of the Project .................................................................................................... viii
Scope of Project .................................................................................................................... ix
List of Tables .......................................................................................................................... x
List of Figures ....................................................................................................................... xii
Organization of the project: ................................................................................................. xv
1 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Classification ........................................................................................................... 1
2 Background Theory ..................................................................................................... 3
2.1 History: .................................................................................................................... 3
2.2 Issues: ...................................................................................................................... 4
3 Aim and Objectives ..................................................................................................... 6
3.1 Title ......................................................................................................................... 6
3.2 Aim .......................................................................................................................... 6
3.3 Objectives................................................................................................................ 6
3.4 Methods and Methodology/Approach to attain each objective:........................... 6
4 Design, Simulation and Analysis .................................................................................. 8
4.1 Preliminary Analysis: ............................................................................................... 8
4.1.1 Introduction ............................................................................................... 8
4.1.2 Methodology and Approach ...................................................................... 9
4.1.3 Data Assumed .......................................................................................... 10
4.1.4 CG Estimation........................................................................................... 11

iv
4.1.5 MATLAB Code .......................................................................................... 15

4.1.6 Constraint Diagram .................................................................................. 15
4.1.7 Results ...................................................................................................... 16
4.2 Design of Wing: ..................................................................................................... 17
4.2.1 Introduction ............................................................................................. 17
4.2.2 Methodology and Approach .................................................................... 18
4.2.3 MATLAB Code .......................................................................................... 19
4.2.4 Results ...................................................................................................... 19
4.3 Selection of Airfoil:................................................................................................ 21
4.3.1 Introduction ............................................................................................. 21
4.3.3 Analysis of airfoils .................................................................................... 24
4.4 Analysis of Wing .................................................................................................... 32
4.4.1 XFLR analysis ............................................................................................ 32
4.5 Weight Estimation ................................................................................................ 38
4.5.1 Data .......................................................................................................... 38
4.5.2 Weight Calculations ................................................................................. 38
4.5.3 MATLAB Code .......................................................................................... 39
4.5.4 Results: ..................................................................................................... 39
4.6 CAD Model: ........................................................................................................... 41
4.6.1 Introduction ............................................................................................. 41
4.6.3 Two Dimensional sketches....................................................................... 42
4.6.4 Three-Dimensional model ....................................................................... 45
4.6.5 Specification of model ............................................................................. 48
4.7 Performance Analysis ........................................................................................... 49
4.7.1 Approach and Methodology: ................................................................... 49
4.7.2 MATLAB Code: ......................................................................................... 50

v
4.8 Miscellaneous Data: .............................................................................................. 52

4.8.1 Proposed Components ............................................................................ 52
4.8.2 Location of Components .......................................................................... 53
4.8.3 Propeller Sizing ........................................................................................ 54
4.8.4 Electronics and Power plant used............................................................ 54
5 Results...................................................................................................................... 57
5.1 Structural Analysis: ............................................................................................... 57
5.1.1 Introduction ............................................................................................. 57
5.1.3 MATLAB Code: ......................................................................................... 62
5.1.4 Static Analysis of wing skin ...................................................................... 63
5.1.5 Results ...................................................................................................... 68
5.2 Meshing and Computational Fluid Dynamics: ...................................................... 69
5.2.1 Introduction ............................................................................................. 69
5.2.3 Meshing: .................................................................................................. 70
5.2.4 CFD analysis ............................................................................................. 72
5.2.5 Results ...................................................................................................... 77
5.3 Stability analysis: ................................................................................................... 81
5.3.1 Introduction ............................................................................................. 81
5.3.3 Longitudinal Stability ............................................................................... 81
5.3.4 Lateral Stability ........................................................................................ 83
5.3.5 MATLAB Code .......................................................................................... 83
5.3.6 Results ...................................................................................................... 83
6 Project Costing.......................................................................................................... 86
7 Conclusions and Suggestions for Future Work ........................................................... 87
7.1 Conclusions ........................................................................................................... 87

vi
7.2 Recommendations ................................................................................................ 87

8 Appendix .................................................................................................................. 90
8.1 Appendix-A............................................................................................................ 90
8.2 Appendix-B .......................................................................................................... 102

vii
Motivation of the Project
UAVs have become an intense field of research for aircraft designers in the current
scenario due to better capabilities as compared to manned aircraft. The factor of safety
usually considered in the design process is comparatively lower as compared to that of
manned aircraft due to the absence of human life in a UAV.
This inadvertently leads to better combat capabilities such as better G-performance, pull
up, and pull-down capabilities. The limitation posed by humans is eradicated by the use
of UAVs.
UAVs are of special importance to the defense forces of a country due to their dynamic
nature. They can be used for conducting airstrikes and bombings as well as for
surveillance.
Aerial surveillance is widely used in the public sector as well especially during disaster
management operations. Aerial photography and survey is a widely used application of
drones.
The design procedure of a UAV is a challenging process as it involves meeting the

requirements while keeping the design robust and achieving lower take-off weight. With
all the applications and challenges put forth by UAVs, the desire to provide a robust
design procedure was the drive behind this project.

viii
Scope of Project
The project deals with providing a robust design method for fixed-wing UAVs. The rotary
and flapping wing type drones are out of the scope of this mini-project. The present
project deals only with the conventional configuration fixed-wing, electric motor
propelled UAV with a fixed wingspan.
The project involves the generation of a robust conceptual design procedure for
developing a UAV. The conceptual design involves determining the dimensions of the
aircraft without compromising on all aspects of aerodynamics, structures, performance,
and stability of the UAV.
The outcome of the project is a procedure that can be used to iteratively arrive at a good
design of a UAV for a particular application.

ix
List of Tables
Table 3-1 Approach to attain objectives .............................................................................. 7

Table 4-1 List of data used in preliminary analysis ............................................................ 10
Table 4-2 Results of estimation of CG using XFLR ............................................................. 13
Table 4-3 The results obtained for CG as well as weight ................................................... 15
Table 4-4 The values for inertia obtained in CoG frame .................................................... 15
Table 4-6 The details of the wing designed ....................................................................... 17
Table 4-7 Design of Wing and Control surfaces ................................................................. 19
Table 4-8 Evaluation criteria for the selection of an airfoil ............................................... 21
Table 4-9 Airfoils selected for analysis ............................................................................... 23
Table 4-10 Geometrical data for S9000 (9%) airfoil .......................................................... 25
Table 4-11 Test conditions used for JAVAFOIL analysis ..................................................... 25
Table 4-12 Data derived from JAVAFOIL analysis of S9000 (9%) ....................................... 27
Table 4-13 Test conditions used for XFLR5 analysis ........................................................... 27
Table 4-14 Data derived from JAVAFOIL analysis of S9000 (9%) (Results for Re=1, 00,000)
.................................................................................................................................... 31
Table 4-15 Type of Analysis ............................................................................................... 32
Table 4-16 Densities ........................................................................................................... 38
Table 4-17 Details of Aircraft Geometry ............................................................................ 38
Table 4-18 Weight due to the structure and skin .............................................................. 39
Table 4-19 Total weight ..................................................................................................... 40
Table 4-5 Performance analysis results ............................................................................. 51
Table 4-20 List of Components........................................................................................... 52
Table 4-21 List of Components considered as point masses.............................................. 52
Table 4-22 Electronics and power plant used .................................................................... 54
Table 5-1 Meshing Criteria used in ANSYS Mechanical APDL ............................................ 63
Table 5-2 Mesh details ....................................................................................................... 70

x
Table 5-3 Cl Data ................................................................................................................ 78

Table 5-4 Cd data ............................................................................................................... 79
Table 6-1 Probable Project Cost ........................................................................................ 86

xi
List of Figures
Figure 4-1 Top view (all dimensions in mm) ...................................................................... 11

Figure 4-2 Side view (All dimensions in mm) ..................................................................... 12
Figure 4-3 Location of CG only with wing and empennage ............................................... 13
Figure 4-5 CG Estimation ................................................................................................... 14
Figure 4-4 Location of CG with all the components present (wing and control surfaces
hidden) ....................................................................................................................... 14
Figure 4-6 Constraint diagram ........................................................................................... 16
Figure 4-7 Image of designed wing .................................................................................... 17
Figure 4-8 Preliminary design of Wing............................................................................... 20
Figure 4-9 S9000 (9%) Geometry ....................................................................................... 24
Figure 4-10 Coefficient of lift v/s angle of attack .............................................................. 26
Figure 4-11 L/D v/s angle of attack.................................................................................... 26
Figure 4-12 Legend to interpret the graphs ....................................................................... 28
Figure 4-13 Cl v/s alpha curve ............................................................................................ 28
Figure 4-14 Drag polar ....................................................................................................... 29
Figure 4-15 cm v/s alpha curve ........................................................................................... 29
Figure 4-16 Cl/Cd v/s alpha ................................................................................................. 30
Figure 4-17 Cp v/s x (pressure distribution along the airfoil at 5˚AOA) ............................. 30
Figure 4-18 Cp distribution across the wing ....................................................................... 32
Figure 4-19 Stream formation ........................................................................................... 33
Figure 4-20 Induced and viscous drag (yellow-induced, purple-viscous) ........................... 33
Figure 4-21 Lift generated- isometric and back view......................................................... 34
Figure 4-22 Vortex formation ............................................................................................ 34
Figure 4-23 Cp distribution across the wing ....................................................................... 35
Figure 4-24 Stream formation ........................................................................................... 35
Figure 4-25 Induced and viscous drag (yellow-induced, purple-viscous) ........................... 36

xii
Figure 4-26 Lift generated- isometric and back view......................................................... 36

Figure 4-27 Vortex formation ............................................................................................ 37
Figure 4-28 Velocities needed to achieve lift ..................................................................... 37
Figure 4-29 Two-dimensional sketch of fuselage .............................................................. 42
Figure 4-30 Two dimensional sketch of wing ..................................................................... 43
Figure 4-31 Two-dimensional sketch of horizontal stabilizer ............................................ 43
Figure 4-32 Two-dimensional sketch of vertical tail .......................................................... 44
Figure 4-33 Two dimensional sketch of the drone ............................................................. 44
Figure 4-35 Three dimensional sketch of wing and empennage obtained using MATLAB 45
Figure 4-34 Three-dimensional sketch of wing and empennage obtained using XFLR5 ... 45
Figure 4-36 OpenVSP model of designed model 1 ............................................................. 46
Figure 4-37 OpenVSP model 2 of designed UAV ................................................................ 46
Figure 4-38 CATIA model of designed model 1 ................................................................. 47
Figure 4-39 CATIA model of designed model 2 .................................................................. 47
Figure 4-40 Location of all the components present with wing and control surfaces shown
.................................................................................................................................... 53
Figure 4-41 Location of all the components present with wing and control surfaces
hidden ........................................................................................................................ 53
Figure 4-42 Circuit diagram ............................................................................................... 56
Figure 5-1 Lift Distribution ................................................................................................. 59
Figure 5-2 Schrenk Method ............................................................................................... 59
Figure 5-3 Load Distribution .............................................................................................. 60
Figure 5-4 Shear Force Diagram......................................................................................... 61
Figure 5-5 Moment Diagram.............................................................................................. 61
Figure 5-6 V-n Diagram ...................................................................................................... 62
Figure 5-7 Mesh created in Mechanical APDL ................................................................... 63
Figure 5-8: Deformation of Wing skin................................................................................ 64
Figure 5-9 Nodal solution (upper deformation) ................................................................. 65

xiii
Figure 5-10 Nodal solution (lower deformation) ............................................................... 65

