BCIBF-101 Business Communication

BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
Under Graduate Commerce Programmes

(Distance Mode)
Centre for Distance and Open Learning

Jamia Millia Islamia
New Delhi-110025
EXPERT COMMITTEE
Prof. Talat Ahmad Prof. M. Mujtaba Khan

Patron Officer on Special Duty, CDOL
Vice-Chancellor,
Jamia Millia Islamia
Prof. Mohammad Miyan Mr. Prashant Negi

Hony. Chief Advisor, CDOL, Hony. Jt. Director, CDOL
Founder Director, CDOL
Prof. Y.P. Singh Dr. Arvind Kumar

Department of Commerce, Hony. Jt. Director, CDOL
University of Delhi
Prof. K.V. Bhanu Murthy Dr. Ritu Sapra

Department of Commerce Department of Commerce
University of Delhi University of Delhi
Prof. Madhu Tyagi Dr. Sunayana

School of Management Centre for Management Studies,
IGNOU Jamia Millia Islamia
Prof. Attam Prakash

Indian Institute of Foreign Trade
PROGRAMME COORDINATOR
Dr. Chandra Mohan Singh, CDOL, Jamia Millia Islamia
COURSE WRITERS
Dr Anjanee Sethi, Assistant Professor, Business Communication, Management Development Institute, Gurgaon
Units: (1.1-1.4, 1.6-1.12, 10.1-10.2, 10.7-10.12, 11.1-11.2, 11.5-11.9, 12.1-12.3, 12.5-12.9, 13,
14.1-14.2, 16.1-16.3, 16.5-16.6, 16.8-16.12)
Prof.(Dr)Bhavana Adhikari, Deputy Dean Academics, Amity University, Gurgaon
Units: (1.1-1.4, 1.6-1.12, 10.1-10.2, 10.7-10.12, 11.1-11.2, 11.5-11.9, 12.1-12.3, 12.5-12.9, 13,
14.1-14.2, 16.1-16.3, 16.5-16.6, 16.8-16.12)
RK Madhukar, Retired General Manager, Canara Bank, Bangalore
Units: (1.5, 2.1-2.2, 2.5-2.9, 3, 4, 5, 7.1-7.2, 7.4-7.11, 8, 9.1-9.8, 10.3-10.6, 11.3-11.4, 12.4, 15, 16.4)
Dr Hemant Joshi, Associate Professor, Hindi Journalism, IIMC, New Delhi
Unit: (2.3-2.4)
Manjari Joshi, Newsreader, Delhi Doordarshan
Unit: (2.3-2.4)
Prof. (Dr.) Shalini Verma, Management Consultant and Visiting Professor, IIMs
Unit: (6)
Anjana Banerjee, Assistant Professor EIILM, Sikkim
Units: (7.3, 16.7)
Shubhi Goel, Freelance Author
Unit: (14.3-14.9)
All rights reserved. Printed and published on behalf of the CDOL, Jamia Millia Islamia by Vikas® Publishing House, New Delhi
December, 2016
ISBN: 978-93-5259-587-7
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including
photocopying, recording or by any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the CDOL,
Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi.
Cover Credits: Anupama Kumari, Faculty of Fine Arts, Jamia Millia Islamia
SYLLABI-BOOK MAPPING TABLE
Business Communication
Syllabi Mapping in Book
Block I Communication Concepts and Functions Unit-1: Communication: Concept and its
Role in Present Day Business
Organization
(Pages: 3-28);
Unit-2: Communication Process
(Pages: 29-48);
Unit-3: Good Communication
(Pages: 49-58);
Unit-4: Verbal and Non-Verbal
Communication
(Pages: 59-80)
Block II Methods of Communication Unit-5: Dimensions of

Communication
(Pages: 83-92);
Unit-6: Intra-Organizational
Communication
(Pages: 93-106);
Unit-7: Communication Channels
(Pages: 107-126);
Unit-8: Basics and Breakdown
in Communication
(Pages: 127-140)
Block III Effective Communication, Speaking and Unit-9: Guidelines for Effective
Oral Reporting Communication
(Pages: 143-156);
Unit-10: Effective Speaking
(Pages: 157-200);
Unit-11: Presentation and Interview
(Pages: 201-240);
Unit-12: Listening
(Pages: 241-256)
Block IV Public Communication, Business Unit-13: Communication for Customers/

Correspondence and Report Writing Public (External Communication)
(Pages: 259-268);
Unit-14: Business Correspondence
(Pages: 269-288);
Unit-15: Effective Business Letters
(Pages: 289-308);
Unit-16: Types of Report and Notice, Report
Writing and Agenda and Minutes
(Pages: 309-360)
CONTENTS
BLOCK-I : COMMUNICATION CONCEPTS AND FUNCTIONS
UNIT 1 COMMUNICATION: CONCEPT AND ITS

ROLE IN PRESENT DAY BUSINESS ORGANIZATION 3-28
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Concept of Communication
1.3 Stages of Communication
1.4 Types of Communication
1.5 Major Barriers Related to Communication
1.6 Role of Communication in the Present Business Organizations
1.7 Summary
1.8 Key Words
1.9 Answers to ‘Check Your Progress’
1.10 Self-Assessment Questions
1.11 Further Readings
UNIT 2 COMMUNICATION PROCESS 29-48

2.1 Introduction
2.2 Main Components of the Communication Process
2.3 Different Models and Processes of Communication
2.4 Selection of Communication Medium
2.5 Summary
2.6 Key Words
UNIT 3 GOOD COMMUNICATION 49-58

3.1 Introduction
3.2 Nature of Good Communication
3.3 Summary
3.4 Key Words
UNIT 4 VERBAL AND NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION 59-80

4.1 Introduction
4.2 Verbal/Oral Communication
4.3 Non-Verbal (Written) Communication
4.4 Summary
4.5 Key Words
BLOCK-II : METHODS OF COMMUNICATION
UNIT 5 DIMENSIONS OF COMMUNICATION 83-92

5.1 Introduction
5.2 Dimensions of Communication in Organizations
5.3 Summary
5.4 Key Words
UNIT 6 INTRA-ORGANIZATIONAL COMMUNICATION 93-106

6.1 Introduction
6.2 Communication Behaviour in Organizations
6.3 Summary
6.4 Key Words
UNIT 7 COMMUNICATION CHANNELS 107-126

7.1 Introduction
7.2 Methods of Communication Channels
7.3 Various Aspects of Electronic Mail
7.4 Written Messages
7.5 Working Notes
7.6 Types of Business Communication
7.7 Summary
7.8 Key Words
UNIT 8 BASICS AND BREAKDOWN IN COMMUNICATION 127-140

8.1 Introduction
8.2 Basics of Communication
8.3 Breakdown in Communication
8.4 Summary
8.5 Key Words
BLOCK-III : EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION,

SPEAKING AND ORAL REPORTING
UNIT 9 GUIDELINES FOR EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION 143-156

9.1 Introduction
9.2 Effective Communication
9.3 Guidelines for Effective Communication
9.4 Summary
9.5 Key Words
UNIT 10 EFFECTIVE SPEAKING 157-200

10.1 Introduction
10.2 Principles of Effective Speaking
10.3 Intelligent and Persuasive Language
10.4 Persuasive Statement
10.5 Physical Expressions
10.6 Chairperson’s Speech
10.7 Words and Regulation
10.8 Summary
10.9 Key Words
UNIT 11 PRESENTATION AND INTERVIEW 201-240

11.1 Introduction
11.2 Business Presentation
11.3 Interview
11.4 Interview Skills
11.5 Summary
11.6 Key Words
UNIT 12 LISTENING 241-256
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Nature of Listening
12.3 Effective Listening Exercises
12.4 Non-Verbal Communication: Place, Environment and Time
12.5 Summary
12.6 Key Words
BLOCK-IV : PUBLIC COMMUNICATION, BUSINESS CORRESPONDENCE

AND REPORT WRITING
UNIT 13 COMMUNICATION FOR CUSTOMERS/PUBLIC (EXTERNAL

COMMUNICATION) 259-268
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Communication with Customers/Public
13.3 Summary
13.4 Key Words
UNIT 14 BUSINESS CORRESPONDENCE 269-288

14.1 Introduction
14.2 Nature of Business Letter
14.3 Request Letter
14.4 Inspirational Letter
14.5 Summary
14.6 Key Words
UNIT 15 EFFECTIVE BUSINESS LETTERS 289-308

15.1 Introduction
15.2 Basic Elements of Effective Business Letters
15.3 Summary
15.4 Key Words
UNIT 16 TYPES OF REPORT AND NOTICE, REPORT WRITING
AND AGENDA AND MINUTES 309-360
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Reports and Presentation
16.3 Notice and its Types
16.4 Resolution/Offer
16.5 Reports and their Types
16.6 Report Writing
16.7 Agenda and Minutes
16.8 Summary
16.9 Key Words
Communication: Concept and its Role
in Present Day Business Organization
BLOCK-I
COMMUNICATION CONCEPTS AND FUNCTIONS
Effective communication is central to the success of any business organization.

Communication is a pervasive activity which encompasses almost all facets of our lives.
Much of our life is spent communicating with each other, be it at our work place or in our
family life. According to W.H. Newman and C.F. Summer Jr, ‘Communication is an
exchange of facts, ideas, opinions or emotions by two or more persons.’ This block is
divided into four units.
The first unit defines the concept of communication. The stages of the communication
process have also been explained in detail. You will further study about the types of
communication, that is, internal and external communication. Various kinds of barriers which
obstruct the communication process have been described as well. The significant role of
communication in the present business organizations has been further dealt with in this unit.
The second unit deals with the communication process and explains the main components of
the communication process. The various models and processes of communication developed
by scientists and theorists have also been described in this unit. Also, the selection of the
communication medium in the workplace has been explained as well.
The third unit mentions good communication. You will study that the nature of good
communication includes holding group discussions, conducting mock interviews and holding
seminars.
The fourth unit deals with verbal and non-verbal communication. This unit explains verbal
communication which takes place within organizations through meetings, conferences,
workshops, telephone talk and so forth. The significance of written communication has also
been dealt with in this unit.
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UNIT–1 COMMUNICATION: CONCEPT AND ITS ROLE IN

PRESENT DAY BUSINESS ORGANIZATION
Objectives
After going through this unit, you will be able to:
• Explain the concept of communication
• Mention the stages of communication
• Discuss the types of communication
• List the major barriers related to communication
• Analyse the role of communication in the present business organizations
Structure
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Concept of Communication
1.3 Stages of Communication
1.4 Types of Communication
1.5 Major Barriers Related to Communication
1.6 Role of Communication in the Present Business Organizations
1.7 Summary
1.8 Key Words
1.1 INTRODUCTION
The word communication, which has its origin in the Latin word communis, brings
out many images in one’s mind. It could be a process, a network, a technique, or a
form of entertainment. It could be personal or business-related and it has developed
its modes, channels, instruments and gadgets over the years.
The word ‘communication’ in the singular form is different from the plural,
‘communications’. When we attempt to define communication, we are looking at a
dynamic and evolving subject. It is no surprise, therefore, that communication, over
the years, has seen numerous dimensions.
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The following definitions bring out different facets of communication and together
facilitate an understanding of the expanse of the concept.
‘Communication is the broad field of human interchange of facts and opinions.’-
Redfield
This definition emphasizes the fact that communication has to do with
interchange or exchange of facts and opinions or social or commercial intercourse.
‘Communication encompasses all forms of expression which serve the purpose
of mutual understanding.’ —Revesz
This definition highlights the all-encompassing nature of communication and the
fact that it has a purpose to achieve.
‘Communication is the transmission of ideas, emotions and skills by the use of
symbols, graphs, etc. It is the act or process of transformation that is usually called
communication.’ —Berelso and Steiner
In this definition, the emphasis is on the wide range of messages conveyed, the
variety of channels used and the process of transformation.
‘Communication is the process by which we understand others and in turn
endeavour to be understood by them. It is dynamic, constantly changing and shifting
in response to the total situation.’ —Anderson
This statement clearly brings out the fact that communication is essentially a
dynamic process.
‘Communication is the process that links discontinuous parts of the world to one
another.’ —Ruesch
Here, the focus is on the fact that communication has a global reach.
‘Communication is the means by which power is exerted.’ —Schacter
This brings out the dominant role played by communication in empowering
people in their individual and organizational endeavours.
‘Communication maintains and animates life. It creates a common pool of ideas,
strengthens the feelings of togetherness through exchange of messages and translates
thought into action.’ —UNESCO – Many Voices One World
This definition underlines what communication strives to achieve, especially
through information sharing, relationship building and action orientation. Each of
these definitions thus rightly highlights the important facets or key thoughts
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concerning communication. It is seen as an interchange, an expression, a

transmission, a dynamic process, a connecting link, a means to power and a force
that maintains and animates life.
Communication is both an art and a science. It may be an inborn quality or a
talent or as we say, ‘The gift of the gab’. On the other hand, it is a discipline
amenable to systematic study and mastery. It has an element of creativity, as well as
an element of precision. It calls for mastering of skills as well as techniques.
In this unit, you will study about the concept of communication, stages of
communication, types of communication, major barriers of communication and the
role of communication in the present business organizations.
1.2 CONCEPT OF COMMUNICATION
Communication is a pervasive activity, which encompasses almost all facets of our

lives, whether at our workplace or in our family life. The term ‘communication’ is
derived from the Latin word ‘communis’ which means common. Thus,
communication involves rendering common ideas, opinions or information, that is, the
sharing of ideas, opinions or information.
Communication is defined as the interchange of thought or information between
two or more persons to bring about mutual understanding. Robert Anderson, author
of Professional Selling, has defined communication as the interchange of thoughts,
opinions or information by speech writing or signs.
According to Keith Davis, one of the leading authors on the subject,
communication is the transfer of information and understanding from one person to
another person. It is a way of reaching others with facts, ideas, thoughts and values.
In the words of Peter Little, author of Communication in Business, ‘communication
is the process by which information is transmitted between individuals and/or
organizations so that an understanding and response develops’.
When communication is referred to in the organizational context, it is known as
‘organizational communication’. Effective communication is central to the success of
any business organization. According to William Scott, author of Organizational
Theory, ‘administrative communication is a process which involves the transmission
and accurate replication of ideas ensured by feedback for the purpose of eliciting
actions which will accomplish organizational goals’.
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Need for Communication

Communication is the modus operandi of social and commercial intercourse. It is
communication, which gets the world going. It is the lifeblood of any group or
organization. The communication process encompasses men, women and children as
individuals and also members of a group, society, community or organization.
Communication is relevant not only to human beings, but also to other living
beings. It is the most important link that connects all living organisms.
Communication takes place not only among people, but also between people and
animals and among animals. The dog owner, the horse rider, the ringmaster in the
circus and the fortune-teller communicate with their animals and birds.
Communication connects all living beings

Communication is the ability of mankind to communicate across barriers and beyond
boundaries that has ushered the progress of mankind. It is the ability of fostering
speedy and effective communication around the world that has shrunk the world and
made ‘globalization’ a reality. Communication has had a vital role to play in ensuring
that people belonging to a particular country or a cultural or linguistic group interact
with and relate to people belonging to other countries or cultural and linguistic
groups.
Communication ushers progress

Communication is at once the cause and consequence of a powerful world order.
Development of varied and sophisticated means of communication over a period of
time has brought human beings across the globe closer and has facilitated speedy
and effective transmission of thoughts and ideas. The expanse or reach of
communication, therefore, is worldwide and truly encompasses human life in all its
facets and endeavours. It galvanizes action among individuals, organizations,
societies and the world community at large.
Communication galvanizes action

The first and foremost objective of any communication is to inform. In today’s world,
information is power. Communication brings power through information. The
dissemination of information covers a wide range of areas, both internal and external.
People within the organization have to be kept informed about the organizational
goals, objectives, procedures, processes, systems, plans, priorities and strategies.
Equally important is the objective of ensuring effective external communication—
with customers, prospects, competitors, suppliers and the public, about products,
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services, plans, happenings, events and achievements. The information needs within
the organization take on different nomenclatures—market-related information,
product-related information, client-related information, employee information,
executive information, management information and so on.
As members of society, human beings have to constantly interact with their fellow
beings. They have feelings, emotions, likes and dislikes—all of which they have to
convey. In other words, whatever be the environment, human beings have to build
links and establish relationships. The need for communication arises from their desire
to express themselves in a meaningful manner. As stated earlier, communication is
the modus operandi of social intercourse. As a member of the family, a social group,
and as part of a work-team, you need to communicate with others.
Communication stems from the desire to express oneself

Just as human beings are social beings, they are also emotional beings and rational
beings. They have certain thoughts and emotions. Human heart generates feelings
and is endowed with the ability to think. They have intelligence and brainpower. The
human mind is a very potent force. There is always a constant urge to give
expression to what the mind generates. In order to give a meaningful expression to
thoughts, ideas, reasoning, creativity and intelligence, human beings resort to
communication.
The need for communication arises from the need to emote, to interact, and to
express one’s ideas and thoughts, and the need to relate and connect. The need or
the desire to communicate, however, varies from person to person, depending on
time and context. There are times and occasions when a person is extremely
communicative. There are also times and occasions when he or she prefers to
remain silent, however, most of our waking hours are spent in communication.
Communication may take place in several ways—listening, speaking, reading and
writing.
Objective of ensuring effective external communication—with customers,
prospects, competitors, suppliers and the public, about products, services, plans,
happenings, events and achievements. The information needs within the organization
take on different nomenclatures—market-related information, product-related
information, client-related information, employee information, executive information,
management information and so on.
As members of society, human beings have to constantly interact with their fellow
beings. They have feelings, emotions, likes and dislikes—all of which they have to
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convey. In other words, whatever be the environment, human beings have to build
links and establish relationships. The need for communication arises from their desire
to express themselves in a meaningful manner. As stated earlier, communication is
the modus operandi of social intercourse. As a member of the family, a social group,
and as part of a work-team, you need to communicate with others.
Fig. 1.1 The Various Needs of Communication
According to researchers, you spend 50–80 per cent of your waking hours in
communicating. Of this,
• About 45 per cent is spent in listening
• About 30 per cent is spent in speaking
• About 15 per cent is spent in reading
• About 10 per cent is spent in writing
Check Your Progress - 1
1. What is the foremost objective of any communication?

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2. What is the need for communication?

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1.3 STAGES OF COMMUNICATION
Communication is a process that involves certain distinct steps. In its simpler form, it
relates to stimulus and response. The stimulus arises from the communicator, and the
receiver responds. Communication is not complete till the message conveyed by the
sender is properly understood by the receiver. As mentioned earlier, any
communication process should necessarily have three elements:
(i) Sender
(ii) Receiver
(iii) Message
The process of communication in an organization can be illustrated with the help of
Figure 1.2.
Message
Feedback
Sender
User-Action
Idea-Encode Decode-Receiver
Transmission
(Medium/Channel)
Fig. 1.2 Process of Communication
Figure 1.2 brings out the following steps involved in the communication process:
Stage 1: Message is initiated.
Stage 2: Sender picks up the idea and encodes it for proper understanding.
Stage 3: The encoded message is then transmitted through the chosen medium
or channel.
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Stage 4: Receiver receives the message and decodes it.

Stage 5: The decoded message is used or acted upon.
Stage 6: As a final step, feedback on use or action is sent back to the sender.
The starting point of any communication is the existence of a message. The
process of communication starts with a purpose. There is an underlying idea that has
to be put across. This idea is developed into a message. The sender gives shape to
the idea he wants to communicate.
The next step, as is evident from the figure, is the encoding of the idea. Encoding
ensures that the idea or the message assumes a communicable form. It is to be noted
that encoding would involve choosing the right words, expressions, phrases, charts
and pictures in order to facilitate complete and clear expression of the idea. In doing
so, the sender of the message should keep in mind the ability of the receiver to
decode and comprehend the message.
The encoded message is now ready to travel. The journey or transmission is
undertaken through a medium or channel. The sender of the message has to select
the medium or the communication channel—oral, written, visual, audio-visual,
electronic or a combination of any of these. Each of these offers various options.
The choice of the medium would be influenced by factors like availability, cost,
urgency and reliability.
The transmission is complete when the message reaches the receiver. The
message has travelled from the sender to the receiver. Having received the message,
it is now up to the receiver to respond. If the receiver does not open the mailbox,
ignores the letter, declines to take the call, refuses to view the audio-visual film or
ignores the e-mail, the message gets lost, and the idea fails to reach its destination.
For the communication process to progress as intended, the receiver, on getting
the message, should decode it. Decoding relates to reading, listening, viewing,
understanding and interpreting of the message. Proper decoding is again a
must for effective communication. It calls for earnestness on the part of the receiver.
It depends on one’s willingness to respond to the sender’s efforts in sending the
message. Even when one responds, understanding and interpretation of the message
will be influenced by one’s knowledge, attitude and perception. Communication is
complete and effective only when the receiver correctly comprehends the purpose
of the message, uses it and acts upon it as envisaged by the sender.
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In the organizational context, in particular, the communication process moves a

step further resulting in relevant feedback to the sender. The quality of feedback
received from the target indicates the effectiveness of communication.
The process of communication is thus a progressive step-by-step movement.
Both the sender and the receiver have a definite role to play in ensuring the success
of communication. Their internal background, social status, hierarchical relationships,
organizational climate, knowledge, skills and attitudes are among a host of factors
that determine the effectiveness of communication. Added to these is the efficiency
and reliability of the channels of communication chosen in the process. The choice of
methods and channels should be such that they are capable of overcoming barriers,
if any, to the process of communication.
Evolution of Process of Communication

The process of communication has evolved over centuries and gained sophistication,
in line with the progress of civilization. It took centuries for human beings to learn to
speak and develop languages as a vehicle of thought. The next breakthrough came
when the printed word became a reality. Printed messages facilitated a wider reach
and more importantly, could be shared. The advent of the 20th century ushered in
tremendous technological advancements, which in turn gave a whole new dimension
to the world of communication. With a spate of scientific and technological
innovations, human communication gained speed and sophistication. Today, having
stepped into the 21st century we are on the threshold of realizing an exciting new
range of possibilities in the world of communication.
Before taking a look at the new trends in communication, let us take the
evolution of the process of communication into perspective.
The process of communication yesterday was limited and primitive. Pre-historic
man and people in the early civilizations communicated through sounds, grunts,
actions, gestures and gesticulations. Communication between individuals was mostly
non-verbal. They used symbols and pictures to convey their limited messages. As
the early languages such as Sanskrit, Persian, Greek and Latin developed, important
messages came to be passed on by word of mouth. Initial writings were on stones
and leaves. Access to the spoken word was limited by physical factors and
distances. Use of written communication too was restricted—scriptures, religious
texts, royal messages, and so on.
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1. Mention the first stage of communication.

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2. Define decoding.
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1.4 TYPES OF COMMUNICATION
In an organization, communication can be of two types. These are the internal

communication and external communication.
1. Internal Communication
Internal communication is communication within the organization. Internal
communication integrates and coordinates all the managerial functions, that is, it
facilitates planning, organizing, staffing, directing and controlling. Internal
communication is thus considered important for the following reasons.
(i) Facilitates planning: Effective communication systems facilitate both the
establishment and the dissemination of objectives in an organization. It
further helps in planning for the achievement of these objectives by
collecting timely and accurate information. In fact, the success of planning is
largely dependent on the quality of information on which it is based.
(ii) Coordinates business functions and departments: Businesses are
becoming increasingly complex. Due to specialization, different functional
areas like advertising, finance, sales, production, training and recruitment
are handled by different departments. For the coordination of the various
departments, effective communication is essential amongst them. For
example, the planning department may have spent a month to work out the
details of a new project, but it will all prove to be futile if the finances are
not available to execute the project.
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(iii) Ensure healthy and even growth of businesses: Organizations have a

number of branches both within the country and abroad. Therefore, for
healthy and even growth, an effective and efficient network of
communication is required. This will facilitate effective information transfer
amongst various branches and will also update information at the head
office to facilitate planning and decision making.
(iv) Promotes cooperation and understanding: If there exists effective and
smooth communication between the management and employees, it helps
to bring about an atmosphere of mutual trust and confidence which is
beneficial to both the parties. The management gets better returns as there
is an increase in productivity. The employees get increased job satisfaction
and also develop a sense of loyalty and belongingness towards the
organization.
(v) Helps in the decision-making process: The decision-making process,
like planning, is also based on the availability of information. If the right type
of information is not available at the right time due to the lack of effective
communication, the management will be unable to consider all the pros and
cons before taking the decision. Effective communication results in high
quality decision-making.
(vi) Increases employee morale: Communication in organizations is the basis
of morale building. Through an effective communication system, the
employees can bring their grievances to the management and get them
redressed satisfactorily. It thus creates trust and ensures job satisfaction.
2. External Communication
External communication refers to the communication of the organization with external
agencies, both government and private. External agencies include government
agencies and departments, distributors, retailers, individual customers and
competitors. Business organizations are required to deal with licensing authorities,
foreign trade offices, banks, custom offices, income and sales tax offices,
transporters, and so on, which call for effective communication. Modern businesses
are highly competitive and organizations which communicate better are undoubtedly
more successful. External communication is thus considered important for the
following reasons:
(i) Contact with the external environment: Organizations do not exist in
isolation. It is important that they keep in touch with the external
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environment to follow the changes taking place and the effect they will have
on the functioning of the business. Good communication networks will
enable to anticipate changes and prepare accordingly.
(ii) Improves ability to handle competition better: This is an era of
competition for businesses. Effective communication helps in handling
information about competitors, their products, policies, and so on, to meet
the challenges of competition. The right kind of information at the right time
can thus help in handling competition better.
(iii) Improves public relations: Communication helps in building relationships
with all stakeholders which include customers, suppliers, competitors,
press, and so on. Good communication promotes goodwill amongst the
various stakeholders.
1. Name the two types of communication.

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2. What is the main function of internal communication?

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1.5 MAJOR BARRIERS RELATED TO COMMUNICATION
Organizational communication must be interpreted and understood in the same

manner as it was meant to be by the sender, otherwise it will not achieve the desired
result and a communication break-down will occur. There are certain external road
blocks to effective communication such as poor timing of communication, poor
choice of channel of communication, incomplete, inadequate or unclear information,
network breakdown and so on, that can affect the proper reception of the
communication. In addition there are personal factors that may interpret the
communication not in the same manner as it was intended by the sender but in a way
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in which the receiver wants to receive, depending upon the stimuli present, emotions
or prejudices for or against a concept or ideology or personal conflicts so that
instead of interpreting the content of the communication, the intent of the sender may
be interpreted. According to Rogers and Roethlisberger, communication
effectiveness is always influenced by ‘our very natural tendency to judge, to
evaluate, to approve or disapprove the statement of the other person or other
group.’ This evaluation tendency may alter the meaning of the entire communication.
Accordingly, the management should not only attempt to eliminate all external
barriers so that the communication is clear and to the point, but also try to
understand the perceptions and attitudes of the receiver. Only then can the
communication have its maximum effect.
Some of the organizational barriers and some of the interpersonal barriers to
effective communication are discussed as follows:
1. Noise Barriers
Noise is any external factor that interferes with the effectiveness of communication.
The term is derived from noise or static effects in telephone conversation or radio
wave transmission. It may cause interference in the process of communication by
distraction or by blocking a part of the message or by diluting the strength of the
communication. Some of the sources contributing towards noise factor are as
follows:
(a) Poor timing: The manager must know when to communicate. A message
that requires action in the distant future may be forgotten by the time action
is to be taken. Similarly, a last minute communication with a deadline may
put too much pressure on the receiver and may result in resentment. A
message must be sent at an appropriate time to avoid these problems.
(b) Inappropriate channel: Poor choice of channel of communication can
also be contributory to the misunderstanding of the message. The manager
must decide whether the communication would be most effective if it is in
writing or by a telephone call or a face-to-face conversation or a
combination of these modes. If the communication has been initiated
through a telephone call, then it may be necessary to confirm the message
of the call by putting it in writing. The face-to-face communication
emphasizes the strength of the message because it is supported by
nonverbal gestures such as eye contact, hand gestures, facial expressions,
tone of voice and so on.
15
(c) Improper or inadequate information: The information must be

meaningful to the employee. It must be precise and to the point. Too little or
too much information endangers effective communication. Ambiguity or use
of words that can lend to different interpretations should be avoided.
(d) Physical distractions: The manager must recognize that in the case of
face-to-face communication, any distractions can interfere with the
process. Telephone interruptions, walk-in visitors or attending to other
matters can interfere with the effective communication process. These
external disturbances must be avoided.
(e) Organizational structure: The organizational structure should be such
that the chain of command and channels of communication are clearly
established and the responsibility and authority are clearly assigned and are
traceable. Communication may be blocked, chaotic or distorted if the
channels are not clear or if the passages are blocked or if there are
bottlenecks or dead-ends.
(f) Information overload: As dynamic changes are continuously occurring in
our life, in our society and in our organizations, they create a mass of
information to be processed for effective decision-making. Overload
occurs when individuals receive more information than they are capable of
processing. The result could be confusion or some important information
may be laid aside for the purpose of convenience.
(g) Network breakdown: Network breakdown may be intentional or due to
information overload and time pressures under which a communication has
to be acted upon. Some factors contributing to such disruptions are:
• Important negative information may be withheld by the managers.
• The secretary may forget to forward a memo.
• There may be professional jealousy resulting in closed channels.
2. Interpersonal Barriers
There are many interpersonal barriers that disrupt the effectiveness of the
communication process and generally involve such characteristics of either the
sender or the receiver that cause communication problems. Some of these are:
(a) Filtering: Filtering refers to intentionally withholding or deliberately
manipulating information by the sender, either because the sender believes
that the receiver does not need all the information or that the receiver is
16
better off not knowing all aspects of a given situation. It could also be that
the receiver is simply told what he or she wants to hear. The extent of
filtering may also depend upon the number of levels in the organizational
structure. The more vertical levels there are in an organization, the more
likely the filtering of information.
(b) Semantic barriers: These barriers occur due to differences in individual
interpretations of words and symbols. The words and paragraphs must be
interpreted with the same meaning as was intended. The choice of a wrong
word or a comma at a wrong place in a sentence can sometimes alter the
meaning of the intended message. Many a times in an organization one gets
to hear ‘it was not what I meant’ or ‘you misunderstood my message’ and
so on, because of poor choice of words. For example, when discussing a
problem employee, a departmental head may tell his or her assistant ‘to get
rid of the problem.’ They may mean to warn the employee or transfer the
employee to another department. But the assistant may fire the employee
believing that this was meant in the message. Accordingly, it is advised that
if there is any ground for misunderstanding in a message, it be confirmed
with the sender. For example, if you are giving your address to someone on
the telephone, it is advisable that the receiver repeat this address so that the
sender can verify it right away to reassure its accuracy.
(c) Perception: Perception relates to the process through which we receive
and interpret information from our environment and create a meaningful
world out of it. Different people may perceive the same situation differently.
Hearing what we want to hear and ignoring information that conflicts with
what we know can totally distort the intent or the content of the message.
Some of the perceptual situations that may distort a manager’s assessment
of people resulting in reduced effectiveness of the communication are:
• A manager may perceive people to belong to one category or another
as stereotypes, rather than unique and distinct individuals. For
example, he may perceive women to be less efficient managers or old
people less hard working and lacking drive and creativity.
• A manager may make total assessment of a person based on a single
trait. A pleasant smile may make a positive first impression. Punctuality
alone or loyalty alone may cause a favourable perception in the mind
of the manager.
17
• A manager may assume that his or her subordinate’s perception about

things and situations are similar to his own. For example, a manager
who accepts added responsibility and challenges with enthusiasm may
expect the same from his subordinates. This perception limits the
manager’s ability to effectively respond to and deal with individual
differences and differing views of work situations.
The management in an organization must realise and recognize these differences
in perceptions and take steps to understand the environment. A successful manager
must be aware of the impact of factors that affect perception by interaction with
others and should also possess the ability to influence or change the perceptions of
others where necessary so that events and situations are interpreted as accurately
and objectively as possible. For example, an employee may resist a message simply
because the employee has not developed a trust in the manager due to past
experiences. If the employee was promised a bonus or promotion on certain
accomplishment and did not receive the promised rewards, the employee may tend
to ignore the communication wherever possible. Accordingly, the manager must take
steps to eliminate such negative perceptions among the employees.
3. Cultural Barriers
Cross-cultural communication creates problems for effective communication
because words used by people are in the tone of their respective cultures which may
not be properly understood by people of other cultures. This is especially true for
multinational companies and enterprises with a multi-ethnic workforce. These
barriers are caused by:
(a) Semantic differences
(b) Word connotation
(c) Differences of tone
(d) Perception
Semantic difference also created problems because people attribute different
meanings to a particular word. For example, efficiency, free-market and regulation
are words which are differently understood by people of different cultures.
Some other examples of cultural barriers are as follows:
(i) Advertisement about Action Man Soldier toys, where toy soldiers were in
tanks holding machine guns, were not permitted in the erstwhile West
Germany because they were interpreted as promoting violence.
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(ii) In Austria and France, children are not permitted to do television

commercials.
(iii) Most Jewish people will not work on Saturdays and most Muslims will not
work on Friday afternoons.
(iv) Establishing deadlines to accomplish work assignments is considered rude
in most Middle East countries.
(v) Punctuality in some countries is not considered important.
(vi) Many important meetings and activities are contemplated after consultations
with astrologers in India.
Accordingly management must identify these cultural differences and attempt to
minimize any adverse effects on communication effectiveness due to these
differences.
4. Sender Credibility
When the sender of the communication has high credibility in the eyes of the
receiver, the message is taken much more seriously and accepted at face value. If the
receiver has confidence, trust and respect for the sender, then the decoding and the
interpretations of the message will lead to a meaning that would be closer to the
intended meaning of the sender. Conversely, if the sender is not trusted, then the
receiver will scrutinize the message closely and deliberately look for hidden meanings
or tricks and may end up distorting the entire message. Similarly, if the source is
believed to be an expert in a particular field then the listener may pay close attention
to the message, and believe it specially if the message is related to the field of
expertise. For example, an expert nuclear engineer may be viewed as a credible
source on building a nuclear power plant and may be totally disregarded regarding
his views on abortion.
5. Emotions
The interpretation of a communication also depends upon the state of the receiver at
the time the message is received. The same message received when the receiver is
angry, frustrated or depressed may be interpreted differently than when he is happy.
Extreme emotions are most likely to hinder effective communication because rational
judgements are replaced by emotional judgments.
6. Multi-meaning words
Many words in English language have different meanings when used in different
situations. Accordingly, a manager must not assume that a particular word means the
19
same thing to all people who use it. A study by Lydia Strong concluded that for the
500 most common words in English, there are 4,070 different dictionary definitions.
For example, the word ‘run’ can be used in 15 different ways. Some of the
examples are:
• Rahul Dravid scored a run.
• She has a run in her stocking.
• Did you see him run?
• What headlines do you want to run today?
• There was a run on the bank today.
• Who will run for president this year?
• Please run my bath water
Accordingly, the managers must make sure that they use the word in the same
manner as the receiver is expected to understand it, otherwise it will create a barrier
to proper understanding of the message.
7. Feedback Barriers
The final source of communication process problems lies in the feedback or the lack
of it. Feedback is the only way to ascertain as to how the message was interpreted.
Feedback closes the communication loop and is important for effective
communication. It is equally important to pay attention to feedback. The feedback
may be for the purpose of communicating, the results of an action or it may be for
asking questions about communication for further clarifications. A student who
misunderstands a question in the exam but does not have the provision to ask for
clarification may end up giving the wrong answer. The omission of feedback can
cause another problem in that the sender may have another message that depends
upon the response to the first message. Thus, no feedback or a wrong feedback will
create problems with the communication of the subsequent message.
8. Physical Barriers
Noise, devices not working properly, interruptions and uncomfortable seating
arrangements are some of the physical barriers to effective communication. The first
step of the listening process is hearing, and extra noise disturbs the hearing process.
Noise disturbs both the listener and the speaker. In case a device like microphone or
telephone is being used then the malfunctioning of the device will act as a barrier
20
to the message that is sent by the speaker to the listener. Also, uncomfortable seating
arrangements may make it difficult for the listener to concentrate on the speaker.
Interruptions by other people or by the telephone while someone is speaking disturb
the concentration of the listener, frustrate the speaker and make the listening process
less effective. Message overload, which involves listening to a lot of information one
after another, also makes it very difficult to listen effectively.
Thus, we can say that physical barriers include the following:
• Noise
• Defective mechanical devices
• Frequent interruptions
• Uncomfortable seating arrangements and environment
• Message overload
9. Physiological Barriers
Physiological barriers include the following:
State of health
The physical condition of the individual affects the listening ability. Fever, pain or any
other form of illness makes it difficult for an individual to listen attentively. Similarly
poor health conditions of a speaker affect his ability to speak well and this in turn
reduces the listening efficiency of the listener.
Disability
As discussed earlier, hearing is the first step of the listening process and, therefore,
hearing problems may lead to poor listening. Similarly, people who do not speak
well make it impossible for the listener to understand what they are saying. At times
the speaker’s accent may make it difficult for the listener to understand him; for
example a person from France communicating in the English language. Similarly,
when a speaker speaks very quickly, it may result in an unclear message reaching the
listener.
Wandering attention
Research shows that the human mind can process 500 words per minute, whereas
a speaker speaks about 150 words per minute. The difference between the two is
quite large—350 words per minute. This leaves the listener with enough time to
concentrate on and analyse what the speaker is trying to communicate.
21
10. Psychological barriers

Psychological barriers relate to attitudinal and behavioural aspects. These include the
following:
Being unsure of the speaker’s ability

Based on past experience or what he has heard from some source, the listener may
have a preconceived notion of the speaker’s ability. He may perceive the speaker
to be lacking in ability. This acts as a barrier to the listening process as the listener
will not listen to what the speaker has to say.
Personal anxiety
Sometimes we are too worried about our own concerns and fears. This makes it
difficult to perceive what is being said and, thus, it acts as a barrier to effective
listening.
Attitude
The attitude of the listener many times acts as a barrier to effective listening. The
listener may not want to listen to want the speaker has to say because he thinks that
he already knows everything the speaker is saying. Sometimes, a listener may have
a critical attitude; in other words, he may concentrate too much on trying to find
faults and errors in the speaker’s accent, delivery, appearance, grammar, and so on.
Impatience
The listener may not have patience to wait for the other person to finish what he has
to say. He may be too eager to add his own points to the discussion. As a result, his
desire to speak overcomes his desire to listen, thus acting as a barrier.
Emotional blocks
Our strong beliefs in certain ideas may make it difficult for us to listen to ideas which
go against our beliefs.
1. Name the factors which contribute to network breakdown in an

organization.
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2. What are psychological barriers?