Figure 5-11 Nodal solution for von mises upper ................................................................ 66
Figure 5-12 Nodal solution for von mises lower ................................................................ 66
Figure 5-13 Nodal solution (YZ Shear - Upper Skin) ........................................................... 67
Figure 5-14 Nodal solution (YZ Shear - lower Skin) ............................................................ 67
Figure 5-15 Nodal solution (XY Shear - Upper Skin) ........................................................... 67
Figure 5-16 Nodal solution (XY Shear - Lower Skin) .......................................................... 67
Figure 5-17: Weight Optimization ..................................................................................... 68
Figure 5-18 Mesh Details ................................................................................................... 71
Figure 5-19 Meshed airfoil S9000 ...................................................................................... 71
Figure 5-20 Complete computational domain of the mesh generated ............................. 71
Figure 5-21 Cp plot with respect to position....................................................................... 72
Figure 5-22 Contours of density variation.......................................................................... 73
Figure 5-23 Contours of Mach variation ............................................................................ 73
Figure 5-24 Contours of static pressure variation.............................................................. 74
Figure 5-25 Contours of static temperature variation ....................................................... 74
Figure 5-26 Cp plot with respect to position....................................................................... 75
Figure 5-27 Contours of density variation.......................................................................... 75
Figure 5-28 Contours of Mach variation ............................................................................ 76
Figure 5-29 Contours of static pressure variation .............................................................. 76
Figure 5-30 Contours of static temperature variation ....................................................... 77
Figure 5-31 Validation of Data Obtained ........................................................................... 77
Figure 5-32 cl v/s alpha plot ............................................................................................... 78
Figure 5-33 cd v/s alpha plot .............................................................................................. 79
Figure 5-34 Cm vs 𝛂 ........................................................................................................... 84
Figure 5-35 Longitudinal Stability ...................................................................................... 84
Figure 5-36 Lateral stability ............................................................................................... 85

xiv
Organization of the project:
This report has been organized into ten main parts.
Chapter 1 and 2 contains the general introduction, historical aspects as well as the
objectives of this project.
Chapter 4.1 is centered on the preliminary analysis done to develop the drone
effectively. It includes weight and CG estimation, performance analysis, and constraint
diagrams. This section also uses MATLAB codes extensively.
Chapter 4.2 and 4.4 is primarily on the design and analysis of the wing for the drone.
Both MATLAB as well as XFLR5 have been used to arrive at the optimum shape and
location for the wing.
Chapter 4.3 is focused on airfoil selection and discusses elaborately the way an
appropriate airfoil was selected for the drone.
Chapter 4.2 is primarily on the design and analysis of the control surfaces such as the
vertical fin and the horizontal stabilizers. Both MATLAB as well as XFLR5 have been used
to arrive at the optimum shape and location for the control surfaces.
Chapter 4.6 incorporates the results obtained from the preceding two chapters to arrive
at a CAD model using CATIAv5 and OpenVSP.
Chapter 4.7 uses data obtained from previous chapters to perform performance analysis
On the UAV

xv
Chapter 4.8 discusses elaborately the essential components needed to make the drone
fly. It discusses propeller sizing, list of components used, and their location, power plant
selected with justification, and the electronic circuit used.
Chapter 5.1 is focused on the structural analysis carried out on the drone. This includes
but is not limited to, modal analysis and rib sizing.
Chapter 5.2 is focused on the meshing techniques employed and CFD analysis done on
the drone.
Chapter 5.3 is centered on stability analysis ranging from lateral to longitudinal stability.
Finally, Chapter 7 contains conclusions and recommendations on the proposed
developed drone.

xvi
1 Introduction
A UAV is defined as an aerial vehicle that does not carry a human operator, uses aerodynamic
forces to provide the vehicle lift, can be flown autonomously or be piloted remotely, can be
expendable or recoverable, and can carry a lethal or a non-lethal payload.
A UAV is controlled either autonomously by onboard computers or by the remote control of a

pilot on the ground. According to the Cambridge English Dictionary, an Unmanned Aerial
Vehicle is an aircraft that is operated from a distance, without a person being present on it.
1.1 Classification
A UAV can be classified based on various criteria. Based on type, they are classified as,
 Fixed Wing UAV E.g.: General Atomics MQ-9 Reaper
 Quadcopter E.g.: DJI Phantom
Based on functionality, they are classified as follows,

 Target and Decoy E.g. Ryan BQM-34 Firebee
 Reconnaissance E.g. CL-289 Reconnaissance UAV
 Combat E.g. BAE Raven
 Logistics E.g. Parrot AR Drone
 Research and Development E.g. V22 Osprey Drone
 Civil and Commercial E.g. Skydio X2
Other classifications of UAVs are a little more specific to the UAV’s range and altitude and are
as follows,
 Handheld E.g. Dronut
 Close range E.g. RQ-11Raven
 NATO type E.g. AGS RQ-4D
 Tactical E.g. FULMAR
 Medium altitude long endurance E.g. DRDO Rustom
 High altitude long endurance E.g. Boeing Phantom Eye
Also considered to be the future of combat, modern warfare as well as logistics, the role and
influence of UAVs in the current world is increasing. The original purpose of UAVs was to carry
out missions that were unfavorable, inaccessible, or dangerous to humans.
1
However, with more technology and innovation their adaptability and functionality have
increased leaps and bounds. From carrying out drone strikes to delivering pizzas, drones
currently are doing it all. Civilian UAVs vastly outnumber military UAVs in the current world
which is a testimony to their dominance.

2
2 Background Theory
The UAVs have seen a radical development in the near past and various works have been done
to enhance and improve the applicability. This section of the report provides the history and
issues faced in the process of developing the UAV.
2.1 History:
UAVs have been around for centuries and were solely used for military purposes. The earliest
recorded use of a UAV dates back to 1849 when the Austrians attacked the Italian city of
Venice.
In 1915, the British military used aerial photography to their advantage in the Battle of Neuve-
Chapelle. They were able to capture more than 1500 sky view maps of the German trench
fortifications in the region.
The United States began developing UAV technology during the First World War in 1916 and
created the first pilotless aircraft. Shortly after, the US Army built the Kettering Bug. While
continuing to develop UAV technology, in 1930 the US Navy began experimenting with radio-
controlled aircraft resulting in the creation of the Curtiss N2C-2 drone in 1937.
During World War 2, Reginald Denny created the first remote-controlled aircraft called the
Radio plane OQ-2. This was the first mass-produced UAV product in the US and was a
breakthrough in manufacturing and supply drones for the military.
The Israeli Air Force’s victory over the Syrian Air Force in 1982 contributed to significant
improvement in drone technology. Israel used both UAVs and manned aircraft to destroy a
dozen Syrian aircraft with minimal losses.
Further, in the 1980s, the US created the Pioneer UAV Program to fulfill the need for
inexpensive and unmanned aircraft for fleet operations. In 1986 a new drone was created from

3
a joint project between the US and Israel. The drone was known as RQ2 Pioneer, which was a
medium-sized reconnaissance aircraft.
More recently, in 1990 miniature and micro UAVs were introduced and in 2000 the US
deployed the Predator drone in Afghanistan.
In 2014, Amazon proposed using UAVs to deliver packages to customers. This has spread to
other retail stores who want to bridge the gap between themselves and the customers.
2.2 Issues:
There are many moral, legal, and ethical issues regarding the usage of drones.
In terms of legality, in many countries, a UAV is not permitted to fly openly. However, with the
advent of time and special permissions and restrictions, a few countries are now allowing the
usage of drones for special purposes.
There isn’t a clear and codified law regarding the use of drones and their usage. Moreover,
there is an absence of government clearness concerning drones in every country.
The morality and ethicality of using drones have come under the scanner in recent years after
their extensive usage in conducting airstrikes. Around 60-90% of all airstrikes are now being
conducted remotely by using drones. Statistically, the world has seen numerous civilian
casualties from drone strikes which depicts that drones dehumanize war.
All drones, irrespective of functionality need a skilled operator or a drone pilot to fly them.
Extensive training is needed to fly a drone.
Inherently, there are issues with the drone itself, as listed below,
 Drones are usually very expensive making them unsuitable for small scale commercial
purposes.
 Fixed-wing drones can only move forward and cannot hover in the air.
 Concerning single rotor quadcopters, stability has proved to be an alarming issue.

4
 Drones have a limit on their endurance as well as their payload capacity (except
military-grade drones).
 Safety, in order to avoid mid-air collisions, is also a major hindrance
 Drones have been extensively used for surveillance which questions the right of privacy
that humans are enshrined with.
 Drones are largely restricted by weather which is a serious setback in their usage.
While there is legislative uncertainty in a lot of areas regarding drones, one cannot dispute
their need and dominance in today’s world. The issues put forth above are actively being
worked on by the authorities involved to make flying of drones more accessible and feasible to
all.

5
3 Aim and Objectives
Preamble to the Chapter

This section of the report provides the aim and objectives of this project. It specifies the
methods and strategies used to attain and fulfill each of the objectives.
3.1 Title
 Design and Analysis of a Fixed Wing Unmanned Aerial Vehicle
3.2 Aim
 To design and analyze an electrically operated fixed-wing unmanned aerial
vehicle (UAV)
3.3 Objectives
The objectives can be summarized as follows,
 Carry out literature review on a fixed-wing drone with the available resources in
the public domain.
 Numerically calculate parameters like wingspan, coefficient of lift, endurance,
range, wing loading, and thrust to weight ratio for the drone that is to be
designed.
 Develop CAD model based on the arrived geometrical parameters using CATIA
v5.
 To perform structural analysis, stability analysis, and performance analysis using
the apt software.
 To perform Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) analysis on the drone
3.4 Methods and Methodology/Approach to attain each objective:

The following table illustrates the approach and methodology used to attain the
objectives laid out in the earlier section.

6
Table 3-1 Approach to attain objectives
Objective Statement of the Method/ Methodology Resources Utilised

No. Objective
1 Carry out literature Studying the articles and Key Reference: Small
review on a fixed-wing resources available in the
Unmanned Fixed-Wing
drone public domain to
understand the Aircraft Design-Wiley
underlying principles of
Publications
building the drone
(Other resources
mentioned in references)
2 Numerically calculate Calculations of wingspan, Theoretical calculations

the parameters of the coefficient of lift,
using the basic
model endurance, range, wing
loading, and thrust to principles of
weight ratio were made
aerodynamics and
and checked using
MATLAB aircraft performance
Using MATLAB to
corroborate the
theoretical result
3 Develop CAD model Based on the arrived CATIA v5 and OpenVSP
with geometrical geometrical parameters, a
parameters CAD model was
developed.
4 Performing structural Structural analysis was ANSYS Mechanical APDL
analysis made using the required
software
5 Performing CFD CFD analysis is done ANSYS FLUENT

analysis primarily on the airfoil to
check and improve its η

7
4 Design, Simulation, and Analysis

This chapter of the report provides detailed data on the design, simulation, study, and analysis
of the project. It discusses the selection of the airfoil for the apt UAV, preliminary analysis done
to develop the drone effectively. It also provides the data of the working mechanisms of the
UAV and the analysis done using MATLAB, XFLR5, and ANSYS.
4.1 Preliminary Analysis:

4.1.1 Introduction
Preliminary analysis is arguably the most important part of the design process in developing a
UAV. The main objective of preliminary analysis is to identify the design drivers, evaluate the
system concept for feasibility, perform technical analysis, and create the foundation that forms
the base for all subsequent engineering works.
Preliminary analysis also involves fundamentally assuming preliminary data. The preliminary
data used in the subsequent sections are obtained through an extensive literature survey
available in the public domain.
Conducting preliminary analysis is of imminent importance as it generates the data which is

needed for the fabrication of the drone. Important structural data such as the dimensions of
the wing, control surfaces obtained through this analysis. Fundamental aerodynamic
performance data such as maximum coefficient of lift, maximum L/D value are used to obtain
the preliminary analysis. Preliminary analysis needs standard values that are assumed or as per
the requirements.
However, it is important to note that preliminary analysis is an iterative process. By working

around the input data we arrive at the optimum metrics for the drone.

8
The location of the Center of Gravity is also estimated using relevant equations and geometrical
calculations. The weight is estimated by cumulatively adding the weight of the individual
components.
The preliminary analysis is further validated using a constraint diagram that provides us with an
approximate flight envelope.
4.1.2 Methodology and Approach

Thrust to Weight ratio (T/W) and Wing loading ratio (W/S) are important ratios, which decide
the important design parameters.
These ratios across several regimes of the flight such as level turn, landing distance, etc. are
used to model the constraint diagram.
The following equations are used to map the T/W and W/S ratios across the flight envelope.
Level turn:
𝑇 𝐶𝐷𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑛 2 𝑊
=𝑞 +𝑘
𝑊 𝑊 𝑆 𝑞 𝑆
Rate of turn:
𝑇 𝑉𝑉 𝑞 1 𝑊
= + 𝐶𝐷𝑚𝑖𝑛 + 𝑘
𝑊 𝑉 𝑊/𝑆 𝑞 𝑆
Desirable airspeed:
𝑇 𝑞𝐶𝐷𝑚𝑖𝑛 1 𝑊
= +𝑘
𝑊 𝑊 𝑆 𝑞 𝑆

9
Landing distance:
𝑇 𝑉𝐿2 𝑞𝐶𝐷𝑇𝑜 𝑞𝐶𝐷𝑇𝑜
= + + 𝜇 𝑇𝑂
𝑊 2𝑔𝑑𝑔𝑅 𝑊/𝑆 𝑊/𝑆
Approach speed:
𝑊
≤ 𝑞𝐶𝐿
𝑆
Modeling these equations in MATLAB, we get a design space, out of which appropriate ones
are selected after several iterative processes.
4.1.3 Data Assumed

To begin the conduction of preliminary analysis, preliminary data as shown in the table was
assumed.
Table 4-1 List of data used in the preliminary analysis
Maximum Take-off Weight 22 kg
Cruise velocity 20 m/s
Vv 0.8*cruise velocity
Rate of climb 3 m/s
Cruise altitude 200 m/s
Endurance 3600 s
Take-off velocity 16 m/s
Cd_min 0.045
Cl_max 1.2
Cl_cruise 0.5
L/Dmax 6
Cd_TO 0.06
Cl_TO 0.9
Aspect Ratio 6
Span efficiency factor (e) 0.8

10
Take-off distance 20 m
Wingspan 3m
uTO 0.15
Density (Rho) 1.225 kg/m3
Rhocruise 1.211 kg/m3
q rho*0.5*Vv^2
Stall velocity [7.5 10 12.5 15]
m/s
VL 1.1*12.5 m/s
4.1.4 CG Estimation
The center of gravity is a point from which the weight of a body or system may be considered
to act. In uniform gravity, it is the same as the center of mass.
Two approaches are used to estimate the CG. The first approach is the theoretical approach
which involves theoretical and geometrical considerations. The second approach involves using
XFLR5 software to predict the approximate CG location.
Theoretical Approach to calculate CG:

Using theoretical calculations, the results obtained for CG as well as the weight are as follows,
The following rough sketches with approximate dimensions were used to calculate the CG of
the drone.
Figure 4-1 Top view (all dimensions in mm)

11
Figure 4-2 Side view (All dimensions in mm)
First calculation of CG:

To determine CG,
0.5 × 50 + 1.5 × 350 + 1.5 × 975

𝑥=
0.5 + 1.5 + 1.5
𝑥 = 485.714 𝑚𝑚
Final calculation of CG:

On considering the weight of the numerous point masses (as shown in the subsequent section),
the final calculation of CG is as follows,
0.5 × 50 + 7.9 × 300 + 1.2 × 750 × 0.3 × 1350

𝑥=
9.91
𝑥 = 414.58 𝑚𝑚
The difference in the results due to theoretical and XFLR5 is due to the disparity in the masses
and their respective locations.
Estimation of CG using XFLR5

To estimate the CG using XFLR5 the mass of all the components is assumed and added on an
approximate basis. All the components are considered as point masses. The list of components
is as shown below.

12
Table 4-2 Results of estimation of CG using XFLR

Sl. No Component Name Approximate weight assumed (Kg)
1 Servo Motor (L+R) 0.050
2 Propeller and motor setup 0.7
3 Battery 2.5
4 Flight Controller 0.3
5 PDB & Miscellaneous Electronics 0.1
6 Payload 1
7 ESC 0.1
8 Wing 3.136
9 Elevator 0.916
10 Rudder 0.7
The approximate location of CG, as well as the location of all the components, is as shown in
the figure(s) below.
To estimate the weight, the weight of the individual components is added cumulatively to get
the total weight of the UAV.
The location of the components is input in XFLR5 to determine the impact on the CG location.
The CG location as observed in the image moves aft with the addition of all the components
which is desired for the stability of the UAV.
Figure
Figure 4-3 Location of CG only 4-3wing and empennage
with

13
Figure 4-4 Location of CG with all the components present (wing and control surfaces hidden)
Figure 4-4
Figure 4-5 CG Estimation

14
Table 4-3 The results obtained for CG as well as weight
Sl. No Parameter Value

1 Total Mass 7.6 kg
2 X_CoG 0.102 m
3 Y_CoG 1.415e-09 m
4 Z_CoG 0.011 m
Table 4-4 The values for inertia obtained in CoG frame
Sl. No Parameter Value

1 Ixx 1.27 kg.m2
2 Iyy 1.28 kg.m2
3 Izz 2.55 kg.m2
4 Ixz 0.006 kg.m2
4.1.5 MATLAB Code
The MATLAB codes are to be found in the appendix
4.1.6 Constraint Diagram

The constraint diagram is an important tool used in the preliminary analysis. The design space
for the UAV is determined using the constraint diagram. In a way, it limits the parameters and
provides us with a flight envelope.

15
Design
space
Figure 4-6 Constraint diagram
4.1.7 Results
From the above diagram,
 T/W ratio chosen is 0.5.
 W/S is in the range 80-110 N/m2.

16
4.2 Design of Wing:

4.2.1 Introduction
Optimum and efficient wing design is crucial for aircraft performance. The basic requirements
for wing design are associated with performance and operational aspects, flying characteristics,
and handling, structural design, and considerations of the general layout.
In-flight, the wing sustains the entire load acting on the aircraft. Hence a wing must not only be
aerodynamically efficient but also structurally sound.
Details:
The wing was designed using the preliminary analysis as a primary reference. The details of the
wing designed are summarized below,
Table 4-5 The details of the wing designed
1 Type of wing Tapered Wing
2 Position of wing Mid-Wing
3 Dihedral Angle 0˚
4 Wingspan 2.8 m
5 Wing Area 1.31 m2
6 Sweep 9.7˚
The taper wing configuration is employed because the drag is lesser; there is an increase in lift
and to make the span efficiency factor close to 1. A mid-wing configuration is used for balanced
stability. No dihedral is employed as roll stability is not a primary design driver.
Figure 4-7 Image of designed wing

17

Wing loading plays an important part in the design of Wing and the control surfaces. Using the
maximum take-off weight and wing loading,
Wing Design:
𝑊𝑇𝑂
𝑆= 𝑊
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑦𝑠𝑖𝑠
𝑆
𝑏 = 𝐴𝑅 × 𝑆
𝑆
=
𝐶 𝑏
𝑊𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑎𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝜆
2𝑏
𝑅𝑜𝑜𝑡 𝑐𝑕𝑜𝑟𝑑 𝐶𝑟 =
𝐴𝑅(1 + 𝜆)
𝑇𝑖𝑝 𝑐𝑕𝑜𝑟𝑑 𝐶𝑡 = 𝐶𝑟 × 𝜆
𝑊
𝐶𝐿 𝑎𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑟𝑎𝑓𝑡 = 2
𝑞𝑉𝑐𝑙𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝐶𝐿 𝑎𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑟𝑎𝑓𝑡
𝐶𝐿 𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔 =
0.95
𝐶𝐿 𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝑐𝑙 =
0.9
𝜌𝑉
𝐶
𝑅𝑒 =
𝜇
Control surfaces Design:
Horizontal Tail:
𝑉𝐻𝑇 𝑐𝑆
𝑆𝐻𝑇 =
𝑙𝐻𝑇
𝑏𝐻𝑇 = 𝑆𝐻𝑇 𝐴𝑅
𝑆𝐻𝑇
𝑐𝐻𝑇 =
𝑏𝐻𝑇
Vertical Tail:
𝑉𝑉𝑇 𝑏𝑆
𝑆𝑉𝑇 =
𝑙𝑉𝑇
𝜆 = 𝑉𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑙 𝑡𝑎𝑝𝑒𝑟

18
𝑕𝑉𝑇 = 𝐴𝑅𝑉𝑇 𝑆𝑉𝑇

2𝑆𝑉𝑇
𝑐𝑟𝑉𝑇 =
𝜆 + 1 𝑕𝑉𝑇
𝑐𝑡𝑉𝑇 = 𝜆 𝑐𝑟𝑉𝑇
Theoretical equations as well as practical considerations were taken into account to design the
wing.
4.2.3 MATLAB Code

The respective MATLAB codes used are attached in the appendix.
4.2.4 Results
The results obtained are summarized below.
Table 4-6 Design of Wing and Control surfaces
Design of Wing:
The surface area of wing(in m^2): 1.306667
The span of the wing (in m) 2.8
The Root chord of wing (in m) 0.700175
The Tip chord of wing (in m): 0.233158
The sweep of the wing (in deg) 9.469292
Mean Aerodynamic chord:
The mean aerodynamic chord (in m) 0.505614
The location of the MAC (in m) 0.583246
The Reynolds number: 658385.4
Design Lift Co-efficient:
Cl of aircraft: 0.309661
Cl of aerofoil: 0.362177
Design of Horizontal Tail:
The surface area of the horizontal tail (in m^2) 0.342315
the span of Horizontal tail (in m) 1.170155

19
the chord of Horizontal tail (in m) 0.292539

Design of Vertical Tail:
The surface area of Vertical tail (in m^2) 0.027385
the span of Vertical tail (in m) 0.202677
the root chord of Vertical tail (in m) 0.233158
the tip chord of Vertical tail(in m): 0.202727
Figure 4-8 Preliminary design of Wing

20
4.3 Selection of Airfoil:

4.3.1 Introduction
An airfoil is the cross-sectional shape of a wing that produces an aerodynamic force when it
moves through a fluid. The selection of an airfoil for a drone plays of very imperative role in
regards to the general design and optimization of the drone.
Considering that the drone that is to be designed and analyzed is a relatively low-speed UAV,
the emphasis has been given primarily to low-speed airfoils. Various aspects are considered
while choosing an airfoil. It is also important to understand that there is no airfoil superior to
others.
For UAVs, the airfoil is one of the most vital components to their performance which also
determines their likelihood of success. The airfoil is selected from a database of airfoils
operating in the same condition and if needed are later optimized to best fit the configuration
of the UAV.
Some desirable characteristics considered while choosing the airfoil are illustrated in the table
below,
Table 4-7 Evaluation criteria for the selection of an airfoil
Sl. No Parameter Evaluation Criteria

1 Cl at zero α Highest is best
2 Cl at low α Highest is best
3 Cl_max Highest is best
4 αstall Highest is the best
5 Cd_min Lowest is best
6 (Cl/ Cd)max Highest is best
7 (Cl3/2/ Cd)max Highest is best
8 Cm,c/4 Low magnitude is the best

21
Another factor usually considered of practical importance is the ease with which the airfoil can
be fabricated. Airfoils with a very large camber are often hard to fabricate. Therefore,
fabrication also plays a crucial role in airfoil selection.
The coefficient of lift v/s angle of attack and the drag polar are useful tools as well in analyzing
the best-suited airfoil required for the drone.

Considering that wind tunnel testing is a very cumbersome, expensive, and time-consuming
process; usage of software has been made to give relatively good approximated results.
The software used includes JAVAFOIL and XFLR5. These two software are medium fidelity tools
that use panel methods to give the solution for vorticity and source distributions. From the
solutions above, other parameters such as lift, drag, and pitching moment coefficients can be
computed.
It is important to note that panel methods used in XFLR5 and JAVAFOIL have a limitation in
predicting boundary layers, flow separations, and rotational flows due to its calculation model.
However, these phenomena and conditions are not applicable in the case of low-speed UAVs.
The approach to select the suitable airfoil begins by selecting a list of commonly used low-
speed airfoils and comparing their results and efficiency under the same test conditions.
The airfoils that were to be analyzed were chosen based on an extensive literature survey and
based on airfoils that were used in drones of a similar class. The selected airfoils for analysis
were,

22
Table 4-8 Airfoils selected for analysis
Sl. No Airfoil Name Image

1 CAL2263M
2 AG12
3 SD7037
4 S9000
5 SA7036
6 SD7080
7 Van de Vooren
Symmetrical
Airfoil
8 NACA 2512
9 NACA 2508
10 NACA 2608
The AG airfoils which usually serve sailplanes were designed by Dr. Mark Drela from MIT. The
CAL airfoils were designed by Christopher Lyon, the former member of the University of Illinois
Urbana-Champaign Low-Speed Airfoil tests team. The S airfoils were designed by Prof. Michael
Selig from the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign. The SD airfoils were designed by Prof.
Michael Selig and John Donovan.

23
The airfoil geometry also plays a crucial when the airfoil is being analyzed using the software.
More reliable airfoil geometry has about 150 points. It was noted in the literature survey
conducted that there is a big difference between the parameters analyzed from 50-point
geometry and the others. The parameters don’t differ much from 150 points to 300-point
geometries. In our analysis, the airfoils consist of 100-150 data points.
The parameters are then compared to select the most efficient airfoil. The main criteria used
for selection of the airfoil are,
 Relative cl values at zero and low AOA
 L/D values
 Ease of fabrication
The weighted scoring method is a method that involves assigning a score to each parameter
depending on its favourability and has been employed to determine the most suitable airfoil
for the drone.
4.3.3 Analysis of airfoils

Analysis of all the above-mentioned airfoil was done using JAVAFOIL and XFLR5.
The analysis was done for all airfoils mentioned in the table above. The analysis is shown only
for one such airfoil in this particular section. The cumulative results for the analysis can be
viewed in the Results section of the chapter.
Airfoil Name:
S9000 (9%)
The geometry of airfoil:
Figure 4-9 S9000 (9%) Geometry
The geometrical data of the airfoil are as shown in the table below.