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1.6 ROLE OF COMMUNICATION IN THE PRESENT

BUSINESS ORGANIZATIONS
Communication is the life blood of every organization. Managers communicate with

subordinates to get work done. Subordinates seek clarifications and report to their
superiors. Both formal and informal communication occurs at all levels in the
organization. With globalization and the breaking of boundaries between nations, the
importance of communication has further increased. Increase in the size of
organizations, technological advancement and increasing competition have all
contributed to the importance of effective communication systems.
Communication can be internal, that is, information can be transmitted within the
organization, or external, that is, information can be transmitted outside the
organization. Both are equally important.
Importance of Internal Communication

Internal communication is communication within the organization. Internal
communication integrates and coordinates all the managerial functions, that is, it
facilitates planning, organizing, staffing, directing and controlling. Internal
communication is thus, considered important for the following reasons.
(i) It facilitates planning: Effective communication systems facilitate both the
establishment and the dissemination of objectives in an organization. It
further helps in planning for the achievement of these objectives by
collecting timely and accurate information. In fact, the success of planning is
largely dependent on the quality of information on which it is based.
(ii) Increasing complexity of business: Businesses are becoming
increasingly complex. Due to specialization, different functional areas like
advertising, finance, sales, production, training and recruitment are handled
by different departments. For the coordination of the various departments,
effective communication is essential amongst them. For example, the
planning department may have spent a month to work out the details of a
new project, but it will all prove to be futile if the finances are not available
to execute the project.
23
(iii) Growth of businesses: Organizations have a number of branches both

within the country and abroad. Therefore, for healthy and even growth, an
effective and efficient network of communication is required. This will
facilitate effective information transfer amongst various branches and will
also update information at the head office to facilitate planning and
decision-making.
(iv) Promotes cooperation and understanding: If there exists effective and
smooth communication between the management and employees, it helps
to bring about an atmosphere of mutual trust and confidence which is
beneficial to both the parties. The management gets better returns as there
is an increase in productivity. The employees get increased job satisfaction
and also develop a sense of loyalty and belongingness towards the
organization.
Fig. 1.3 Communication Exchange
(v) Helps in the decision-making process: The decision-making process,

like planning, is also based on the availability of information. If the right type
of information is not available at the right time due to the lack of effective
communication, the management will be unable to consider all the pros and
cons before taking the decision. Effective communication results in high
quality decision-making.
(vi) Increases employee morale: Communication in organizations is the basis
of morale building. Through an effective communication system, the
employees can bring their grievances to the management and get them
redressed satisfactorily. It, thus, creates trust and ensures job satisfaction.
24
Importance of External Communication

agencies, both government and private. External agencies include government
agencies and departments, distributors, retailers, individual customers and
competitors. Business organizations are required to deal with licensing authorities,
foreign trade offices, banks, custom offices, income and sales tax offices,
transporters, and so on, which call for effective communication. Modern businesses
are highly competitive and organizations which communicate better are undoubtedly
more successful. External communication is thus, considered important for the
following reasons:
(i) Contact with the external environment: Organizations do not exist in
isolation. It is important that they keep in touch with the external
environment to follow the changes taking place and the effect they will have
on the functioning of the business. Good communication networks will
enable to anticipate changes and prepare accordingly.
(ii) Improves ability to handle competition better: This is an era of
competition for businesses. Effective communication helps in handling
information about competitors, their products, policies, and so on, to meet
the challenges of competition. The right kind of information at the right time
can thus, help in handling competition better.
(iii) Improves public relations: Communication helps in building relationships
with all stakeholders which include customers, suppliers, competitors,
press, and so on. Good communication promotes goodwill amongst the
various stakeholders.
1. How does internal communication assist in the decision-making process?

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2. What is the significance of external communication?

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1.7 SUMMARY
• The word communication, which has its origin in the Latin word
communis, brings out many images in one’s mind. It could be a process, a
network, a technique, or a form of entertainment.
• Communication is a pervasive activity, which encompasses almost all facets
of our lives, whether at our workplace or in our family life.
• Communication is the modus operandi of social and commercial
intercourse. It is communication, which gets the world going.
• The need for communication arises from the need to emote, to interact, and
to express one’s ideas and thoughts, and the need to relate and connect.
• Communication is a process that involves certain distinct steps. In its
simpler form, it relates to stimulus and response. The stimulus arises from
the communicator, and the receiver responds.
• In an organization, communication can be of two types. These are the
internal communication and external communication.
• Internal communication is communication within the organization. Internal
communication integrates and coordinates all the managerial functions, that
is, it facilitates planning, organizing, staffing, directing and controlling.
• External communication refers to the communication of the organization
with external agencies, both government and private.
• Organizational communication must be interpreted and understood in the
same manner as it was meant to be by the sender, otherwise it will not
achieve the desired result and a communication break-down will occur.
• There are many interpersonal barriers that disrupt the effectiveness of the
communication process and generally involve such characteristics of either
the sender or the receiver that cause communication problems.
• Noise, devices not working properly, interruptions and uncomfortable
seating arrangements are some of the physical barriers to effective
communication.
• Communication is the life blood of every organization. Managers
communicate with subordinates to get work done.
• Communication can be internal, that is, information can be transmitted
within the organization, or external, that is, information can be transmitted
outside the organization. Both are equally important.
26
1.8 KEY WORDS
• Feedback: It is the return of information about the result of a process or

activity; an evaluative response.
• Oral communication: It involves the exchange of messages with the help
of spoken words.
• Internal communication: It is the transmission of information between
organizational members or parts of the organization.
1.9 ANSWERS TO ‘CHECK YOUR PROGRESS’

1. The foremost objective of any communication is to inform.
2. Communication is needed due to the following reasons:
• Communication connects all living beings
• Communication ushers progress
• Communication galvanizes action
• Communication stems from the desire to express oneself
1. In the first stage of communication, message is initiated by the sender.
2. Decoding relates to reading, listening, viewing, understanding and
interpreting of the message.
1. The two types of communication are internal communication and external
communication.
2 Internal communication is communication within the organization. Internal
communication integrates and coordinates all the managerial functions, that
is, it facilitates planning, organizing, staffing, directing and controlling.
1. The factors contributing to network breakdown in an organization are as
follows:
• Important negative information may be withheld by the managers.
• The secretary may forget to forward a memo.
• There may be professional jealousy resulting in closed channels.
2. Psychological barriers relate to attitudinal and behavioural aspects.
27

1. The decision-making process is also based on the availability of
information. If the right type of information is not available at the right time
due to the lack of effective communication, the management will be unable
to consider all the pros and cons before taking the decision. Effective
communication results in high quality decision-making.
2. External communication is considered significant due to the following reasons:
• Contact with the external environment
• Improves ability to handle competition better
• Improves public relations
1.10 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS
1. ‘Communication is a pervasive activity, which encompasses almost all facets

of our lives, whether at our workplace or in our family life.’ Discuss.
2. Explain the stages of the communication process.
3. Write a short note on internal communication and external communication.
4. Describe the various barriers related to the communication process.
5. Analyse the role of communication in the present business organizations.
1.11 FURTHER READINGS
O’Hair, Dan et al. 2008. Strategic Communications in Business and the

Professions. New Delhi, India: Pearson Education.
Fisher, Dalmar. 1999. Communication in Organizations. Mumbai, India: Jaico
Publishing House.
Bovee, Thill and Barbara E. Schatzman. 2004. Business Communication Today.
New Delhi, India: Pearson Education.
P.D., Chaturvedi and Mukesh Chaturvedi. 2013. Business Communication. New
Delhi, India: Pearson Education.
Bhatnagar, Nithin and Mamta Bhatnagar. 2013. Effective Communication and
Soft Skills. New Delhi, India: Pearson Education.
Kaul, Asha. 2000. Effective Business Communications. New Delhi, India:
Prentice Hall.
Magan, Sangheetha. 2010. Business Communication. New Delhi, India:
International Book House.
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Communication Process
UNIT–2 COMMUNICATION PROCESS
Objectives
• Describe the main components of the communication process
• Explain the different models and processes of communication
• State the selection of the communication medium
Structure
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Main Components of the Communication Process
2.3 Different Models and Processes of Communication
2.4 Selection of Communication Medium
2.5 Summary
2.6 Key Words
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Communication is a pervasive activity which encompasses almost all facets of our

lives. Much of our life is spent communicating with each other, be it at our work
place or in our family life. Various models and processes of communication have
been developed by theorists and scientists. Few of the distinct characteristics of
communication are as follows:
• Communication involves at least two persons—the sender and the receiver.
• It involves the transfer of ideas, facts, emotions, gestures, symbols and
action from sender to receiver.
• Understanding is an essential component of communication, that is, the
ideas, opinions, emotions, and so on, conveyed should be accurately
replicated in the receivers’ mind.
• Communication may be intentional or unintentional.
• The purpose of communication is to elicit action, inform or to express a
certain point of view.
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In this unit, you will study about the main components of the communication
process, different models and process of communication and the selection of the
communication medium.
2.2 MAIN COMPONENTS OF THE COMMUNICATION

PROCESS
Communication is a process that involves certain distinct steps. In its simpler form, it
relates to stimulus and response. The stimulus arises from the communicator and the
receiver responds. Communication is not complete till the message conveyed by the
sender is properly understood by the receiver. Any communication process should
necessarily have the following components:
• Sender
• Message
• Encoding
• Channel
• Decoding
• Feedback
Every communication has a distinct purpose, which determines the message. The
stimulus emanates from the sender, and the receiver comes up with the response.
The objective in any business communication, as we have seen earlier, is to elicit the
desired response. To be understood, however, is a necessary but not a sufficient
condition in the organizational context. When the understanding results in the
intended action, the objective of the communication is achieved.
The existence of a message is the beginning point of any communication. The
process of communication begins with an objective. There is a notion that has to be
conveyed from one end to another. This notion takes the form of a message. It is the
sender who communicates this message.
The next component of the communication process constitutes the encoding of
the idea/notion. Encoding makes it certain that the message takes a communicable
form. Thus, encoding would comprise selecting the appropriate words, phrases,
expressions and pictures to ensure explicit expression of the idea. While doing so,
the sender has to consider the comprehension abilities of the receiver, that is, the
receiver’s ability to decode the message received from the sender.
30
The encoded message is now ready to be transmitted to the receiver. However,

this requires the selection of an appropriate medium or channel for transmission.
Thus, the sender of the message has to choose the medium or the communication
channel—verbal, non-verbal, electronic and so forth. The selection of the
communication medium is governed by various factors like cost, availability, and
reliability.
The process of transmission is rendered complete when the message reaches the
receiver. This implies that the message has been transmitted from the sender to the
receiver. It is now the onus of the receiver to respond to the message or not. For
instance, the receiver might receiver a written letter, or an E-mail, or fax to which he
can respond according to his liking.
In order to ensure that the communication process moves on as intended by the
sender, it is essential that the receiver should decode the message. Decoding is defined
as the interpretation of the message. That is the receiver should read the written letter,
or check the E-mail or read the fax sent to him and so forth. Also, decoding the
message is a prerequisite of effective communication. This ensures that the receiver
understands the intention of the message and accordingly responds to the message.
In the organizational context, in particular, the communication process moves a
step further resulting in relevant feedback to the sender. The quality of feedback
received from the target indicates the effectiveness of communication.
The process of communication is thus a progressive step-by-step movement.
Both the sender and the receiver have a definite role to play in ensuring the success
of communication. Their internal background, social status, hierarchical relationships,
organizational climate, knowledge, skills and attitudes are among a host of factors
that determine the effectiveness of communication. Added to that is the efficiency
and reliability of the channels of communication chosen in the process. The choice of
methods and channels should be such that they are capable of overcoming barriers,
if any, to the process of communication.
1. List the main elements of the communication process.

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2. When the communication process is considered complete?

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2.3 DIFFERENT MODELS AND PROCESSES OF

COMMUNICATION
There have been many models that explain the various aspects related to
communication. In a simple sense, a model is any representation of a theory, idea or
concept that takes into account studies that have already been done, and lays the
foundation for further studies on the subject. According to C. David Mortensen,
author of Communication: The Study of Human Communication, ‘In the
broadest sense, a model is a systematic representation of an object or event in an
idealized and abstract form. Models are somewhat arbitrary by their nature. The act
of abstracting eliminates certain details to focus on essential factors … The key to
the usefulness of a model is the degree to which it conforms – in a point-by-point
correspondence – to the underlying determinants of communicative behaviour.’
The models of communication help us to understand the process of
communication where the factors of communication are shown in a particular order
and relations. In this section, we will look at various models of communication
suggested by different scholars from time to time.
Shannon and Weaver’s Model (1948)

Claude Elwood Shannon published a paper in two parts A Mathematical Theory
of Communication in 1948. In this paper, he developed the concept of information
entropy, which worked as a measure for the uncertainty in a message. He was
essentially inventing something else that later on became the dominant form of
‘information theory’. Warren Weaver afterwards made his theory available to
people in simpler versions and was subsequently used by scholars widely in social
sciences. Many years later the same theory was published in a book co-authored by
Weaver. Hence, the model was named as Shannon and Weaver model by social
scientists though it appeared for the first time in the original paper of Claude
Shannon in 1948.
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The model when used in communication studies would mean that the
communication begins with the information source or sender who creates a message.
This message is then transmitted along a channel. The role of a transmitter is to
convert messages into signals that are capable of being transmitted through a
channel. The signals so received are then reconverted to the original message by the
receiver so as to reach the destination. Shannon, in this model, significantly discusses
the role of noise. Noise, in his model, refers to disturbances in the channel that may
interfere with the signals and may produce signals that were not intended. Shannon
also elaborates on the role of redundancy and entropy as the major concepts of
communication because they help in overcoming disturbances caused by the
channels.
Fig. 2.1 Shannon-Weaver’s Model of Communication
The model deals with various concepts like information source, transmitter,
noise, channel, message, receiver, channel, information destination, encode and
decode.
• Sender: The originator of message or the information source selects desire
message.
• Encoder: The transmitter which converts the message into signals is called
an encoder. The sender’s messages gets converted into signals like waves
or Binary data which is compactable to transmit the messages through
cables or satellites. For example: In telephone the voice is converted into
wave signals and gets transmited through cables.
• Decoder: The reception place of the signal which converts signals into
message. A reverse process of encode.
33
The receiver converts those binary data or waves into message which is
comfortable and understandable for receiver. Otherwise receiver cannot receive the
exact message and it will affect the effective communication between sender and
receiver.
• Receiver: The receiver signifies the destination of the message from
sender. Based on the decoded message the receiver gives their feedback to
sender. If the message is distracted by noise it will affect the communication
flow between sender and receiver.
• Noise: The messages are transferred from encoder to decoder through
channel. During this process the messages may get distracted or affected by
physical noise like horn sounds, thunder and crowd noise or encoded signals
may get distracted in the channel during the transmission process which might
affect the communication flow or the receiver may not receive the correct
message.
• Note: The model clearly deals with external noises which affect the
messages or signals from external sources. For example: If there is any
problem in network then it will directly affect the mobile phone
communication or will distract the messages.
Harold Lasswell’s Model (1948)

Harold Dwight Lasswell (1902–1978) was a leading American political scientist and
communication theorist. He was the chief of the Experimental Division for the Study
of War Time Communications at the Library of Congress during the Second World
War. He analyzed Nazi propaganda films to identify mechanisms of persuasion used
to secure consent and support of the German populace for Hitler. He gave verbal
models of communication and politics in the same year when Shannon wrote his
paper on mathematical theory. His model of communication is in the shape of a
question containing many more questions.
• Who says? • What to?
• Whom in? • What channel with?
• What effect?
This linear model enumerates main variables involved in the process of
communication. The ‘Who’ refers to the identification of the source and ‘What’ refers
to the analysis of the content of the message. The choice of channel is denoted by the
question ‘What channel’ and the characteristics of the audience by the question
34
‘Whom’. The main thing about this model is that it makes the end result of
communication as the most important aspect of the whole process, when Lasswell
asks ‘What effect?’ In a way, this model of communication appears to have been
influenced to a large extent by behaviourism which was the newly developing trend in
America those days. Behaviourism is a school of psychology that supports the theory
that behaviour can be influenced by conditioning. Laswell’s model takes the
psychological conditioning of individuals and society into account. His model of
communication can also be described as the psycho-sociological model of
communication because it deals with psychological and sociological aspects of
communication. It considers what effects communication has on recipient(s) of the
message, and so it enters the domain of psychology as well as sociology.
Fig. 2.2 Harold Lasswell’s Model
David Berlo’s SMCR Model (1960)

David Berlo’s model is popularly known as SMCR model. As has been said earlier,
it is the socio-cultural extension of the mathematical model of communication given
by Shannon and Weaver.
Berlo says that the source and destination, i.e., the speaker and listener should
share certain elements in order to achieve successful communication. The elements
that they should share are described as communication skill, attitudes, knowledge,
social system and culture. Similarly, he has also found more elements in ‘message’
and ‘channel’. The elements of message are content, element, structure, treatment
and code. Further, the elements within ‘channel’ have been seen as the five sense
perceptions, i.e., seeing, hearing, touching, smelling and tasting. Berlo has also
described each element of SMCR in great detail. The ‘S’ in the model stands for
source which may be oral, written, electronic or even symbolic. The ‘M’ denotes the
message that is transmitted and it implies dissemination of ideas. The ‘C’ indicates
the channel through which communication is affected. Since the receivers are the one
towards whom the communication process is directed, hence, they are denoted by
the letter ‘R’ in the model.
35
Fig. 2.3 SMCR Model
(i) S - Source
The source in other words also called the sender is the one from whom the thought
originates. He is the one who transfers the information to the receiver after carefully
putting his thoughts into words.
How does the source or the sender transfer his information to the recipient ?
It is done with the help of communication skills, Attitude, Knowledge, Social
System and Culture.
(a) Communication Skills: An individual must possess excellent
communication skills to make his communication effective and create an
impact among the listeners. The speaker must know where to take pauses,
where to repeat the sentences, how to speak a particular sentence, how to
pronounce a word and so on. The speaker must not go on and on. He
should also make a point to cross check with the recipients and listen to
their queries as well. An individual must take care of his accent while
communicating. A bad accent leads to a boring conversation.
(b) Attitude: It is rightly said that if one has the right attitude, the whole world
is at his feet. There is actually no stopping for the person if he has the right
attitude. A person might be a very good speaker but if he does not have the
right attitude, he would never emerge as a winner. The sender must have
the right attitude to create a long lasting impression on the listeners. An
individual must be an MBA from a reputed institute, but he would be lost in
the crowd without the right attitude.
(c) Knowledge: Here knowledge is not related to the educational qualification
of the speaker or the number of degrees he has in his portfolio. Knowledge
is actually the clarity of the information which the speaker wants to convey
36
to the second party. One must be thorough in what he is speaking with

complete in-depth knowledge of the subject. Remember questions can pop
up anytime and you have to be ready with your answers. You need to be
totally familiar with what you are speaking. Before delivering any speech,
read as much you can and prepare the subject completely without ignoring
even the smallest detail.
(d) Social System: Imagine a politician delivering a speech where he
proposes to construct a temple in a Muslim dominated area. What would
be the reaction of the listeners? They would obviously be not interested.
Was there any problem in the communication skills of the leader or he
didn’t have the right attitude ? The displeasure of the listeners was simply
because the speaker ignored the social set up of the place where he was
communicating. He forgot the sentiments, cultural beliefs, religious feelings
of the second party. Had it been a Hindu dominated society, his speech
would have been very impressive.
(e) Culture: Culture refers to the cultural background of the community or the
listeners where the speaker is communicating or delivering his speech.
(ii) M - Message
When an individual converts his thoughts into words, a message is created. The
process is also called as Encoding.
Any message further comprises of the following elements:
(a) Content: One cannot show his grey matter to others to let him know what
he is thinking. A thought has to be put into words and content has to be
prepared. Content is actually the matter or the script of the conversation. It
is in simpler words, the backbone of any communication.
Ted to Jenny - ‘I am really exhausted today, let’s plan for the movie
tomorrow evening’.
Whatever Ted has communicated with Jenny is actually the content of the
message. It is very important for the speaker to carefully choose the words
and take good care of the content of the speech. The content has to be
sensible, accurate, crisp, related to the thought to hit the listeners bang on
and create an immediate impact.
(b) Element: It has been observed that speech alone cannot bring a difference
in communication. Keep on speaking constantly and the listeners will
37
definitely lose interest after some time. The speech must be coupled with
lots of hand movements, gestures, postures, facial expressions, body
movements to capture the attention of the listeners and make the speech
impressive. Hand movements, gestures, postures, facial expressions, body
movements, gestures all come under the elements of the message.
(c) Treatment: Treatment is actually the way one treats a message and get
conveyed to the listeners. One must understand the importance of the
message and must know how to handle it. If a boss wants to fire any of his
employees, he has to be authoritative and cannot express his message in a
casual way. This is referred to as the treatment of the message. One must
understand how to present his message so that the message is conveyed in
the most accurate form.
(d) Structure: A message cannot be expressed in one go. It has to be properly
structured in order to convey the message in the most desired form.
(e) Code: Enter a wrong code and the locks will never open. Enter a wrong
password, you will not be able to open your email account. In the same
way, the code has to be correct in the communication. Your body
movements, your language, your expressions, your gestures are actually the
codes of the message and have to be accurate otherwise the message gets
distorted and the recipient will never be able to decode the correct
information.
(iii) C - Channel
Channel - Channel actually refers to the medium how the information flows from the
sender to the receiver.
How does one know what the other person is speaking? - Through Hearing.
How does one know whether the pasta he has ordered is made in white sauce
or not? - Through Tasting.
How does one know that there is a diversion ahead or it’s a no parking zone? -
Through Seeing.
How will an individual come to know that the food is fresh or stale? How do we
find out the fragrance of a perfume? – Through Smelling.
How will you find out whether the milk is hot or not? - Through Touching.
All the five senses are the channels which help human beings to communicate
with each other.
38
(iv) R - Receiver
When the message reaches the receiver, he tries to understand what the listener actually
wants to convey and then responds accordingly. This is also called as decoding.
The receiver should be on the same platform as the speaker for smooth flow of
information and better understanding of the message. He should possess good
communication skills to understand what the speaker is trying to convey. He should
have the right attitude to understand the message in a positive way. His knowledge
should also be at par with the listener and must know about the subject. He should
also be from the same social and cultural background just like the speaker.
There are several loopholes in the Berlo’s model of communication. According
to the Berlo’s model of communication, the speaker and the listener must be on a
common ground for smooth conversion which is sometimes not practical in the real
scenario.
Theodore M. Newcomb’s Model (1953)

Theodore M. Newcomb was an American social-psychologist who carried out
work in the area of interpersonal attraction. Newcomb’s model is unique in the sense
that unlike other models he has given a triangular one which tries to explain the role
of communication in society.
The three nodes of the triangle A, B, C represent communicator, receiver and
their social environment, respectively. According to him, the ABC elements form a
system where there is a relationship of interdependence between the three. It means
that if A changes, B and C would also have to change. In case A changes its
relationship with C, then B will have to change its relationship with C or with A as
well. The corresponding changes will maintain the equilibrium within the system. C
here denotes social environment which is both common to A and B. Communication
takes place between the two in a symmetrical manner because they are both
oriented towards C. Communication supports this structure and relationship, and so,
if there is a change or adjustment in relationship between A and B, a symmetry can
be created without disturbing the communication equilibrium.
Let us take the example of an election where A is a political party, B the masses
and C the election itself. A and B need to relate with each other in the context of C
or the election. This relation or connectivity is achieved by both with the help of
various media and the result of elections would depend on how much A has been
able to influence B. If the communication is successful the result of the election would
be in the favour of A or else they will go against A. In either case, the relationship
between A and B would change because the environment C has changed in a
definitive manner.
39
C
Social
Environment
Message Sender
B Receiver (Communicator) A
Fig. 2.4 Newcomb’s Model
In a way, this model can be compared to the sociological theory of the state of
equilibrium. It is a model which underlines the significance of communication in an
era of information where people believe in the power of knowledge and where
political parties, governments and people depend heavily on news and information in
order to provide or get good and effective governance. This good governance
requires democratization of public policy which cannot be achieved without intense
communication.
1. Name the model of communication developed by David Berlo.

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2. What is the distinct aspect of Theodore M. Newcomb’s Model?

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2.4 SELECTION OF COMMUNICATION MEDIUM
Managers use several different types of communication in their work. The choice of
the method of communication would depend upon factors such as the physical
presence of the receiver of the message, the nature of the message as to whether it
is urgent or confidential and the costs involved in the transmission of the message.
40
Various means of communication fall into four categories: (1) oral, (2) written, (3)
non-verbal, and (4) information technology. These means are not mutually exclusive
and very often some of these methods are combined to increase the emphasis or
clarity of information.
1. Oral communication
The most prevalent form of organizational communication is oral. It could be face-
to-face communication which is in the form of direct talk and conversation between
the speaker and the listener when they are both physically present at the same place.
It could also be telephone conversation or an intercom system conversation. Where
a one-way communication is required, then oral communication may include a public
address system. This is quite common at airports when providing information to
passengers about flight departures and arrivals. All political leaders are required to
develop oratory skills as they often address their followers via a public address
system. Every professional gets an opportunity to use oral communication when
making presentations to groups and committees, a customer or a client or at a
professional conference.
Oral communication is preferable when the message is ambiguous (can be
discussed and clarified) and urgent (provides for rapid feedback). Furthermore, it
conveys personal warmth and friendliness and it develops a sense of belonging
because of these personalized contacts.
It is not recommended when a formal record of communication is required,
when the communication is lengthy and distant, and when the information is statistical
in nature and requires careful and objective analysis.
2. Written communication
A written communication means putting the message in writing and is generally in the
form of instructions, letters, memos, formal reports, information about rules and
regulations, policy manuals, information bulletins and so on. These areas have to be
covered in writing for efficient functioning of the organization. It is most effective
when it is required to communicate information that requires action in the future and,
also in situations where communication is that of general informational nature. It also
ensures that everyone has the same information.
Written communication is recommended when evidence of events and proceedings
are required to be kept for future references, when there are several people involved
who need to be updated and correspondence noted, when transmitting lengthy
statistical data as well as when more formal authority is to be exercised.
41
Written communication can have its disadvantages in that it is very time consuming,
especially for lengthy reports, there is no immediate feedback opportunity to clarify
any ambiguities, and confidential written material may leak out before time, causing
disruption in its effectiveness.
3. Non-verbal communication
Non-verbal communication is also an important part of communication and is
conveyed through meaningful non-verbal ways. Often, non-verbal ways are
responsible for adding to verbal messages. For instance, anything said in a light-
hearted manner with a smile conveys a sense of amiability and ease. Few non-verbal
expressions include facial expressions and physical movement. In addition, some
aspects of the work environment such as the building and office space can convey a
message regarding the authority of the person. For example, visitors tend to feel
uncomfortable in offices where there is a desk between them and the person they are
speaking to. This is the reason behind furnishing offices with sofas and chairs. The
aim is to ease the tension and make the visitor feel comfortable. Similarly, artwork in
offices and neatness conveys an aura of professionalism.
Non-verbal communication affects the impressions we make on others. A
handshake is probably the most common form of body language and tells a lot about
a person’s disposition. Other examples of body language are tilting of the head,
folding of arms or the posture while sitting in a chair.
Our facial expressions can show anger, frustration, arrogance, shyness, fear and
other characteristics that can never be adequately communicated through the written
word or through oral communication in and by itself. Some of the other body
language examples are shrugging of shoulders for indifference or unfamiliarity,
tapping fingers on the table for impatience etc. Some of the basic types of non-
verbal communication are:
• Kinetic behaviour: Body motion such as facial expressions, gestures,
touching, eye movement and so on.
• Physical characteristics: Body shape, posture, height, weight, hair and
so on.
• Paralanguage: Voice quality, volume, speech rate, choice of words,
manner of speaking extent of laughing and so on.
• Proxemics: Proximity of people during conversation, perceptions about
space, seating arrangements and so on.
42
• Environment: Type of building where the office is, room design, furniture,
interior decorating, light, noise and neatness.
• Time: Being late or early for appointments, keeping others waiting etc.
Typically, the longer you have to wait to see someone, the higher is the
individual’s organizational status.
• Dress: Appropriate dress reflects the status symbol. Many organizations
have a dress code. You cannot wear T-shirts and jeans for an interview for
a managerial position. Personalities are generally communicated through
dresses.
Some of the non-verbal messages and their interpretations are described as follows:
Facial Expressions
Frown — Displeasure
Smile — Friendliness
Raised eyebrows — Disbelief, amazement
Biting lips — Nervousness
Gestures
Pointing finger — Authority, displeasure
Arms at side — Open to suggestions, relaxed
Hands on hips — Anger, defensiveness
Voice
Shaky — Nervous
Broken — Unprepared
Strong/clear — Confident
Body gestures
Fidgeting — Nervousness
Shrugging shoulders — Indifference
Sitting on edge of chair — Listening, great interest
Shifting while sitting — Nervousness
Eye contact
Sideways glance — Suspicion
Steady — Active listener
No eye contact — Disinterest
4. Information technology
Information technology is a broad category of communication techniques and
includes video-conferencing, telecommuting, electronic mail, and so on. Devices
43
such as videotape recorders, telephone answering devices, fax machines all provide
new communication flexibility and are rapidly influencing how managers
communicate. Several major companies have gone into networking which ties
computers together so that information can be communicated and shared from vast
data banks.
• Video-conferencing: Video-conferencing is a channel of communication
which uses live video to communicate with various employees at various
locations simultaneously. It enables organizations to hold interactive
meetings with other people, separated geographically even in different
countries, at the same time via camera and cable transmission of the picture
and sound. This technology makes it easier to obtain information from all
operations around the world rapidly for the purpose of decision-making
and control.
• Telecommuting: Telecommuting is the result of high technology at work,
where people can work from their homes using a computer linking them to
the place of work. Telecommuting provides flexibility of working and
comfort for the worker, even though it isolates the employees working
together in a team. Also, it makes supervision more difficult. This
communication technique is helpful for those who work out of a customer’s
office so that they can communicate with their own office via a laptop
computer connection. The method is popular with computer programmers,
financial analysts, consultants and among most secretarial support service.
• Electronic mail (E-mail): E-mail is a system which allows people to use
personal computer terminals to send and receive messages among each
other, thereby enabling a rapid transmission of information. Messages can
be sent and received by anyone, anywhere in the world, who has access to
a computer terminal and has a computer mail box number on the computer
network. Hughes Aircraft, a Los Angeles based company, uses E-mail to
connect more than 30,000 users in 32 different locations worldwide.
1. Name the most common medium of communication.