24
Table 4-9 Geometrical data for S9000 (9%) airfoil
Name of airfoil S9000 (9%)

Thickness 9.01%
Maximum thickness position 28.24%
Maximum camber position 42.25%
Number of panels 121
JAVAFOIL analysis:
The following were the test conditions set up using JAVAFOIL Applet.
Table 4-10 Test conditions used for JAVAFOIL analysis
First Reynolds Number 658385
Last Reynolds Number 658385
First angle of attack -2˚
Last angle of attack 10˚
Surface finish NACA Standard
Stall model Eppler
Transition model Eppler standard
Airfoil analysis was done keeping the Reynolds number constant and varying the angle of
attack.
After performing the analysis, the following graphs were obtained.
Figure 2.2 represents cl v/s α graph while figure 2.3 represents L/D v/s α graph.

25
Cl
1.4
1.2
0.8
0.6 Cl
0.4
0.2
0
-4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Figure 4-10 Coefficient of lift v/s angle of attack
L/D
70
60
50
40
30 L/D
20
10
0
-4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Figure 4-11 L/D v/s angle of attack
As mentioned earlier, airfoil selection is based on a few important criteria. The following data is
obtained from JAVAFOIL about the S9000 (9%) for the set test conditions mentioned above.

26
Table 4-11 Data derived from JAVAFOIL analysis of S9000 (9%)

Cl at zero α 0.37
Cl_max 1.305 at 9˚
(L/D)max 65.377 at 7˚
αstall 9˚
XFLR5 Analysis:
Airfoil batch analysis was done using XFLR5 software. The following were the test conditions
that were set in XFLR5 to analyze the given airfoil.
Table 4-12 Test conditions used for XFLR5 analysis

First Reynolds Number 30,000
Last Reynolds Number 1,00,000
First angle of attack -5˚
Last angle of attack 10˚
Analysis type Type 1 (Fixed Speed)
In XFLR 5 type 1 analysis, the speed or the velocity is kept constant while varying the Reynolds
number as well as the angle of attack.
After performing the analysis, the following graphs were obtained. Figure 2.5 represents c l v/s
α graph, figure 2.6 represents the drag polar, figure 2.7 represents cm v/s alpha curve, figure 2.8
shows Cl/Cd v/s alpha and figure 2.9 shows the pressure distribution along with the location of
the airfoil at 5˚ angle of attack.
The legend for the same depicting the graphs at varying Reynolds number is as shown in the
image below.

27
Figure 4-12 Legend to interpret the graphs
Figure 4-13 Cl v/s alpha curve

28
Figure 4-14 Drag polar
Figure 4-15 cm v/s alpha curve

29
Figure 4-16 Cl/Cd v/s alpha
Figure 4-17 Cp v/s x (pressure distribution along the airfoil at 5˚AOA)

30
The pressure distribution varies with each increment of the angle of attack as well as the
Reynold number.
As mentioned earlier, airfoil selection is based on a few important criteria. The following data is
obtained from XFLR5 about the S9000 (9%) for the set test conditions mentioned above.
Table 4-13 Data derived from JAVAFOIL analysis of S9000 (9%) (Results for Re=1, 00,000)

Cl at zero α 0.34
Clmax 1.36 at 10˚
(L/D)max 109 at 4˚
αstall Beyond 10˚
The data from both JAVAFOIL and XFLR5 are relatively the same. The difference in the results in
the above two tables is due to the difference in Reynold’s number set. Lower ends of the
spectrum have been analyzed for better clarity.
A similar analysis was done for all the airfoils mentioned above.

31
4.4 Analysis of Wing

4.4.1 XFLR analysis
Wing analysis was performed using XFLR5 software. The parameters/conditions for the analysis
are as follows,
Table 4-14 Type of Analysis
Type of analysis Type 2 (Fixed Lift)

Analysis method Ring Vortex
Range of AOA -5˚ to 10˚
In a fixed lift type of analysis, the lift is constant. The range of angle of attack is increased in
steps of 0.5˚. After performing the analysis, the following graphs were obtained. Two such
sample results are shown in the subsequent sections (0˚ and 5˚ AOA)
For 0˚α
Figure 4-18 Cp distribution across the wing

32
Figure 4-19 Stream formation
Figure 4-20 Induced and viscous drag (yellow-induced, purple-viscous)

33
Figure 4-21 Lift generated- isometric and back view
Figure 4-22 Vortex formation

34
For 5˚α,
Figure 4-23 Cp distribution across the wing
Figure 4-24 Stream formation

35
Figure 4-25 Induced and viscous drag (yellow-induced, purple-viscous)
Figure 4-26 Lift generated- isometric and back view

36
Figure 4-27 Vortex formation
With an increase in the AOA, the increase in the lift as well as associated drag is observed. The
increases in the size of the vortices formed are also observed.
Another important result obtained from XFLR5 analysis is the velocity needed to achieve lift at
a particular angle of attack.
Figure 4-28 Velocities needed to achieve lift
It is seen that from -5 to -2.5 degrees lift cannot be achieved.

37
4.5 Weight Estimation

4.5.1 Data
The densities of the materials that may be used are as follows,
Table 4-15 Densities
Density kg/m3
HDPE 950
Aluminum 2710
Balsa Wood 160
Styrofoam 24
4.5.2 Weight Calculations
Table 4-16 Details of Aircraft Geometry
Fuselage m Wing m
Diameter 0.3 MAC 0.5056
Length 1.45 Span 2.8
Airfoil Max thickness 0.09
Skin area 1.366553 Skin Area 1.31
Cross-section area 0.07065 Rib area 0.023006822
HT m VT m
Chord 0.309 Chord 0.233
Span 1.236 Span 0.214
Airfoil Max thickness 0.12 Airfoil Max thickness 0.12
Skin Area 0.381 Skin Area 0.0305
Rib area 0.011458 Rib Area 0.006515

38
Different combinations of materials:

There are 4 different combinations of materials that can be used.
Table 4-17 Weight due to the structure and skin
HDPE Al Balsa Balsa Styrofoam

Skin Structure Skin Structure Filling
Fuselage 1.298225 0.459508 1.093242 0.16956 2.45862
Wing 2.489 0.39903 2.096 0.294487327 1.546058
HT 0.36195 0.074521 0.6096 0.054997056 0.339882
VT 0.028975 0.028248 0.010423 0.020846976 0.033459
4.17815 0.961307 3.809265 0.539891359 4.37802
Total Weight 5.139456 kg 8.727177 kg
Balsa HDPE Al Al
Skin Structure Skin Structure
Fuselage 1.093242 0.201353 2.962686 0.459508
Wing 2.096 0.174852 5.68016 0.39903
HT 0.6096 0.032655 1.652016 0.074521
VT 0.010423 0.012378 0.028248 0.028248
3.809265 0.421237 10.32311 0.961307
Total Weight 4.230502 kg 11.28442 kg
4.5.3 MATLAB Code

The respective MATLAB codes used are attached in the appendix
4.5.4 Results:
Weight Estimation:
Minimum thickness: 0.8 mm
Density of Aluminum (used for structure): 2710 kg/m3
Minimum thickness: 1 mm
Density of HDPE (used for skin): 960 kg/m3

39
After the Weight estimation:

Materials used: Aluminum for structures and HDPE for skin
Table 4-18 Total weight
The estimate of Total Weight(in kg): 8.797062

The Wing weight (in kg): 1.986133
The Horizontal tail weight (in kg) 0.52032
The Vertical tail weight (in kg) 0.041626

40
4.6 CAD Model:

4.6.1 Introduction
Computer-aided design (CAD) is the use of computers to aid in the creation, modification,
analysis, or optimization of a design. CAD software is used to increase the productivity of the
designer, improve the quality of design, and improve communications through documentation
and to create a database for manufacturing.
3D CAD design is the most effective way to get a product design ready for prototyping.
Regardless of whether the current design consists of a napkin sketch, technical schematic, or
2D design file, 3D CAD design is the bridge step towards prototyping and testing phase.
As mentioned above, 3D CAD design is the best method that can be used for 3D modeling and
rapid prototyping of the parts. File formats such as .stlmaybe improperly converted to a 3D
format, resulting in unintended design consequences and, in the worst case, a failed part.
Working from the beginning in 3D CAD format ensures that the design will be properly
translated and interpreted by software and machinery. It’s also important to pay attention to
measurement units, as 3D CAD formats are typically in millimeters, while other formats may be
in inches, resulting in unpredictable and unintended results. A small amount of attention to
detail here can make a big difference in the final amount of time and cost investment in the
prototyping stage.
The use of CAD systems has evolved substantially since decades. It now enables engineers and
designers to explore many possibilities before bringing solid ideas to the table, to interact more
effectively with key departments and individuals at earlier stages of development, and to make
better use of time and manpower during critical phases of product development.

The process of designing the fixed-wing drone was done as follows,
 Making a basic 2D design:
A basic layout and a 2D picture of the required drone according to the required
specifications were done on a sheet of paper manually keeping in mid the results
obtained from the design phase of the project. All the parts were drawn at appropriate

41
positions derived from the preliminary analysis of the model. Hence, this laid a
foundation for further designs of the model.
 Obtaining 2D drawings with dimension:
As discussed in the previous chapters (Chpt 4 and 5), xflr5 and MATLAB software were
used in determining the actual shape and location of the parts on the model.
 Obtaining the final three-dimensional model:
The final assembly and fabrication of parts were done using OpenVSP software. The
software was then exported to CATIAv5 and optimized further.
4.6.3 Two Dimensional sketches

The following section consists of the two-dimensional sketches of the drone.
Figure 4-29 Two-dimensional sketch of fuselage

42
Figure 4-30 Two dimensional sketch of wing
Figure 4-31 Two-dimensional sketch of horizontal stabilizer

43
Figure 4-32 Two-dimensional sketch of vertical tail
Figure 4-33 Two dimensional sketch of the drone

44
4.6.4 Three-Dimensional model

The three-dimensional models of just the wing and the empennage was modeled using XFLR5
software. All the other models were made using CATIAv5 and OpenVSP. The following section
consists of the three dimensional models of the drone.
Figure 4-34 Three-dimensional sketch of wing and empennage obtained using XFLR5
Figure 4-35 Three dimensional sketch of wing and empennage obtained using MATLAB

45
Figure 4-36 OpenVSP model of designed model 1
Figure 4-37 OpenVSP model 2 of designed UAV
In model 1, square panels were used to construct the fuselage. However, in model 2 a
cylindrical fuselage was employed which is better in terms of weight, aerodynamics as well as
aesthetic. Therefore, model 2 was chosen as the final design.

46
Figure 4-38 CATIA model of designed model 1
Figure 4-39 CATIA model of designed model 2

47
4.6.5 Specification of model

The following data is the final specifications of the drone that is to be analyzed and eventually
fabricated.
Design of Wing:
 The surface area of the wing is 1.306667 m
 The span of wing is 2.800000 m^2
 The Root chord of wing is 0.700175 m
 The Tip chord of the wing is 0.233158 m
 The sweep of the wing is 9.469292 deg
Mean Aerodynamic chord:

 The location of the MAC is 0.583246 m
 The mean aerodynamic chord is 0.505614
m
 The Reynolds number is 658385.444745
Design Lift Co-efficient:

 The Cl of aircraft is 0.3097
 The Cl of airfoil is 0.3621
Design of Horizontal Tail:

 The surface area of horizontal tail is 0.3423
m^2
 The span of Horizontal tail is 1.1701 m
 The chord of Horizontal tail is 0.2925 m
Design of Vertical Tail:

 The surface area of Vertical tail is 0.02738
m^2
 the span of Vertical tail is 0.20267 m
 the root chord of Vertical tail is 0.233158
m
 the tip chord of Vertical tail is 0.20272 m

48
4.7 Performance Analysis

Performance is a crucial aspect of any flying object. Various performance parameters are
crucial. A few of the important parameters considered are landing distance, minimum velocity,
stall velocity, and many others.
To conduct a performance analysis on the given UAV, the following performance parameters
along with their associated equations were considered.
4.7.1 Approach and Methodology:
Landing Distance:
𝑉𝑓2
𝑅=
0.2𝑔
𝑕𝑓 = 𝑅(1 − cos 𝜃𝑎 )
50 − 𝑕𝑓
𝑆𝑎 =
tan 𝜃𝑎
2𝑊 𝑗 2 (𝑊/𝑆)
𝑆𝑔 = 𝑗𝑁 +
𝜌∞ 𝑆 𝐶𝐿 𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑔𝜌∞ 𝑆 𝐶𝐿 𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝜇𝑟
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝑆𝑎 + 𝑆𝑔
Take-off distance:
1.21(𝑊/𝑆)
𝑆𝑔 =
𝑔𝜌∞ 𝐶𝐿 𝑚𝑎𝑥 (𝑇/𝑊)
𝑉∞ = 0.7𝑉𝐿𝑂
𝑃𝐴 = 𝜂𝑝𝑟 𝑃 = 𝑇𝐴 𝑉∞
𝜂𝑝𝑟 𝑃
𝑇𝐴 =
𝑉∞
2
6.96 𝑉𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙
𝑅=
𝑔
𝑕𝑂𝐵
𝜃𝑂𝐵 = cos −1 (1 − )
𝑅
𝑆𝑎 = 𝑅 sin 𝜃𝑂𝐵
𝑇𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑜𝑓𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝑆𝑔 + 𝑆𝑎

49
Stall velocity:
2𝑊
𝑉𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙 =
𝜌∞ 𝑆 𝐶𝐿 𝑚𝑎𝑥
Maximum velocity:
2𝑊 𝑘
𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝜌∞ 𝑆 𝐶𝐷𝑂
Minimum velocity:
2𝑊
𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛 =
𝜌∞ 𝑆 𝐶𝐿 𝑚𝑎𝑥
Range:
𝑊𝐵𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑦 𝑅 4𝐶𝐷0 𝐾
=
𝑊𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝜂𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝜂𝑝𝑟 𝜂𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐 𝑕𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝜌𝐵𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑦
Endurance:
𝑊𝐵𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑦 = 𝑇𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
3 −1
3
2𝑊𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 4
1 3
1.1 1
𝜌∞ 𝑠 4
𝐾𝐶𝐷3 0
𝜂𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝜂𝑝𝑟 𝑓𝐷𝑂𝐷 𝜂𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐 𝑕𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝜌𝐵𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑦
The data obtained from the preliminary analysis was taken as input to calculate the above
performance parameters.
4.7.2 MATLAB Code:
MATLAB Codes are attached in the appendix

50
The results are summarized below. MATLAB codes corroborating each of the results are
attached in the appendix section of the report.
Table 4-19 Performance analysis results
Landing Distance 961.04 feet

Take-off Distance 573.7 feet
Stall velocity 11.06 m/s
Maximum Velocity 20 m/s
Minimum velocity 11.06 m/s
Range 211.58 m
Endurance 2168 s
Wing Loading 90 N/m2

51
4.8 Miscellaneous Data:

This brief section consists of the miscellaneous data that are imperative and crucial to the UAV.
It includes the electronics used, their respective locations, and the sizing of a propeller.
4.8.1 Proposed Components
The table below consists of the proposed components that constitute the model. Additionally,
other electronic components such as battery and servo motors are also present.
Table 4-20 List of Components
Components Additional details
1. Wing EPP and Polyurethane foam are considered to be used

2. Fuselage
for the building of wing, fuselage, and other structural
3. Horizontal stabilizer
4. Vertical stabilizer components.
5. Flaps
Kevlar/composites/foam (depending on cost and trade-
6. Ailerons
7. Elevators off) are considered to be used for the outer covering,
8. Rudder
small control surfaces, and finishing.
The payload is likely to be placed at the center of the
UAV, nearer to the CG.
Further, in the subsequent sections, the location of all the components is shown. For better
understanding, the following table specifies the components involved in the same.
To estimate the CG the mass of all the components is assumed and added on an approximate
basis. All the components are considered as point masses.
Table 4-21 List of Components considered as point masses
Sl. No Component Name Approximate weight assumed (Kg)

1 Servo Motor (L+R) 0.050
2 Propeller and motor setup 0.7
3 Battery 2.5
4 Flight Controller 0.3
5 PDB & Miscellaneous Electronics 0.1

52
6 Payload 1
7 ESC 0.1
8 Wing 3.136
9 Elevator 0.916
10 Rudder 0.7
4.8.2 Location of Components

The location of the components is input in XFLR5 to determine the impact on the CG location.
Figure 4-40 Location of all the components present with wing and control surfaces shown
Figure 4-41 Location of all the components present with wing and control surfaces hidden

53
4.8.3 Propeller Sizing

Propeller sizing:
The propeller diameter is decided based on the power required by the motor.
For a 2 bladed propeller,
𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝐷 = 22 𝐻𝑃0.25
The power required is decided using the T/W ratio, the velocity, and the propeller efficiency.
The MATLAB code for deciding the propeller size and the mass of battery required to input in
the appendix.
4.8.4 Electronics and Power plant used

The electronic as well as the electrical components used in a drone play a vital role in the
drone's control and stability. The electronic components used in the drone are listed below.
Table 4-22 Electronics and power plant used
Sl. No. Component Units Additional data

1. Batteries 2N 12V
2. Motors 1N -
3. ESC 1N -
1 set for FC
4. Receivers and Transmitters 2N (each)
1 set for the camera
5. Servo motors 4N -
6. PCBs As Req. -
7. Flight controller 1N -
8. GPS 1N -
9. Camera 1N 20 MP, 4K 10-bit

54
Power plant selection:

The power plant that is the source of power for the drone would be the DC batteries supplying
electric power with 12V. For this project, 2 Lithium polymer batteries are proposed to be used.
The reason for choosing Lithium Polymer batteries was for their relative advantages as
compared to other rechargeable batteries. A few of the advantages are as follows,
 The batteries are rechargeable
 Their energy density is quite high
 Lightweight and pliable
 Impact-resistant
Mass of battery required:

Mass of the battery required is calculated using the power required, the energy density of the
battery, and endurance expected.
𝑃𝑅 ∗ 𝐸𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑦 𝑚𝐵 =
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦
A rough circuit diagram is also shown in the image below.

55
Figure 4-42 Circuit diagram

56
5 Results
This section of the report consists of the results obtained and the post-analysis data of the
project. It includes various methodologies employed and the outputs of the codes executed for
the stability and structural analysis.
5.1 Structural Analysis:

5.1.1 Introduction
Structural analysis is the determination of the effects of loads on physical structures and their
components. Structures subject to this type of analysis include all structures that must
withstand loads.
Structural analysis is important as it provides a basis for structural design and evaluated
whether a specific structural design will be able to withstand external and internal stresses and
forces. Moreover, structural analysis helps to determine the cause of structural failure.
The structure for a UAV must be tough, rugged, and must be able to sustain loads both in flight
as well as on the ground. The factor of safety associated with UAVs is lower in comparison to
that of human-piloted aircraft due to the absence of life in UAVs. Structures are often the
limiting factors in the performance of a UAV.
Considering that the current UAV is a fixed-wing drone, the primary load-bearing member is
the wing. Specific importance has to be given to the structural members that constitute the
wing such as spars and ribs.
Another important part of the design process is the generation of a V-n diagram for the
constructed UAV. A chart of the velocity v/s load factor is a way of showing the limits of aircraft
performance. It essentially shows how much load factor can be safely achieved at different
airspeeds. The V-n diagram helps us in formulating a flight envelope for the UAV.
The use of software such as ANSYS has also been employed to determine the forces, loads, and
displacements acting on the wing.

57

The following theoretical equations were used to perform the structural analysis.
2
4𝐿𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔 2𝑧
𝐿𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 = 1−
𝜋𝑏 𝑏
𝐿𝑡𝑎𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 = 1− 1+𝜆
𝑏 1+𝜆 𝑏
1 𝐸
𝐿′ 𝑦 𝐿𝑤/𝑤𝑖𝑛 =
[𝐿 + 𝐿𝑇𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔 ]
2 𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔
2𝑧(1 + 𝜆)
𝑐 𝑧 = 𝐶𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡 [1 − ]
𝑏
2 𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔 2𝑧(1 + 𝜆)
𝑚′ 𝑦 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑏𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 1−
𝑏(1 + 𝜆) 𝑏
𝑞 𝑦 = 𝐿′ 𝑦 − 𝑤 ′ 𝑦 𝑔
𝑏/2
𝑏
𝑠𝑕𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑆 𝑦 = 𝑞 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 0, < 𝑦 <
𝑦 2
𝑏/2
𝑏
𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑀 𝑦 = 𝑆 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 0, < 𝑦 <
𝑦 2
Load distribution:
Schrenk’s method of lift approximation is used to obtain lift distribution over the wing. It is the
arithmetic mean of elliptical lift distribution and trapezoidal lift distribution.
Equations for both the lift distributions are given below:
2
𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙
𝐿 = 1−
𝜋𝑏 𝑏
𝐿𝑡𝑎𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 = 1− 1+𝜆
𝑏 1+𝜆 𝑏
Where,
0 < 𝑧 ≤ 𝑏/2
1
𝐿′ 𝑦 𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔 = [ 𝐿𝐸𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔 + 𝐿𝑇𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔 ]
2

58
It is graphed in excel:
Lift Distribution
250
200
150
Lift (N)
100 elliptical
Trapezoidal
50
0
0 0.5 1 1.5
Semi Span (m)
Figure 5-1 Lift Distribution
Lift Distribution - Schrenk Method

250
200
150
Lift (N)
100
50
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6
Semi span (m)
Figure 5-2 Schrenk Method
The chord distribution across the span of the wing is given by:

59
2𝑧 1 + 𝜆
𝑐 𝑧 = 𝐶𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡 1 −
𝑏
The mass/Inertial distribution across the span of wing is given by:

2 𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔 2𝑧(1 + 𝜆)
𝑚′ 𝑦 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑏𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 1−
𝑏(1 + 𝜆) 𝑏
The load distribution across the span of wing is given by

𝑞 𝑦 = 𝐿′ 𝑦 − 𝑤 ′ 𝑦 𝑔
Load distribution
200
150
100
50
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6
Figure 5-3 Load Distribution
The Shear force distribution and moment distribution over the span of the wing is given by:
𝑏/2
𝑏
𝑠𝑕𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑆 𝑦 = 𝑞 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 0, < 𝑦 <
𝑦 2
𝑏/2
𝑏
𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑀 𝑦 = 𝑆 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 0, < 𝑦 <
𝑦 2
They are calculated in excel using numerical integration. The trapezoidal method is used for
numerical integration. The Shear force and moment distribution is given by:

60
Shear force
0
-20 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6
-40
-60
Shear force N/m
-80
-100
-120
-140
-160
-180
-200
Semi span (m)
Figure 5-4 Shear Force Diagram
Moment curve
120
100
80
Moment N
60
40
20
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6
Semi span (m)
Figure 5-5 Moment Diagram

61
V-n Diagram:
The theoretical equations involved to obtain the V-n diagram are,
Design/dive velocity:
𝑣𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑒 = 1.5𝑣𝑐𝑟𝑢𝑖𝑠𝑒
Positive Stall limit:
𝑛𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑣∞ = 0.002358𝑣∞2
𝐶𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝜌𝑆 2 𝐶𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝜌𝑠𝑡 𝑆 2

𝑛𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑣∞ = 𝑣∞ = 𝑣
2𝑊 2 𝑀𝑇𝑂𝑊 ∞
Stall velocity:
2𝑛𝑊
𝑣𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑛 =
𝜌 𝑆 𝐶𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥
The limit load factors considered are standard values taken from data books.
Figure 5-6 V-n Diagram
5.1.3 MATLAB Code:

MATLAB code for the same is attached in the appendix section of this report.

62
5.1.4 Static Analysis of wing skin

The structural analysis is carried out using Mechanical APDL 18.0.
Wing skin is used for structural analysis. HDPE is used as material for skin.
The options selected are:
Table 5-1 Meshing Criteria used in ANSYS Mechanical APDL
1. Element used Shell 181

2. Material thickness 1 mm, 2 mm, 5 mm and 8 mm
3. Material model Linear, isotropic
4. Ex 1035 MPa
5. Pxy 0.46
6. Meshing used Quad meshing
7. Element length 50 mm
8. Number of elements 785
The analysis is conducted for wing-skin of varying thickness.
Figure 5-7 Mesh created in Mechanical APDL

63
Thickness: 1 mm Thickness: 2 mm
Thickness: 5 mm
Thickness: 8 mm
Figure 5-8: Deformation of Wing skin

64
Deformation of the Wing:
Figure 5-9 Nodal solution (upper deformation)
Figure 5-10 Nodal solution (lower deformation)

65
Von-mises Stress:
Figure 5-11 Nodal solution for von mises upper
Figure 5-12 Nodal solution for von mises lower

66
Shear Stresses:
YZ Shear Stress:
Figure 5-13 Nodal solution (YZ Shear - Upper Skin)
Figure 5-14 Nodal solution (YZ Shear - lower Skin)
XY Shear Stress:
Figure 5-15 Nodal solution (XY Shear - Upper Skin)
Figure 5-16 Nodal solution (XY Shear - Lower Skin)

67
5.1.5 Results
Deformation and displacement graph:
It can be observed on analysis of deformation graphs, that after skin thickness= 5 mm, the wing
skin behaves similarly to a typical cantilever beam, leading to distortion of the shape of the
airfoil. When the thickness is less than 5 mm, there is a distortion in the shape of the airfoil.
Ribs are added to help to keep the shape of the Wing. Ribs are not needed for the skin with
higher thickness. Thus, we need to strike a balance between the number of ribs and its
thickness, the thickness of the skin to optimize the wing such that minimum weight and
maximum structural and flexural strength are achieved.
As thickness increases the weight of the cantilever also increases.
Weight optimization
9
8
7
Thickness(mm)
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Weight (in kg)
Figure 5-17: Weight Optimization
Von-mises stress:
Von Mises stress leads us to the yield strength of the wing as structure. Von mises stress
decreases with an increase in skin thickness.
Shear stress
The shear stress graphs are used for determining the position of the ribs inside the wing. Since
the shear stress distribution is easily determined through the analysis, ribs can be designed to
meet the structural requirements of the wing so that wing skin can be easily be reinforced. This
is also useful for determining the stiffener cross-sections.