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44
2. Mention the basic types of non-verbal communication.

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2.5 SUMMARY
• Communication is a process that involves certain distinct steps. In its

simpler form, it relates to stimulus and response. The stimulus arises from
the communicator and the receiver responds.
• Any communication process should necessarily have the following elements:
o Sender
o Message
o Encoding
o Channel
o Decoding
o Feedback
• In the organizational context, in particular, the communication process
moves a step further resulting in relevant feedback to the sender. The
quality of feedback received from the target indicates the effectiveness of
communication.
• The process of communication is, thus, a progressive step-by-step
movement. Both the sender and the receiver have a definite role to play in
ensuring the success of communication.
• There have been many models that explain the various aspects related to
communication. In a simple sense, a model is any representation of a
theory, idea or concept that takes into account studies that have already
been done, and lays the foundation for further studies on the subject.
• The models of communication help us to understand the process of
communication where the factors of communication are shown in a
particular order and relations.
• Harold Dwight Lasswell (1902–1978) was a leading American political
scientist and communication theorist. He was the chief of the Experimental
45
Division for the Study of War Time Communications at the Library of

Congress during the Second World War.
• David Berlo’s model is popularly known as SMCR model. It is the socio-
cultural extension of the mathematical model of communication given by
Shannon and Weaver.
• Managers use several different types of communication in their work. The
choice of the method of communication would depend upon factors such as
the physical presence of the receiver of the message, the nature of the
message as to whether it is urgent or confidential and the costs involved in
the transmission of the message.
• The most prevalent form of organizational communication is oral. It could
be face-to-face communication which is in the form of direct talk and
conversation between the speaker and the listener when they are both
physically present at the same place.
• Non-verbal communication is also an important part of communication and
is conveyed through meaningful non-verbal ways. Often, non-verbal ways
are responsible for adding to verbal messages.
• Our facial expressions can show anger, frustration, arrogance, shyness, fear
and other characteristics that can never be adequately communicated
through the written word or through oral communication in and by itself.
• Information technology is a broad category of communication techniques and
includes video-conferencing, telecommuting, electronic mail, and so on.
2.6 KEY WORDS
• Encode: It refers to the alteration of something into a coded form not

known to all.
• Kinetic behaviour: This behaviour involves movement such as dancing,
playing, typing and so forth.
• Proxemics: It is the branch of knowledge that deals with the amount of
space that people feel it necessary to set between themselves and others.
• Paralanguage: It is the area of non-verbal communication that emphasizes
body language and voice nuances as means of expressing thoughts and
feelings.
46

1. The main elements of the communication process are as follows:
• Sender
• Message
• Encoding
• Channel
• Decoding
• Feedback
2. The communication process is considered complete when the message is
transmitted to the receiver.

1. David Berlo developed the SMCR model of communication. It is the socio-
cultural extension of the mathematical model of communication given by
Shannon and Weaver.
2. Newcomb’s model is unique in the sense that unlike other models he has
given a triangular one which tries to explain the role of communication in
society.

1. Oral communication is the most common medium of communication. It
could be face-to-face communication which is in the form of direct talk and
conversation between the speaker and the listener when they are both
physically present at the same place. It could also be telephone
conversation or an intercom system conversation.
2. The basic types of non-verbal communication are as follows:
• Kinetic behaviour: Body motion such as facial expressions, gestures,
touching, eye movement, and so forth.
• Physical characteristics: Body shape, posture, height, weight, hair,
and so forth.
• Paralanguage: Voice quality, volume, speech rate, choice of words,
manner of speaking extent of laughing, and so forth.
47
• Proxemics: Proximity of people during conversation, perceptions

about space, seating arrangements, and so forth.
1. Briefly analyse the role of the main components of the communication

process.
2. Discuss the various models and process of communication.
3. ‘Managers use several different types of communication in their work.’
Explain.
O’Hair, Dan et al. 2008.Strategic Communications in Business and the

Publishing House.
Prentice Hall.
48
Good Communication
UNIT–3 GOOD COMMUNICATION
Objectives
• Examine the nature of good communication
• State the significance of group discussions
• List the steps involved in the preparation of a mock interview
Structure
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Nature of Good Communication
3.3 Summary
3.4 Key Words
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Good communication is one of the requisite skills of today’s organizations.

Employees who attentively listen to others and communicate their own views in an
explicit manner are considered valuable by their employers. However, several of
these communication skills are innate in individuals yet many need to be learned and
practiced in order to excel in the personal and professional life. Thus, good
communication by business managers assists in sharing of information among
company employees and can eventually lead to its commercial success. In this unit,
you will study about the nature of good communication which includes understanding
the importance of group discussions, mock interviews and seminars in the
workplace.
3.2 NATURE OF GOOD COMMUNICATION
The importance of business communication in today’s inter-linked global economy is

widely appreciated. Effective communication is at the heart of any business.
Businesses deal with people and communication serves as a vital link in connecting
people. Business organizations that underestimate the crucial role of communication
49
Good Communication
do so at their peril. It is also well recognized that every communication is not

necessarily effective. In real-life business situations, there are everyday instances of
communication failure. The messages delivered are not what are intended. The
messages understood are not what are conveyed. Messages often get distorted,
diluted or misunderstood. Every organization, therefore, not only needs to recognize
the importance of business, but also should put in place adequate efforts and proper
systems to make communication, both internal and external, effective and result
oriented. Successful business communication is not automatic or mere happenstance.
It needs time, effort and constant attention across all organizations to ensure that
communication becomes effective.
Effective communication skills are among the most essential competencies in any
aspiring manager’s skill set. It is well understood in modern day business
organizations that in the long run, soft skills are more important than technical skills.
Soft skills include communication, time management, team work, negotiation and
conflict resolution, assertiveness and business etiquette. Communication, however,
tops the list of soft skills that managers need to possess. Important as they are,
communication and other soft skills are also the hardest to acquire and the most
difficult to practice. Nevertheless, like other skills, communication skills too can be
mastered and practiced with ease through constant learning and application.
Given the importance of communication for any business, business organizations
are always on the lookout for good communicators. The need for good
communicators is particularly strong in business organizations in the service industry
where services are delivered through people-to-people interactions. These
organizations also put in place their own systems for improving the communication
skills of their employees.
The nature of communication in business is quite diverse. In large organizations, the
flow of communication is both internal and external and encompasses numerous
stakeholders. Such communications could be personal or professional, formal or
informal, written or oral, upward or downward or lateral or one-way or interactive.
Communication involves the act of sharing ideas, opinions, thoughts, strategies,
findings, concepts, attitudes, perceptions, perspectives and a wide array of
communication needs. It could be individual-to-individual, individual-to-group or even
group-to-group communication. The method of business communication could again
take varied forms—written or verbal or non-verbal. Letters and memos, reports and
notices, speeches and presentations, signals and gestures and a host of such means are
50
Good Communication
used in business communication. Depending on the nature of communication, its

transmission takes place through e-mail, fax, courier, telephone, teleconferencing,
video conferencing and even films and other audio visual aids.
Given this diversity, a good communicator should have a clear understanding of
the alternative types and methods of communication and the circumstances under
which each one of them or a combination of them can be used. The communicator
should also master the technical aspects of different methods of communication so
that breakdowns and barriers are eliminated. Meetings, seminars, workshops,
discussions, presentations, negotiations, strategy sessions and such other interactive
fora translate into substantial man hours involving executives, managers, specialists,
guests and customers. Hence, every effort should be made to ensure that smooth
flow of communication is facilitated through proper planning and organization. The
nature and expanse of communication would depend on the nature of business and
its reach across various stakeholders. In real-life situations, the needs and complexity
of communication are quite diverse, depending on the type of industry, number of
employees, geographical spread of the organization, level of sophistication and
technology adoption, hierarchical structures, cross-cultural dimensions and such
other relevant factors. Business communication is about sending and receiving
messages and sharing information. Information is the key input for decision-making
and action taking. People in business organizations need to constantly gather
information and take business-related decisions. Owners need to know about
business growth and profitability. Managers need to know about market trends and
organizational strengths. Employees need to know about production schedules.
Customers need to know about product features. Almost everyone in business
irrespective of his/her functional or geographical or hierarchical position needs to
communicate. And those who can communicate effectively stand to gain, achieve
better results and win over others.
Unlike what it used to be in the olden days, communication in modern day
business organizations relies heavily on technology. The advent of mobiles,
computers, networking systems, teleconferencing and video conferencing tools, fax
machines and power point sets have added a new dimension to the world of
communication. As businesses grow, expand and reach out, they need to rely more
and more on such instruments and people well versed in operating such machines.
Technology powers business communication. A good communicator, therefore,
needs to not only master the varied business communication skills, but also needs to
develop adequate knowledge of technology and its use in business communication.
51
Good Communication
Group Discussions
Group discussions constitute an important facet of group communication. Unlike a
meeting or conference, which is well structured with specific roles being assigned to
participants, group discussions are less formal and unstructured. One can essentially
refer to two types of group discussions in an organizational context. The first type of
group discussion is where a group of persons meet informally and exchange
information or discuss and deliberate on a topic of common interest. The
participation of the members is voluntary and every member is free to express his/her
views and react to the issues brought out during the deliberations. In order to be
effective, the groups should be neither too small nor too large, and should have a
composition that offers scope for every participant to participate effectively. There is
no chairperson or hierarchy and the participants enjoy freedom of expression. In the
organizational context, group discussions involving participants from different
departments, functional areas and hierarchical levels help in seeking collective
wisdom on issues of concern. It is essential, however, that to be effective, the
participants follow certain ground rules and self-regulation. In this context, you may
also observe the type of group discussions that take place on TV channels, where
experts invited air their views on the topic, with a moderator being present and
facilitating the smooth flow of deliberations.
The second type of group discussion is where the job-seeking candidates invited
for group discussions participate as part of the selection process. Candidates are
called upon to participate in group discussions when they apply for certain job
positions, or even seek admission to certain prestigious institutes like the Indian
Institute of Management. The final selection is done after taking into consideration
the academic qualifications and experience, performance in the written test, as also
during group discussions and personal interview. Performance at the group
discussion, thus, becomes vital for the candidate in the selection process. In the
following paragraphs, we will be discussing at some length this second type of group
discussions which form part of the selection process.
In any group discussion which is conducted as part of the selection process, the
performance of the candidates will have to be evaluated. In order to do this, seasoned
observers thoroughly observe the participation by each member and take notes. At the
end of the group discussion, these observers will have to evaluate the participants in terms
of well-defined relevant parameters. Like in the interview process, here too, a score sheet
covering relevant parameters is used to evaluate the performance of each candidate.
As we have noted earlier, given the demand and supply position for every
available vacancy, group discussion is used as much for elimination as for selection.
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Good Communication
In other words, given the intensely competitive environment, only those candidates
who excel in their participation in the group discussion can hope to make it to the
personal interview and final selection. Candidates who take the initiative,
communicate effectively, respect group behaviour and generally distinguish
themselves through their thoughts and expressions, tend to score over the others in
the group discussions. In every group of say eight to ten members, probably, three
to four may qualify for the personal interview, unless every candidate appearing for
the group discussion is also invited to appear for the personal interview.
From the list of traits stated in the exhibit, it is evident that candidates desirous
of doing well in group discussions will have to consciously develop these traits.
Although the traits listed here are relevant for the successful conduct of any group
discussion, every group discussion may or may not be according to guidelines.
Controversial and provocative topics sometimes lead to heated and animated
discussion leading to confusion and chaos. Candidates possessing leadership
qualities and strong interactive skills will be in a position to intervene effectively and
turn chaos into order. Neither too much aggression and domination, nor too much
hesitation and dillydallying is desirable. The candidate participating in the group
discussion should also quietly size up the other members of the group, which would
help in making appropriate interventions. Usually, the topics selected for group
discussion are such that it is possible to argue both for and against it. What is
important for the candidate is to support personal views by analytical approach and
logical reasoning. The candidate should be in a position to defend the arguments if
the occasion demands. Anger, intimidation, domination, submissiveness, personal
attack and non-participation will have to be consciously avoided. At the same time,
confidence, wit, humour, respect for fellow participants and accommodation should
be used advantageously.
Exhibit 3.1 Traits Relevant for Effective Group Discussion

1. Taking initiative 9. Active listening
2. Grasp of the subject 10. Logical reasoning
3. Analytical ability 11. Seizing the opportunity
4. Appropriate body language 12. Concern for time management
5. Clear and cogent expression 13. Organizing thoughts and ideas
6. Being brief and focused 14. Disagreeing without hurting
7. Exhibiting leadership qualities 15. Positive approach
8. Intervening and summarizing 16. Consideration for others
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Good Communication
Mock Interviews
A mock interview is a simulation of an interview for the purpose of training. It is also
known as practice interview. It resembles a real interview to provide a real life
experience to the candidate. Mostly, mock interviews are conducted for job aspirants
to prepare them for a job interview but in some cases they are also used to train
people to handle journalists. Mock interview allows the person to gain experience in
answering the questions that might be asked during an interview. It helps the
interviewee to learn what is expected in the interview and improve self presentation.
The intent is to make the mock interview as close to actual interview and ask the
questions that are commonly asked by actual employers. The candidates are also
given an opportunity to ask questions they might want to ask at an actual interview.
The whole process usually takes an hour where the mock interview takes around
twenty minutes and then you discuss it with the counsellor and critique it.
Usually mock interviews are also recorded on video tape to be shown to the
candidate, along with the interviewer’s feedback. It is one of the best techniques for
interview preparation as it allows the person to see himself as other see him during
the interview.
The interviewer is actually a coach who provides constructive feedback on the
candidate’s performance and all aspects of the interview process. The interviewer
may have a semi-structured interview format rather than a formal list of questions.
The level of industry experience of the mock interview coach affects the effective of
the interview. If the interviewer has direct insight into what the actual hiring managers
are looking for they can better train the candidate. It also helps them to gauge the
performance of the job seeker to determine how well he is answering the questions.
The mock interview provides a one to one opportunity to people to practice
their interview skills and gain experience. It also helps gain confidence to give an
actual interview. Mock interview focuses on the knowledge, past experiences,
industry knowledge of the applicant and tests how well he is able to convey that
information. Mock interviews help reduce the stress before an actual job interview
and give the applicant a chance to improve his communication skills, prepare answer
for difficult questions.
Preparation for the mock interview should be done as seriously as for the actual
interview.
To prepare for a mock interview, the candidate should think about what
questions might be asked and prepare the possible responses. One should always
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Good Communication
dress formally and be well groomed even though it is for a mock interview. Mock
interviews give an idea as to how one should present themself for the real interview.
It is important to be on time and carry a copy of the resume for the interview.
Mock interviews provide an invaluable experience to the job seeker and
prepare him for his entry to the job market by developing the critical interview skills.
Seminars
Seminars, workshops and symposia are very common and popular means of
interactive fora in modern day business world. Used effectively they can play a vital
role in the dissemination of knowledge and build-up of skills. They facilitate intense
deliberations through participation and interaction in an organized manner.
Seminars relate to any meeting set up for the discussion of one or more topics of
interest to groups of persons. Seminars may cover small or big groups and may be
held in classrooms or meeting halls or larger auditoria. They may be organized by
institutes of learning or business organizations or chambers of commerce and the like.
Seminars may be for a day or longer, ranging from 3 to 5 days. Seminars on
banking institutions, information technology, agriculture and food processing and
business management are just a few examples of interactive business communication.
Seminars achieve the objective of bringing together a group of interested persons on
a common platform for facilitating exchange of views, ideas and developments
relating to specific topics. Seminars are generally organized around a particular
theme and may include several related topics. They normally include an introductory
session, a keynote address, different sessions, panel discussions and concluding
sessions. While the specialist speakers and experts make their presentations, the
participants interact and benefit from the question-and-answer sessions. Considering
that substantial time, effort and resources are involved in organizing seminars, the
seminar organisers, coordinators, resource persons and participants should
collectively endeavour to make the deliberations focussed and worthwhile.
1. What are the two types of group discussions which are generally
encountered in an organization?
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
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Good Communication
2. Mention some of the popular means of good communication practiced in

the modern business world.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
3.3 SUMMARY
• The importance of business communication in today’s inter-linked global

economy is widely appreciated.
• Businesses deal with people and communication serves as a vital link in
connecting people. Business organizations that underestimate the crucial
role of communication do so at their peril.
• Every organization, therefore, not only needs to recognize the importance
of business but also should put in place adequate efforts and proper
systems to make communication, both internal and external, effective and
result-oriented.
• Effective communication skills are among the most essential competencies
in any aspiring manager’s skill set. It is well understood in modern day
business organizations that in the long run, soft skills are more important
than technical skills.
• The nature of communication in business is quite diverse. In large
organizations, the flow of communication is both internal and external and
encompasses numerous stakeholders.
• Group discussions constitute an important facet of group communication.
Unlike a meeting or conference, which is well-structured with specific roles
being assigned to participants, group discussions are less formal and
unstructured.
• In any group discussion which is conducted as part of the selection
process, the performance of the candidates will have to be evaluated.
• A mock interview is a simulation of an interview for the purpose of training.
It is also known as practice interview.
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Good Communication
• Usually mock interviews are also recorded on video tape to be shown to

the candidate, along with the interviewer’s feedback.
• Mock interviews provide an invaluable experience to the job seeker and
prepare him for his entry to the job market by developing the critical
interview skills.
• Seminars, workshops and symposia are very common and popular means
of interactive fora in modern day business world. Used effectively they can
play a vital role in the dissemination of knowledge and build-up of skills.
• Considering that substantial time, effort and resources are involved in
organizing seminars, the seminar organizers, coordinators, resource persons
and participants should collectively endeavour to make the deliberations
focussed and worthwhile.
3.4 KEY WORDS
• Mock interview: It is the simulation of an interview for the purpose of

training.
• Seminar: It is a conference or other meeting for discussion or training.
• Memo: It is the short form of memorandum. It is intended to inform a
group of people about a specific issue, such as an event, policy, or
resource, and encourages them to take action.

1. The two types of group discussions which are generally encountered in an
organization are as follows:
• The first type of group discussion is where a group of persons meet
informally and exchange information or discuss and deliberate on a
topic of common interest.
• The second type of group discussion is where the job-seeking
candidates invited for group discussions participate as part of the
selection process.
2. Seminars, workshops and symposia are very common and popular means
of good communication practiced in the modern day business world.
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Good Communication
1. Define good communication.

2. Analyse the significance of good communication for a business organization.
3. Write a short note on group discussions.
4. How does a candidate prepare for a mock interview?

Publishing House.
Prentice Hall.
58
Verbal and Non-Verbal
Communication
UNIT–4 VERBAL AND NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION
Objectives
• Explain verbal/oral communication
• Analyse non-verbal(written) communication
Structure
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Verbal/Oral Communication
4.3 Non-Verbal (Written) Communication
4.4 Summary
4.5 Key Words
4.1 INTRODUCTION
As discussed in the earlier unit, communication is the modus operandi of social and
commercial intercourse. Communication is an aid used in daily life. Effective
communication is at the core of every business. The two primary method of
communication are verbal communication and non-verbal communication. While
verbal communication can be easily comprehended, non-verbal communication
relies on observation and interpretation. Unlike verbal communication, non-verbal
communication is expressed through body language. In this unit, you will learn about
the various aspects of verbal/oral and non-verbal communication.
4.2 VERBAL/ORAL COMMUNICATION
Verbal communication refers to the communication which occurs with the help of
words. A verbal contract, therefore, suggests an oral contract and a verbal evidence
denotes oral evidence.
Individuals share information using speech. Individuals working within a business
need to effectively use verbal communication that employs readily understood
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Communication
spoken words, as well as seeing to it that the enunciation, stress and tone of voice
with which the words are expressed is appropriate.
Interactive forums of business communication include meetings, conferences,
seminars, workshops, symposia and group discussions. They facilitate two-way
active deliberations and participative exchanges. They involve exchange of ideas by
participants in groups.
Meetings and conferences have become an integral part of business life. They
facilitate exchange of views and as such constitute an important means of interactive
communication. Conferences and meetings refer to an assembly of persons who
come together and deliberate on topics and issues of communicable interest. So
common are they in today’s business and organizational environment that it is
inconceivable to think of any person associated with business organizations who has
not been in a meeting or conference. Both these interactive forums facilitate face-to-
face discussions that take place at various levels. They may be employer-employee
meetings, employee-employee meetings and conferences or employee-customer
meetings. Meetings take place more often than conferences, and also relate to fewer
persons. While there can be a meeting of even two persons, a conference normally
connotes an assembly of a large number of people. Similarly, meetings may take
place any number of times during a day or a week while conferences are normally
scheduled annually or bi-annually. While meetings can be both pre-planned and
impromptu, conferences are by and large planned in advance.
While some distinction has been made here between meetings and conferences
as commonly followed in practice, the distinction is by no means very rigid. There is
a certain overlap between the two in actual practice. One may say, for example, that
the chief executive is in conference with the general managers. The dictionary refers
to a meeting as an assembly of persons, especially for entertainment or workshop
whereas a conference is described as a meeting of any organization or association
for consultation and deliberation.
Meetings and conferences, when effectively organized and conducted, can play
a significant role in business communication. They facilitate exchange of information,
articulation of alternative viewpoints, deliberation on specific issues, removal of
misconceptions, elaboration and clarification of concepts and ideas, finalization of
plans and strategies, review of performance, enlistment of support and a host of such
communication needs, so essential in business or organizational context. They
facilitate intensive interaction with individuals as well as groups and achieve much
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Communication
more than any written communication. Meetings and conferences, therefore, are to
be seen as an inevitable yet useful medium of interaction between people in different
businesses and organizations.
1. Meetings
Meetings are the most popular method of interactive communication. They facilitate
direct, face-to-face communication and are essential at various levels in all
organizations. When there are two or more persons, there is a meeting, structured or
otherwise. They serve the valuable objective of facilitating exchange of information,
fostering of team spirit and commitment to common goals and objectives. More
importantly, they help in elaborating ideas, clarifying concepts and clearing
confusion, if any, created on account of ambiguous and incomplete verbal or written
messages. Misunderstandings arising from unclear memos, circulars, directives and
targets can be cleared through meetings with the people concerned.
Meetings of marketing executives with prospective customers while launching a
new product or service help in clearly bringing out the significant features of the
product and clarifying finer points. Similarly, meetings with the computer or
electronic data processing (EDP) personnel facilitate detailed and effective planning
of connectivity and networking. These are just two examples of the ways in which
meetings can be of use to serve a vital communication need in an organization. In
fact, on a regular basis, there can be customer meets, supplier meets, investor meets,
dealer meets, managers’ meets, staff meetings, association meetings, business meets
and review meets.
Like their western counterparts, Indian executives too, in most organizations,
spend a large part of their working day in company meetings. In the United States,
it is pertinent to note, decisions are made by groups of managers or executives rather
than by individual top management functionaries. Similarly, in India too, we have
various committees in the organizations like the Purchase Committee, Audit
Committee, Executive Committee, Management Committee, Promotions
Committee, Systems Committee, Credit Committee, Recovery Committee and
Legal Committee which take decisions, and that is why it becomes necessary to
organize so many meetings.
While meetings, which are effective, contribute to decision making and result in
positive outcomes, ill conceived and indifferently conducted meetings entail
enormous waste of time, effort and resources. They may even lead to chaos and
confusion. It would, therefore, be imperative to give attention to certain details while
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Communication
convening meetings. The preparation for an effective meeting starts well in advance
and there is much that needs to be attended to on the day of the meeting, during the
meeting and thereafter, till the minutes are drawn up and sent.
Before the Meeting
Agenda
Agenda is the list of items to be taken up for discussion during the meeting. It
provides the reason for calling a meeting. It should be ensured that there are
adequate numbers of worthwhile issues which need deliberation at the meeting. All
topics and issues that will be taken up at the meeting call for advance efforts. The
items stated in the agenda should be relevant and appropriate, keeping in view the
purpose of the meeting and the expertise of the members who will be participating in
the meeting. If the agenda is not properly drawn up, the meeting may not serve any
useful purpose. The agenda should be such that an adequate number of issues that
merit the attention of members are listed for deliberation so that the duration of the
meeting is gainfully spent. Calling a meeting for the sake of it, without any serious
agenda, or just to ensure that the predetermined periodicity is met, entails a waste of
time and resources.
Background Papers
Every meeting of some importance will have a set of background papers, which are
sent in advance to the members who will participate in the meeting. These
background papers relate to the items listed in the agenda, and provide glimpses of
the issues involved. Background papers are normally prepared by the concerned
functionaries or departments seeking a decision on the issue or a deliberation on the
subject matter. Background papers should cover all relevant details that are germane
to effective deliberation. This would normally include facts, figures, different views,
expert opinion and the latest position. Minutes of the previous meeting are also sent
along with the first lot of background papers since they are always the first item on
the agenda. They are taken up for confirmation before proceeding to the other items.
Background papers ensure that deliberations are focussed and cover all relevant
dimensions of the subject under discussion.
Background papers should clearly state what is expected of the meeting and
members. Board notes and office notes put up for meetings should state clearly
whether the note is submitted for ‘consideration and orders’ or for ‘information’. It
is also a common practice to state the ‘resolution’ covering the type of orders sought
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Communication
to ensure abundant clarity. The board or the committee, in its wisdom, will decide
whether the resolution has to be passed as it is, or with any modifications.
Background papers, it should be noted, are to be sent to all the members and
invitees well in advance to enable them to come prepared with their views and
suggestions. In fact, if the subject matter is of a serious nature and if sufficient time
has not been provided for advance consideration, there is every likelihood of the
agenda item being deferred by the committee for consideration in the next meeting.
At the same time, it is worth noting that whenever there are some important
developments which are to be brought before the committee members, or when
there are urgent decisions called for, and the matter is so urgent that it is not desirable
to wait till the next meeting, there is a system of submitting what are called ‘table
items’. Such items are tabled at the time of the meeting and are not sent in advance.
If the chairperson and members agree, such items are also taken up for deliberation
at the day’s meeting. As a general rule, however, table items should be put up as an
exception and only when warranted.
Whom to Invite
To be effective, deliberations at the meeting should involve all the concerned
functionaries. Regular members of the committees, wherever formally constituted,
will have to be invariably invited. At the same time, in the absence of a formal list, it
would be essential to identify people whose presence would be of significance when
subjects are taken up for deliberation. In some cases, senior functionaries will have
to be necessarily invited to lend authority to the decision-making process, whereas
some junior-level functionaries and subject matter specialists will have to be present
to provide technical details and other relevant papers. Persons to be invited to the
meeting, wherever not specifically stated, are best decided in consultation with the
chairperson and other senior functionaries on whose behalf the meeting is convened.
Invitation for the meeting is to be clearly drawn up indicating the day, date, time
and venue of the meeting. Invitations have to be sent well in advance to ensure that
outstation participants have sufficient time to make appropriate travel plans. Meeting
notices will have to clearly indicate who should attend the meeting. Sometimes
people in organizations receive notices, which do not clearly indicate whether they
are sent as an invitation or just as an intimation. The addressee, in this case, is likely
to be confused and will have to start making enquiries. More so, when one is not a
formal member of the committee or has had no prior intimation about it. The meeting
notice should also state, wherever appropriate, whether the addressee may bring
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Communication
one or two other colleagues dealing with the subject or, in the alternative, if one is not
in a position to attend, whether someone else can be deputed on one’s behalf.
Though most of these requirements look obvious, they are often overlooked.
Timing and Venue

Care should be taken in fixing up meetings in a manner that is convenient to most of
the members or participants. A notice, well in advance, will ensure that participants
get adequate opportunity to schedule or reschedule their engagements. The date and
time should be fixed taking into account holidays, other important events and
functions which may clash with the meeting dates and time, and make it difficult for
the members to choose between one and the other. It is generally expected that the
person convening the meeting will take some trouble to ensure that most of the
members, if not all, are in a position to attend and contribute. While it may not be
possible to totally avoid overlapping in all cases, some advance planning and
enquiries will certainly help achieve better attendance at meetings. Indication of the
duration of the meeting will also be helpful so that participants would know how
much time they have to allot for attending the meeting. Further, details such as
arrangements made, if any, for breakfast, lunch, accommodation and travel need to
be mentioned.
It is pertinent to mention here that while a reasonable advance intimation for any
meeting facilitates better attendance, any notice sent too much in advance will have
to be necessarily followed up with subsequent reminders. It is desirable to remind
the members and ascertain their participation on the day of the meeting or a day
prior to the meeting. This becomes even more essential when formal, structured
meetings need to have a quorum or minimum number of members.
The venue of the meeting should be fixed up well before the meeting notices are
dispatched. With so many meetings taking place in organizations, there is bound to
be considerable demand for meeting halls and conference rooms. The meeting venue
should have all the required physical facilities—fans, air conditioners, microphones,
projectors and toilets that ensure minimum comfort for the members and facilitate
uninterrupted deliberations. As we have seen in the earlier chapters, physical barriers
such as non-availability of sound systems, extraneous sounds, cramped seating and
stuffy rooms hinder the effectiveness of communication. It is not uncommon in
organizations to come across instances where the availability of the venue is not
confirmed, or there is some misunderstanding in the date or time, as a result of which
either meetings are delayed or participants are made to move from one venue to the
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Communication
other. A little extra care will avoid embarrassment and inconvenience at the time of
the meeting.
There are occasions when the chief executive or other senior functionaries may
decide to convene impromptu or emergency meetings with very short notice, in
which case the availability of the venue, physical facilities and other arrangements for
refreshments will have to be attended to on priority. Any meeting where the
deliberations have concluded, and yet refreshments or lunch is not ready, speaks of
poor planning and has to be assiduously avoided. The participants’ time, it is to be
noted, is valuable and cannot be taken for granted.
Punctuality
Starting the meeting on time is an area that calls for conscious effort. Keeping the
venue open and ready well in time, reminding the chairperson and other members,
ensuring that all papers have reached the participants, making sure that the table
items are placed and that the conveners and organizers are at the venue well before
the scheduled time are all a must in making meetings time-bound and purposeful. A
situation where the convener is still in consultation with the chairperson of the
meeting well past the scheduled starting time, while the participants are waiting in the
venue, unattended and not knowing when and if at all the meeting would start, is the
kind of situation that speaks of indifferent attitude towards the meeting and must be
avoided.
Time Management
Time management is of essence in ensuring the effectiveness of meetings at all levels.
Meetings, which start on time, end on time and provide adequate time for purposeful
deliberation of all the listed items, ensure cost effectiveness. On the contrary,
meetings that start with undue delay, take up items which are not on priority and run
out of focus, entail waste of time and effort and prove to be costly to the
organization. One can, indeed, assess the level of efficiency of the organization in
terms of effectiveness of the meetings conducted at various levels. In the exhibit
carried under this chapter, we have noted that executives tend to spend much of
their time in attending meetings. Unless every effort is made to make the meetings
business-like and focussed, organizational effectiveness gets impaired.
Checklist for Meetings

The convenor or the secretariat for the meetings will have to take responsibility for
the success or effectiveness of the meetings. They have to invariably give attention to
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Communication
every small detail and ensure that everything is in order. It would be desirable to
maintain a checklist of items relevant to various stages, i.e., before, during and after
the meeting.
The checklist should include, among others, the following items:
1. Confirming that the meeting notice and all the sets of background papers
have reached all the members and invitees.
2. Ascertaining the participation of the chairperson and the members, and the
availability of the quorum.
3. Venue arrangements such as ensuring that the meeting hall is ready and
open well in time, checking whether all equipment such as microphones, air
conditioners, fans and projectors are functioning properly and pens and
pads are provided.
4. Refreshments and catering as are appropriate to the meeting have been
arranged.
5. Checking flight arrivals, room bookings and conveyance for the
chairperson and others wherever required.
6. Reminding the local and other members about the time and venue of the
meeting.
7. Ensuring that the table items for the day’s meeting, if any, are put up.
8. Briefing the chairperson and other key members about the issues to be
taken up at the meeting.
9. Entrustment of responsibility concerning the recording of minutes or
proceedings.
10. Timely intimation of postponement, cancellation or change of venue.
11. Changes to be effected in the composition of the members or participants
and special invitees.
12. Reminding the chairperson, if need be, about the priority and urgency of
various items which have to be necessarily taken up.
13. Probable dates for the next meeting.
14. Preparation of minutes or proceedings on time, obtaining approval of the
same and their dispatch.
This kind of attention to all relevant details by the convenor or the secretariat brings
in a professional approach in conducting meetings.
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Communication
Role of the Chairperson

The chairperson, the convenor or the secretary and the senior members have a vital
role to play in conducting the meetings effectively. They have to ensure punctuality
and effective time management. While providing freedom to the members for
expressing their views on the items taken up for deliberation, the chairperson
ensures that discussions do not stray. The chairperson also ensures that as far as
possible, all the agenda items stated for discussions are duly taken up for
deliberation.
The chairperson may also have to make appropriate opening and concluding
remarks in the interest of directing the course of the deliberations and arriving at
unambiguous decisions and conclusions. Through experience, wit and wisdom, the
chairperson brings in authority and decisiveness to the deliberations. If during the
course of deliberations, members get into a war of words, or a personal clash, the
chairperson will have to use his/her skill in resolving such conflicts without hurting the
people concerned. When meetings are either long or very frequent, some time may
have to be spent in warming up or refreshing the participants or unwinding. People
management assumes significance in all meetings. It is common knowledge that
sometimes, discussions in meetings tend to revolve too much on insignificant and not
directly relevant topics and concerns, leaving much less time for deliberating on the
more important topics. The chairperson, or the convenor, who should play a
complementary role in conducting the meetings should intervene, and bring in the
much needed sense of proportion in the deliberations. Very importantly, the
chairperson has to summarize and reiterate at appropriate places, and thereby
clearly state the main points that have emerged out of the deliberations. Especially at
the end of every meeting, the action points, decisions and conclusions have to be
reaffirmed.
To conclude, it is worth reiterating that meetings, when conducted effectively,
can bring substantial benefits in resolving even sensitive matters through collective
wisdom. They can be a very cost-effective means of intense interaction. When
participants learn to talk, listen and interact in a responsible manner, meetings can be
really result oriented. At the same time, it should be borne in mind that although the
people participating are knowledgeable, they may or may not speak out freely and
contribute to the deliberations. Sometimes, some of the more vocal participants may
tend to dominate the deliberations, not giving an opportunity to others to express
themselves. In all such cases, the chairperson or the convenor should intervene.
After all, the very purpose of inviting people is to get their views and suggestions,
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Communication
and meetings have to be highly participative within the given context. In other words,
it takes conscious effort, attention to details, and deft and authoritative steering of
deliberations to make meetings effective.
2. Conferences
As we have observed earlier, it is imprudent to draw a rigid line of distinction
between meetings and conferences. Organizations do have ‘conference halls’ where
meetings take place regularly. Conferences, as well as meetings, also take place in
hotels and other large venues. The word conference is normally used to describe
meetings of a larger scale. One usually refers to annual conference or bi-annual
conference, zonal or regional conference or two-day conference, suggesting longer
duration and larger participation. Business plan conferences are regularly held in
business organizations. Several topics of relevance are discussed in such
conferences. Background papers and posers and audio-visual presentations are
prepared in advance to facilitate meaningful deliberations. Conferences, like
meetings, are a means of direct, face-to-face interactive communication. The advent
of innovative methods like teleconferencing and video conferencing have facilitated
interactive communication between participants, without necessitating physical
presence of all concerned at one venue.
The type of preparations and attention for details in relation to the conferences
are, by and large, the same as those of meetings. Sometimes, the conferences may
also have the features of a function, in which case, the presence of a chief guest,
introduction of the speaker or the dignitary, invocation, lighting of the lamp,
presentation of bouquets, distribution of brochures and other details become
relevant. The checklist for meetings suggested earlier will have to be suitably
modified to plan for and accommodate all details. In organizing any such events, it
would be desirable to choose the word that fits the occasion. For example, when
senior functionaries participate, the programme may be referred to as a ‘seminar’ or
a ‘conference’ rather than a training programme. We also normally come across
words like ‘summit’ to describe a meeting of the heads of the states and ‘retreat’ to
describe temporary retirement from serious business meetings. Viewed in that
context, meeting, meet, conference, workshop, seminar and study circle are, by their
nature, platforms facilitating interactive communication and the most appropriate
term may have to be used.
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3. Seminars, Workshops and Symposia

Seminars, workshops and symposia are very common and popular means of
interactive fora in modern day business world. Used effectively they can play a vital
role in the dissemination of knowledge and build-up of skills. They facilitate intense
deliberations through participation and interaction in an organized manner.
Seminars relate to any meeting set up for the discussion of one or more topics of
interest to groups of persons. Seminars may cover small or big groups and may be
held in classrooms or meeting halls or larger auditoria. They may be organized by
institutes of learning or business organizations or chambers of commerce and the like.
Seminars may be for a day or longer, ranging from 3 to 5 days. Seminars on
banking institutions, information technology, agriculture and food processing and
business management are just a few examples of interactive business communication.
Seminars achieve the objective of bringing together a group of interested persons on
a common platform for facilitating exchange of views, ideas and developments
relating to specific topics. Seminars are generally organized around a particular
theme and may include several related topics. They normally include an introductory
session, a keynote address, different sessions, panel discussions and concluding
sessions. While the specialist speakers and experts make their presentations, the
participants interact and benefit from the question-and-answer sessions. Considering
that substantial time, effort and resources are involved in organizing seminars, the
seminar organisers, coordinators, resource persons and participants should
collectively endeavour to make the deliberations focussed and worthwhile.
Workshops are of a similar nature and relate to a course of study or work,
especially of an experimental or creative kind. Workshops bring together a group of
people working on a particular project or area of interest. Workshops are highly
participative in nature. They facilitate skill building through hands-on participation.
Normally conducted in smaller groups, where attention is given to every participant,
workshops help make learning easier. Examples of a workshop are a theatre
workshop, carpentry workshop, horticulture workshop, etc. Workshops normally
involve demonstrations and how-to-do tips. Depending upon the mix of participants,
workshops may be basic or advanced. It is expected that people who attend such
workshops learn basic skills on such specific activities.
Symposia refer to the plural of symposium. A symposium is also a conference
organized to cover a particular subject in detail, especially relating to an academic
subject. One can think of a symposium on renewable energy or distance learning or
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Vedic mathematics and so on. It is another valuable means of disseminating

knowledge.
All these interactive methods of communication help add value to the
participants. More often than not, fees are charged from the participants. The
participants emerge wiser and better informed about the subjects discussed. Lack of
adequate planning, absence of well-informed specialists or experts and not providing
adequate opportunities to raise questions and get the doubts clarified will undermine
the effectiveness of such events. Every effort should be made to make them
worthwhile.
4. Telephone Talk
Another important facet of oral communication is telephone conversation. With a
telephone set on almost every table in most offices, it is obvious that telephone talks
have become an integral part of business communication, and invariably people at
various levels have to learn to talk effectively over the telephone. In service
organizations like banks, the emphasis nowadays has been on providing services at
the doorstep of the customers, and reducing the need for visits to branches and
offices. One important means of responding to customer enquiries is through
telephones. Tele-banking and tele-contact services are now gaining popularity. Tele-
marketing and making sales calls on the telephone are becoming popular, especially
in metro centres.
It is imperative, therefore, that everyone in the business or any other organization
is capable of making effective telephone talks. Even the subordinate staff should be
taught telephone manners. The caller at the other end may not know who is
responding. Many organizations, therefore, make it a point to train their employees
on ‘telephone manners’ and even bring out literature on this topic for the benefit of
their staff.
Some noteworthy points relating to telephone talk, though elementary and yet often
overlooked, are as follows:
1. Lift the receiver before the second or the third ring.
2. Announce your name/the organization and greet the caller.
3. Be polite, avoid a barking tone.
4. If the call is to be directed, make sure the caller is not made to wait on the
line for long.
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5. If the person called is not available, make a note of the caller’s name,
telephone number and message and communicate to the person concerned
at the earliest.
6. Make sure that the calls are returned promptly.
7. End the conversation with a ‘thank you’ or a ‘good day’.
8. Replace the receiver gently back in its right place.
9. Keep personal talk on the official line to the minimum.
10. Calls cost money, especially long distance ones. Make your talk cost
effective.
11. Remember that the telephone is not a status symbol, it is a means of
communication.
12. Teach yourself to speak slowly but think quickly.
13. Most importantly, smile when picking up the phone, the caller will hear it in
your voice.
In business, a caller often sizes up the efficiency of the organization in terms of the
type of response one gets to the calls made. It should be ensured that the person
who responds to the calls does so promptly and is in a position to respond to the
caller’s queries. The caller will obviously get a poor impression if the call changes
four or five hands at the other end before the information sought is made available,
entailing much wastage of time for the caller. While a telephone talk has its merits as
a means of direct communication, it is not meant, in the normal course, for long
conversations, which are best done in person. One should consciously avoid
cultivating an obsession for telephone talk. Further, when the caller at the other end
has a foreign or unfamiliar accent, the receiver should take extra care to understand
and respond. Also, if a person has come on business or with due appointment, it is
ill mannered to indulge in a lengthy telephone talk and keep the visitor waiting. The
other point worth noting is that when calls are made on a mobile number, sometimes
the receiver of the call is also charged. It is unfair to make the receiver pay if the
receiver is not keen on taking the call on the mobile.
According to a study, 90 per cent of the executives spend more than an hour a
day on the phone, and forty per cent of them spend more than two hours a day on
the phone. This time must be spent effectively.
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5. Group Dynamics—Communicating in Teams

A group refers to two or more persons forming a collection, assembly or cluster,
with or without any unifying objective. For the purpose of our discussion, we refer
to groups of persons in organizations, institutions and business entities who are to be
brought within the overall communication framework for achieving a set of
objectives. Although groups constitute a collection of individuals, the very same
individuals often respond differently when they belong to a group. In the business
context we may have varied groups, which may be either homogeneous or
heterogeneous in nature. There are groups of employees, supervisors, executives,
union members, trainees, suppliers, customers, prospects and investors.
It is important to note that groups often develop an identity that sets them apart
from any collection or mere assembly of persons. While any collection of persons
exhibits disparateness, groups often exhibit certain uniformity and congruity. Groups
consisting of persons with identical expectations demonstrate a high degree of
integration in their behaviour. This pattern gives rise to what is known as group
dynamics. Effectiveness of communication in the context of a group needs to be
viewed in two dimensions. First, communication constitutes the instrumentality through
which members of the group express themselves and maintain their uniformity. Second,
an outsider who is communicating with the group should take cognizance of the
characteristics of the group and change the style of communication accordingly.
Groups are of different types and vary in terms of the objectives they set out to
achieve. There are family groups, social groups, religious groups, professional
groups, formal groups, informal groups, hierarchical groups, geographical groups
and functional groups. The objective of a learning group would be to impart training
irrespective of the other characteristics of the members. The objective of functional
groups like a group of sales personnel would be to come together and deliberate on
issues of common concern to all of them. Groups come together and meet under
various platforms. Such platforms would include conventions, symposia, classroom
sessions, study groups, quality circles, workshops, discussion panels and brain-
storming sessions. Communication is indeed central to the successful functioning of
all the groups.
Group behaviour is distinct from individual behaviour, and organizational
dynamics calls for recognition of and response to both. The statement, ‘Man is kind,
but men are cruel’ very easily brings out the metamorphosis that the same individual
undergoes as a member of a collective body. A person who is otherwise docile may
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be very stubborn when representing a group. Individuals in an organization behave

differently when they respond as members of a group. Very often individuals in
organizations wear different caps and accordingly play different roles. Experts and
trainers in HRD, industrial relations personnel and group leaders will have to be
highly cognizant of this aspect of human behaviour. A good communicator, like a
good leader, must learn to adopt different strategies in putting across the message
and eliciting the desired response.
It is important to note that in the organizational context, groups have their
strengths as well as weaknesses. If any decision or action is perceived to be a threat
or inimical to their interests, the groups can offer stubborn resistance and opposition.
At the same time, if the leader or the communicator can win them over,
wholehearted positive response would be forthcoming from the same group. In
other words, groups have a synergy that can be gainfully utilized. In recognition of
the significance of this characteristic, modern business organizations lay considerable
emphasis on team formation and team efforts. Collectively, team members can
achieve much more than what they can as individuals. The synergy of a well-
motivated group or team would be such that the collective achievements would be
significantly higher than the mere sum total of the achievements of the individual
members. Group synergy is an important facet of group dynamics in which effective
communication has a very positive role to play.
Within the organization, in dealing with staff members, joint conferences,
negotiations and workshops are some of the forums assuming group dynamics and
the communicator should accordingly learn to deal with them tactfully and with due
understanding of group behaviour. The communicator should make every effort to
talk to them at their wavelength, highlight the areas of agreement, so that the
communication moves smoothly to its logical end.
Just as there are groups within the organization, there are groups outside the
business organization which also have to be dealt with. In fact, in the context of
marketing of products and services, public relations and information sharing and
image building, there are external groups, which will have to be positively influenced
through communication strategies. While the broad approach already enunciated
earlier will have to be kept in view, it is also appropriate to take note of specific
influences, viz., reference groups and opinion leaders.
A reference group is a concept developed by Herbert Hyman in 1942 to
describe the types of groups, which serve as a point of reference to individuals in
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their behaviour, preference or judgement. The basic idea developed by Hyman has
been further elaborated by others. The three reference groups, which have been
identified with reference to any individual are as follows:
1. Groups that serve as comparison points
2. Groups to which a person aspires to become a member
3. Groups whose perspectives are assumed by the individual
Any business organization would find it easier to win over the customer if people
therein know the reference groups that would influence decision making.
Sociologists and social psychologists also recognize the fact that in taking a
decision, an individual, instead of being influenced by a group, may be influenced by
another individual. The other such individual to whom a reference is made while
taking a decision is called an opinion leader. Opinion leaders are normally influential,
knowledgeable persons, with status and who command respect and trust. A business
organization would find it easier to reach out and influence a larger section of its
target group by communicating with the opinion leaders, especially in rural areas and
new markets. In fact, advertising campaigns focus on influencing the larger audience
through opinion leaders.
1. Mention the important media of verbal communication.

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2. Name the most popular method of interactive communication.

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4.3 NON-VERBAL (WRITTEN) COMMUNICATION
Non-verbal communication refers to the type of communication that does not use
words. It is a very prominent third type of communication as distinct from both oral
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and written communication. It takes place extensively at various levels—individuals,

family, society and organization.
Non-verbal communication is ancient and constitutes the earliest type of
communication. It developed much before oral communication and languages came
into being. Gestures, postures, signals and facial expressions were obviously among
the earliest means of communication used by the preliterate man. The language of
the hearing impaired which uses signs and gestures perhaps evolved from these
ancient methods of communication. Another significant dimension of non-verbal
communication is its universality. Unlike verbal communication, which has limitations
in terms of reach, the non-verbal communication is universal in appeal. Words have
boundaries, whereas non-verbal communication, which does not use words,
transcends linguistic and cultural barriers and boundaries. The language of love and
compassion is widely recognized as a universal language. Mother Teresa, for
example, was a communicator par excellence who ‘spoke’ the universal language of
love and compassion that was understood all over the world. The silent movies of
the bygone era are another example of effective non-verbal communication.
Non-verbal communication is closely associated with the power of observation.
The receiver of the communication should be in a position to see, hear and even feel
the communicator. The receiver of the communication should be in a position to
clearly see the face, the gesture, the tone, the dress, the appearance and also hear
the voice of the communicator. Since it is through observation, non-verbal
communication may be both intended and unintended. It is intended when the
communicator tries to convey certain messages to the target group through
conscious gestures, postures, attire and other forms of body language. Non-verbal
communication is unintended when the body language, posture or appearance of the
communicator is interpreted by the receiver, even though it is not done consciously.
A sloppy posture or a casual attire may be interpreted as lack of seriousness,
although the speaker may be quite intent.
Although non-verbal communication can take place independent of other
methods of communication, it often goes along with oral or verbal communication by
the speaker. Used appropriately, body language and non-verbal messages can
supplement and complement the oral message. Together they can make the message
loud, clear and forceful. On the contrary, if they are not consistent, the message that
comes out would be ambiguous or garbled. When a speaker speaks, it is not just
through words, but through the speaker’s personality as well. Similarly, although
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interpreting each non-verbal message provides a useful clue, listeners or the target
audience should not jump to conclusions, but should, instead, take note of the
totality of the messages communicated. It takes conscious effort and keen attention
on the part of both the communicator and receiver to appropriately convey and
interpret the message. The required degree of awareness and consciousness on the
part of both is of particular relevance for the effectiveness of non-verbal
communication.
Non-verbal communication can have an overwhelming impact. There are myriad
ways in which the body and its associated actions communicate messages, both
intended and unintended. Non-verbal communication takes place at various levels
when parts of the body, actions, mannerisms, behaviour, attire and demeanour tend
to communicate. In other words, non-verbal communication takes place through the
following objects, actions, and expressions:
1. Body language—facial expressions, eye contact, voice modulation
2. Postures/Gestures—carriage, leaning, shrugging, nodding
3. Attire
4. Appearance
5. Handshake
6. Space
7. Timing
8. Example
9. Behaviour
10. Smile
Behavioural psychologists and researchers have studied, over the years,
individuals and groups of people in business organizations and have developed the
art of interpreting each one of the above as a means to ensuring effective
communication.
1. Name the means of communication used by the preliterate man.

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2. What does a sloppy posture indicate?

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4.4 SUMMARY
• Verbal communication refers to the communication which occurs with the

help of words. A verbal contract, therefore, suggests an oral contract and
verbal evidence denotes oral evidence.
• Interactive forums of business communication include meetings,
conferences, seminars, workshops, symposia and group discussions.
• Meetings and conferences have become an integral part of business life.
They facilitate exchange of views and as such constitute an important
means of interactive communication.
• Meetings and conferences are to be seen as an inevitable yet useful medium
of interaction between people in different businesses and organizations.
• Meetings are the most popular method of interactive communication. They
facilitate direct, face-to-face communication and are essential at various
levels in all organizations.
• Like their western counterparts, Indian executives too, in most
organizations, spend a large part of their working day in company meetings.
• Agenda is the list of items to be taken up for discussion during the meeting.
It provides the reason for calling a meeting.
• Every meeting of some importance will have a set of background papers,
which are sent in advance to the members who will participate in the
meeting.
• To be effective, deliberations at the meeting should involve all the
concerned functionaries. Regular members of the committees, wherever
formally constituted, will have to be invariably invited.
• Time management is of essence in ensuring the effectiveness of meetings at
all levels. Meetings, which start on time, end on time and provide adequate
time for purposeful deliberation of all the listed items, ensure cost
effectiveness.
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• The chairperson, the convenor or the secretary and the senior members
have a vital role to play in conducting the meetings effectively. They have to
ensure punctuality and effective time management.
• Conferences, like meetings, are a means of direct, face-to-face interactive
communication. The advent of innovative methods like teleconferencing and
video conferencing has facilitated interactive communication between
participants, without necessitating physical presence of all concerned at one
venue.
• Symposia refer to the plural of symposium. A symposium is also a
conference organized to cover a particular subject in detail, especially
relating to an academic subject.
• Another important facet of oral communication is telephone conversation.
• Groups are of different types and vary in terms of the objectives they set
out to achieve. There are family groups, social groups, religious groups,
professional groups, formal groups, informal groups, hierarchical groups,
geographical groups and functional groups.
• Non-verbal communication refers to the type of communication that does
not use words. It is a very prominent third type of communication as
distinct from both oral and written communication.
• Non-verbal communication is closely associated with the power of
observation. The receiver of the communication should be in a position to
see, hear and even feel the communicator.
4.5 KEY WORDS
• Non-verbal communication: It refers to the type of communication that

does not use words.
• Oral communication: It is the process of expressing information or ideas
by word of mouth.
• Agenda: It is the list of items to be taken up for discussion during the
meeting.
• Symposium: It is a conference organized to cover a particular subject in
detail, especially relating to an academic subject.
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1. Meetings, seminars, conferences and group talks comprise the important
media of verbal communication.
2. Meetings constitute the most popular method of interactive communication.

1. Gestures, postures, signals and facial expressions were among the earliest
means of communication used by the preliterate man.
2. A sloppy posture indicates a lack of seriousness on the part of the speaker.
1. ‘Verbal communication refers to the communication which occurs with the

help of words.’ Substantiate the statement with suitable examples.
2. Explain the significance of meetings and conferences in business life.
3. How has telephone conversation emerged as a significant facet of verbal
communication?
4. Why is writing considered as a creative activity? Give reasons for your
answer.

Publishing House.
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Prentice Hall.
80
Dimensions of Communication
BLOCK-II
METHODS OF COMMUNICATION
There are several methods of communication which are nowadays employed at the
workplace and at home as well. In the personal space, communication takes place among
family members or among friends and so forth. In the workplace, communication takes place
between managers, employees, customers, vendors and other external agencies. There are
different kinds of communication which exist such as face-to-face communication, lateral
communication, upward communication, downward communication, horizontal
communication, grapevine communication and so forth. This block is divided into four units.
The fifth unit deals with the various dimensions of communication which includes
stakeholders, government bodies, trade organizations, competitors, press and media,
consumer fora and so forth.
The sixth unit explains communication behaviour in organizations.
The seventh unit discusses the methods of communication channels, various aspects of e-
mail, significance of written messages and working notes and the various types of business
communication.
The eighth unit states the basics and breakdown in communication. This unit acquaints you
with the meaning, nature and objectives of communication as well as the methods of
overcoming the communication gap.
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UNIT–5 DIMENSIONS OF COMMUNICATION
Objectives
• Assess the various dimensions of communication in an organization
• List the types of information conveyed through business communication
Structure
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Dimensions of Communication in Organizations
5.3 Summary
5.4 Key Words
5.1 INTRODUCTION
Any business has certain distinct characteristics. These set it apart from other
activities such as personal affairs, religion and charity. Communication encompasses
all functional areas. Hence, it is not desirable to make such watertight compartments
with respect to communication. In any organization, whatever be the functional area,
everyone will have to communicate, both orally and in writing. In other words,
communication influences every aspect of an organization. In this unit, you will study
about the various dimensions of communication in an organization.
5.2 DIMENSIONS OF COMMUNICATION IN

ORGANIZATIONS
There are people and agencies beyond the stakeholders, and an organization or a
business will have to communicate with all those sections of people on an ongoing
basis for a variety of reasons.
The dimensions of business communication would therefore cover the following:
Stakeholders
The process of communication should, as we have already discussed, effectively
cover all the stakeholders, viz., owners, employees, customers and the community.
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Employees and customers are particularly relevant in any organization and a wide
variety of methods, types, channels and strategies will have to be adopted to
effectively address their communication needs.
Government
Every business, in some way or the other, comes within the ambit of government
agencies. These government agencies may be national or central, provincial or state,
or even local in nature. Quite often, every business will have to comply with various
governmental rules and regulations. Inadequate compliance and reporting could
result in penalties and other problems. Every business has to respect the law of the
land. Communication between any business organization and the government has to
be recognized.
Trade Organizations
Every business generally has certain affiliations or memberships with a trade
organization or an association. It may be functional or geographical in nature. Such
organizations generally work with the larger interests of the profession or its
members in mind. Communication with this segment becomes necessary.
Competitors
There may be various players who operate in the market. There are often occasions
for them to communicate with each other. Notwithstanding the competitive nature,
different players may arrive at some understanding to respond to the customers.
There may even be occasions when there is a clash of interest that needs to be
sorted out. For different reasons, a business organization may have to communicate
with its competitors and other operators in the market.
Press and Media
Businesses also often face the need for communicating or interacting with press,
television and other media. It may be for the purpose of advertisement or
announcement or clarification or image building. For larger organizations, press
relations and media contact is an essential function that needs careful attention. There
is considerable literature on ‘Business Communication’ and ‘Business Management’
discussing this important area.
Consumer Fora
Another section which businesses will have to deal with relates to varied consumer
organizations, consumer courts and consumer lobbies. Some businesses like banks
will also have to deal with ombudsmen.
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While some of the more important or major sections with which a business
organization generally interacts are described above, there could be a host of other
agencies as well. These would include supervising agencies, employment agencies,
courts and judicial organs, international bodies, financial institutions and at times
religious and charitable institutions.
Communication thus plays a very vital role in modern day business organizations.
In fact, the very effectiveness of a business depends upon its ability to communicate
effectively with all the sections with whom it interacts. Effective communication is a
sine qua non, or a must for effective performance. Organizations carry out numerous
activities through various departments and individuals, and communication facilitates
the integration of all these activities.
Six Major Reasons

In their book, Management, Koontz and Weihrich list out six major reasons for
communication within an enterprise. These are to:
1. Establish and disseminate goals of the enterprise
2. Develop plans for their achievement
3. Organize human and other resources in the most effective and efficient way
4. Select, develop and appraise members of the organization
5. Lead, direct, motivate and create a climate in which people want to
contribute
6. Control performance
All these, as we have seen earlier, relate to various internal objectives within an
organization such as goal setting, planning and budgeting, human resources
management, monitoring and control. Additionally, communication has also to meet
the objective of communicating and interacting with the stakeholders and other
external public. Business communication thus encompasses a wide gamut of areas,
activities and individuals, both within and without.
Types of Information
Information constitutes an important facet of business communication. The first and
foremost objective of any communication is to reach out and inform. Information is
power. In business organizations and among people in business, sharing of
information takes place rampantly. Such flow of information may be from business to
business (B2B) or business to customer (B2C). Further, flow of information could
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be both internal and external. Very often, in large business organizations, sharing
information with employees across all functional departments, geographical areas
and hierarchical levels would call for organized efforts. If information flow has to
happen periodically and consistently, appropriate processes have to be designed
and implemented. Information systems, therefore, become an integral part of the
overall business communication framework.
Information can be classified in different ways. One way is to classify it in terms
of its users—management information, executive information, customer information,
employee information, etc. Another type of classification relates to the key objective
in providing information and the form it assumes. In that sense, information is of the
following types: order, advice, suggestion, motivation, persuasion, warning and
education. As business communicators, it is essential for us to note that each piece
of information has distinct characteristics. In the following paragraphs, we shall be
covering in brief the features of these.
Order
An order is an instruction from an authority who is in a position to issue and enforce
such instructions. Although orders can be both oral and written, in business
organizations, it is a common practice to issue written orders. Orders are generally
issued by people who are superior in position and are placed higher in the
organizational hierarchy. An order is issued by the organizational hierarchy. An order
is issued by the chairman to the general managers, general manager to the regional
managers, vice-president to the branch managers, manager to the employees and so
on. In military there are orderlies, who are soldiers who take orders and messages
from their officers. The orders may emanate suo moto or at the request of the
subordinates. Orders may be both given and sought. An order conveys finality. It is
something that is taken seriously and implemented. In business organizations, we
regularly come across orders or instructions, such as work order, transfer order,
suspension order, punishment order and report order.
By its very nature, an order is an instruction that is to be obeyed and often not
obeying the order entails penal action. An order may take the form of a letter, note,
circular, memo, etc. From ordinary and routine letters to the board notes submitted
‘for orders’, there are innumerable types of orders that are issued in business
organizations. An order is explicitly stated for the sake of clarity. The choice of
words is important while conveying an order. The word ‘order’ is to be specifically
mentioned. Some examples of an order are as follows:
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• ‘It is hereby ordered that all our offices will remain closed on 30 June for
stock taking.’
• ‘You are hereby ordered to report for duty, without fail, by 10 April.’
• ‘By this office order, you are instructed to complete the pending work
within three weeks from the date of this order.’
• ‘By this order, you are hereby transferred to our regional office at Bhopal,
and are instructed to join there within 10 days of relief from our Nagpur
office.’
The word ‘order’ is also used to convey purchase items or orders for supply of
goods, services, etc. A purchase order is issued by way of a letter or as per a
specific format from a buyer to a manufacturer, seller or supplier. Any such purchase
order should specifically convey the following for the sake of clarity:
• Quantity or number
• Quality—size, colour, specifications, features, and so forth.
• Price—with or without tax, and so forth.
• Discounts and concessions
• Payment terms
• Penalty clauses, if any.
It is essential that due care is taken in mentioning all relevant details while issuing a
purchase order so that the recipient understands exactly what is to be supplied, and
the scope for misunderstanding is eliminated.
Advise
Advise relates to a communication, often in writing, that tends to inform, tell or let
someone know. Advise is the verb for the noun ‘advice’. An advice relates to
suggestions, opinions or comments given to someone on what they should do in a
particular suggestion. In the business context, an advice is an official note about a
transaction, credit, etc. Thus, there are credit advices, debit advices, payment
advices, etc. While an order is a clear instruction that should be obeyed, an advice
is by nature a suggestion or recommendation that may be considered or examined.
It is expected that when any advise is given, it is given due consideration by the
recipient. Advises are conveyed through letters to employees, customers, debtors,
suppliers, etc. Advises may take many forms, ranging from a mildly worded request
to a veiled threat. Sometimes, although letters take the form of an advisory, they are
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indeed an instruction or an item to be complied with. For example, regulatory bodies

issue advisories that have to be complied with.
Some examples of an advise are as follows:
• ‘You are hereby advised to contact your branch manager at the earliest.’
• ‘You are advised to send us your lowest offer within a weak.’
• ‘You are advised to make the payment of ` 10,000 before the 25th of this
month so as to avoid any further action.’
• ‘You are advised to read our manual of instructions for details of
procedures to be followed.’
Whether advise is actually a request or a suggestion or something that is in the nature
of an instruction that should not be taken lightly, depends on the authority issuing it,
the context. It is worth emphasizing here that often writers tend to use the wrong
spelling and use the word ‘advice’ instead of ‘advise’ or vice versa. Advice is a noun
that refers to a suggestion or an intimation, whereas advise is a verb that refers to the
act of giving advice.
Suggestion
A suggestion is a proposal, a plan, a recommendation or an idea that is put up by an
individual, group, committee, federation or an organization. To suggest something is
to put forward something as a possibility or recommendation. Unlike an order or an
advise, which normally emanates from a higher authority or a senior, a suggestion can
be made by anyone irrespective of his hierarchical position. A suggestion is more
like a request put up for consideration. It can be made by employees, customer,
associations or anyone interested in the business or organization.
Suggestions should be brief, clear and specific. The person making the suggestion
should keep in view the reasonableness or acceptability of the suggestion and its
relevance to the receiver. In drafting a suggestion, the normal features that are relevant
for any good letter, such as brevity, clarity and focus, should be kept in view.
Some examples of a good opening sentence for a suggestion are as follows:
• ‘I am happy to offer my suggestion relating to work simplification in your
organization.’
• ‘We wish to submit the following suggestions aimed at bringing about cost
reduction.’
• ‘I am making this suggestion to you for introducing a flexi-deposit scheme
for the senior citizens.’
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The best approach in drafting a suggestion is the direct one, where the writer comes
straight to the point and clearly states the nature of the suggestion. It is not enough
just to state the suggestion or the recommendation. The person making a suggestion
should go one step further and spell out the details of the idea, and how it will benefit
the receiver if it is implemented. Since a person making a suggestion does so in the
interest of the organization, it is essential that the receiver acknowledges it and
considers its merits.
Motivation
Motivation constitutes another very important facet of business communication. To
motivate means to cause or stimulate a person to act. Motivation is the noun that
refers to the act of motivating a person. Motive is the cause of action or underlying
reason for the intended action to take place. Motive provides the power or force for
action. Motive stimulates action. That is why the words motive power and motive
force are commonly used. The word ‘motive’ has evolved from the Latin word
‘movere’, which means ‘to move’.
Motivation thus refers to the ability to move or stimulate a person to act in
the desired manner, and motivational communication relates to a piece of writing
that endeavours to prompt action from the receiver of the communication. In
business pretence, motivational communication is associated with positive
writing that not only informs, but also enthuses and stimulates the recipient to act and
respond favourably. Motivation can take place through both written and spoken
communication.
Motivation is an important area of study in psychology and there is a vast
literature on the subject of motivation. What motivates people to act, whether it is to
work, or to buy something, or reply or give feedback, is not something easy to
comprehend. Human beings are known to respond differently to different situations.
Not only that, even the same person may not respond the same way to the same
situation at different times. How people respond to various stimuli is an interesting
study by itself. In order to make motivation effective, a business writer should have
a deeper understanding of the theory of motivation and how people behave under
different circumstances. For the present purpose, the business communicator should
note that motivational communication consists of letters, circulars, memos, etc.,
which use positive words that have the power to stimulate the reader. Infact,
motivation is a fascinating area, and leaders and accomplished writers develop a
wide array of motivational skills. A good business communicator should, over a
period of time, progressively improve his/her motivational communication skills, both
verbal and written.
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1. List the six reasons for communication within an enterprise as stated by

Koontz and Weihrich.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
2. What are the various types of information?