68
5.2 Meshing and Computational Fluid Dynamics:

5.2.1 Introduction
Computational fluid dynamics is a branch of fluid mechanics that uses numerical analysis and
data structures to analyze and solve problems that involve fluid flows. It plays a very crucial
role in the design and testing process. It is used to analyze, optimize, and verify the
performance of designs before actually developing costly prototypes and conducting physical
tests.
There are several advantages of using computational fluid dynamics. It enables one the ability
to theoretically simulate any physical condition. It allows great control over the physical
process and also provides us the ability to isolate specific phenomena for study.
An important aspect of CFD is meshing. Meshing is an integral part of the engineering
simulation process where complex geometries are divided into simple elements that can be
used as discrete local approximations of the larger domain. The mesh influences accuracy,
convergence, and the speed of simulation.
Mesh quality also plays a vital role in CFD analysis. The mesh density should be high enough to
capture all the relevant flow features. The boundary layer as well as the type of cells used in
meshing play an important role as well. The different types of cells used include
quad/hex/prism or wedge cells.
There are three measures of mesh quality,
 Skewness
 Smoothness
 Aspect Ratio
The skewness can be defined as,

𝑂𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒 − 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒
𝑆𝑘𝑒𝑤𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 =
𝑂𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒
This is known as the equilateral volume and is applicable only for triangles and tetrahedron.
The normalized equilateral volume is given by,
𝜃𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 90 90 − 𝜃𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑆𝑘𝑒𝑤𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥 ,
90 90
The normalized equilateral volume applies to cell and face shapes and is used for prisms and
pyramids.

69

The primary governing model used to perform CFD analysis is the SpalartAllmaras model.
The Spalart-Allmaras model is a one equation model that solves a modeled transport equation
for the kinematic eddy turbulent viscosity. This model is designed specifically for aerospace
applications involving wall-bounded flows and has shown good results for boundary layers
subjected to adverse pressure gradients.
The Spalart-Allmaras model is given by the equation,
2
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 1 𝜕 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝐶𝑏1 𝑣
+ 𝑢𝑗 = 𝐶𝑏1 1 − 𝑓𝑡2 𝑆𝑣 + 𝑣+𝑣 + 𝐶𝑏2 − 𝐶𝑤1 𝑓𝑤 − 2 𝑓𝑡2
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥𝑗 𝜍 𝜕𝑥𝑗 𝜕𝑥𝑗 𝜕𝑥𝑗 𝜕𝑥𝑗 𝑘 𝑑
+ 𝑓𝑡1 ∆𝑈 2
Another important aspect is the use of bi-geometric law to develop the mesh.
When the mesh law is set to bi-geometric, it allows the nodes to be biased towards both ends
of the edge. The expansion rate from the end is a linear progression.
5.2.3 Meshing:
The following table summarizes the mesh details used. The software used for performing the
CFD analysis was ANSYS FLUENT and for the generation of mesh was ANSYS ICEM CFD.
Table 5-2 Mesh details
Mesh Law Bi-geometric

Number of cells 62868
Number of faces 126371
Number of nodes 63503
Number of partitions 1
Type of cell Quad
Skewness value 0.975
The following images show the images of the meshed airfoil and the details of the mesh. The
mesh for airfoil used in the main wing which is the S9000 was generated.

70
Figure 5-18 Mesh Details
Figure 5-19 Meshed airfoil S9000
Figure 5-20 Complete computational domain of the mesh generated

71
Boundary Conditions used:

Pressure far-field boundary condition is used with
𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑃 = 101325 𝑃𝑎
𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑇 = 300 𝐾
𝑀𝑎𝑐𝑕 𝑛𝑜. 𝑀 = 0.02827
𝑅𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑁𝑜. 𝑅𝑒 = 658385
5.2.4 CFD analysis
With the above boundary conditions set, the following results were obtained. The results were
computed for a range of angles of attacks from -3 degrees to 10 degrees. Results for two such
samples are shown below (0˚ and 5˚).
For 0˚α,
Figure 5-21 Cp plot with respect to position

72
Figure 5-22 Contours of density variation
Figure 5-23 Contours of Mach variation

73
Figure 5-24 Contours of static pressure variation
Figure 5-25 Contours of static temperature variation

74
For 5˚α,
Figure 5-26 Cp plot with respect to position
Figure 5-27 Contours of density variation

75
Figure 5-28 Contours of Mach variation
Figure 5-29 Contours of static pressure variation

76
Figure 5-30 Contours of static temperature variation
5.2.5 Results
The following table and graph show the variation of Cl with AOA.
Reynold’s Number= 600000
Validation
1.4
1.2
1
0.8
Experimental
0.6
Cl
JAVAFOIL
0.4
Fluent
0.2
0
-5 -0.2 0 5 10 15
Angle of Attack
Figure 5-31 Validation of Data Obtained

77
Table 5-3 Cl Data
Alpha in Cl
degrees
-3 -0.00962
-2 0.095046
-1 0.199129
0 0.307136
1 0.413299
2 0.513474
3 0.609483
4 0.700265
5 0.785057
6 0.864229
7 0.930183
8 0.97948
9 1.044349
10 1.048875
1.2
Cl Vs. Alpha Plot
1
0.8
0.6
Cl
0.4
0.2
0
-4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
-0.2
Alpha (in degrees)
Figure 5-32 cl v/s alpha plot

78
The following table and graph show the variation of Cd with AOA.
Table 5-4 Cd data
Alpha Cd
-3 0.013751
-2 0.016358
-1 0.01601
0 0.012337
1 0.005417
2 0.004685
3 0.017668
4 0.033291
5 0.050644
6 0.069759
7 0.089099
8 0.105814
9 0.113393
10 0.107457
Cd Vs. Alpha
0.12
0.1
0.08
Cd
0.06
0.04
0.02
0
-4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
alpha in degrees
Figure 5-33 cd v/s alpha plot

79
Comments:
 Mach no. at the stagnation is close to 0.
 As the Angle of attack is increasing flow separation at the trailing edge is going on
increasing.
 No. of cells in the mesh is 62868.
 Min. Cd is 0.004685 at AOA 2o
 Max. Cl is 1.048875 at AOA 10o
 Spallart Allamaras model gives large drag co-efficient when compared to Experimental
Values
 The velocity of the air is higher on the top surface compared to the lower surface.
 The pressure at the lower surface is higher compare to the top surface.

80
5.3 Stability analysis:

5.3.1 Introduction
The control system of the drone movement has six degrees of freedom, consisting of three
translational and three rotational movements, which are crucial for maneuverings stability.
Stability and control are crucial aspects of the design process to build a drone. Longitudinal
stability and control are concerned with the drone’s pitching motion.
Lateral stability and control are concerned with the drone’s rolling motion and directional
stability and control are related to the drone’s yawing motion.
The aircraft is said to be stable if it returns to its original equilibrium state after a small
perturbing displacement without any external involvement. Thus, the aircraft’s response arises
purely from the inherent design. At level flight, we tend to refer to this as static stability.
In effect the airplane is statically stable when it returns to the original steady flight condition
after a small disturbance; statically unstable when it continues to move away from the original
steady flight condition upon a disturbance; and neutrally stable when it remains steady in a
new condition upon a disturbance.
The airplane may converge continuously back to the original steady flight state; it may
overcorrect and then converge to the original configuration in an oscillatory manner, or it can
diverge completely and behave uncontrollably. This kind of stability is associated with dynamic
stability.

 The stability analysis was carried out using theoretical equations and MATLAB.
 The longitudinal and lateral stability analysis was analytical worked out through the
MATLAB code and the according results were obtained.
5.3.3 Longitudinal Stability

The stability of the drone was sought analytically through the MATLAB codes based on the
following formulae.

81
Wing contribution:
𝑋𝐶𝐺 𝑋𝐴𝐶
𝐶𝑚 0 𝑤 = 𝐶𝐿0 𝑤 ( − )
𝑐 𝑐
𝑋𝐶𝐺 𝑋𝐴𝐶
𝐶𝑚 𝛼 𝑤 = 𝐶𝐿𝛼 𝑤 ( − )
𝑐 𝑐
Tail contribution:
𝐶𝑚 0 𝑡 = 𝜂𝑕 𝑉𝐻𝑇 𝐶𝐿𝛼 𝑡 (𝜀0 + 𝑖𝑤 − 𝑖𝑡 )
𝑑𝐶𝐿 = 2Π𝑑𝛼
𝑑𝑒 1/2
= 4.4 ∗ [𝐾𝐴 𝐾𝜆 𝐾𝐻 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ∧𝑐 ] 1.19
𝑑𝛼 4
1 1
𝐾𝐴 = −
𝐴 1 + 𝐴1.7
10 − 3𝜆
𝐾𝜆 =
7
𝑕𝜇
1− 𝑏
𝐾𝐻 =
3 2𝑙 𝐻
𝑏
𝐶𝑟 − 𝐶𝑡
tan∧𝑐/4 = tan∧𝐿𝐸 −
2𝑏
𝜆 = 𝑡𝑎𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜
Δ𝑞
𝜇𝑡 = 1 −
𝑞
Δ𝑞 2.42 𝐶𝐷𝑂,𝑤
= 𝑙𝑕
𝑞 + 0.3
𝑐
4
𝑡 𝑡 𝑆𝑤𝑒𝑡
𝐶𝐷𝑂,𝑤 = 𝐶𝑓𝑤 1+𝐿 + 100 𝑅𝐿,𝑆
𝑐 𝑐 𝑠
𝑆𝑤𝑒𝑡 ≈ 𝑠
𝑡
𝐿 = 2 𝑖𝑓 𝑤𝑖𝑡𝑕𝑖𝑛 0.30
𝑐
𝑡
𝐿 = 1.2 𝑖𝑓 𝑏𝑒𝑦𝑜𝑛𝑑 0.30
𝑐
𝑑𝜀
𝐶𝑚 𝛼 𝑡 = −𝜂𝑕 𝑉𝐻𝑇 𝐶𝐿𝛼 𝑡 1 −
𝑑𝛼

82
Fuselage contribution:
𝑘2 − 𝑘1 𝑥=𝑙 𝑓
𝐶𝑚 0 𝑓 = 𝑤𝑓2 𝜂𝑕 𝑉𝐻𝑇 𝐶𝐿𝛼 𝑡 (𝛼0𝑤 + 𝑖𝑓 )
36.5 𝑆 𝑐 𝑥=0
1 𝑥=𝑙 𝑓 𝜕𝜀𝑢
𝐶𝑚 0 𝑓 = 𝑤𝑓2 ∆𝑥
36.5 𝑆 𝑐 𝑥=0 𝜕𝛼
The moment characteristics can be obtained from the sum of the following equations,
𝐶𝑚 𝑤 = 𝐶𝑚 0 𝑤 + (𝐶𝑚 𝛼 𝑤 × 𝛼)
𝐶𝑚 𝑓 = 𝐶𝑚 0 𝑓 + (𝐶𝑚 𝛼 𝑓 × 𝛼)
𝐶𝑚 𝑡 = 𝐶𝑚 0 𝑡 + (𝐶𝑚 𝛼 𝑡 × 𝛼)
𝐶𝑚 𝑎𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑟𝑎𝑓𝑡 = 𝐶𝑚 𝑤 + 𝐶𝑚 𝑓 + 𝐶𝑚 𝑡
5.3.4 Lateral Stability

The lateral stability is defined by the following equations,
𝑘𝑛 𝑘𝑅𝑙 𝑠𝑓𝑑 𝑙𝑓
𝐶𝑛𝛽𝑤𝑓 =
𝑠𝑤 𝑏
𝜕𝜍
𝐶𝑛𝛽𝑣 = 𝑆𝑉𝑇 𝐶𝐿𝛼 𝜂𝑣 1 +
𝜕𝛽
𝜕𝜍 3.06𝑆𝑉 /𝑆 0.4𝑧𝑤
𝜂𝑣 1 + = 0.724 + + + 0.0009𝐴
𝜕𝛽 1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜆𝑐/4 𝑑𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑥
5.3.5 MATLAB Code

The MATLAB codes for the stability analysis are provided in the appendix section.
5.3.6 Results
Longitudinal stability:
For longitudinal stability to be stable, the slope must be negative. The negative slope shows
that the nose tends to pint downwards for stability. A linear equation is used, there is no
divergence or distortion at higher AOA.