................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
5.3 SUMMARY
• There are people and agencies beyond the stakeholders, and an

organization or a business will have to communicate with all those sections
of people on an ongoing basis for a variety of reasons.
• The process of communication should effectively cover all the stakeholders,
viz., owners, employees, customers and the community.
• Every business has to respect the law of the land. Communication between
any business organization and the government has to be recognized.
• Every business generally has certain affiliations or memberships with a trade
organization or an association. It may be functional or geographical in
nature.
• For different reasons, a business organization may have to communicate
with its competitors and other operators in the market.
• For larger organizations, press relations and media contact is an essential
function that needs careful attention.
• Another section which businesses will have to deal with relates to varied
consumer organizations, consumer courts and consumer lobbies. Some
businesses like banks will also have to deal with ombudsmen.
• Communication, thus, plays a very vital role in modern day business
organizations. In fact, the very effectiveness of a business depends upon its
ability to communicate effectively with all the sections with whom it
interacts.
• Business communication, thus, encompasses a wide gamut of areas,
activities and individuals, both within and without.
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• Information constitutes an important facet of business communication. The

first and foremost objective of any communication is to reach out and
inform. Information is power.
• An order is an instruction from an authority that is in a position to issue and
enforce such instructions. Although orders can be both oral and written, in
business organizations, it is a common practice to issue written orders.
• It is essential that due care is taken in mentioning all relevant details while
issuing a purchase order so that the recipient understands exactly what is to
be supplied, and the scope for misunderstanding is eliminated.
• It is expected that when any advise is given, it is given due consideration by
the recipient. Advises are conveyed through letters to employees,
customers, debtors, suppliers, and so forth.
• A suggestion is a proposal, a plan, a recommendation or an idea that is put
up by an individual, group, committee, federation or an organization. To
suggest something is to put forward something as a possibility or
recommendation.
• Motivation constitutes another very important facet of business
communication. To motivate means to cause or stimulate a person to act.
5.4 KEY WORDS
• Motivation: It refers to the ability to move or stimulate a person to act in

the desired manner.
• Suggestion: It is a proposal, a plan, a recommendation or an idea that is
put up by an individual, group, committee, federation or an organization.
• Order: It is an instruction from an authority who is in a position to issue and
enforce such instructions.
• Ombudsman: It refers to an official appointed to investigate individuals’
complaints against a company or organization, especially a public authority.

1. The six reasons for communication within an enterprise as stated by Koontz
and Weihrich are as follows:
• Establish and disseminate goals of the enterprise
• Develop plans for their achievement
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• Organize human and other resources in the most effective and efficient
way
• Select, develop and appraise members of the organization
• Lead, direct, motivate and create a climate in which people want to
contribute
• Control performance
2. Information is of the following types: order, advice, suggestion, motivation,
persuasion, warning and education.
1. How does a business organization communicate with its competitors?

2. ‘Information constitutes an important facet of business communication.’
Explain the statement.
3. Write short notes on the following:
(a) Advise
(b) Motivation
4. Assess the dimensions of communication in business organizations.

Publishing House.
Prentice Hall.
92
Intra-Organizational Communication
UNIT–6 INTRA-ORGANIZATIONAL COMMUNICATION
Objectives
• Explain intra-organizational communication
• Differentiate between intra-organizational communication and inter-
organizational communication
• Define technology-free communication
Structure
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Communication Behaviour in Organizations
6.3 Summary
6.4 Key Words
6.1 INTRODUCTION
An organization is defined as a system comprising individuals, groups (internal as

well as external stakeholders), tasks and a managerial setup responsible for tying
these components in a threat of connectivity and thereby ensuring compatibility
among them for enhanced organizational effectiveness for the achievement of
common goals. There are different purposes of communication in organizations.
Effective communication is central to organizational effectiveness. In this unit, you
will study about communication behaviour in organizations.
6.2 COMMUNICATION BEHAVIOUR IN ORGANIZATIONS
Organizations today are increasingly expected to deliver products and services

better, faster and cheaper than their competitors. These pressures arise in a
globalized, free-market driven world that is more interdependent than ever, and in
which it is increasingly difficult to predict whether the next shock to the global
economy will come from the USA, Germany, China, Japan, India or the Philippines!
How do organizations, managers and employees cope with such a situation? How
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can they hope to sustain any sense of common purpose in the face of so many
overwhelming challenges?
In the light of this situation, organizational communication is one of the fastest
growing academic disciplines of the day. There is considerable evidence to show
that companies with effective internal communication strategies are successful while
those lacking tend to flounder. Baverly Davenport Sypher of Purdue University says,
‘sophisticated communication skills contribute to effectiveness in work and
organizational contexts in several ways. In addition, being able to inform clearly and
persuade effectively, provide and attend to feedback in performance appraisals, and
in regulating and motivating others are demonstrably valuable in work settings.
Individuals with these skills more effectively manage the performance of others and
advance through the organizational ranks more successfully’.
However, a gap still remains between the triangular strands of the day-to-day
practice of organizations, management theory and communications research. For
example, most managers intuitively know that a motivated workforce is important if
they are to achieve their goals. Yet many organizations enthusiastically embrace
practices that reduce the loyalty, commitment and motivation of their staff.
Surprisingly, this gap is not a result of any complex business process but a
common human tendency to take communication for granted until there is a
problem. At the most fundamental level, organizations need to keep a tab (check) on
how well employees communicate within and outside the organization because the
organization’s survival often depends on its employees’ ability to exchange and
coordinate information. In a typical organizational setup, people across the board
broadly use the following four different modes of communication—formal
communication, informal communication, technology-enabled virtual communication
and technology-free communication, which may be narrowed down further into
various appropriate media.
Depending on the tonality and the degree of formality or informality you adopt in
your communication at the workplace, it can be classified into any of the two
types—formal and informal.
Formal communication is the type of communication that one uses in written or
spoken form to communicate with the top management, middle management,
frontline managers, client companies, suppliers and other stakeholders within or
outside your organization. Informal communication, on the other hand, includes your
‘matter-of-factly’ interaction with your superiors, subordinates, colleagues, vendors,
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and so forth, in written or spoken form within or outside your organization.

Grapevine is one such type of informal channel of communication which is done
orally. It is called so because it stretches throughout the organization across
functional areas in all directions irrespective of the hierarchy levels.
Table 6.1 Various Media for Formal and Informal Communication in an Organization
Formal Communication Informal Communication

Face-to-face at workplace Face-to-face/at places other than workplace
Telecommunication (or rather other than work-related matter)
Computer-aided communication (intranet and Departmental/staff meeting
Internet) Birthday celebration
Presentation Telephone conversation
Board meeting Electronics-aided communication (SMS, IM,
Departmental/inter-departmental meeting etc.)
Annual meeting Computer-aided communication (e-mails,
blogs, etc.)
Staff meeting
Talks at social gatherings/parties
Job interview
Group discussion
Client presentation
Jokes
Panel discussion
Press conference
It exemplifies the informal organizational communication network. It may be

present in every organization, carrying rumours about upcoming recruitments,
layoffs, promotions and mergers. In fact, it reflects people’s knowledge about their
company and their desire to share what they know. The information that circulates
through the grapevine is often impending news surfacing ahead of an official
announcement through a formal communication.
However, these communication types should not be practised in isolation. In
fact, depending on the place and situation you indulge in a certain degree of
informality while engaged in formal communication and vice versa. There are a
number of means and modes in both formal and informal setups—although with
varying degrees of impact, which you may choose to adopt at various points in your
official and non-official organizational settings. Your ease and comfort level in using
them, however, may come gradually with your conscious efforts towards enhancing
its impact on your listener (the receiver of the message) (see Table 6.1).
Depending on the use or non-use of technology you adopt in your
communication at the workplace, it can be classified into any of the two types—
technology-free and technology-enabled communication.
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Technology-free communication is where you communicate without any

technological assistance with your top management, middle management, frontline
managers, client companies, suppliers and other stakeholders within or outside your
organization.
Technology-enabled communication includes your technological assistance-
aided interaction with your superiors, subordinates, colleagues, vendors, and so
forth, in written or spoken form within or outside your organization.
There are various media available for both technology-free and technology-
enabled communication—although with varying degrees of impact—which you may
choose to adopt at various points for your organizational communications (see Table
6.2).
Table 6.2 Various Media for Technology-free and Technology-enabled

Communication in an Organization
Technology-free Communication Technology-enabled Communication

Face-to-face (F-t-F) Telephone and voice mail
Departmental/staff meeting Fax
Board meeting Audio conferencing
Annual meeting Video
Birthday celebration Video conferencing
Talks at social gatherings/parties, etc. Internal TV systems
Group discussion Direct broadcast by satellite (DBS)
Job interview Departmental/inter-departmental meetings
Panel discussion through video conferencing
Press conference Computer-aided communication such as:
Conferences, presentations and speeches
PowerPoint presentations
Mentoring, shadowing, secondment and visits
Road shows, themed events and business simulations E-mails, bulletin boards and online conferences
Workshops and seminars
Multimedia
Walking the talk
Water cooler bytes Video with interaction
Managed meals
Internet
Sharing jokes
Snail mail Electronics-aided communication (SMS, IM, etc.)
Newspapers or magazines
Job interview through video
Newsletters conferencing/telephonic job interview
Manuals, guides and handbooks
Panel discussion on TV channels
Brochures and reports
Press conference through wires
Mobile Internet
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Levels of Communication in Organizations

The nature of the world in which we live—one that is wired, connected, mobile, fast-
paced, and far less driven by logic—has changed in some not-so-subtle ways of
late. The local, national and transnational organizations which employ you and the
businesses which depend on your skills now recognize that communication is at the
centre of what it means to be successful. In such a scenario, your communication is
a reflection of the organization’s communication policies. Depending on the
objective, the urgency, the nature of stakeholders (for/with whom you need to
communicate) and the allocated budget, your communication can be of any two
types—intra-organizational and inter-organizational.
Intra-organizational communication is what you use to share information in
written or spoken format within your organization. On the other hand, inter-
organizational communication includes your interaction with people outside your
organization—your clients, suppliers, regulatory bodies, government authorities,
media, shareholders, and so forth.
There are a number of media available for both intra-organizational and inter-
organizational communication. You may prefer one over the other depending on the
various objectives of your organization (see Table 6.3).
Table 6.3 Appropriate Media for Intra- and Inter-organizational Communication
Intra-organizational Communication Inter-organizational Communication

Symbolic communication Corporate identity
Working environment Road shows, themed events and business simulations
Face-to-face (F-t-F) Telephone calls and voice mails
Departmental/staff meetings Faxes
Board meetings Audio conferencing
Focus groups, surveys and research Video
Telephone calls and voice mails Video conferencing
Faxes Public relations, news management and marketing
Audio conferencing campaigns
Videos Advertising
Video conferencing Mobile advertising
Internal TV systems Computer-aided communication such as:
Direct broadcast by satellite (DBS) PowerPoint presentations
Mentoring, shadowing, secondment and visits E-mails, bulletin boards and online conferences
Conferences, presentations and speeches
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Intra-organizational Communication Inter-organizational Communication

Workshops and seminars
Multimedia
Grapevine Video with interaction
Internet
Computer-aided communication such as:
PowerPoint presentations
E-mails, bulletin boards and online conferences Snail mail
Multimedia Mobile Internet
Video with interaction Newspapers or magazines
Intranet
Newsletters
Electronics-aided communication (SMS, IM, etc.) Manuals, guides and handbooks
Water cooler bytes Brochures and reports
Managed meals
Memos, circulars and notices
Newsletters
Reports
Crisis Communication in Organizations

Crises are inevitable. No individual or organization is immune to them. Crises are
frequently described as isolated incidents, uncharacteristic occurrences, unusual
circumstances or simply tragic and unfortunate accidents. By their very nature, they
are rarely planned, surface unexpectedly and disrupt normal operations. Some of the
most critical instances of business communication occur during internal or external
crises, which range from incident of product tampering to industrial accidents, crimes
or scandals involving company employees, on-site hostage situations, or terrorist
attacks. Umansky describes it in a more practical terms as ‘a messy, serious
problem that has a nature of its own. It is an explosion of normality that turns the
world upside down’. To better understand a crisis, he further identified eight
universal characteristics of a crisis. They are as follows:
• Surprise
• Insufficient information
• Escalating flow of events
• Loss of control
• Intense scrutiny from outside
• Siege mentality
• Panic
• Short-term focus
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Umansky also believed whether the change associated with a crisis is negative
or positive is up to the individual. This represents the Chinese way of thinking about
a crisis. For centuries, the Chinese embraced the concept that there is a positive side
to every crisis. Even the symbol for their word crisis, wei-ji, is a combination of two
words, ‘danger’ and ‘opportunity’. This centuries-old concept has led researchers
to conclude that despite the obvious danger surrounding a crisis, with proper
preparation, anticipation and training there will always be positive opportunities. On
the other hand, Pauchant and Mitroff, the management researchers, contend that
‘crisis’ is often confused with such concepts as ‘accidents’, ‘undesirable incidents’
or ‘conflict’. They define a crisis as a physical disruption that affects a whole system
and threatens its basic assumptions and existential core. However, this definition of
crisis, as it relates to a system as an organization, requires two conditions. Firstly, the
whole system or organization must be affected or physically disturbed in its entirety.
Secondly, the basic assumptions of the members of that system need to be
challenged to the point where they are forced either to realize the faulty foundation
of these assumptions or develop defence mechanisms against these assumptions.
This presents a clear distinction between the concept of ‘crisis’ and ‘incident’.
Where a crisis must disrupt the whole system or organization and challenge the basic
assumptions of the members of the system any incident cannot be said to be a crisis
if it only affects a self-contained part of a system or organization.
Next, we have Steven Fink, a crisis management expert, who describes a crisis
as a fluid, unstable and dynamic situation characterized by a degree of risk and
uncertainty. He argues there is a 50-50 chance and the outcome can be either highly
undesirable or highly desirable with extremely positive outcomes. He described
characteristics of a crisis as the following:
• Intense, unstable state resulting in decisive change
• Crucial turning point for better or worse
• Eventual outcome can be negative or positive
• Decisions will determine ability to survive and prosper
• Unplanned and unexpected events that disrupt normal operations
Further, Fink concludes that a crisis not handled in a timely manner will follow a
particular pattern or phase of development—the four crisis stages known as:
prodromal, acute, chronic and crisis resolution. Though all crises necessarily do
not have all four stages, but they cannot have more than four.
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1. Prodromal stage: This is the first stage in any crisis situation. It is the
warning stage which alerts of a problem. Though warnings are evident in
this stage but usually no action is taken by the organization until it moves to
the next stage. This stage is the easiest stage to manage. Unfortunately,
every crisis does not have a warning stage. There are times when an
organization has little or no advance warning. It is also possible for an
organization to recognize the warnings of an impending crisis but not be
able to prevent it from occurring. All they can do is to prepare for the next
stage. A crisis in any prodromal situation runs the risk of the following
aspects:
• Escalating in intensity
• Falling under close media or government scrutiny
• Interfering with the normal operations of business
• Jeopardizing the positive public image presently enjoyed by a
company
• Damaging a company’s bottom line in any way
2. Acute crisis stage: This stage is the point of no return as some damage
has already been done and the general public is aware of the situation.
However, with proper advance planning a manager can manage and
control when, where and how they want the crisis to erupt. The advantage
of this stage is that the manager has the time to prepare and also some
ability to control the flow, speed and duration of the crisis and exert some
degree of influence. Although the acute state seems like the longest phase,
it is often the shortest. However, depending on the type of crisis and
severity or value of the outcome, it can be the most intense.
3. Chronic crisis stage: This stage is also called the ‘clean-up phase’.
Investigations and audits are conducted in this stage, alongside media
interviews are granted and explanations are developed. This is a time for
recovery, self-analysis, self-doubt and healing for organizations. This is the
longest phase and it can linger indefinitely.
4. Crisis resolution stage: This is the fourth and final stage in which crisis is
resolved and the organization has returned to normal routine operations.
Historically, crisis stages evolve in a cyclical fashion. Rarely will an
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organization or individual dealing with a crisis has the luxury of handling one
crisis at a time.
Intra-Organizational Communication at the Body Shop

The Body Shop International Plc (now a wholly owned subsidiary of L’Oreal South
Africa), is a global manufacturer and retailer of naturally inspired, ethically produced
beauty and cosmetic products. Founded in the UK in 1976 by Dame Anita
Roddick, the company now has over 2,400 stores in 61 countries, with a range of
over 1,200 products.
The company saw a phenomenal growth since its first store opened in 1976 in
Brighton to having a kiosk in Brussels which became the first overseas franchise by
1978, to having new shops opening at the rate of two per month by 1982. In 1985,
the company went public and by 1990, the company had trading relations
established in 39 countries within 14 years after the opening of the very first shop. In
2006, it became part of the L’Oréal Group and delisted from the London Stock
Exchange. The company retains its unique identity and values and continues to be
based in the United Kingdom from where it operates independently within the
L’Oréal Group. It is led by the current management team of The Body Shop,
reporting directly to the CEO of L’Oréal.
Such a scale of growth gave an additional challenge to the company in maintaining
its information channel and in creating supporting mechanisms that could enable it to
hear its employees’ suggestions and act on them across the globe. For this, the
company felt that its top management should be in constant connection with everyone
who mattered—from frontline executives to middle management to franchisees to the
world’s press. However, the management soon realized that being accessible to
everyone at the same time was not practically possible. In order to ensure optimum
connectivity with its stakeholders, the founder and chief executive, Anita Roddick
came up with a gamut of communication tools such as regular video programmes; a
newsletter (Gobsmack), which would time and again feature Anita and other
directors; Boardwalk (a programme which ensured that there was a regular time when
each director visited different parts of the business to meet employees and found out
at first -hand what was important to them). All these together enabled the top
management to share their vision on the values and products of the company so that
employees were familiar with every issue that was important to the company.
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To generate feedback directly to directors, the company took several initiatives

like providing its chief executive’s personal fax number on every issue of
Gobsmack; encouraging employees to e-mail them or other directors about any
issue (and also expect a guaranteed reply); providing a series of special coloured
envelopes for urgent communications with directors—green for issues that
concerned the environment, gold for employees to draw a director’s attention to
people they believed deserved special rewards or recognition for ‘going above and
beyond the call of duty’ and red for the issues where employees raised concerns or
suggestions with either their managers or maybe a corporate department such as
human resources where they felt they were not getting satisfaction. With a red
envelope, they could address it to a director of their choice and the designated
director was obliged to respond within 48 hours. To rule out any disruption, this
communication mode was kept strictly confidential between the addressee and the
addressed employee.
The company’s intra-organizational communication infrastructure has well-built
communication network and vertical communication which allow the employees to
speak up about issues that could improve the business. An employees’ suggestion
scheme called Idea Boards encourages employees to provide ideas on how the
company could improve the way it works. Those ideas are collected on a monthly
basis by the company’s active corporate communications department and
forwarded to the people who could implement such suggestions. They are also
responded to both on the Idea Boards and in LA News, its employee newsletter.
Complete transparency is ensured through such open feedback mechanisms, which,
in turn, keeps managers on their toes—if they say ‘the idea is currently being
considered’, employees keep a close watch on whether they are actually
considering it.
The Communicators appointed in every department of the company are
responsible for ‘ensuring that communication happens regularly in their respective
areas’. These Communicators work in close association with their managers to
ensure that communication meetings take place on a regular basis in all departments.
They also play an active role in ascertaining that the company’s campaigns reflect its
values.
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1. State one difference between intra-organizational communication and

inter-organizational communication.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
2. List the essential characteristics of a crisis.

................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
3. Define technology-free communication.

................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
6.3 SUMMARY
• Organizations today are increasingly expected to deliver products and

services better, faster and cheaper than their competitors.
• Depending on the tonality and the degree of formality or informality you
adopt in your communication at the workplace, it can be classified into any
of the two types—formal and informal.
• Formal communication is the type of communication that one uses in written
or spoken form to communicate with the top management, middle
management, frontline managers, client companies, suppliers and other
stakeholders within or outside your organization.
• Grapevine is one such type of informal channel of communication which is
done orally. It is called so because it stretches throughout the organization
across functional areas in all directions irrespective of the hierarchy levels.
103
• The nature of the world in which we live—one that is wired, connected,

mobile, fast-paced, and far less driven by logic—has changed in some not-
so-subtle ways of late.
• Intra-organizational communication is what you use to share information in
written or spoken format within your organization.
• Technology-free communication is where you communicate without any
technological assistance with your top management, middle management,
frontline managers, client companies, suppliers and other stakeholders
within or outside your organization.
• Crises are inevitable. No individual or organization is immune to them.
Crises are frequently described as isolated incidents, uncharacteristic
occurrences, unusual circumstances or simply tragic and unfortunate
accidents.
• Further, Fink concludes that a crisis not handled in a timely manner will
follow a particular pattern or phase of development—the four crisis stages
known as: prodromal, acute, chronic and crisis resolution.
6.4 KEY WORDS
• Focus group: It is a group of people assembled to participate in a

discussion about a product before it is launched, or to provide feedback on
a political campaign, television series, and so forth.
• Brochure: It a small book or magazine containing pictures and information
about a product or service.
• Performance appraisal: It is the systematic evaluation of the performance
of employees and to understand the abilities of a person for further growth
and development.

1. Intra-organizational communication is what you use to share information in
written or spoken format within your organization. On the other hand, inter-
organizational communication includes your interaction with people outside
104
your organization—your clients, suppliers, regulatory bodies, government

authorities, media, shareholders, and so forth.
2. The essential characteristics of a crisis are as follows:
• Surprise
• Insufficient information
• Escalating flow of events
• Loss of control
• Intense scrutiny from outside
• Siege mentality
• Panic
• Short-term focus
3. Technology-free communication is where you communicate without any
technological assistance with your top management, middle management.
frontline managers, client companies, suppliers and other stakeholders
within or outside your organization.
1. ‘Organizational communication is one of the fastest growing academic

disciplines of the day.’ Explain the statement.
2. List the various media available for technology-free and technology-
enabled communication in an organization.
3. Discuss the levels of communication which exist in organizations.
4. Suggest some methods of handling crisis communication in organizations.

Publishing House.
105

Prentice Hall.
106
Communication Channels
UNIT–7 COMMUNICATION CHANNELS
Objectives
• Explain the methods of communication channels
• Analyse the various aspects of electronic mail
• Interpret the significance of written messages in a business organization
• Mention the methods of preparing working notes
• Describe the types of business communication
Structure
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Methods of Communication Channels
7.3 Various Aspects of Electronic Mail
7.4 Written Messages
7.5 Working Notes
7.6 Types of Business Communication
7.7 Summary
7.8 Key Words
7.1 INTRODUCTION
There are various methods of communication channels which exist namely, oral, non-
verbal, visual, audio-visual, silence and written communication. E-mail has emerged as
one of the most potent modes of written communication owing to the technological
advancement of modern times. Written communication is the most well-known form of
business correspondence. It is crucial for small entrepreneurs and directors to create
powerful composed relational abilities and to support the same in all representatives.
Working notes and written messages are one form of written communication. Written
communication has many advantages over oral communication. There is no
requirement for individual contact. You can tell a representative he or she need to work
additional time through an email rather than vis-à-vis. It spares cash. You can send an
email as opposed to calling long separation. It provides composed evidence. Also,
there are several types of business communication which exist such as personal
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communication, downward communication, formal communication, lateral

communication and so forth. In this unit, you will study about the methods of
communication channels, various aspects of electronic mail, written messages, working
notes and types of business communication.
7.2 METHODS OF COMMUNICATION CHANNELS
Communication takes place through various methods and channels. The three main
methods of communication are oral or verbal communication, written communication
and non-verbal communication. Oral communication takes place by way of talks,
conversations, dialogues, speeches, discussions, meetings and the like. Written
communication takes place by way of letters, circulars, memos, reports, brochures,
books, etc. Non-verbal communication takes place through body language. Language
constitutes the vehicle on which both oral and written communication travel. Apart
from these three main methods of communication, there are others like the visual,
audio-visual and electronic. Silence is also accepted as a method of communication.
Each of these methods has its own merits, demerits, channels and aids.
Communication
Oral Non- Visual Audio- Silence Written

Verbal Visual
Talks Telephone Letters Telex

Speeches Microphone Memos Fax
Discussions Loudspeaker Circulars Mail
Meetings Amplifier Notes Courier
Seminars Tape Recorder Representations E-mail
Counselling Ratio Reports Telegram
Interface Brochures Photocopier
Books Print
Fig. 7.1 Forms of Communication
The various methods of communication channels have been discussed in the

subsequent units of this book.
1. Name the three main methods of communication.

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2. Give some examples of written communication.

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7.3 VARIOUS ASPECTS OF ELECTRONIC MAIL
E-mail, short for electronic mail enables you to send and receive correspondence
instantaneously anywhere in the world via the Internet.
The popularity of e-mail is because of its capability of sending and receiving
messages anytime, anywhere without any cost. E-mail allows you to send and
receive a variety of file types, such as text, image, video, sound and graphics and
from to a single recipient or multiple recipients using broadcasting. To use the e-mail
feature, you just need to create an e-mail account for yourself using a website that
offers such services. Various sites provide e-mail facility. Some of them, such as
yahoo.com, rediff.com, hotmail.com and gmail.com provide it free of cost while
others charge for it.
Creating an E-mail Account

Type the URL ‘http://www.yahoo.com’ in the address bar of a Web browser, such
as Internet Explorer or Google to visit the Yahoo homepage.
Mail
109
The page that is now displayed is the ‘Sign in’ page. If you are an existing user,
you need to type in your user id and password to log on to your account. If you are
a first time user, you need to first create an account for yourself.
Existing
User
New User
Click ‘Sign Up’ to create a new user. The page that is displayed is a registration
form that requires you to fill in your details along with the User Id and Password for
your new e-mail account.
User Id and
Password
Once you have registered yourself on a Website, you become a member and can
simply log on to your mail account to start sending and receiving e-mails. For all
future access, you would require to remember your user id and password because
that is the key to your login.
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Checking Your E-mail

You can access your e-mail anytime by logging on to your mail account. To do so,
perform the following steps:
• Type the URL ‘http://www.yahoo.com’ in the address bar of a Web
browser.
• Enter your User Id and Password.
User Id and
Password
Sign In
Once you have signed in successfully, you can access your e-mail account. You
can access your ‘Inbox’ to view any incoming mail or ‘Compose’ to write a new mail.
Clicking the Inbox button displays all the received messages or mails. You can
read an e-mail by clicking the e-mail subject. Clicking the e-mail subject displays the
contents of your e-mail that can be read to take necessary action.
Compose
Inbox
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Sending an e-mail
The compose option on the left corner of your screen allows you to write an e-mail
message. You can also attach documents to your mail. When you select the
compose option, the following screen appears:
Send
Attachments
Message Box
You can use the following option while composing or writing an e-mail message.
• To: Specifies the e-mail address of a recipient, such as
recipient@domain.com and user@abcdomain.com. This should be a valid
e-mail id for the delivery of your message. You can specify multiple
recipients’ addresses separated by commas.
• Cc: Specifies the address of the recipient to whom you want to send the
carbon copy (cc) of your message. You can specify multiple recipients’
addresses separated by commas.
• Subject: Refers to the subject of the e-mail message. It provides a fair
idea to the recipient about what the mail contains.
• Message Box: Provides a text area for composing e-mail content.
E-mail Attachments
Attachments can be sent and received with e-mails. These are files of different type
like text, sound, video, etc, attached with the e-mail.
Sending Attachments
To send an attachment, click on the Attachments button while composing a mail. A
screen is displayed which provides options to attach one or more file(s).
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Clicking the Browse button against the box provided to enter the file name
opens a standard file selection dialog box. This lets you browse through the files on
your disk(s) and select the file you wish to attach. Once you select the file to attach,
click the Open button. You can repeat this process if you wish to attach more file(s).
Once you are done with selecting all the files, click the Attach Files button and then
return to your message to proceed with sending the message with the attached file(s).
Attach Files
Browse
Opening Attachments
If you receive an e-mail message with an attachment(s), you can either download or
save the attached files to the disk to be viewed later, or can view them online. To see
an attachment, click on the attached file(s).
Open
The above screen is displayed. Clicking the ‘Download Attachment’ button

displays the subsequent screen providing options to either open the attachment
online and/or ‘save’ it to disk for subsequent viewing.
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Attached file
Useful Tips: Attachments can carry with them malicious programs or viruses
that may destroy the data on your computer. Therefore, it is almost necessary to
scan these files with antivirus software before opening them.
A few things should be kept in mind while e-mailing. These are as follows:
• Keep your messages short and meaningful.
• Always write meaningful phrases in the subject of your mail to help the
receiver understand the urgency of the message (if any).
• Organize your messages into folders depending on their content. This will
make it easy to find and maintain your e-mail message.
• Restrict your attachments to the maximum permissible size limit.
• Use a compression software (like WinZip) to compress your file(s) before
attaching them. Short messages are easier to handle.
• Scan your attachments before opening them.
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• Periodically scan your messages to delete old ones and avoid cluttering in
your mailbox. This will help preserve your e-mail account space.
• Always log out of your e-mail account once you wish to stop working with
your e-mail.
• Last but not the least, periodically change your e-mail account password to
protect it from unauthorized use.
1. List the essential factors to be considered while e-mailing.

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2. Name the various sites which provide free e-mail facility.

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7.4 WRITTEN MESSAGES
The world of business is replete with various types of written communication.

Written messages are so much a part of everyday business that one cannot think of
a business without related correspondence. Think of any organization or institution—
bank, electric company, hotel, college or library dealing with people and there is
obviously some written correspondence. It may be handwritten, typewritten or
printed. In the olden days, there were people who were especially assigned the job
of taking care of correspondence, even in small businesses. Such persons were
popularly referred to as ‘writers.’
Enquiries, invitations, price lists, offers, quotations, announcements, due notices,
new arrivals, clearance and disposal, recoveries and reminders, orders and a host of
other such activities of everyday relevance for any business are to be covered
through written communication. Any business has to correspond in writing with its
customers, branches, auditors, suppliers, bankers, media persons, employees,
shareholders and others with whom it has a business relationship. Written messages
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are a convenient way for any business to reach across to people, within the locality
and the neighbourhood, and also customers, prospects and other public spread
across other cities, regions and even countries. Written correspondence, thus, has
an extremely wide reach and as such is very useful for any business whose
operations are widely spread out.
Written communication has certain distinct advantages as compared to verbal
communication. It has a much larger reach whereas verbal communication can only
go as far as the voice or oral messages can travel. Moreover, while verbal
communication goes with the non-verbal message, written communication creates a
solo impact. For this very reason, in oral communication, the communicator has to
be quite conscious of the accompanying body language and other non-verbal
messages, for they have the potential to distort or contradict the basic oral message.
Written communication takes several forms—from ordinary business letters to typed
and cyclostyled messages, to printed pamphlets and brochures. Any such written
communication has certain clear advantages as the following:
1. Written communication has an extremely wide reach, co-terminus with the
literate world.
2. Written communication can be well-organized to convey the precise
message.
3. Written communication, generally speaking, can be prepared at the time
when the communicator is best prepared to do so.
4. Written communication, unlike oral communication, can be effective as a
stand-alone medium.
5. Written communication can be targeted to reach specific individuals/
sections.
6. Written communication can be composed in a language that the receiver
can read and understand.
7. Written communication can carry the much desired personal touch.
8. Written communication can be erased, revised and re-written.
9. Written communication, when stored, can be exactly reproduced or
repeated.
10. Written communication, organized properly, can be cost effective.
11. Written communication, very importantly, creates records and reference
sources.
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The advantages of written communication far outweigh its limitations and this method
of communication is extensively used in the business world.
Although written messages may not provide the depth and intensity of a face-to-
face communication, it meets very well the requirements for a variety of simple and
direct correspondence/messages that a business needs for its everyday transactions.
1. List two benefits of written communication.

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2. State one difference between written communication and verbal

communication.
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7.5 WORKING NOTES
Office notes, also known as working notes, are another form of internal
communication popular within business organizations.
Function of Office Notes

Office notes are put up by sections, departments or units to the higher authorities,
head of the unit, department or institution. Office notes are put up for (a)
‘consideration and orders’, or (b) for ‘information’ where there are specific
delegated powers for various sanctions, incurring of financial expenditure, changes in
placements and assignments, etc. Office notes incorporating all relevant details and
seeking such sanctions are put up to the appropriate sanctioning authority. Such
sanctions, through office notes, constitute a record of due permissions obtained
before duly communicating or acting on them.
Office notes are put up to the President, General Manager, Executive Director,
Managing Director, or Chairman, as the case may be. Alternatively, they may be put
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up to the Executive Committee, the General Managers’ Committee, the Management

Committee, Audit Committee, and the Board of Directors as well. Some
organizations also have some specific functional committees like the Legal
Committee, Premises Committee, Credit Committee, Promotions Committee,
Procedures and Systems Committee, etc. to whom office notes seeking deliberation
and orders or reporting developments are put up.
Method
Although there may or may not be any specific written instructions on the drafting of
office notes or the details to be furnished therein, in practice, one can observe a
well- established and widely followed method in putting up such notes. Sometimes,
the size and colour of the paper, the nature of typing (single space or double space),
the authority who should sign, time schedule for submission, etc. are clearly stated.
Office notes often refer to policy guidelines or important sanctions, etc., and
generally pass through various tiers and incorporate views or comments of different
functionaries. Whenever inputs are sought from different departments such as legal,
personnel and inspection, their views are incorporated in the office notes as well.
Office notes are prepared and filed in serial order and serve as authoritative
documents confirming sanctions or orders. While in some cases copies of the office
notes are endorsed to the implementing units, in other cases, the gist of the order or
observations made by the authority concerned on the note are conveyed to the
implementation levels.
Preparation of office notes too calls for relevant skills, as all relevant facts and
figures will have to be furnished sequentially. Wherever necessary, other related
matters and previous decisions will have to be cited for reference. The actual
recommendation has to be clearly stated. In the end, the specific decision or
instruction sought, or development being reported, has to be clearly mentioned.
Unless the office note itself is clear, the observations or orders thereon may also
become vague and not implementable. This will create uncertainty at various levels
and may necessitate the putting up of the note once again with additions and
modifications. It is necessary, therefore, that the office notes prepared cover all
relevant information and facilitate consequent decision-making and orders by the
authority concerned.
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1. State the use of office notes.

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2. What are the methods of preparing working notes?

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7.6 TYPES OF BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
Apart from the different methods and channels of communication, one can also look
at various types of business communication. Communication can be categorized into
different types depending upon the level at which it takes place, the direction it takes
or by its very nature.
Business communication takes place to further the goals of a business. It takes
place among business entities, in markets and market places, within organizations
and between various groups of employees, owners and employees, buyers and
sellers, service providers and customers, sales persons and prospects and also
between people within the organization and press persons. All such communication
impacts business. Done with care, such communication can promote business
interests. Otherwise, it will portray the organization in poor light and may adversely
affect the business interest. It helps the person concerned in moving up in the
organizational hierarchy. Communication is the vehicle on which the business moves.
The ability of the communicator to communicate effectively—verbally, non-verbally
and in writing—is a prerequisite for organizational and business-related success.
There are many types of business communication. The relevance and importance
of each of these types of communication is discussed as follows:
1. Personal Communication
Personal communication concerns communication that takes place between any two
individuals, be it in a family, group, community or even an organization. It takes place
119
in an individual capacity and is characterized by informality. There is an element of

privacy in all such communications. It can take the form of personal letters, personal
telephone calls, conversations, one-to-one meetings or e-mail messages. It is private
in nature and there is nothing official about it. Private and confidential conversation
between two individuals is also referred to as tête-a-tête.
2. Upward Communication
Large organizations have different hierarchical levels or tiers. Banks, finance
companies, insurance businesses, railways and such other people-oriented
organizations have typically a three-tier or a four-tier structure. The process of
communication to be complete and effective should encompass all these levels and
tiers. Upward communication is one which moves upward, i.e., from the bottom to
top levels in the hierarchy.
Any communication that moves from employees to supervisors, supervisors to
managers, managers to executives and regional manager to general manager may be
categorized as upward communication. Similarly, communication from branches to
regional offices, regional offices to zonal offices, zonal offices to the head office is
referred to as upward communication. Employee suggestions, market reports,
performance reports, feedback on new products and requests for facilities or
instructions are all examples of upward communication in the organizational
context.
3. Downward Communication
Downward communication moves from top to the bottom, i.e., from the CEO
downwards. It travels through senior executives to junior-level functionaries, from
the controlling office to the branch, from the head of the division to the head of the
unit. Corporate goals, business priorities, motivational letters, work-related
instructions, newsletters, letters from the CEO/General Manager’s desk are all
typical examples of downward communication.
There may be some communication which would move both upward and
downward. A typical example of this is performance budgeting, which is a two-way
process. It is a top-to-bottom as well as bottom-to-top exercise.
4. Formal Communication
To ensure communication on an ongoing basis, organizations develop formal
systems. Staff meetings, union-management meetings, branch managers’
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conferences, periodical sales review meetings and customer meets are examples of
forums that facilitate formal communication. Formal communication generally follows
a well-defined hierarchical pattern and periodicity. Memos, circulars, instructions,
guidelines, clarifications, agreements and reports are some of the channels that
facilitate the flow of formal communication in business organizations.
5. Informal Communication
This type of communication takes place in an unstructured manner and outside the
formal fora. There is an element of spontaneity in this communication. Informal
communication works well in smaller, loosely knit organizations. It is used more often
in situations where there are no rigid hierarchical tiers. While formal structure of
communication is a must in large organizations, it is the informality that helps sustain
goal orientation in small well-knit units. Informal communication takes place through
chats, conversations and informal talks and the like.
6. Lateral Communication
Lateral communication generally takes place in an organization and is neither
upward nor downward. It proceeds in a horizontal manner and takes place among
equals and at peer level.
It may also be described as peer-level communication. Any communication that
takes place, orally or in writing, from one branch head to the other, from one
division head to the other, from one group head to the other, may be described as
lateral communication. An important point worth noting in any such lateral
communication is that there is not much difference in terms of the hierarchical levels
or positions of the sender and the receiver.
7. Interactive Communication
Interactive communication is essentially a two-way process. It takes place through
meetings, conferences, teleconferencing, multimedia presentations, group discussions
and other such active two-way exchanges. Interactive communication is most
appropriate when the message or subject is to be presented at length, e.g., in
practical sessions, case study discussions and strategy formulation. When many
speakers are involved, there may be a need for a moderator who will facilitate
effective flow of communication from different speakers.
121
8. Mass Communication
Mass communication is distinctive in view of its scale. Essentially, it addresses a large
mass of people. Public speaking, newspapers, magazines and journals, radio,
television and dotcoms are channels of mass communication. Mass communication
has developed into a specialized area of study. Each of these areas or channels calls
for distinct skills. By its very nature, mass communication addresses a vast, well
spread-out and heterogeneous group of people and, as such, special efforts will
have to be made to sustain their interest and achieve the desired response. At the
government level too, there is often a separate ministry or department of mass
communication to deal with this functional area. Main branches of study relating to
mass communication are public relations, advertising and publicity, journalism and
digital media.
9. Grapevine Communication
Grapevine is a kind of informal communication that prevails in organizations and
businesses. The source of such communication may not be clear. It spreads by way
of gossip and rumours. It travels through informal networks and quite often travels
faster than the formal messages. Sometimes, it gets more powerful and becomes
more receptive than the formal communication. The prevalence of this type of
communication in an organization has to be recognized and accepted. A skilled
communicator can derive benefits from such a communication as well. It may not
always be possible to control the grapevine, but, nevertheless, an able communicator
knows how to influence it. Like any other type of communication, this one too has
its merits and demerits.
1. Define personal communication.

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2. What is downward communication?

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7.7 SUMMARY
• Communication takes place through various methods and channels. The

three main methods of communication are oral or verbal communication,
written communication and non-verbal communication.
• E-mail, short for electronic mail enables you to send and receive
correspondence instantaneously anywhere in the world via the Internet.
• E-mail allows you to send and receive a variety of file types, such as text,
image, video, sound and graphics and from to a single recipient or multiple
recipients using broadcasting.
• A few things should be kept in mind while e-mailing. These are as follows:
o Keep your messages short and meaningful.
o Always write meaningful phrases in the subject of your mail to help the
o Organize your messages into folders depending on their content. This
will make it easy to find and maintain your e-mail message.
• The world of business is replete with various types of written
communication. Written communication is so much a part of everyday
business that one cannot think of a business without related
correspondence.
• Written communication has certain distinct advantages as compared to
verbal communication. It has a much larger reach whereas verbal
communication can only go as far as the voice or oral messages can travel.
• Although written communication may not provide the depth and intensity of
a face-to-face communication, it meets very well the requirements for a
variety of simple and direct correspondence/messages that a business
needs for its everyday transactions.
• Office notes, also known as working notes are another form of internal
communication popular within business organizations.
• Preparation of office notes too calls for relevant skills, as all relevant facts
and figures will have to be furnished sequentially. Wherever necessary,
other related matters and previous decisions will have to be cited for
reference.
123
• Business communication takes place to further the goals of a business.

• Large organizations have different hierarchical levels or tiers. Banks, finance
companies, insurance businesses, railways and such other people-oriented
organizations have typically a three-tier or a four-tier structure.
• There may be some communication which would move both upward and
downward. A typical example of this is performance budgeting, which is a
two-way process. It is a top-to-bottom as well as bottom-to-top exercise.
• Interactive communication is essentially a two-way process. It takes place
through meetings, conferences, teleconferencing, multimedia presentations,
group discussions and other such active two-way exchanges.
• Mass communication is distinctive in view of its scale. Essentially, it
addresses a large mass of people. Public speaking, newspapers, magazines
and journals, radio, television and dotcoms are channels of mass
communication.
7.8 KEY WORDS
• Lateral communication: It proceeds in a horizontal manner and takes

place among equals and at peer level.
• Interactive communication: It is a two-way process which takes place
through meetings, conferences, teleconferencing, multimedia presentations,
group discussions and so forth.
• Grapevine communication: This is informal communication which
spreads through gossips and rumours.
• Mail: It is defined as the written communication that passes through a
messenger or the post office.

1. The three main methods of communication are oral or verbal
communication, written communication and non-verbal communication.
2. Examples of written communication include letters, circular, memos,
reports, brochures and so forth.
124

1. The essential factors to be considered while e-mailing are as follows:
• Keep your messages short and meaningful.
• Always write meaningful phrases in the subject of your mail to help the
• Organize your messages into folders depending on their content. This
will make it easy to find and maintain your e-mail message.
• Restrict your attachments to the maximum permissible size limit.
2. The various sites which provide free e-mail facility are yahoo.com,
rediff.com, hotmail.com, and gmail.com.

1. Two benefits of written communication are as follows:
• Written communication has an extremely wide reach, co-terminus with
the literate world
• Written communication can be well organized to convey the precise
message
2. Written communication has a much larger reach whereas verbal
communication can only go as far as the voice or oral messages can travel.

1. Office notes are put up for (a) ‘consideration and orders’, or (b) for
‘information’ where there are specific delegated powers for various
sanctions, incurring of financial expenditure, changes in placements and
assignments and so forth.
2. The preparation of working notes requires relevant skills, as all relevant
facts and figures have to be furnished sequentially. Wherever necessary,
other related matters and previous decisions will have to be cited for
reference. The actual recommendation has to be clearly stated.

1. Personal communication concerns communication that takes place between
any two individuals, be it in a family, group, community or even an
organization. It takes place in an individual capacity and is characterized by
informality.
125
2. Downward communication moves from top to the bottom, i.e., from the
CEO downwards. It travels through senior executives to junior-level
functionaries, from the controlling office to the branch, from the head of the
division to the head of the unit.
1. ‘Communication takes place through various methods and channels.’

Explain the statement.
2. Write a short note on the application of e-mail in the modern times.
3. What is the importance of written communication?
4. How do working notes assist in the internal communication process of an
organization?
5. Describe the types of business communication.

Publishing House.
Prentice Hall.
Basics and Breakdown
in Communication
UNIT–8 BASICS AND BREAKDOWN IN COMMUNICATION
Objectives
• Interpret the basics of communication
• Explain the various methods of overcoming breakdown in communication
Structure
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Basics of Communication
8.3 Breakdown in Communication
8.4 Summary
8.5 Key Words
8.1 INTRODUCTION
Communication is an occurrence that all of us recognize. Man is a social animal and

it is inevitable for him to communicate. Though there is no way to define
communication that has been agreed upon globally, the definition differs according to
various academic fields and different hypotheses, schools and approaches. Some
inherent objectives of communication are:
• Bringing about a feeling of awareness
• Conveying knowledge
• Conveying impressions
• Giving shapes to attitudes
• Provoking want or desire
• Accomplishing a performative feat, such as making a sale or presenting a
project.
However, at times, breakdown in communication does occur due to various
reasons. In this unit, you will study about the basics of communication and the
breakdown in communication.
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in Communication
8.2 BASICS OF COMMUNICATION
The American Society of Training Directors defines good communication as ‘the

interchange of thought or information to bring about mutual understanding and
confidence or good human relations’. Newman and Summer define communication
as ‘an exchange of facts, ideas, opinions or emotions by two or more persons’.
Communication, thus, involves a systematic and continuing process of telling,
listening and understanding. Communication enables individuals to exchange ideas
freely and effectively. Effective communication signifies a suitable grasp over the
exchange in the sense in which it has been communicated.
Meaning and Nature of Communication

Let us study the meaning and nature of communication.
Meaning
Effective communication is central to the success of any business organization.
Communication is a pervasive activity which encompasses almost all facets of our
lives. Much of our lives is spent communicating with each other be it at our work
place or in our family life. The term communication is derived from the Latin word
communis which means common. Thus, communication involves rendering common
ideas, opinions or information, that is, the sharing of ideas opinions or information. In
other words, exchange of thoughts is known as communication facilitating mutual
understanding between two or more people. Robert Anderson has defined
communication as the interchange of thoughts, opinions or information by speech,
writing or signs. Keith Davis has defined communication as the transfer of
information and understanding from one person to another person. It is a way of
reaching others with facts, ideas, thoughts and values. In the words of Peter Little,
‘Communication is the process by which information is transmitted between
individuals and/or organizations so that an understanding and response develops.’
When communication is referred to in an organizational context it is known as
organizational communication. According to William Scott, ‘Administrative
communication is a process which involves the transmission and accurate replication
of ideas ensured by feedback for the purpose of eliciting actions which will
accomplish organizational goals.’
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in Communication
Nature of Communication
The characteristics of communication are as follows:
(i) Communication involves at least two persons—the sender and the receiver.
(ii) It involves the transfer of ideas, facts, emotions, gestures, symbols and
(iii) Understanding is an essential component of communication, that is, the
ideas, opinions and emotions, conveyed should be accurately replicated in
the receivers’ mind.
(iv) Communication may be intentional or unintentional.
(v) The purpose of communication is to elicit action, inform or to express a
certain point of view.
(vi) Communication is a two-way process, that is, a feedback from the receiver
to the sender is an essential component of communication.
(vii) Communication is a dynamic process that is it grows and develops.
(viii) Communication is systemic, that is, every component of the process is
affected by every other component. For example, if there is a fault in the
telephone (channel of communication) it will affect the message received by
the receiver.
Communication that takes place within a person is called intrapersonal
communication, whereas communication between two people is called interpersonal
communication. Intrapersonal communication is a more complex process through
which communication takes place within an individual. Organizational communication
takes place within a business organization whereas mass communication is directed
at a large audience or is aimed at special media. Communication across borders
involving cross-cultures is termed as international communication.
Objectives of Communication
The objectives and functions of communication are inter-related. Communication
could have many objectives depending upon the group and context. Communication
within the family, in a classroom, theatre, church, warfield, seminar and in the
boardroom has different objectives. The objectives are defined depending upon the
group and the purpose to be achieved. Each of these groups has a different set of
goals and objectives. Communication aims at subserving those goals. In each of
these groups, the dominant objective of communication would be to inform, connect,
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in Communication
educate, entertain, motivate, provoke, integrate, reassure and persuade, as the case
may be. Communication is, thus, the means to an end. Communication is largely goal
oriented and the objective of any personal communication would depend upon the
person or group addressing the purpose or object one has in mind. Let us now look
at the objectives of communication in business organizations.
It is a process common to every business, whatever its primary function.
Business organizations exist for the purpose of meeting specific needs of the
community in which they operate. Every business organization sets its goals and
objectives in relation to the specific needs it aims to fulfill. Every organization uses
resources, including human resources; to function effectively, and also targets
specific clients and markets. Businesses are often associations of people coming
together for specific purposes. It has people within and addresses people outside the
organization. The activities of any organization require both people within and people
outside to act, interact, reach, share, exchange and get across to each other so that
specific objectives are accomplished in an effective manner. The word ‘business’
connotes commercial motives distinct from any charitable organization. It is clearly
driven by the profit motive. This implies that the organization would like to ensure
that its objectives are achieved with the optimum utilization of resources such as
time, money and effort. The communication system that is put in place within the
organization should, therefore, address and meet these objectives. Business
organizations being multi-disciplinary in nature, communication encompasses wide
areas and is inter-disciplinary in approach. Large organizations are described as
networks of interdependent relationships. The objectives, activities and inter-
relationships of a business organization necessitate communication to subserve its
many diverse objectives.
These objectives are discussed as follows:
(i) To inform: The first and foremost objective of any communication is to
inform. In today’s world, information is power. Communication brings
power through information. The dissemination of information covers a wide
range of areas, both internal and external. People within the organization
have to be kept informed about organizational goals, objectives,
procedures, processes, systems, plans, priorities and strategies. Equally
important is the objective of ensuring effective external communication—
with customers, prospects, competitors, suppliers and the public, about
products, services, plans, happenings, events and achievements. The
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information needs within the organization take on different nomenclatures—

market-related information, product-related information, client-related
information, employee information, executive information, management
information and so on.
(ii) To educate: Another objective of communication in an organization is to
educate, i.e. to disseminate knowledge and develop skills and attitudes
among the people working in the organization. There is also a need to
familiarize them with the systems, procedures and processes. This process
of education may extend to customers as well. This may be done through
product literature, publicity, presentations and demonstrations.
(iii) To train: Communication is an integral component of any training
programme. Business organizations need to train people to achieve
proficiency in specific skills. They have to provide working knowledge and
attitudinal inputs through training programmes to employees at various
hierarchical levels. Training sessions involve teaching, instruction,
demonstration, practice and discussion. The process of communication is
integral to each of these, aspects.
(iv) To motivate: People in any business organization have to be motivated to
pursue goals and achieve higher levels of performance. High levels of
morale and motivation are a must to ensure high levels of productivity and
efficiency on a sustainable basis. Communication provides the means to
keep the motivation levels high. Talks, lectures, films, meetings, workshops
and non-verbal messages are among the means used to motivate people.
(v) To integrate: Large business organizations have different business units,
departments and territorial divisions. Each of them pursues different goals,
sub-goals and target sections. Communication provides the means for an
integrated approach in pursuing organizational goals. Effective
communication should perform the crucial task of integrating individuals
across different levels. In other words, it allows people to work cohesively
in order to fulfill certain goals and objectives. In business set ups,
communication is integral to the process of team building.
(vi) To relate: Good business relationships are a must for the continued
success of any business organization. Communication provides the means
for building and nurturing mutually beneficial relationships which are both
internal and external. They may be among and/or between employees,
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supervisory staff, top management, customers, suppliers, other players,

press and other media. Communication allows organizations to relate
themselves with the community at large. It allows the organization to
position themselves as a sensitive unit careful to the needs and
apprehensions of its employees. All this is achieved through well-organized
communication strategies.
(vii) To promote: Promotional efforts are a must for any organization to fully
achieve its objectives. One of the Ps of marketing, Promotion, relates to
various activities such as advertising, publicity, public relations and
communication, which aim at customer information, customer education,
customer communication and customer retention. In the marketing context,
the customer is said to move from stage to stage till the transaction is
completed. They move progressively from the state of awareness of the
need for a product to the knowledge of the product, and thereafter to a
state of product preference. The needs of customers develop into effective
demand for products, resulting in the purchase of the product or service.
Promotional aspects of the service are particularly relevant in a service
industry like banking or insurance, where the product, i.e. the service,
cannot be readily ‘seen’. Financial service providers, essentially, sell
benefits. For this, they have to organize effective promotional measures,
which seek to inform, educate, persuade and actualize the clients/markets.
Communication constitutes the basic plank on which promotional strategies
are built.
(viii) To entertain: Every business is not necessarily a serious business. Even
serious businesses are not ‘serious’ all the time. Whatever may be the
nature of business, there should be time for entertainment. Communication
facilitates entertainment. It enables social bonding and allows lighter
moments to develop between individuals that help in releasing tension apart
from promoting camaraderie. Humour, when used effectively, can play a
vital role in fostering positive behaviour in business organizations. In the
entertainment industry, communication has a much bigger role to play. It can
serve to achieve the objective of purposeful entertainment.
(ix) To facilitate decision-making: Decision-making constitutes an important
function for any business organization. Well thought out decisions, quickly
taken, lead to better results. Such decision-making is spread across all
functional areas—personnel, marketing, accounts, production and
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maintenance. Day in and day out, people in organizations take decisions at

various hierarchical levels. People at higher levels in the organization
command respect depending upon their decision-making abilities. Any such
decision-making, however, depends on the availability of adequate and
timely inputs. It calls for facts, figures, analysis, deliberation, clarification,
confirmation and evaluation. Communication—both oral and written—
facilitates decision-making in any business organization. The objectives of
communication, it must be emphasized, are dynamic and ever-changing.
Depending upon the nature and functions of the organization, the range of
people it deals with, and the sensitivities involved, the process of
communication assumes new dimensions. In order to caution, counsel,
persuade, clarify, elicit support, reprimand, organize, apprise, evaluate and
achieve numerous other objectives, people in organizations use
communication. Business organizations nowadays function in an extremely
dynamic manner. Nothing ever remains the same for long. There are
mergers and acquisitions, joint ventures, high employee turnover, low
customer loyalty, move towards corporate governance, outsourcing,
paperless offices and flexible work hours. All these developments have had
their impact on the conventional methods of organizational communication.
Communication systems, concepts, and approaches will have to cope with
new demands on business, and there is a constant need to review the
adequacy of existing methods and practices. Communication is essentially a
support system for any business. With every change in business profiles,
the communication process will change accordingly. Let us take an
illustration. Till recently, a supervisor in an organization would consider
having a long talk with an employee whose productivity had declined or
had started showing indifference at work. This typical scene has undergone
a noteworthy change. Today, there may not be much of an opportunity to
have long, focused person-to-person talks. With flexible working hours,
outsourcing and limitations of time, new approaches will have to be found.
Although few companies may have the option of ‘chatting’ online, the
advantages of a one-to-one communication are poignantly missing. Every
new situation translates into a need for a new approach to communication.
To cope with new situations and emerging challenges in business, people
associated with the process of communication will have to be necessarily
creative and innovative.
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The objectives of communication, both internal and external, thus, cover

multifarious facets of organizational functioning. Within the organization, it
covers varied functions such as planning, directing, controlling, coordinating,
reviewing, monitoring and staffing. It facilitates appropriate feedback vital for
decision-making and relationship building. Marketing, selling, goal-setting,
employee counseling, team-building, performance highlighting, image-
building, morale building and community orientation are all valid objectives
which communication seeks to achieve in an organizational context.
Communication, in other words, supports every business function.
1. List the characteristics of communication.

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2. How does communication assist in decision-making in an organization?

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8.3 BREAKDOWN IN COMMUNICATION
Mastering communication skills involves answering the following pertinent questions:

• What to communicate?
• What is the objective of communication?
• How to communicate?
• Whom to address?
• When to communicate?
• How often to communicate?
• How to get feedback?
• How to evaluate communication?
It is very essential that one understands the what, how, when, whom and why of
communication.
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A communication breakdown takes place when communication is inexplicable to

one party or entirely absent between two people. There are several methods which
help to resolve communication breakdown. In cases, where one party is simply
finding it difficult to understand what is being verbally communicated, it is better for
the party on the other hand to slow down the pace of verbal communication. This
perhaps could ease the communicaton gap. In another instance, when two parties do
not agree on one point of discussion, then at times, an apology or admittance of
wrongdoing can help resolve breakdown in communication.
Communication barriers can be overcome through the following ways:
1. Encoding the Message using Proper Language and Symbols

Communication skills start with a clear understanding of what to communicate. What
do we really want to get across and in how detailed a manner? Are they stray
thoughts and ideas or well-organized and sequenced concepts, events,
achievements, developments and ideas? Are we communicating our own thoughts
and feelings or are we encoding and transmitting the message, thoughts, ideas of
another party, say that of a chief executive officer (CEO), planning chief, team leader
or an employer?
Good communication skills involve conceptual clarity and being well informed
about facts, events, intentions and expectations.
Encoding the Message
using Proper Language
and Symbols
Clarity of the By using Multiple Channels

Message of Communication
Methods to
Overcome
Communication
Barriers
Be clear about the Proper Timing
Target Audience
Making the Important Ensuring Proper

Message Repetitive Feedback
Fig. 8.1 Methods to Overcome Communication Barriers
2. Clarity of the Message

Communication is a goal-oriented process. The objective of any communication is to
reach out with a message. Communication skills would also relate to the basic
understanding of the purpose of communication. Is it to inform, analyse, reiterate,
caution, report or remind? Is it to motivate and win over, influence, inspire and seek
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response? Information, analysis, persuasion, negotiation, detailing, motivation,

counselling and enlisting action and support constitute varied objectives with different
implications and, hence, need different types of communication skills.
3. Using Multiple Channels of Communication

By this, we refer to the numerous methods, types, channels and alternative
approaches. Each has its own options and the skill lies in selecting the most
appropriate option in any given situation. Will it be oral, written, non-verbal, audio-
visual or electronic or a mix of these? Will the communication be through a formal
channel? Will it be direct and face-to-face or indirect? Will it be transmitted through
letters or telex or fax or telephone or e-mail? What is the time available and what
should be the speed of communication? What are the costs associated with the
available alternatives and how much can the communication budget accommodate? Is
the message pre-planned or extempore? Will a soft copy or a hard copy be provided?
Communication skills call for a thorough understanding of choices available and
an evaluation of their relative costs, merits and demerits.
4. Being clear about the Target Audience

Communication, to be effective, has to be focused, otherwise it gets diluted. The
communicator should be clear about the target group or audience and how to reach
them. Quite often, they are widely dispersed across different functional, hierarchical
and geographical areas. Customers and prospects may be spread across different
market segments. Employees may be spread across different units and regions. Our
targets may have different motivation levels. Taking into account all the relevant
factors, one has to decide how to address—will it be direct or indirect
communication, will it be open or confidential, will it be general or personal?
Although ‘To whomsoever it may concern’ type of address has limited use as, good
communication skills involve writing messages which are specifically addressed.
5. Proper Timing
The sense of timing is also very important in any communication. It has to be on time,
at the right moment. It should not be too early or too late. Human memory is short.
The notice for a meeting or an announcement about an impending event, therefore,
cannot be months or even weeks in advance, and that too without further reminders.
Similarly, sharing of information about events, developments and achievements will
have to be soon thereafter, for any delay would dilute the significance of the
communication. The other dimension of communication concerns receptivity, i.e., when
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to allocate time for communication so that receptivity is ensured. Important meetings

should be scheduled in such a way that people are receptive and recognize the
seriousness of the agenda. Morning meetings and meetings held at the beginning of the
week normally provide adequate time for action.
6. Making the Important Message Repetitive

For communication to be effective, it is necessary to take into account not only the
timing, but also the intensity and frequency. Will a one-time message be adequate, or
is it necessary to follow-up thereafter? Should the entire message be conveyed in
one shot, or is it more appropriate to make it phased? If so, what should be the
phasing? Reminding effectively too calls for skills. Too frequent reminders, without
appreciating the underlying factors, would serve little purpose and undermine the
person’s authority.
7. Ensuring Proper Feedback

Feedback is the final step in any process of communication. It involves carrying
back the effect of the communication to its source. Feedback helps to gauge the
effectiveness of the communication. Feedback does not come easily. There is
considerable skill involved in obtaining feedback. Often people receive the message
and act on it, but may not get back to the communicator. Feedback or response is
particularly relevant in market surveys and consumer surveys and studies. Good
communicating skill involves understanding what makes people respond to
questionnaires, get back to the sender and provide the desired feedback.
1. Why is it essential to be clear about the target audience in the process of

communication?
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2. Mention any two methods which facilitate in overcoming breakdown in

communication.
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8.4 SUMMARY
• The American Society of Training Directors defines good communication as

‘the interchange of thought or information to bring about mutual
understanding and confidence or good human relations’.
• Effective communication signifies a suitable grasp over the exchange in the
sense in which it has been communicated.
• Effective communication is central to the success of any business
organization. Communication is a pervasive activity which encompasses
almost all facets of our lives.
• The characteristics of communication are as follows:
o Communication may be intentional or unintentional.
o The purpose of communication is to elicit action, inform or to express
a certain point of view.
o Communication is a two-way process, that is, a feedback from the
receiver to the sender is an essential component of communication.
• Communication that takes place within a person is called intrapersonal
communication, whereas communication between two people is called
interpersonal communication.
• The objectives and functions of communication are inter-related.
Communication could have many objectives depending upon the group and
context.
• The objectives of communication are as follows:
o To inform
o To educate
o To integrate
o To relate
o To promote
• A communication breakdown takes place when communication is
inexplicable to one party or entirely absent between two people. There are
several methods which help to resolve communication breakdown.
• Communication skills start with a clear understanding of what to
communicate.
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• Communication is a goal-oriented process. The objective of any

communication is to reach out with a message.
• The sense of timing is also very important in any communication. It has to
be on time, at the right moment.
• For communication to be effective, it is necessary to take into account not
only the timing, but also the intensity and frequency.
8.5 KEY WORDS
• Intrapersonal communication: Communication which takes place within

a person is called intrapersonal communication.
• Team building: It is the action or process of causing a group of people to
work together effectively as a team, especially by means of activities and
events designed to increase motivation and promote cooperation.
• Inter-disciplinary: It relates to more than one branch of knowledge.

1. The characteristics of communication are as follows:
• Communication involves at least two persons—the sender and the
receiver.
• It involves the transfer of ideas, facts, emotions, gestures, symbols and
• Communication may be intentional or unintentional.
• The purpose of communication is to elicit action, inform or to express
a certain point of view.
2. Decision-making constitutes an important function for any business
organization. Well-thought out decisions, quickly taken, lead to better
results. Such decision-making is spread across all functional areas—
personnel, marketing, accounts, production and maintenance. Day in and
day out, people in organizations take decisions at various hierarchical
levels.
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1. The communicator needs to be clear about the target audience in the
communication process, otherwise there are chances that the message
might get diluted and may result in communication gap.
2. Two methods which facilitate in overcoming breakdown in communication
are as follows:
• Clarity of the message
• Using multiple channels of communication
1. Differentiate between intrapersonal communication and interpersonal

communication.
2. How does communication assist in dissemination of knowledge and
information in an organization?
3. ‘Communication supports every business function.’ Explain the statement.
4. When does breakdown in communication take place?
5. Describe the various methods which assist in overcoming communication
barriers.

Publishing House.
Prentice Hall.
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Guidelines for Effective
Communication
BLOCK-III
EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION, SPEAKING AND ORAL REPORTING
Communication is a pervasive activity which encompasses almost all facets of our lives. In
the organizational or business context, communication is the lifeline of every business. It takes
place at various levels and its effectiveness enables an organization to survive. In an
organization, communication may be formal following the organization’s communication
channels or it may take the form of an informal social interaction of colleagues. Employees
also communicate information through computers, talk over phone, write messages, fill out
forms, give orders and receive orders. Employees write reports about their activities, make
business presentations and organize meetings. Various tools of written communication are
available for communicating within the organization such as memoranda, circulars, office
orders, notices, and so on. In addition, employees need to communicate with external
agencies like customers, suppliers, banks, insurance agencies and others. It is through
communication that any management performs its basic functions of planning, organizing,
directing, coordinating and controlling. This block consists of four units.
The ninth unit defines effective communication. It then identifies the essential of
communication, and discusses the guidelines for effective communication.
The tenth unit identifies the principles of effective speaking, and define intelligent and
persuasive language. The unit explains the importance of physical expression, and discusses
the role of words and regulation. The essential aspects of chairperson’s speech have also
been described in this unit.
The eleventh unit defines business presentation. This unit further enlists the various kinds of
interviews, and interprets the skills required for conducting interviews.
The twelfth unit describes the nature of listening, various effective listening exercises and how
place, environments and time influence non-verbal communication.
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UNIT–9 GUIDELINES FOR EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION
Objectives
• Define effective communication
• Identify the essentials of communication
• Discuss the guidelines for effective communication
Structure
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Effective Communication
9.3 Guidelines for Effective Communication
9.4 Summary
9.5 Key Words
9.1 INTRODUCTION
Effective communication calls for coordinated effort. Effective communication like

any other high-quality output is very much the result of hard work. Effective
communication does not occur accidentally. It calls for proper planning,
understanding of human behaviour, choice of physical facilities and mechanical or
electronic devices and the organizational context. It is necessary to understand the
essentials of effective communication and work towards achieving them.
In this unit, you will be able to understand the concept of effective
communication. This unit also explains the guidelines for effective communication.
9.2 EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION
Effective communication is needed everywhere. Effective communication combines a

set of skills including non-verbal communication, engaged listening, the capacity to
recognize and understand your own emotions, the ability to communicate assertively,
and so on.
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The organizational communication faces several personal, physical and semantic

barriers which should be removed for improving the organizational communication.
The symbolic management, a follow-up and feedback, parallel channels and
repetition, timing, language, knowledge of exception principle, information centres
and subordinate-initiated functions are the important steps to make the
communication effective.
Symbolic Management
Symbolic management includes symbolic interactions and sharpening skills of symbol
manipulation. The process of encoding is framed in a simple and understandable
manner. This implies choosing symbols in the established context. The audience
perception should be well understood by the sender, who places himself in the
situation of understanding people. The sender must place himself in the shoes of the
receiver. The factors influencing the receiver’s perception are to be controlled as
much as possible by the sender for a proper communication. A manager should
understand his employees and also should be understood by his employees for
effective communication. Communication should be framed to meet different
information needs of the employees. Only the relevant information should flow.
Follow-up and Feedback

The follow-up and feedback system makes both the sender and receiver at par with
each other. Misinformation is removed and the causes of barriers are also known to
them. It helps to understand the message. The process of feedback makes
communication a two-way channel. Two-way communication is also visible in the
downward and upward communication. The management believing in a two-way
communication gives more emphasis to the employee’s reactions. Employees are
encouraged to question the communication flow from the higher-ups. Question and
answer sessions are arranged to have an effective two-way communication. A
grievance cell is developed for removing any miscommunication. Feedback and
follow-up techniques have been proved to be useful for management
communication. A face-to-face communication is a part of the follow-up technique.
A sender becomes sensitive to facial expressions and other signs to know how the
message has been received by the receiver. The receiver is questioned about how he
has understood the message. The maximum amount of information is transmitted
through a face-to-face communication. Managers carry the information directly to
the operating employees. It has been observed by researchers that executives are
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successful in transmitting the information if they resort to candid and open face-to-
face communication.
Parallel Channels and Repetition

Parallel channels and repetition are essential for an effective communication as it
reinforces both the sender and the receiver. A verbal communication, if followed by
a formal communication, becomes more effective as the employees have felt both the
personal touch of the verbal communication and fulfilment of communication
formality. Forgetfulness is also avoided in this case. A record of written information
is maintained for future references. Although it appears to be redundant, accuracy is
observed in this case. If the verbal communication is found redundant, it helps the
employees to understand the written communication. Duplicating makes people
aware and reminds them of the information. Many times, top executives talk directly
to the employees, respond to their questions, listen to their problems, convey the
mission and vision of the company, although all this important information is already
circulated to the employees by the middle management. This process reveals the jinx
of communication at the middle level. Many times, employees are eager to know
why a particular circular has been issued, the rationale behind such a communication
and the person responsible for it and so on. These questions are answered by the
top executives. Management involves the ongoing process of communication. It
continues throughout the life of an organization. The manager sends some
information which is accepted by the employees. But, some improvement is
visualised during the process of communication which is practiced by them. The
communication flowing from the manager to the employees and vice versa always
continues. With the rising employees’ responsibilities, the employees need more
information. Parallel and repetitive information is needed for making the management
more effective and efficient.
Timeliness
It is essential to communicate to the employees the information the moment it is
received from reliable and authoritative sources. The employees want full and timely
information as bits and pieces of information may annoy them. Crystal clear
information increases the management’s credibility. Anger, loss of trust, disregard and
dissatisfaction take place in the absence of timely and full information. The standard
of information and specified day of information help employees get a complete and
up-to-date information. Many times, information is relayed leisurely during tea,
dinner, sports-meet and so on.
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Attention to Language
An appropriate style and level of language has a long-lasting impact on the
employees. A very high and sophisticated language is not understood by the
employees. So, the message should be relayed in the language and spirit of the
employees. The audience’s language is the basic form of a communication. Thus, the
intended message will be the same as the received message.
Knowledge of Exception Principle

Many exception principles have been laid down for making communication more
effective and smooth. It means that only those orders, plans and policies will be
communicated to the employees which are away from the routine business. It implies
that the employees should be aware of all the routine principles. Only that message
will be communicated which is truly demanded by the employees. Exception
principles refer to selective information. However, it should not be a rule to
communicate exceptions only. Rule of exception is not followed always.
Information Centres or Grapevines

Information centres known as grapevines are developed for proper communication.
They also serve as motivational centres. Like grapevines, it may be a larger number
of sources and channels. It is flexible and based on face-to-face communication.
From the centres, the information flows formally and informally. Grapevines are
required for healthy growth. Communication should be free from distortion,
misinformation, unfounded rumours and unbiased attitude.
Subordinate-initiated Communication
A communication initiated by a subordinate is essential for improving the
effectiveness of the communication. It is possible through developing grievance
procedures, an open-door policy, counselling attitude questionnaire, participative
techniques and developing an ombudsman.
The grievance procedure helps the employees to redress their grievances. They
should have communication access to the higher authority beyond their immediate
bosses. It protects the employees from the suppressive attitude of their bosses. The
arbitrary discretion of a supervisor is avoided and the employees are free from the
vindictive attitude of their supervisor. Many supervisors open their doors for inviting
the employees’ interactions. The continuous interaction creates a congenial
atmosphere in the organization and a healthy relationship between the superior and
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his subordinates. A supervisor performs definite exemplary actions to gain the favour
of the employees. The counselling sessions between the superior and subordinates
open the platform of discussions of employees. The confidential consultation of the
subordinates on certain issues makes the employees trustworthy and meaningful.
Valuable information is acquired from the private discussions with the employees.
Participative techniques generate a great deal of communication. Participation may
be either formal or informal. Committees are formally established to decide certain
problems. Participative communication is more satisfying than mere consultation. An
ombudsman is appointed to remove the unfair treatment by a superior. This creation
of an ombudsman originated in Scandinavia to provide an outlet for treating unfair,
non-democratic and bureaucratic treatment of the supervisors. The ombudsman is a
sort of public relation officer who maintains a healthy relationship between the
subordinates and the supervisor in the organization. He fills the gap between the two
cadres of the organization. It has become essential to appoint an ombudsman these
days as the organization is expanding faster. The subordinate-oriented
communication is very helpful as it informs the supervisors about behaviours, ideas,
attitudes and performances. Both superiors as well as subordinates perform well by
a mutual cooperation.
A continuous and effective flow of communication removes several barriers and
makes communication more successful.
1. What is symbolic management?