83
Figure 5-34 Cm vs 𝛂
Figure 5-35 Longitudinal Stability

84
The lateral stability slope must be positive for it to be stable.
Figure 5-36 Lateral stability

85
6 Project Costing

Keeping in mind that this project does NOT involve the building of the prototype of the drone
that is designed and analyzed; this section of the report provides the cost of all the components
used in the making of the model if it was to be made. All the cost mentioned is in rupees.
Table 6-1 Probable Project Cost

86
7 Conclusions and Suggestions for Future Work

This section includes the conclusions derived and inferred from the analysis done in the project
on UAVs and further suggestions and recommendations for future improvements based on the
observed results.
7.1 Conclusions
The design procedure is generated using general commercial aircraft and extrapolated to mini
UAV. The work shows a single iteration of the design process. This can be run through several
iterations to arrive at optimum value
The above design process is semi-automated. Macros are used in Ms Excel and CATIA. Replay
scripts are used in ICEM CFD. Script files are used in Fluent and Mechanical APDL
UAV designed is put through performance analysis, Stability analysis, and CFD analysis to
validate the design
7.2 Recommendations
 The software can be automated using VBA scripting and Python
 Structural design of Spars and Ribs can be added
 Dynamic stability can be calculated
 3D Meshing and CFD analysis can be used for the design process

87
References
[1] Andrew J. Keane, Andras Sobester, James P. Scanlan (2017) Small Unmanned Fixed-Wing
Aircraft Design. A Practical Approach, Wiley
[2] Raymer, Daniel. (1999) Aircraft Design: A conceptual Approach, American Institute of
Aeronautics and Astronautics, 3rd Edition. Virginia
[3]Mohammad, H.S.(2013) Aircraft Design: A Systems Engineering Approach; John Wiley & Sons
Ltd.: West Sussex, UK.
[4] Anderson, J.D., Jr.,(1999) Aircraft Performance and Design; McGraw–Hill: New York, NY,
USA
[5] XFLR5 General Description. Available online: http://www.xflr5.com/xflr5.html
[6] Pei-Hsiang Chung, Der-Ming Ma and Jaw-Kuen Shiau (2019) Design, Manufacturing, and
Flight Testing of an Experimental Flying Wing UAV, MDPI
[7] T. Megson,(1999) "Aircraft Structures for Engineering Students", Third Edition ed., Elsevier
[8] Mesut mert,(2018) A preliminary sizing tool for minimum weight aircraft wing box structural
design, Graduate Dissertation, Middle-East Technical University
[9] João Jorge Miguel da Silva, Design and Optimization of a Wing Structure for a UAS Class I
145 kg, Graduate Disseration, Academia da força aérea
[10]Michael Chun-Yung Niu (1998) ‘Airframe Structural Design’, Lockheed Aeronautical Systems
Company, California
[11] Selig, M. S., “S9000 Airfoil,” http://www.ae.illinois.edu/m-selig/ads/ref/misc_refs.html#5
[12] Selig, M. S., Guglielmo, J. J., Broeren, A. P., and Gigu`ere, P., Summary of Low-Speed Airfoil
Data -Vol. 5, Soar Tech Publications, Virginia Beach, VA, 2012.
[13] Rafael Basilio Chaves,(2014) Aircraft stability and control analysis, Graduate Dissertation,
University of Connecticut.

88
[14] Etkin, B. Reid, (1996) Dynamics of Flight Stability and Control, New Jersey: John Wiley and
Sons
[15] Bandu N Pamadi,(1998) Performance, Stability, Dynamics, and Control of Airplanes, AIAA
Educational series: Ohio, USA

89
8 Appendix
8.1 Appendix-A
Chapter 4.1 Preliminary Analysis
Drone Preliminary
%Constraint Analysis
gross_weight=10; %kg
Max_TO_weight=15;%kg
cruise_velocity=20; %m/s
Vv=0.8*cruise_velocity;%m/s
ROC=3;%m/s
cruise_altitude=200; %m
Endurance=900; %s
Takeoff_vel=16; %m/s
Cd_min=0.045;
Cl_max=1.2;
Cl_cruise=0.8;
LDmax=6;
Cd_To=0.06;
Cl_To=0.9;
Aspect_ratio=6;
e=0.8;
k=1/(pi*Aspect_ratio*e);
Takeoff_distance=40; %m
wingspan=1.2; %m
S=wingspan^2/Aspect_ratio;
WSmax=gross_weight/S; %N/m2
TWmax=0.75;
u_to=0.15;
rho=1.225; %kg/m3
rho_cruise=0.855; %kg/m3
q=rho*0.5*Vv^2;
stall_velocity=10; %m/s
q_cruise=rho_cruise*0.5*cruise_velocity.^2;
n=1.21;
%Constraint analysis
%Level turn
%TW=linspace(0,TWmax,50);
WS=linspace(0,WSmax,50);
TW=q.*((Cd_min./(WS))+(k.*((n./q_cruise).^2).*(WS)));
plot(WS,TW)
hold on
grid on
%Takeoff Distance
TW=linspace(0,TWmax,50);

90
WS=linspace(0,WSmax,50);
%Rate of climb
%TW1=linspace(0,TWmax,50);
WS1=linspace(0,WSmax,50);
TW1=(ROC./Vv)+((q./WS1).*Cd_min)+(k.*(WS1/q));
plot(WS1,TW1)
hold on
%Desired airspeed
%TW2=linspace(0,TWmax,50);
WS2=linspace(0,WSmax,50);
TW2=(q.*Cd_min./WS2)+(k.*WS2./q_cruise);
plot(WS2,TW2)
hold on
%approach speed
ws3=0.5*rho*stall_velocity^2*Cl_max;
WS3=ws3.*ones(50);
plot(WS3,TW)
Chapter 4.2 and 4.5 Wing Design, Control surfaces Design and Weight estimation
Wing design, Control Design and Weight Estimation
clear all
clc
rho_cruise=1.211; %kg/m3
cruise_velocity=20; %m/s
q_cruise=rho_cruise*0.5*cruise_velocity.^2;
%Design of Wing
for k=8:0.1:11
W=k*9.8;
WS=70;
AR=6;
W_To=(k+2)*9.8;
S=W_To/WS;
b=sqrt(AR*S);
taper=0.333;
c_root=2*b/(AR*(1+taper));
c_tip=c_root*taper;
sweep=atand(((c_root/2)-(c_tip/2))/(b/2));
% to find MAC
y=(b/6)*((1+2*taper)/(1+taper));
MAC=(2/3)*c_root*((1+taper+taper^2)/(1+taper));
% to find the Reynolds number

Re=rho_cruise*cruise_velocity*MAC/(18.6*10^-6);

91
%To find the aerodynamic parameters

Cl_aircraft=W/(q_cruise*S);
Cl_wing=Cl_aircraft/0.95;
Cl=Cl_wing/0.9;
% Design of Empenage
%Horizontal Tail
V_HT=0.5;
L=1.35;%m
Cg=0.485;%m
AR1=2*AR/3;
S_HT=V_HT*MAC*S/(L-Cg);
bht=sqrt(AR1*S_HT);
cht=S_HT/bht;
%Vertical tail
V_VT=0.04 ;
AR2=1.5;
S_VT=V_VT*MAC*S/(L-Cg);
bvt=sqrt(AR2*S_VT);
taper=0.333;
cvt_tip=2*bvt/(AR2*(1+taper));
cvt_root=c_root*taper;
%Weight
Wing_weight=S*0.2*MAC*24;
HT_weight=S_HT*0.09*cht*24;
VT_weight=S_VT*0.09*cht*24;
Weight_new=6+Wing_weight+HT_weight+VT_weight;
if W>=Weight_new
break
end
end
%Design Output
%Weight estimate
fprintf('The estimate of weight is %f kg\n',Weight_new)
fprintf('The Wing weight is %f kg\n',Wing_weight)
fprintf('The Horizontal tail weight is %f kg\n',HT_weight)
fprintf('The Vertical tail weight is %f kg\n',VT_weight)
%Wing
fprintf('\nDesign of Wing:\n')
fprintf('The surface area of the wing is %f m^2\n',S);
fprintf('The span of wing is %f m\n',b);
fprintf('The Root chord of wing is %f m\n',c_root);
fprintf('The Tip chord of wing is %f m\n',c_tip);
fprintf('The sweep of the wing is %f deg\n',sweep)

92
%MAC
fprintf('\nMean Aerodynamic chord:\n')
fprintf('The mean aerodynamic chord is %f m\n',MAC)
fprintf('The location of the MAC is %f m\n',y)
fprintf('The Reynolds number is %f\n',Re);
%Aerodynamic co-eff
fprintf('\nDesign Lift Co-efficient:\n')
fprintf('The Cl of aircraft is %f\n',Cl_aircraft);
fprintf('The Cl of aerofoil is %f\n',Cl);
%Horizontal Tail
fprintf('\nDesign of Horizontal Tail:\n')
fprintf('The surface area of horizontal tail is %f m^2\n',S_HT)
fprintf('the span of Horizontal tail is %f m\n',bht)
fprintf('the chord of Horizontal tail is %f m\n',cht)
%vertical Tail
fprintf('\nDesign of Vertical Tail:\n')
fprintf('The surface area of Vertical tail is %f m^2\n',S_VT)
fprintf('the span of Vertical tail is %f m\n',bvt)
fprintf('the root chord of Vertical tail is %f m\n',cvt_root)
fprintf('the tip chord of Vertical tail is %f m\n',cvt_tip)
%Wing Plot
x=[0 0];y=[c_root/2 -c_root/2];
plot(x,y)
hold on
x=[0 b/2];y=[c_root/2 c_tip/2];

plot(x,y)
hold on
x=[b/2 b/2];y=[c_tip/2 -c_tip/2];

plot(x,y)
hold on
x=[0 b/2];y=[-c_root/2 -c_tip/2];

plot(x,y)
hold on
x=[0 -b/2];y=[c_root/2 c_tip/2];

plot(x,y)
hold on
x=[-b/2 -b/2];y=[c_tip/2 -c_tip/2];

plot(x,y)
hold on
x=[0 -b/2];y=[-c_root/2 -c_tip/2];

93
plot(x,y)
hold on
grid on
%Horizontal tail plot

x=[-bht/2 bht/2]; y=[-(L-Cg-(cht/2)) -(L-Cg-(cht/2))];
plot(x,y)
hold on
x=[-bht/2 -bht/2]; y=[-(L-Cg-(cht/2)) -(L-Cg+(cht/2))];

plot(x,y)
hold on
x=[-bht/2 bht/2]; y=[-(L-Cg+(cht/2)) -(L-Cg+(cht/2))];

plot(x,y)
hold on
x=[bht/2 bht/2]; y=[-(L-Cg-(cht/2)) -(L-Cg+(cht/2))];

plot(x,y)
hold on
%Vertical tail plot

x=[0 0]; y=[-(L-Cg-(cvt_root/2)) -(L-Cg+(cvt_root/2)-cvt_tip)]; z=[0 bvt];
plot3(x,y,z)
hold on
x=[0 0]; y=[-(L-Cg+(cvt_root/2)-cvt_tip) -(L-Cg+(cvt_root/2)) ]; z=[bvtbvt];

plot3(x,y,z)
hold on
x=[0 0]; y=[-(L-Cg+(cvt_root/2)) -(L-Cg+(cvt_root/2))]; z=[0 bvt];

plot3(x,y,z)
hold on
x=[0 0]; y=[-(L-Cg+(cvt_root/2)) -(L-Cg-(cvt_root/2))]; z=[0 0];

plot3(x,y,z)
hold on
title('Wing and Empenage Design')
folder='C:\Users\Deeksha\Desktop\mini project\';
file='Wing Design.png';
saveas(gcf,fullfile(folder,file))

94
Chapter 4.7 Performance Analysis

Range and endurance
Wemp=8.7 ; %Empty weight
Wbat=2 ; %Battery weight
Wpay=1 ; %Payload weight
Wtot=Wemp+Wbat+Wpay; %Total weight
Cl=1.2 ;
Cdo=0.045 ;
k=0.053 ;
S=1.31 ;
den=1.225 ; %Density
Nmot=0.8 ; % Motor efficiency
Npr=0.7 ; %Propeler efficiency
Fdod=10 ; % Depth of discharge
Ndis=0.99 ; %Battery discharge efficiency
Rbat=245 ; %Battery power density
%***To claculate Endurance****

Tend=(Wtot*Nmot*Npr*Fdod*Ndis*Rbat)/((1.1)*(sqrt(2*(Wtot^3)/(den*S)))*((1/4)*(3/(k*(Cdo)^(1/3)))^-
1));
fprintf('Endurance (Tend)');
disp(Tend);
%***To calculate Range*****

R=(Wbat*Nmot*Npr*Ndis*Rbat)/(Wtot*(sqrt(4*Cdo*k)));
fprintf('Range (R)');
disp(R);
%....Landing distance....%
%Landing distance=Sa+Sf+Sg.....%
%Sa=Approach distance%
%Sf=flare distance%
%Sg=ground roll%
%###################################################
% Input values%
W= 8.7 ; % Weight of aircraft%
S= 1.31 ;
den=1.225 ;% density%
Clmax= 1.2;
g=9.8;
teta=3 ; % approach angle%
j= 1.15;
N=3 ;
ur=0.4 ;
WL=W/S; % Wing loading%
%##################################################
%..To find Sa....%

Vstall=sqrt((2*W)/(den*S*Clmax)); %Stalling speed%
Vf=1.23*Vstall; % Average velocity dusring flare:

95
R=(Vf^2)/(0.2*g); % Flight path during flare%

hf=R*(1-cos(teta*(pi/180)));
Sa=(50-hf)/(tan(teta*(pi/180))); %Approach distance to clear 50ft obstacle%
%...To find Sf...%

Sf=R*sin(teta*(pi/180));
%..To find Sg.....%

Sg=((j*N)*(sqrt((2*W)/(den*S*Clmax))))/(((j^2)*WL)/(g*den*Clmax*ur));
%..Total landing distance........%

LD=Sa+Sf+Sg;
disp(LD)
%*****Take off distance****%

%....Takeoff distance=Sg+Sa%
%Sg= Ground roll distance%
%Sa= airborne distance%
%###################################################
% Input values%
W=8.7 ; % Weight of aircraft%
S= 1.31 ;
Cdo=0.045 ;
Clmax=1.2 ;
K=0.05 ;
LDmax=1/(sqrt(4*Cdo*K));
g=9.8;
P=245 ; % Power available
npr=0.8 ;% propeler efficiency%
hob=50 ; % Obstacle height%
%##################################################
%....To find Sg........%

%....Now we have to find T/W during takeoff.....%
Vlo=1.1*Vstall; % lift off speed%
V=0.7*Vlo; % velocity at 0.7Vlo%
Ta=npr*P/V; %
TW=Ta/W;
Sg=(1.21*WL)/(g*den*Clmax*TW);
%......To find Sa.....%

R=6.96*(Vstall^2)/g; %Flight path radius%
tob=acos(1-(hob/R)); % inclined path angle%
Sa=R*sin(tob);
S=Sg+Sa ;%Total takeoff distance%

disp(S)

96
%*****PARAMETER*****%
%1) Wing loading%
%2) Power loading%
%3) Stalling speed%
%4) Max velocity%
%5) Min velocity%
% Input values%
W=8.7 ; % Weight of aircraft%
S=1.31 ;
Cdo=0.045 ;
Clmax= 1.2;
K=0.05 ;
LDmax=1/(sqrt(4*Cdo*K));
P=245 ;

PL=W/P; % Power loading%
Vmax=sqrt(((2*W))/(den*S))*(sqrt(K/Cdo)); %Max velocity%
Vmin=sqrt((W)/(0.5*den*Clmax*S));%Min velocity%
fprintf('wing loading (WL)');
disp(WL);
fprintf('Power loading (PL)');
disp(PL);
fprintf('stalling speed (Vstall)');
disp(Vstall);
fprintf('Max Velocity (Vmax)');
disp(Vmax);
fprintf('Min Velocity (Vmin)');
disp(Vmin);
function [] = travd(W,den,S,K,Cdo,e,AR)
fori=1:9
v(i)=10*(i);
Cl(i)=(2*W/(den*(v(i)^2)*S));
Pr(i)=(0.5*den*v(i)^3*S*Cdo+(W^2)/(0.5*v(i)*S*pi*e*AR));
end
fprintf('Value of Velocity (v)');
disp(v);
fprintf('Value of Cl:(Cl)');
disp(Cl);
fprintf('Value of power required:(Pr)');
disp(Pr);
Pa=245 ; % power available%
plot(v,Pa,'--')
hold on
plot(v,Pr)
end

97
Chapter 4.8.3 Miscellaneous Data

Battery and propeller sizing
Maximum_weight=10*9.8;
TW=0.5;
T=TW*Maximum_weight;
velocity=20;
neta_prop=0.7;
Power_req=T*velocity/neta_prop;
Endurance=20/60; % in minutes
Energy_density=220; % W/hr
Mass_battery=Power_req*Endurance/Energy_density;
fprintf('\nThe mass of battery required is %f\n',Mass_battery);
%Propellor Length
HP=0.00136*Power_req;
d=22*HP^0.25; % Two blade
prop_dia=0.0254*d;
fprintf('The propellor diameter is %f\n',prop_dia)
Chapter 5.3.3 MATLAB codes used in Longitudinal stability analysis of the drone:
Longitudinal Stability Code for Drone
% For the wing
xac = ;
xcg = ;
CL_ow = ; % zero AOA lift of wing
Cm_acw =; % moment coeficient about the aerodynamic centre
CL_alphaw = ; % slope of CL vs. alpha curve of wing
alpha = [-10 -9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10];
Cm_0w = Cm_acw + CL_ow*((xcg)-(xac));
Cm_alphaw = CL_alphaw*((xcg)-(xac));
Cmw = Cm_alphaw*alpha + Cm_0w; % calculation of moment coefficient for wing
figure(1);
plot(alpha,Cmw,'-o');
title('Cmw vs alpha Plot for Wing');
xlabel('Alpha in degrees');
ylabel('Cmw');

98
grid on;
% for the elevator

neta = % tail efficiency
SHT = 0.423528; % surface area of the HT
CL_alphaHT = % Slope of CL vs alpha plot of HT
CL_alphaw = % Slope of CL vs alpha plot of Wing
ARw = 6; % aspect ratio of wing
iw =
it =
Cm_0HT =
Cm_0HT = neta*SHT + CL_alphaHT*(((2*CL_alphaw)/(pi*ARw))+iw+it);
Cm_alphaHT = neta*SHT + CL_alphaHT*(1-((2*CL_alphaw)/(pi*ARw)));
CmHT = Cm_alphaHT*alpha + Cm_0HT; %Cm calculation for HT
figure(2);
plot(alpha,CmHT,'-o');
title('CmHT vs alpha Plot for Horizontal Tail');
ylabel('Cm');
grid on;
% For the Fuselage

Kf =
Wf =
lf =
c = 0.523360;
Sw = 1.400000;
Cm_alphaf = (Kf*(Wf^2)*lf)/(c*Sw);
Cmf = Cm_alphaf*alpha;
figure(3);

99
plot(alpha,Cmf,'-o');
title('Cmf vs alpha Plot for fuselage');
ylabel('Cmf');
grid on;
% For the Aircraft

Cm = Cmw + CmHT + Cmf;
figure(4);
plot(alpha,Cm,'-o');
title('Cm vs alpha Plot for aircraft');
ylabel('Cm');
grid on;
Chapter 5.3.4 MATLAB codes used in Lateral stability analysis of the drone:
Lateral Stability Code for Drone
% Contribution of the Wing - fuselage
beta = [-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5]; % Sideslip angles
kn = -0.5; % emphirical wing body interference factor (function of fuselage geometry)
kRl = 0.7; % emphirical correction factor (function of fuselage reynolds number)
Sfs = 1; % projected side area of the fuselage
lf = 7; % length of fuselage
Sw = 1.4; % surface area of the wing
b = 2.898275; % span of the wing
Cn_beta_wf = -(kn * kRl * Sfs * lf)/(Sw * b);
%
%
% Contribution of the rudder
Svt = 0.033882; % Surface area of the vertical tail

100
CL_alpha_vt = 0.2; % Slope of the Cl vs alpha plot of vertical tail

neta_vt = 0.9; % efficiency of the vertical tail
d = 0.1; % derivative of sidewash angle with respect of the sideslip angle (d_sigma/d_beta)
Cn_beta_vt = Svt * CL_alpha_vt * neta_vt * (1+(d));
% Total contribution
Cn = Cn_beta_wf * beta + Cn_beta_vt * beta;
% Plot
figure(1);
plot(beta,Cn,'-o');
title('Plot of Cn vs beta for Lateral Stability');
xlabel('Sideslip Angle (beta) in degrees');
ylabel('coefficient of yawing moment (Cn)');
grid on;

101
8.2 Appendix-B
Graphs used for stability analysis
1. Longitudinal stability:

102
2. Lateral stability:

103

104
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Design and Analysis of Fixed-Wing UAV

Preprint · September 2020

Design and Manufacturing of Combustion chamber of Hybrid Rocket View project

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

Sl. No. Reg. No. Student Name

Supervisor/s: Prof.H.K Narahari

Dr. Raja R Dr.H.M. RajashekaraSwamy

Design and Analysis of a fixed wing Unmanned Aerial Vehicle

Design and Analysis of Fized-Wing Unmanned Aerial Vehicle

Sl. No. Reg. No. Student Name Signature

Date: 13th August 2020

Design and Analysis of a fixed wing Unmanned Aerial Vehicle

Our prime acknowledgment would be towards our academic supervisor Dr. H. K.

We are extremely grateful to the management of MSRUAS for facilitating the

Design and analysis of a fixed wing unmanned aerial vehicle

Design and analysis of a fixed wing unmanned aerial vehicle

Design and analysis of a fixed wing unmanned aerial vehicle

4.1.5 MATLAB Code .......................................................................................... 15

Design and analysis of a fixed wing unmanned aerial vehicle

4.8 Miscellaneous Data: .............................................................................................. 52

Design and analysis of a fixed wing unmanned aerial vehicle

7.2 Recommendations ................................................................................................ 87

Design and analysis of a fixed wing unmanned aerial vehicle

Motivation of the Project

The design procedure of a UAV is a challenging process as it involves meeting the

Design and analysis of a fixed wing unmanned aerial vehicle

Design and analysis of a fixed wing unmanned aerial vehicle

Table 3-1 Approach to attain objectives .............................................................................. 7

Design and analysis of a fixed wing unmanned aerial vehicle

Table 5-3 Cl Data ................................................................................................................ 78

Design and analysis of a fixed wing unmanned aerial vehicle

Figure 4-1 Top view (all dimensions in mm) ...................................................................... 11

Design and analysis of a fixed wing unmanned aerial vehicle

Figure 4-26 Lift generated- isometric and back view......................................................... 36

Design and analysis of a fixed wing unmanned aerial vehicle

Figure 5-10 Nodal solution (lower deformation) ............................................................... 65

Design and analysis of a fixed wing unmanned aerial vehicle

Organization of the project:

This report has been organized into ten main parts.

Design and analysis of a fixed wing unmanned aerial vehicle

Design and analysis of a fixed wing unmanned aerial vehicle

A UAV is controlled either autonomously by onboard computers or by the remote control of a

Based on functionality, they are classified as follows,

Design and Analysis of a fixed wing Unmanned Aerial Vehicle

Design and analysis of a fixed wing unmanned aerial vehicle

Design and analysis of a fixed wing unmanned aerial vehicle

Design and analysis of a fixed wing unmanned aerial vehicle

Design and analysis of a fixed wing unmanned aerial vehicle

3 Aim and Objectives

Preamble to the Chapter

3.4 Methods and Methodology/Approach to attain each objective:

Design and analysis of a fixed wing unmanned aerial vehicle

Table 3-1 Approach to attain objectives

Objective Statement of the Method/ Methodology Resources Utilised

2 Numerically calculate Calculations of wingspan, Theoretical calculations

5 Performing CFD CFD analysis is done ANSYS FLUENT

Design and analysis of a fixed wing unmanned aerial vehicle