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2. Why parallel channels and repetition are essential for an effective

communication?
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9.3 GUIDELINES FOR EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION
To be clear about the purpose of communication is the first essential of

communication. To have an objective is another central feature of effective
communication. In other words, it may be describe as a means to an end. To be
certain about what one wants to achieve through the process of communication is
another important factor. However, the scope of the objective of communication is
not just to merely receive and convey, it goes beyond to encompass the effective
delivery of the intended message. The communicator has to ensure that the message
reaches the receiver without any lapses. The urge to communicate should be
preceded by clarity of purpose. Ask yourself what you want to achieve or
accomplish by the communication: is it to impart information, express concern, enlist
support, express displeasure or imbibe skills? The objective may not be one but a
combination of these purposes. The various factors essential for effective
(a) Understand the Process of Communication

Another essential for effective communication is the need to understand how the
process of communication works, i.e., the principles and tools of communication. To
appreciate the various steps involved in communication in terms of encoding,
decoding, transmission, comprehension and feedback, it is necessary to have a good
understanding of the mode, channels, types, instruments, methods and barriers
relating to communication and the factors affecting it. Good communicators, like
good artists, use their tools effectively.
(b) Be Clear about Your Target Audience

The intended message cannot bring about the desired result unless it reaches the
right person or group of persons. The message should address the target group. For
communication to be effective, it should be properly focused. Be it a letter, a speech,
a film or a presentation, make sure the receiver is connected with or is relevant to the
purpose of communication. Quite often, communication loses its effectiveness
because it reaches an unintended audience. Good ideas and messages reaching the
wrong persons will end up as an exercise in futility. The next essential step is to
develop good communication skills. Effective communication presupposes the ability
to communicate under varied circumstances. The skills of communication that need
mastering are reading, writing, listening, speaking, body language and presentation.
One must be clear about the merits and demerits of communication and which of
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them is to be used under a given set of circumstances. Each of them is a different

skill and requires a conscious effort for suitable development.
(c) Be Well Informed

Communication quite often relates to providing information. The initiator of the
communication should, therefore, be well informed about the message he wants to
pass on. The initiator should also have the right perspective about the message and
be in a position to appreciate the context in which the message is being
communicated. Limited information or limited understanding by the sender naturally
limits the sender’s ability to communicate. This happens in an organizational context
when the sender of the message is doing so based on incomplete information.
People receiving the message often have their expectations about it and the person
giving the message should take cognizance of it.
(d) Plan Your Communication

In order to be effective, any communication should be well planned. The messages
to be conveyed, the words to be chosen, the action to be sought, the feedback to be
obtained, are all the areas that need to be carefully considered. These aspects will
have to be evolved properly before deciding on the right choices. While, some
routine messages can be communicated without advance planning, all important
communication in organizations/businesses need organized effort. Inadequate
planning can, and often does, result in ineffective communication. Good planning
should take note of the target audience and pay attention to their attitudes and
expectations, as well as timings.
(e) Be Positive in Approach

Yet, another requirement for effective communication is a positive approach and the
right mental attitude. The communicator should have faith in the process. He/she
should develop confidence through learning and practice. He/she should take
responsibility for making the communication work. Communicators should learn to
overcome barriers and look for positive signals. They should not bring in a bias of
their own. Furthermore, they should recognize the power of communication and
strive to achieve results through the process.
(f) Avoid Extreme Feelings

Extreme and strong feelings are not conducive to effective communication. Anger,
depression and frustration adversely impact the thought process and thereby distort
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what is intended to be conveyed or what needs to be conveyed. A disturbed mind

brings out disturbed thoughts and thus distorts communication. While addressing
important communications, and reacting to provocative remarks, it is essential to
wait till the mind regains its balance and the severity of feelings subside. It is
absolutely essential to realize that quite often the process of communication is
irreversible. A word spoken or a letter written in a fit of anger can do considerable
damage. This is particularly true in work situations, market places, organizations and
business. Restraint at all times is considered to be prudent.
(g) Be Sincere
Effective communication demands a certain degree of honesty and sincerity on the
part of the parties involved in the communication. It is necessary that messages are
transmitted sincerely and truthfully. There should not be a deliberate attempt to
mislead or manipulate the recipient of the message. If the receiver of the message
loses faith in the communicator, the process of communication suffers in terms of
credibility. Effective communication therefore presupposes sincerity.
(h) Be Consistent
Communication is a regular process of everyday life. In personal dealings, in
organizational settings and business places, communication takes place all the time.
When communication takes place on a regular basis, it is necessary that it be
consistent. It is necessary not to contradict oneself. There may be scope for
modification or correction, but not for contradiction. Further, when different methods
of communication are used in conveying a particular message, contradictions have to
be consciously avoided. The spoken message should be in tandem with the body
language. Non-verbal communication should supplement oral messages.
(i) Appreciate the Time Factor

In any communication, especially in business communication, time is of prime
importance. Speed and timeliness contribute significantly to the effectiveness of
communication. In today’s world, the value of time is well recognized. Organizations
and businesses set goals which have to be achieved within a given time frame. Tasks
have to be completed before the allotted deadlines. All communications concerning
such goals and tasks will have to appreciate the time factor. Quite often the message
that is delayed is wasted. Therein lies the significance of the choice of the channel of
communication. The channels selected should be such that the message is delivered
well in time.
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There is another dimension to the time factor in communication. The process of

communication should take just the right time. Long speeches that stretch well
beyond the allotted time, lengthy written communication and unusually long films not
only test the patience of the listener/reader/viewer, but also tend to lose their force
and get diluted in the process. Communication should be in measured doses, since
an overdose of even useful and relevant communication may be received without
enthusiasm.
(j) Use Proper Modes and Channels

The method or type of communication to be used will vary from situation to situation.
Effectiveness of the communication will depend on the choice of methods and
instruments. There are times when written communication cannot convey as forcefully
as oral communication. There are occasions when a telephone call would be more
appropriate than a letter. There may be messages which are important enough to be
conveyed through fax rather than by regular mail. Similarly, some messages can go by
ordinary mail, some by telex and some others by fax or even e-mail.
(k) Be Cost Conscious

The process of communication quite often entails costs. There are direct and indirect
costs involved in sending messages. These costs vary depending upon the method of
communication and the means of transmission. Since, communication in an
organization is ongoing, such costs can add up to a substantial amount. The results
achieved by the communicator should justify the costs incurred in the process. If not,
there is no effectiveness in such communication. Organizations should, therefore,
make conscious efforts to make their communication systems not only efficient, but
also cost effective through proper evaluation of available options.
(l) Obtain Feedback

Feedback is another important component of the process of communication. The
person communicating the message calls for feedback to reassure himself that the
message has reached the target as envisaged. Feedback provides valuable
information relating to the time factor, quality of the message, understanding of the
receiver and the action initiated. Such feedback helps in evaluating the efficacy and
reliability of the types, methods and channels of communication used. Feedback
helps in understanding the mistakes committed in encoding and decoding the
message and losses in transmission. Mistakes, if any, can be dealt with by
undertaking effective corrective measures.
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(m) Avoid Communication Overload

To be effective, communication should always be in measured doses. The
communicator should take care not to overdo or overstretch the communication.
Communication is essentially a participative process, and if not within reasonable
limits, the efficacy will suffer. Imagine receiving a 30-page newspaper every day, or
sitting through a non-stop 4-hour speech by a single speaker, or participating in a
technical workshop from morning till late in the evening. Whatever be the merit in
terms of context, the response is more than likely to follow the principle of
diminishing returns. Effective communicators learn to limit their communication in line
with receptivity and avoid excesses. In the foregoing paragraphs, we have made an
attempt to list out the essentials for effective communication. Since communication is
essentially a two-way process, both the giver and the receiver of the message will
have to conform to well-defined principles and norms. The spirit of communication
is as important as the modalities. When we talk about leadership qualities and other
people-related dimensions in the organizational context, it is the role model type of
communication that is being emphasized. Unless, one practices what one preaches,
words tend to become hollow and communication loses its credibility. Effective
communication strives to lessen any scope for misunderstanding and accomplish
complete and clear understanding.
1. Mention the two factors essential for effective communication.

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2. How feedback helps in effective communication?

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9.4 SUMMARY
• Effective communication is needed everywhere. Effective communication

combines a set of skills including non-verbal communication, engaged
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listening, the capacity to recognize and understand your own emotions, the
ability to communicate assertively, and so on.
• The organizational communication faces several personal, physical and
semantic barriers which should be removed for improving the organizational
communication.
• Symbolic management includes symbolic interactions and sharpening skills
of symbol manipulation.
• The follow-up and feedback system makes both the sender and receiver at
par with each other.
• Parallel channels and repetition are essential for an effective communication
as it reinforces both the sender and the receiver.
• It is essential to communicate to the employees the information the moment
it is received from reliable and authoritative sources.
• An appropriate style and level of language has a long-lasting impact on the
employees. A very high and sophisticated language is not understood by
the employees.
• Information centres known as grapevines are developed for proper
communication. They also serve as motivational centres.
• Communication should be free from distortion, misinformation, unfounded
rumours and unbiased attitude.
• A communication initiated by a subordinate is essential for improving the
effectiveness of the communication.
• The grievance procedure helps the employees to redress their grievances.
They should have communication access to the higher authority beyond
their immediate bosses. It protects the employees from the suppressive
attitude of their bosses.
• To be clear about the purpose of communication is the first essential of
communication. To have an objective is another central feature of effective
communication.
• Another essential for effective communication is the need to understand
how the process of communication works, i.e., the principles and tools of
communication.
• The intended message cannot bring about the desired result unless it
reaches the right person or group of persons. The message should address
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the target group. For communication to be effective, it should be properly

focused.
• Communication quite often relates to providing information. The initiator of
the communication should, therefore, be well informed about the message
he wants to pass on.
• In order to be effective, any communication should be well planned. The
messages to be conveyed, the words to be chosen, the action to be
sought, the feedback to be obtained, are all the areas that need to be
carefully considered.
• Extreme and strong feelings are not conducive to effective communication.
Anger, depression and frustration adversely impact the thought process and
thereby distort what is intended to be conveyed or what needs to be
conveyed.
• In any communication, especially in business communication, time is of
prime importance. Speed and timeliness contribute significantly to the
effectiveness of communication.
• The process of communication quite often entails costs. There are direct
and indirect costs involved in sending messages. These costs vary
depending upon the method of communication and the means of
transmission.
• Feedback is another important component of the process of
communication. The person communicating the message calls for feedback
to reassure himself that the message has reached the target as envisaged.
• To be effective, communication should always be in measured doses. The
communicator should take care not to overdo or overstretch the
communication.
9.5 KEY WORDS
• Efficacy: It is the ability to produce a desired or intended result.

• Effective communication: It is defined as verbal speech or other methods
of relaying information that get a point across.
• Feedback: It is the information about reactions to a product, a person’s
performance of a task, etc., which is used as a basis for improvement.
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Communication

1. Symbolic management includes symbolic interactions and sharpening skills
of symbol manipulation.
2. Parallel channels and repetition are essential for an effective communication
as it reinforces both the sender and the receiver.

1. The two factors essential for effective communication are as follows:
• Be clear about your target audience
• Be well informed
2. Feedback provides valuable information relating to the time factor, quality
of the message, understanding of the receiver and the action initiated. Such
feedback helps in evaluating the efficacy and reliability of the types,
methods and channels of communication used.
1. Write a short note on effective communication.

2. What are the basic elements of effective communication?
3. Discuss the importance of feedback.
4. Discuss how consistency and sincerity are crucial for effective
communication.
5. Explain how avoiding communication overload enhances effective
communication.

Publishing House.
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Prentice Hall.
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Effective Speaking
UNIT–10 EFFECTIVE SPEAKING
Objectives
• Identify the principles of effective speaking
• Define intelligent and persuasive language
• Explain the importance of physical expressions
• Discuss the role of words and regulation in communication
• Describe the essential aspects of chairperson’s speech
Structure
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Principles of Effective Speaking
10.3 Intelligent and Persuasive Language
10.4 Persuasive Statement
10.5 Physical Expressions
10.6 Chairperson’s Speech
10.7 Words and Regulation
10.8 Summary
10.9 Key Words
10.1 INTRODUCTION
Most people are under the impression that communication skills comprise only
speech/conversation skills. However, effective communication also requires attentive
listening. Most people think that a good conversationalist is a person who can talk
well. However, being able to talk with people is not enough. It is equally important
to be a good listener. A good conversation requires good speaking skills, careful
thought, concentration as well as sensitivity.
In this unit, you will learn about effective speaking, persuasive language, physical
expressions, and words and regulation.
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10.2 PRINCIPLES OF EFFECTIVE SPEAKING
It is important for an individual to possess good speaking skills. Speaking means the
act of uttering speech which is sensible and intelligible. Speaking well can result in
success. Take the example of a person selling an item. If he is able to describe the
item, its features and its advantages well, he will be in a better position to close the
sale. Similarly, during an election campaign, the way a candidate speaks can affect
the number of votes he/she earns. A good speaker should speak confidently,
producing the right sounds, stressing on the right words and using the right tone. In
addition, the speaker’s speech should be grammatically correct and should involve
vocabulary that is easily understood by the audience.
Getting a conversation started is at times quite difficult especially if it is outside
work.
At work, there is some issue or subject to discuss and it is easy for people to
start giving their opinions. However, making small talk does not come naturally to
everyone.
To launch into small talk, you should pick up a mundane opener such as a
comment on the appearance of the house or venue, the food or the fact that you do
not know too many people in the gathering. Such openers give you a chance to
introduce yourself and get talking.
You could also begin a conversation by asking the other person where he stays,
how he knows the host of the party or event, or whether he or she has caught the
latest movie that is making headlines, etc.
At a gathering, you can strike up a conversation by joining a group of people
who are already conversing. You can also help others get started by introducing
them to each other.
Here are a few tips to remember while making conversations:
• Try to gauge the interest level of the other person. Accordingly, you can
either try to keep the conversation flowing or withdraw.
• Talking too much or too little can kill the conversation.
• Do not try to interrupt when the other person is talking.
• It is not a good idea to disclose too much about yourself, especially if the
person is not well known to you.
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• Avoid too much detail while narrating anecdotes or incidents.

• Do not appear to be too self-centred. Try to get information from others
too.
• Jokes should be told only by those who know how to tell jokes. Trying to
be funny all the time can exhaust others. Therefore, it is better to be
spontaneous as spontaneous humour is always well received.
• It is best to discard the know-all attitude.
• Avoid making your statements sound imperative.
• Use of jargon does not impress. On the contrary, it may confuse the listener
and even alienate him.
• Seek clarification whenever required. It is wrong to pretend that you have
understood what the other person has said when you actually haven’t.
• Avoid using slang and swearing at all costs.
• Be a good listener and encourage the other person to talk. Make it evident
to the other person that you are listening (nod your head, look at that
person, etc.)
• Understand the other person’s point of view.
• Maintaining eye contact with the other person indicates that he or she has
your undivided attention.
• Use encouraging facial expressions.
• Avoid constant fidgeting or fiddling.
Telephonic conversations
You may think that speaking on the telephone or on the cellular phone doesn’t
require a second thought. It seems simple. However, some points should be kept in
mind always. Here are a few tips:
• Even if you are in a hurry and are forced to speak fast, remember to pause
at regular intervals.
• Avoid answering the phone in a rush. Pause for a second, take a deep
breath before picking up the receiver. This will help you sound relaxed and
at ease.
• If you recognize the caller, use his or her name while greeting. (eg., Hello
Rita!)
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Effective Speaking
• In case it is a business call, come straight to the point. In case of a casual,

social call from a friend, you could exchange a few pleasantries before
getting to the point.
• Imagine that the caller can actually see you and is trying to read your lips.
This will help you adopt a confident posture while speaking and also mouth
your words clearly.
• It is sometimes difficult to wind up a conversation especially when the
person at the other end is used to long conversations. In such situations,
you should politely make it clear at the very beginning of the conversation
that you have very limited time on hand or that you are extremely busy so
that the caller does not prolong the conversation or get down to irrelevant
issues.
• To curtail a call, you could use statements like:
o I know you are busy, so I really must go.
o It’s been a pleasure talking to you, but I really must rush now.
If nothing else works, you could also try one of these:
o I must answer the door.
o My mobile phone is ringing or my other line is ringing.
• While leaving a message on somebody’s answering machine, make sure to
speak slowly and clearly so that the person doesn’t miss out anything when
he is playing back your message.
• When you record a message on your own answering machine, try to smile
so that your voice sounds warm, welcoming and pleasant. Adopt a
moderate pace so that the caller hears you out and leaves all the details
such as his name, message, time, etc., as required in the message.
• Since, your voice is the only means of communication over the telephone, it
is important that you sound pleasant and bright. If your posture is not right,
you will not sound right either. For example, if you slump, you might sound
breathless or tired but if you are smiling, you will automatically sound
pleasant too.
• Try not to judge the callers by what you hear. Take your time to gauge their
mood as the conversation progresses and respond accordingly.
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Public speaking
Public speaking is the act of speaking to an audience or a group of people. Simply
put, it is another term for oral communication with an audience.
Some people tend to get nervous at the thought of addressing an audience. Such
people are scared to even think about the event and end up being unprepared for
the same.
For effective public speaking, it is very important to be appropriately prepared.
You have to be sure about whatever you say and the style in which you say it. The
speaker should also pay a lot of attention to his or her appearance, gestures and
body language while speaking.
While preparing for a public speech—be it a press meeting, a board meeting, an
annual general meeting or any public meeting—the following factors should be kept
in mind:
(i) Age of the audience: This will affect the language used and the level of
detail.
(ii) Gender and profession of the audience: This will help the speaker avoid
gender-biased statements in the speech. It will also ensure that the speech
fulfils the demand of the audience.
(iii) Knowledge of the listeners: The speech should be based on the
knowledge of the audience. If the audience consists of those with good
knowledge of the subject, it might be necessary to give a more technical
speech and it may also be safe to use jargon which should otherwise be
completely avoided. Also, if the audience is truly knowledgeable, it will be
safe to assume certain things. This will not be possible if the listeners are not
knowledgeable.
(iv) Attitude of the listeners: The speaker should be able to judge the attitude
of the audience. He should be able to anticipate the opposing views that
might be expressed by the audience.
(v) Layout of the room: The speaker should be aware of the layout of the
venue or space where he is supposed to speak— whether a microphone
would be provided, whether he would be addressing the audience from
atop a platform, whether the event would be in the open, and so on. If he
is a guest speaker, he may have a say in the arrangement of seats, the
lectern, the microphone, etc.
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(vi) Size of the audience: It is always good to know, well in advance the
number of people who would be listening to you. This ensures that the
speaker is not shocked or overwhelmed by the size of the audience.
Guidelines for preparing a Speech

Speeches can be delivered extempore or impromptu or they can be prepared and
delivered. A person may be invited to speak as a guest at a seminar; a subject
matter expert or professor can be asked to speak on his subject and explain certain
issues related to his subject to a lot of interested students; one of the invitees at an
official dinner may be casually called upon to say a few words at the end of the
dinner; a team member may be asked to give a speech to welcome a new entrant to
the group or to thank, praise or bid farewell to an old member of the team; a
director may be asked to deliver a speech about the progress of a company at a
board meeting, a CEO may be asked to speak to the media about his company at
a press conference. Whatever be the situation or occasion, in order to be effective,
speeches need to be structured. They can be structured in many ways; it is up to the
speaker to decide on a structure that he finds most convenient or suitable.
(i) The speech can be divided into various parts or aspects. Each aspect or
part can be spoken about or dealt with in turn.
(ii) The speaker could speak in a chronological order, starting with the most
ancient and coming down to the most recent.
(iii) If the subject of the speech covers various geographical locations, then the
speaker could talk about one location at a time, covering everything about
that location before going on to the next location.
(iv) Depending on the topic or subject, the speaker can also deal with one issue
or problem at a time, discussing the problem and its solution before going
on to the next issue or problem.
The introduction of a speech should be able to arrest the audience and make
them listen. If the listeners already look bored, the opening of the speech will have
to be interesting so that the audience becomes alert. If the audience is already a little
worked up due to some issue, the speaker should ensure that he does not open his
speech with another controversial issue or statement that would throw the audience
into a chaos or encourage them to discuss among themselves. A controversial
beginning will only raise the noise level in the room and prevent the speaker from
being heard. It is best to memorize the opening line.
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Remember to greet the audience, remind them of the reason for their presence
and thank the organizers for giving you the opportunity to speak.
Before going on to the body of the speech, it would be better to inform the
audience of what you will be discussing in that part of your speech. The body should
be punctuated with humour at intervals so that the attention of the audience is
revived. Using visual aids at this stage also helps to sustain the interest of the
audience. In case you cannot avoid criticizing something, make sure you also give a
strong argument or evidence for your statements so that you do not have to face any
negative reaction or opposition. During a persuasive speech it would be a good
strategy to mention that you are there discussing such an issue because you know
that the listeners are open to new ideas and innovations. This kind of statement
appeals to the audience and goes a long way in convincing them and influencing
them.
The conclusion of a speech should leave a lasting impact since that is what the
listeners get to hear last. It should be memorable and of the kind that would be
carried by the audience in their minds for a long time.
Care should be taken to ensure that no new issue or point is introduced in the
conclusion. In fact, if the conclusion is also prepared, at least roughly, in advance, it
would save the trouble of trying to make up an effective and memorable conclusion
on the spot.
If you are required to make a speech at a time when you are least prepared or
least expected to, the best way to prepare yourself is to quickly think of the common
questions that you may ask somebody at that point, in the context of the event or
matters discussed therein. The answers to those questions could form the body of
your speech.
Styles of speech
Speeches may be of different types. Some are persuasive, some demonstrative,
others informative and yet others commemorative.
• Persuasive speeches are aimed at influencing the audience, attempting to
change their opinions and convincing them to believe in something.
Persuasive speeches may be delivered by a student leader to a group of
students persuading them to vote for a certain candidate in the college
elections. A member of the board of directors of a company may have to
deliver a persuasive speech at the board meeting to make the other
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directors agree on a particular proposal or see his point of view. The

success of a persuasive speech can be measured by the number of people
who are influenced by the speaker. In the case of a campaigner, the
success of his speech can be determined by the number of people who
voted for the candidate in question. In case of the board meeting, the
number of attendants who support the speaker will determine the success
of his speech.
• Informative speeches, as the name suggests, are aimed at explaining a
subject. Such speeches are delivered by experts on certain subjects in the
form of lectures where they try to teach something to the audience. An
informative speech may also be delivered by the brand manager of a
company or organization to the media (at a press conference) why
explaining the features and USP of a new, product launched. A top
manager of an organization can deliver an informative speech about the
sales figures and profits of the organization at an annual meeting.
An informative speech would be successful only if the audience has been
able to grasp what the speaker has said and has understood the subject
well.
• Demonstrative speeches are almost the same as informative speeches,
the only addition being that of practical, that is, what is taught is also
demonstrated to the audience to explain the issue or to drive home a point.
A yoga teacher explaining the benefits of certain asanas may perform or
demonstrate the asanas or postures to the audience. This is a
demonstrative speech.
Good Strategies Conversation

The principles of effective conversation skills are clarity, brevity, simplicity,
pleasantness of tone and flexibility of tongue.
Clear speech is of utmost importance if the conversation is to be of any use.
The exact idea will be conveyed only if the speech is absolutely clear. Incomplete
sentences, illogical sequence of thought, ambiguous statements and confusing
expressions will only lead to miscommunication and misinterpretation.
Brevity reflects accurate thinking. The speaker should deliver only what is
relevant or necessary in a clear and comprehensive manner.
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Simplicity is always an asset, especially in conversation. A conversation full of

long sentences, difficult words and complicated thoughts will never fulfil its
objectives.
The speakers’s words will not register in the minds of the listeners unless they
are simple and easy to understand.
A speaker who is courteous will always be heard. Somebody who is
discourteous and uses blunt statements and rude language will not be given a patient
hearing.
In any conversation, speaking with tact is necessary so that the other person’s
feelings are not hurt in any way. In case something wrong is said accidentally, the
speaker should tactfully change the subject or dilute the impact.
A conversation will not bring positive results unless the speakers are sincere and
speak honestly about their feelings and opinions. They should not express ideas
which they do not believe in themselves.
Statements made in a conversation should be original. It is not right to pass off
others’ opinions and statements as your own. Therefore, you should have a great
sense of imagination. A pleasant tone goes a long way in sustaining conversations.
It also keeps the listeners enthralled.
You should have complete control over your tongue. You should be able to
speak without slurring, stammering or stuttering and without swallowing words or
talking through your nose.
You should choose your words with care to convey exactly what you mean, and
if necessary, to conceal the true idea, depending on the situation.
Always remember that effective communication is the key to success in today’s
competitive world. No wonder, good managers are also good at making effective
conversations.
1. What is public speaking?

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2. Name the different types of speeches.

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10.3 INTELLIGENT AND PERSUASIVE LANGUAGE
Intelligents language relates to communicating messages which the reader finds

pleasant and is keen to receive. Instances of good news include the following:
• A job applicant has been selected.
• An employee has been promoted.
Good news is best communicated usinig intelligent language in the following manner:
• Your opening sentence should start on a pleasant note.
• Cover the good news in brief sentences.
• Follow a friendly tone.
• Convey the positive content of the message.
• Avoid irrelevant details.
• Do not wait till the end of the letter to convey the good news.
If the good news has a limiting factor or a portion that is not considered favourable,
put it across in a positive manner. Make sure the letter or writing leaves a positive
impression in tune with the content of the letter. Otherwise, the good news will be
accompanied by poor writing.
Unpleasant message also should be communicated using intelligent language. The
reader is likely to be disappointed. It may relate to failure in a test or interview,
rejection of a raise or promotion, lay off or retrenchment or any such event that
would be unpleasant to the receiver. The drafting of a bad news message has to be
done with more care than a good news letter. The writer should visualize the extent
of shock or hurt that would be caused to the recipient. Choose words that will
soften the impact of the message. Explain what is essential. Take care to avoid being
blunt or hurtful or apologetic. State the facts and avoid being judgmental. Be polite.
Whether you should give the bad news direct and upfront or after some explanation
depends upon the content and your relationship with the recipient.
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Persuasive messages constitute a challenging task for any good writer. Here, the
writer has to go beyond a mere statement of fact. The writer has to not merely
inform, but has to go beyond and persuade. Persuasive messages call for planning in
advance and working out an appropriate strategy. The writer should have adequate
information about the recipient of the communication. Persuasive communication
should generally cover the following:
• Gain reader’s attention
• Make your opening statement so as to get the reader interested in what you
want to say
• State clearly and reason out
• Anticipate probable resistance and try to address it
• End by seeking action
The objective of any persuasive message is to seek the desired action. Your strategy
will determine what would be the most appropriate approach for persuading the
reader. Persuasion succeeds when the reader is induced, convinced or prevailed
upon to act as intended. Whether to make an emotional appeal, or to follow a strong
logical approach or emphasize the benefits or advantages depends upon the subject
and the target group. Brochures, pamphlets and other advertising material, direct
mailers and sales letters are some examples where persuasive communication
becomes relevant. Often, persuasion calls for repetitive communication. The initial
message may have to be followed up by follow-up letters and messages.
1. What are bad news letters?

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2. What are the essential parameters of persuasive communication?

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10.4 PERSUASIVE STATEMENT
Persuasion is another type of communication that is widely prevalent in business.

Like motivation, persuasion is also a very intense form of writing or speaking. The
word ‘persuade’ means to urge someone to do something successfully. To persuade
also means to induce, to convince and urge with tact and reasoning. Persuasive
writing is of great value in business communication. In everyday business situations,
people need to be not merely informed, but also persuaded. The ability to persuade
others into some specific action, both verbally and in writing, is put to test very
rampantly. By persuasive communication, the writer is making out a strong case as
to why something is true, valid, advisable or desirable.
Effective writers develop strong persuasive powers. The words chosen, the style
of writing and the sequencing of arguments or reasoning come into full play in any
persuasive writing. Let us look at some examples where persuasive writing would be
relevant:
• Where the seller is persuading the buyer to buy the product: Here, the
persuasion will have to be done with reference to the quality, price, limited
period offer and such other features of value to the buyer.
• Where the personnel manager is persuading the manager to accept a certain
assignment in a far away place: Here, the persuasion should be in terms of
the future prospects, challenging nature of the work, why the other person
is most suited and such other relevant points that would appeal to the
person who is being persuaded.
• Where the regional manager is persuading the branch manager to accept a
higher business target: The objective in setting challenging goals, the
potential in the command area, the manager’s past track record and the
strength of his team are aspects that can be gainfully brought into play in
making persuasion effective. As we discuss topics like how to make
communication effective and the rules of good writing, one can acquire a
better understanding of effective writing techniques, including persuasive
writing.
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1. Define the word ‘persuade’?

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2. What is the aim of persuasive communication?

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10.5 PHYSICAL EXPRESSIONS
There are many ways in which a human body expresses itself. These expressions
may be obvious or subtle, conscious or unconscious, complementary or
contradictory. It is said that bodies don’t lie and body language, therefore, tells the
truth. If you are tired, you can’t sit erect; if you are sleepless, your eyes tend to shut;
if you are bored, you tend to yawn; and so on. Skillful communicators can express
themselves in many ways as long as they are conscious of the fact that various parts
of the body may intentionally or otherwise carry a message. Similarly, a keen listener
or observer extracts meaning from body expressions as well. Facial expressions, eye
movements and eve contact convey the variety and intensity of meanings. Innocence,
anger, wonder, shock, grief, terror, indifference, seriousness, friendliness, approval,
disapproval, exasperation, and many other feelings can be expressed through body
language. In some professions, where the facial and body expressions are important,
they are consciously cultivated. Let us consider drama artists, movie stars, actors,
and people in show business. The success of their performance often depends on
their ability to cultivate and display a wide range of expressions as the situation
demands.
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Speaking with Figures: Bodies Do Not Die

According to researchers, the non-verbal part of the communication has an
overwhelming impact. It is said that less than 10 per cent of the effect of a speaker
on an audience is accounted for by words. Over 90 per cent of the effect comes
from non-verbal exchange. Here again, about 50 per cent of the effect is accounted
for by visual factors—appearance, apparel, body language, facial expression and
postures and gestures. Over 35 per cent of the effect is accounted for by voice—
tone, sincerity, modulation. In other words, when you speak, your personality
speaks.
The head, the gait, the walk, the carriage are additional facets of body language.
Ramrod straight, bolt upright, hunchback, stoop, slouch, etc., are some of the words
associated with the body and its movements. Nodding of the head to convey
consent or approval and vigorous shaking of the head to convey dissent are also
common.
Face is the Index of the Mind

It is said that the face is the index of the mind. Thoughts of the mind and the feelings
of the heart often find expression on the face. There are people who are good at
reading facial expressions. Good communicators, be it speakers or listeners, learn to
read and interpret facial expressions. Common phrases used to describe facial
expressions include the following:
• The face that launched a thousand ships
• To make a face
• The smile of acknowledgement or recognition
• To carry a wooden expression
• To carry a mask on one’s face
Eyes
Over the years, eyes have increasingly gained tremendous idiomatic potential as the
vehicle of a person’s inner most feelings. Considered as the most expressive facial
feature, eyes are largely considered to be sincere reflections of the spoken word. An
important marker of not just non-verbal communication, but also thoughts, feelings
and emotions, any visual contact can be open to myriad reading and analysis.
Literature, over the years, has seen copious references to the eyes. Some of the
words and expressions used in common parlance while analyzing visual
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• Twinkle in his eyes

• Furtive glance
• Eyes emitting fire
• Worried look
• Sad look
• Wary look
• Unsettling stare
• Hurried glance
• Cold stare
Since, eyes are considered to be highly expressive, there is considerable significance
attached to the presence or absence of eye contact. In legal cross examinations, in
counseling sessions, in negotiations and other such business situations, the quality of
eye contact comes under particular scrutiny. In dealing with customers at the
counter, in facing interviews for recruitment and promotion, in making presentations
and in sales talk, eye contact assumes considerable significance.
Voice
Human voices, through their variations, convey different meanings. Speech or oral
delivery reaches the audience better through voice modulation. Voice modulation
refers to the adjustment or variation of tone or pitch while speaking. It has five
distinct features:
• Tone—harsh, soft, whisper
• Pitch—high, low
• Quality—controlled, uncontrolled
• Pace—rapid, slow
• Force—intensity
Voice related features are particularly relevant in spoken communication, either face-
to-face or through telephone.
Postures and Gestures

Yet, another component of non-verbal communication relates to postures and
gestures. Posture refers to the carriage, state, and attitude of the body or mind.
Gesture refers to any significant movement of limb or body and a deliberate use of
such movement as an expression of feeling. Gesture can also be understood as a step
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calculated to evoke response from another person or to convey intention. Gesture

includes gesticulation. Like other aspects of body language, posture and gesture should
also be read along with the verbal and other messages. The posture of a person may
be described as erect or upright or reclining. Posture may be physical or mental.
Gestures in human interfaces are many and varied. People read and interpret gestures
and hence these are extremely important in the organizational context.
Postures and Gestures Complement the Spoken Word

Nodding, shaking of head, smiling, patting the back, putting the hand over one’s
shoulder, clasping hands, shrugging, touching, frowning, scowling, blinking, yawning
and crossing and uncrossing of legs are among the different types of physical actions
and gestures that are used to convey meanings and messages and are likewise
interpreted by others receiving the message. The message conveyed through these
actions can be both positive and negative, and therefore, communicators have to be
quite conscious of their actions. Again, to be effective, these postures, gestures and
actions have to complement the spoken word. If not, the communication results in
contradiction and confusion.
Messages are Conveyed through Physical Movements and Actions

Postures, gestures and actions are of much significance in the organizational context.
Understood properly, they can be of great help in conveying the right message.
Ignored, they can cause considerable damage and misunderstanding. In a meeting
where the chairman is addressing, or a promotional interview, or even when an
important customer is being attended to, people concerned should be conscious of
their body movements and actions. They should convey the proper message that
they are both physically and mentally alert and responsive. A smile, at the wrong time
may be taken as a sneer and can therefore cause irritation or annoyance. Slouching,
yawning, swinging of arms and legs and such other actions which give a message of
indifference and carelessness will have to be scrupulously avoided in all serious
business related and organizational interactions. In the organizational context, leaders
and good communicators make effective use of gestures such as a smile, a touch and
a pat on the back. They come in very handy for motivation, morale building and
clearing misapprehensions.
Importance of Attire
Attire or dress is another important aspect of non-verbal communication. The way a
person dresses is often subjected to interpretation. The dress a person wears, besides
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announcing him or her, helps create a first impression. In business organizations the
world over, the attire of a person has come to acquire much significance. Formal,
informal or casual dressing conveys different meanings. Important and ceremonial
occasions normally call for a formal dress. Organizations, in fact, very often have their
own unwritten dress code that is well understood and scrupulously followed. A person
addressing an important meeting, making an important announcement, receiving
dignitaries or making an appearance at a high level conference, court of justice, etc.,
has to wear a formal dress or a dress that is not interpreted as casual wear. Any breach
of this unwritten code is likely to dilute the effectiveness of the communication. The
dress one wears should be in agreement with the occasion.
Importance of Grooming
Physical presence and appearance of persons play a key role in the process of
communication. The way one looks and presents oneself indicates the importance
one attaches to one’s presence or participation. A disheveled look as evidenced by
disorderly hair, untidy, ruffled or unkempt appearance, suggests indifference or
casualness. Any person who is serious about what he wants to convey, especially in
a formal setting, tries to appear so. In modern society, people have the habit of
judging others by their appearance. While there may be exceptions, generally a
person keen on conveying a serious, business related message has to make a
positive impression in terms of appearance. People tend to prejudge a speaker
through his attire and appearance even before he starts speaking. When people
speak and interact in business and organizational contexts, they speak not merely
with their words but with their personality as well.
Power of a Handshake
It is now well accepted, especially in metropolitan and urban environs that people
greet each other and introduce themselves to one another with a handshake. It is
increasingly common in greeting and introduction among both men and women.
Since, a handshake is seen as a type of non-verbal communication, it is essential that
it is done properly. Like the other aspects of body language, handshakes are also
varied, and each one of them has a certain interpretation. Given below are some
descriptions and interpretations.
• A firm handshake—the right way, shows confidence and keenness.
• A limp handshake—indicates that the person is not very sure of himself
further suggesting an inferiority complex.
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• A clasp—using both the hands, suggests a high degree of warmth or

respect.
• A vice like grip—a tight grip which makes the other person uncomfortable
suggests some kind of aggressiveness and dominance.
A good communicator is aware of what each type of handshake stands for and
ensures that the most appropriate one is used. A limp handshake by a person in
authority may be interpreted to mean that the person is not keen on further
communication or interaction.
Significance of Personal Space

Personal space or the space between individuals during their interactions with each
other is another segment of non-verbal communication. Physical distance between
persons can indicate familiarity, closeness, etc., or otherwise. People who are close
to each other tend to keep minimum distance, whereas strangers and people who
are not on very friendly terms, maintain physical distance. In a hierarchical context,
while peers move close to each other, subordinates maintain a certain distance from
their superiors. In ancient societies, besides economic factors, class, community,
colour, profession, rank, education and other such factors constituted the basis for
physical space. All these factors are relevant for the proper understanding of the
codes of spacial non-verbal language. The British, particularly, respect such spacial
considerations. Not only the length of space, but even the physical position has its
own significance. Front seats and special seats, as we all know, are occupied by
relatively senior and more important persons. When peers are in conversation, or
speaking on the telephone, the subordinates normally wait at a distance awaiting the
signal to approach. On the contrary, when subordinates are in conversation or
speaking on the telephone the superior moves close and often shows impatience.
Whether it is in an organization, or in a social context, personal space has its own
significance, which one has to appreciate so as to make communication effective.
Some typical examples of physical space between persons are as follows:
• When an employee is summoned by his boss, he stands at a respectful
distance or sits across the table if asked to sit down.
• Peers discussing a point stand facing each other or side by side.
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Keeping Proper Distance

It is well understood that the distance people maintain while communicating with
each other indicates how close they are to each other in terms of social or business
relationship. While close friends and people at the same hierarchical level keep
the physical gap to the minimum, strangers as well as people who have a superior–
subordinate relationship do not get too close. The proximity between two
individuals would also vary from culture to culture and country to country.
Value of Time
Time is another means through which non-verbal communication takes place.
Time and Protocol

Who comes first, who sits first, who gets up first are all manifestations of non-verbal
communication. Generally speaking, subordinates, invitees, students and participants
arrive early and occupy their seats in advance as they are expected to do so. On the
other hand, teachers, speakers, superiors plus the special invitees and the chief
guests generally arrive a little later. They are not made to wait. Similarly, in any
meeting, the senior-most person or the chief sits first, speaks first, gets up first and
leaves before the others. When it comes to public and other formal functions
involving the heads of state and other dignitaries, speakers are seated as per
protocol. For example, the governor of a state is the last to speak while all other
speakers get to speak before him. Looking at the watch is another aspect of time
related communication. The superior looks at the watch to suggest his displeasure
when the sub-ordinate arrives late. The listener looks at the watch frequently to give
the message to speakers that their time is over.
Time Management
Time management has come to acquire great significance in modern day business
management. It is well recognized that as business organizations pursue their
multifarious goals as per clearly laid out time schedules, time management holds the
key to success. In the organizational context, the efficiency of an organization is
judged by the importance attached to actions by concerned people. Few examples
of these are as follows:
• Whether the person is in time for appointment.
• Whether a person who has come on time for an appointment is kept
waiting.
• Whether the meetings and functions start on time.
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• Whether the speaker keeps to the allotted time.

• Whether the telephone is picked up as soon as it rings.
Progressive organizations ensure that the value of time is well appreciated.
Indifference to time schedules, on the other hand, suggests a sloppy work culture.
Actions Speak Louder than Words

The way in which one conducts oneself and behaves in the process of
communication is another very forceful facet of non-verbal communication. Actions
convey messages more forcefully than words. People expect others to practice what
they preach. Preaching without practicing would sound hollow. It is said that
examples are far more effective in communicating intentions and concerns than
words. The example set by the teacher, the father, the superior and the leader either
reinforces or contradicts the verbal message. Talking about cost control without
being frugal may not be very effective. Asking others to work hard without setting an
example in that regard dilutes the message. Before expecting one’s staff to be polite
and courteous to customers, the manager should set an example by being polite and
courteous himself/herself. Behavior refers to manners, conduct or treatment shown
by a person towards others. People tend to interpret behavior. One talks about
childish behavior, responsible behavior, dignified behavior and so on. Behavior is
governed by thoughts as well as feelings. Sometimes the mind or a rational approach
dominates behavior. There are also occasions when the heart or emotions take an
upper hand. The behavior of people gets closely watched by others in social,
organizational and business interactions. People in organizations tend to imitate their
superiors in behavior and action. Superiors who communicate through personal
example and deeds communicate effectively and carry conviction. Great leaders
recognize the power of example and behavior, and use them for effective
communication.
Potency of a Smile
A smile is a potent form of facial expression. It opens the door to communication. A
natural, pleasant smile carries great significance in establishing and sustaining human
relationships. The significance of smiling is beautifully brought out in the saying, ‘You
are never fully dressed unless you wear a smile.’ In a rather simplified understanding,
smiling is considered to be the universal language of love, compassion, empathy,
understanding, care, etc. A smile emits positive signals. All the same, it is also true
that all smiles are not genuine. Wry or artificial or platonic smiles convey messages
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quite contrary to those of natural and pleasant smiles. A smile should be well
intended and not sarcastic. In making sales calls and presentations, in interacting
with teammates and in every such transaction, a smile can create favorable impact
and earn goodwill. In the service industry, the sales force is specifically taught to
cultivate genuine smiles and smile liberally in their day-to-day transactions with
colleagues and customers.
Organizational Body Language

Like individuals, organizations too, have their own body language. It is said that
physical facilities in a business organization constitute the first step in communicating
with customers and visitors. As such, an organization ‘expresses itself’ through the
following features:
• Design and Layout
• Office Arrangements
• Space Management
• Distance and Locations
• Imagery
• Colour Statements
Each one of these, by design or otherwise, conveys a certain meaning or impression
to every visitor.
(i) Design and Layout

The structure of the building, the design of the counters, the layout of the office, convey
a message. People talk about solid and imposing structures, conservative and modern
designs and eco-friendly buildings. Every business or profession carries a certain
impression and the design or the layout quite often reinforces it. Whether it is a bank,
hospital or a department store, there is a pattern that becomes evident. For a long time,
till recently, bank buildings and banking halls in U.K. and Europe were known for their
conservative and imposing structures. Designed to impress the elite sections of society,
in terms of physical appearance, they were more awe inspiring than inviting. The early
banking halls exhibited certain aloofness and carried a forbidding atmosphere. The
solidity of the structures, so to say, reflected the security of funds deposited by the
affluent. The advent of mass banking and retail focus have, however, brought about a
friendly and inviting look to bank branches. Every business strives to create a certain
ambience that conveys a positive message about itself.
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(ii) Office Arrangements

Businesses have their own offices, outlets, stores, and other physical centers where
work is done and business transactions and interactions take place. Seating
arrangements, sign boards and name plates, lighting, access and exit, visitors lounge
are to be decided keeping in view employee comfort and customer convenience.
Under manual environments, office layout and arrangements had to facilitate efficient
paper or file movement. Under computerized conditions, lighting, dust-free
environment and cabling have to receive attention. When employees work at a
stretch for long hours, it is very essential that office arrangements and physical
facilities are congenial. Similarly, as far as the customers are concerned, customer
counters constitute the face of the business and the people at large judge them by
this face. Design, layout and physical arrangements have to be well planned so that
the people concerned perceive them to be not only operationally convenient, but
also pleasant.
(iii) Space Management

Business organizations are commercial entities. Governed by the profit motive, they
are always under pressure to optimize their resources and cut costs. Given this
scenario, space management or efficient utilization of available space assumes
significance. While not wasting space, business organizations should be careful that
their offices and outlets are not cramped for space. Many businesses have front
offices and back offices and these have different specifications. To give a positive
message, businesses should also demonstrate their concern for people, especially
women, children and the elderly. For example, offices frequently visited by senior
citizens should, as far as possible, be located on the ground floor, so that they do not
have to climb stairs. Similarly, there should be adequate parking space so that visitors
do not have to walk long distances. Given the spiraling rentals and real estate prices,
space management becomes a challenging task.
(iv) Distances and Locations

Distances and locations as well assume special significance in the process of
communication. Unreasonably long distances between two connected departments
and offices, for example, do not convey a positive message. Proximity facilitates
effective communication. When the need for communication between any two
groups is frequent, as far as possible, they should be located in close proximity to
each other. Another noteworthy feature, is location. The location of an office, a
functionary, a department or unit is also subject to interpretation. An executive floor
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to house the offices of general managers or presidents, an executive floor or lift or

passage for the chairman or chief executive and other such location specific
messages are also prevalent in certain business organizations. When a person is
elevated and occupies these offices, the person is seen to have ‘arrived.’ Distances
and locations also convey another message, i.e., accessibility. There are offices with
an easy access and there are others where the access is restricted.
(v) Imagery
Business organizations in a highly competitive environment are very particular about
their image—whether it is positive or negative, friendly or otherwise. There is a
constant effort on the part of businesses to see that a good image is built and
sustained. lmagery includes pictures, photographs, etc. and refers to the image that
one conjures at the mention of a name. Imagery is the language that produces
pictures in the minds of people reading or listening. Communication becomes
effective when the mention of a name evokes a favorable picture-friendly, efficient,
dependable image. Signs, symbols, logo, emblem, etc., help convey the right
message.
(vi) Colour Statements

Like flowers, it is possible to ‘say it with colours.’ Colours too can make their own
statements. Different colours communicate different feelings.
• White—serene, sober, peaceful
• Red—passion
• Green—growth, brightness
• Blue—competence
• Grey—strength
• Black—dark
Colours are seen to convey boldness and aggression, conservatism, tranquility,
efficiency and so on. Businesses which are keen on effective communication ensure
that the colours they use for their offices and buildings as well as the colours for their
personal use do not conflict with other messages brought out. Sign-boards, interiors,
uniforms, ties, stationery, vehicles and other such items which are in the public eye
should be consciously designed to make the right colour statements. From the above
paragraphs, it is evident that there are many ways in which an organization
communicates with its stakeholders and other public. People add up all these
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features and form their judgements—efficient, laid-back, friendly, robust, and so on.
It is to be remembered, however, that these interpretations and judgements are
constantly changing. That which was considered flamboyant and bold yesterday,
may not be so today. Competition, changing lifestyles, advancements in science and
technology bring in an element of dynamism to the process of non-verbal
communication. Banks, railway platforms, government offices, supermarkets, petrol
stations, theatres and a host of other businesses take extra care to present
themselves as friendly places. Since communication is goal-oriented, all such efforts
are directed at making the right statements.
1. Define posture and gesture.

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2. Enlist the ways in which non-verbal communication takes place.

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10.6 CHAIRPERSON’S SPEECH
The following words of Swami Chinmayananda, whose discourses on Bhagwad

Gita and Hindu philosophy and scriptures used to always hold the audience
spellbound, succinctly bring out the essentials of good speaking:
‘Speaking is indeed a very subtle art. Communication of ideas is the very heart
of speaking. Making a noise in front of a mike, encouraging the audience to compete
with your sound is not public speaking.
The speaker must have his thoughts arranged—ideas to form a logically
integrated thought process.
From the platform where he is delivering, he must be able to punch the ideas into
the understanding of the listener. He has to adjust his idea delivery and his
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presentation to suit the type of audience he is addressing. Capturing the attention of

the listeners within the first three sentences is the very foundation of a very successful
speaker. Modulation of voice, appropriate illustrations and clearly demonstrating
examples can all engage distracted minds and bring them back to the main channel
of discussion.’
Content Counts
The essence of chairperson’s speech is the content or the subject matter. The
message that the speaker wants to convey during the speech assumes considerable
significance. The audience attends the speech with a normal expectation that the
speaker will enrich them on the topic or subject of the speech. The audience expects
the speaker to inform, elucidate, amplify, reiterate and cogently cover the subject so
that it becomes worthwhile for them to listen to the speaker. This implies that the
speaker should take the job seriously and study the subject in detail. The speaker
should learn about the subject in some depth so that he or she can pass on the ideas
and thoughts on the subjects in a manner that is relevant to the listeners. The speaker
should make sure that the topic on which he or she will be speaking is such that he
or she has some expertise or particular knowledge or interest. The speaker may be
an expert and if so the thoughts will flow easily. If you are an expert you would be
sharing your knowledge and experience on the subject with your audience. Not
everyone, however, is an expert. People are often required to speak even on
subjects in which they are not experts. One cannot just shy away from such
situations. On such occasions the speaker has to make efforts to know more about
the subject.
The level of confidence of the speaker in addressing the audience is largely
determined by the speaker’s grasp of and grip over the subject. When the speaker
is thorough, thoughts and ideas will flow effortlessly. The speaker can be thorough
on the subject when he or she has done adequate research on the subject. By
research we mean a careful and detailed study of relevant aspects of the subject so
as to acquire adequate grasp of the subject. In today’s world, there are so many
sources of information, including the internet, that any knowledge can be easily
accessed. If you want to be a good speaker, make adequate efforts to grasp the
intricacies of the subject. When we use the word research, we do not mean the
academic research relevant for a thesis. What we mean is adequate command over
the topic or subjects and preparedness keeping in view the interests of the audience.
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Choice of Words
After ensuring that the speaker has the requisite content, the next step would be to
choose the right words. Your vocabulary or command over words will determine
how effectively you can express your ideas. Your vocabulary assumes importance in
the context of both your oral and written communication. The words you choose
should be appropriate to the occasion as well as the audience. If the speaker is
addressing a group of persons whose vocabulary is quite strong, he or she can use
higher-order words. The general rule, however, is to use simple words and such
words which are within the realm of knowledge of the audience. The world of
words is large, growing and fascinating. There is such a large variety of words that
whatever be the occasion and whoever be the audience, there is abundant choice.
Words can be simple or complex, short or long, ancient or modern, English or
foreign, dull or vigorous. Like in written communication, in oral communication too,
it is possible to pick and choose the words depending on the occasion. Effective
speakers know how to use strong, vibrant and contemporary words when the
occasion demands. Good speakers should make it a point to avoid jargon, acronyms
or abbreviations and superfluous words.
Jargon, as we have noted earlier, denotes technical words specific to a
profession or body of knowledge. It could be legal jargon or medical jargon or
computer jargon or scientific jargon or any such set of technical terms specific to that
domain. While, jargon has its relevance when speaking to an informed audience, use
of technical terms to an audience unfamiliar with the technical terms dilutes the
understanding of the listener. By using unfamiliar words frequently without explaining
what it means, the speaker alienates the audience. Jargon is therefore best avoided.
If necessary, simpler and more common technical terms may be used giving proper
explanations to ensure comprehension. Again, the extent to which a jargon could be
used depends on the profile of the audience and the topic itself.
Acronyms are abbreviations and are often words made from the first letters or
syllables of other words. NATO, GATT, IIM, IIT and ISI are some examples of
acronym. Like acronyms, each organization or industry sector may have
abbreviations which are well understood internally by their members. While speaking
to a larger audience, however, such abbreviations are either avoided or properly
explained at the very first instance. If a speaker uses the terms, YOY or FY or
FIFO without explaining the meaning, the audience most probably will not
understand that the speaker is referring to Year-on-Year, Financial Year and First in
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First out, respectively. The objective of the speaker should be to express and convey
the message with clarity and not try to impress the listener with avoidable jargons
and acronyms.
Style is another significant aspect of speech. Yet, it is difficult to give a precise
meaning to style. If we look up the dictionary, a style is described as the manner or
way of doing something—writing, speaking, designing, building and dressing. Style
refers to a distinctive manner that characterizes a writer or a speaker. In that sense,
it encompasses several aspects of a speaker’s approach and repetitive performance.
The level of confidence of a speaker, his or her choice of words, pauses, voice
modulation and treatment of the subject together characterize style. Speakers are
often described as confident speakers, nervous speakers, humorous speakers, fluent
speakers, passionate speakers, articulate speakers, boring speakers and so on.
Style is cultivated over the years. As in good writing, for good speaking too,
conscious efforts have to be put in. The journey from a nervous and boring speaker
to a confident and enthralling speaker or orator is often long and full of hard work
and practice. A speaker keen on developing a good speaking style should also
observe good speakers at every available opportunity and try to imbibe
characteristics which will fit into his or her personality.
Speaking is different from reading a speech. Reading out from a written text is
easier compared to speech making. Most of what we have discussed in this chapter
relates to speech making as distinct from reading. Reading out verbatim from a
written text, from beginning to end calls for good reading skills rather than speaking
skills. Speaking may consist of some references to written notes or points jotted out
to get the sequence right and ensure full coverage. Here the points noted are
described more as an ‘aide memoire’ or aids which help in recollecting or
remembering the items to be covered in the speech. Sometimes the speaker may
read out a particular item to quote someone or quote from a report or a data source.
Here the speaker follows the quote–unquote approach.
Some speakers who do not wish to be seen reading their speeches try to follow
another approach, that of memorizing the speech. Memorizing, however, is very
difficult and not very dependable. However well a speaker may memorize, there is
no guarantee that memory will not fail. If the text is long, it is not easy to memorize
the content and words and reproduce them in the same order. The problem with
memorizing is that the speaker tries to recollect the exact memorized words rather
than substitute them with other relevant words. Any failure to recall the words and
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thoughts will confuse and disturb the speaker and may result in his or her losing
poise. Such moments could cause considerable embarrassment and loss of face to
the speaker. Recalling from memory becomes very challenging when facing a large
and unfamiliar audience. Memorizing, if at all done, should be relied upon to a
limited extent. Very few speakers will be in a position to speak through by
memorizing. Perhaps, in the initial stages, when the speaker has not developed full
confidence in making an extempore speech, an approach involving part memory and
part speaking could be attempted.
Speaking extempore may be described as the ultimate skill in oral
communication. The word extempore is a Latin expression that means on the spur of
the moment. An extempore speech is also referred to as an impromptu speech,
meaning a speech made without any planning or preparation. In an extempore
speech, a speaker does not get any advance intimation and is called upon to speak
at a short notice. In today’s professional life, such instances are not uncommon,
especially for managers, executives and specialists or experts. Not merely speaking,
but speaking well and appropriate to the occasion on every such occasion,
distinguishes an accomplished speaker from an ordinary speaker. To be able to do
so, the speaker should be confident, well informed and even versatile, and be in a
position to draw from his memory. In meetings, seminars, business conferences and
a host of such everyday business situations, people are often asked to propose vote
of thanks, introduce the speaker, be a part of the panel and offer comments or even
be invited to speak on the subject. Sometimes, the listed speakers may fail to turn
up, necessitating someone else to deputize and fill the slot. Accomplished speakers
are those who can readily respond to such situations and make their speeches
worthwhile to the audience.
Catching Attention
The first few minutes of any speech or presentation are very important. On the one
hand, this is when the speaker makes the first impression on the audience. On the
other, this is when the audience or listeners form an opinion about the speaker. That
is why gaining attention from the very beginning assumes importance. In real-life
situations, the audience for any speaker can be really varied. A speaker may address
both known and familiar groups or distant and unfamiliar groups of people. Similarly,
the speaker may address people who are interested in the subject and those who are
indifferent and not very responsive. From the minute the speaker approaches the
podium or lectern or stands up to speak, he or she is under evaluation. Quite often,
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the audience may not only be different, but even hostile. The speaker has to deal
with every such situation with tact and understanding.
1. Mention the important aspects for writing chairperson’s speech.

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2. What is an extempore speech?

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10.7 WORDS AND REGULATION
Written messages can be broken down into the following parts:

• Words
• Sentences
• Paragraphs
Words are the fundamental unit of writing. Words combine to make sentences and
sentences are arranged logically to form paragraphs. In addition to this, paragraphs
combine to set the overall tone of the message. Writing principles apply to these four
elements of the written message.
The following are the principles of effective writing:
1. Clarity of writing: For the written message to be clear and
understandable to the reader, both clarity of thought and clarity of
expression are required on the part of the writer. By being clear about the
purpose of the message and knowing exactly what needs to be conveyed
to the reader, one can obtain clarity of thought. The writer needs to arrange
his thoughts logically before writing them down.
In order to achieve clarity of expression, the message needs to be well-
expressed, because if encoding is faulty the message may be
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Effective Speaking
misinterpreted. Clarity of expression can be achieved by the following

means
(i) Use simple words: Short and simple words are easily understood and
are less likely to be misused. Of course, variety in vocabulary makes
the writing impressive but too many long words in a sentence should
be avoided. They distract the reader and do more harm than good. It
is a myth that the bigger the words, the greater is the intellect of the
writer. One needs to remember that writing is to express rather than to
impress.
(ii) Use familiar words: Use words which are familiar to you as a writer
and are also likely to be familiar to the reader. For this, you need to
possess a good vocabulary to enable you to select the words most
appropriate for the reader. Unfamiliar words unnecessarily confuse the
reader and he may, ultimately, get disinterested.
Consider this example taken from the book Contemporary Business
Communication by Scot Ober.
‘The hexad worked with élan so as to redact their report and e-login
their guilt.’
This sentence is difficult to understand because it contains a number of
words which are unfamiliar to the average reader. Replacing the
sentence with the following sentence will definitely make it more clear
and understandable.
‘The six people vigorously edited the report so as to conceal their
guilt.’
(iii) Use short sentences: To enhance the clarity of writing, use short
sentences. Long sentences can be confusing and many a time, they
may be misinterpreted. If the sentence is of more than thirty words,
break it up.
(iv) Use concrete expressions and not vague expressions: While
writing, choose words that have definite and specific meaning. If the
words chosen are ambiguous the reader is likely to act based on his
own interpretation, which may be different from what the writer
intended.
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Effective Speaking
For example, consider the sentence:

‘The goods are being dispatched soon’.
Here the word ‘soon’ is vague and can mean different time spans for
different people. It would be worthwhile revising this sentence to:
‘The goods are being dispatched by 12th July.’
(v) Avoid unnecessary use of jargon: Jargon refers to technical
vocabulary used by members to communicate within a specialized
group. It is alright to use jargon to communicate within the same
specialist group as the words will be familiar to the members and will,
hence, be understood by all of them. However, if the reader is from a
different field, he is likely to either misunderstand the word or not
understand it at all. For example the word ‘virus’ has different
meanings for a doctor and a computer specialist. Therefore, it is better
to avoid the use of jargon especially for communicating outside ones
specialized group.
Fig. 10.1 The word ‘Virus’ has Different Meanings for a Doctor
and for a Computer Specialist
(vi) Avoid ambiguity in framing sentences: A message is ambiguous if it

means more than one thing. Avoid using ambiguous sentences in your
message as this may confuse the reader. For example, from the
sentence,
‘Please send me two copies of the books, ‘Who moved my Cheese’
and
‘Emotional Intelligence at Workplace’,
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Effective Speaking
It is not clear as to what action is expected from the reader. It can

mean one copy each of the two books or two copies each of the two
books. This sort of ambiguity has to be avoided. It is important to
clearly specify the message so that it has the desired impact.
Faulty punctuation is another cause of ambiguity. The complete
meaning of a sentence may change if it is punctuated in a different
manner as is clear from the following example.
The new assistant said, ‘The manager is very hard working’.
‘The new assistant’, said the manager, ‘is very hard working’.
2. Completeness: In business communication, completeness of facts is
absolutely necessary. This is more so with written communication where
immediate feedback is generally not possible. Incomplete information may
either result in an incorrect decision or in time being wasted in the follow-
up correspondence to complete the gaps in the information. While
answering a letter, make sure that you have answered all the questions.
While giving some information, check for the five Ws for ensuring
completeness, that is, tell the reader the who, what, where, when and why
of the information.
3. Accuracy: The accuracy of the message depends on what is said and how
it is said. Thus, the message has to be accurate both in terms of truthful
presentation of the contents, that is, the facts and figures mentioned in the
message and in terms of the timeliness of the message, that is, the message
should be conveyed at the appropriate time. The credibility of the written
message depends on its accuracy.
For example, consider this sentence taken from a message—‘On Monday,
18 January, the advisory board took the decision to hold the re-
examination’. If the reader checks and finds that 18 January was a Sunday
and not a Monday, the credibility of the message is reduced and the rest of
the message also comes into suspicion as regards its accuracy.
Check and recheck the message for accuracy of the facts and figures,
especially where important decisions have to be taken based on the
document containing the information.
4. Appropriate tone and language: It is not only the accuracy of the
contents, but the tone in which they are expressed which take away or add
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meaning to the message. Tone refers to the feelings created by words used
to communicate a message. Just as the tone of voice is important in oral
communication, the tone of the written communication affects the reader.
The selection of the appropriate tone depends on the relationship between
the reader and the writer and their relative status in the organization. These
factors determine the level of formality of the message. Depending on the
level of formality between the writer and the reader, the tone of the
message can be informal, semi-formal or strictly formal. The language that
involves the selection of words should also be appropriate. Some of the
issues to be considered are as follows:
(i) Avoid clichés and slang: Clichés are overused phrases that become
boring through overuse. They take away the originality and freshness
of the message. Avoid these to present your message from sounding
stereotyped and mechanical.
Slang is an informal word or phrase which is not a part of the standard
language and is often used by a specific category of individuals. For
example ‘Hip’ is the slang for stylish, ‘Pie eyed’ is the slang for drunk.
Use of slang reflects a high degree of informality and should be
avoided in written business communication.
(ii) Use non-discriminatory language: Avoid the use of sexist language,
that is, words and phrases which show a gender bias. This involves
replacing words such as ‘chairman’ with ‘chairperson’, using ‘Sir/
Mam’ in the salutation if you are not sure of the person you are
addressing. Do not assume that the addressee is a male. With an
increasing number of women forming a part of the workforce, this is a
common error that is committed. Similarly, a sentence of the kind.
‘The manager should try to convince his customers’ can be replaced
by ‘The manager should try to convince the customers’.
Do not use words which lower the dignity of women. Refer to women
and men in the same way. Consider the sentence, Mr Ravi Sharma,
the lawyer, and Ms Rita Ahuja, the lady doctor, were present for the
meeting. Here, ‘doctor’ should replace the word ‘lady doctor’.
Writing should also be free from bias based on factors such as race,
religion, disability, and so on. Our writing should reflect sensitivity and
should not offend others.
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Effective Speaking
The following are examples of the use of masculine pronouns for both
sexes and their gender-neutral substitutes.
Gender biased use of pronoun: When a new employee joins the
organization, he undergoes an orientation programme of 15 days.
Gender-neutral substitute: A new employee who joins the
organization undergoes an orientation programme of 15 days.
Gender biased use of pronoun: When a customer asks for a
replacement during the guarantee period, he has to be provided one.
Gender neutral substitute: A customer who asks for a replacement
during the guarantee period has to be provided one.
(iii) Avoid negative words: Some words have a negative connotation
associated with them. Avoid using such words. Instead, replace them
with substitutes that sound positive.
Some words that reflect negativity are unpleasant like disagree,
damage and complaint. Some examples of how negative sounding
words can be replaced by words that sound positive are as follows:
Negative : We will not be able to dispatch the goods till 12th July.
Positive : We will be able to dispatch the goods by 12th July.
Negative : Complaint department
Positive : Customer Service Department
Negative : Our product is very cheap as compared to others in the
same category.
Positive : Our product is economical as compared to others in the
same category.
Negative : I cannot attend the seminar.
Positive : I wish it were possible for me to attend the seminar.
5. Courtesy: Incorporate courtesy in your writing. Apologize sincerely for an
omission and thank generously for a favour. Do not be rude or harsh.
Timely response to correspondence also reflects courtesy. Follow the
golden rule of not replying to any communication when you are angry on
upset. A tone of courtesy and sincerity enhances the effectiveness of the
message by making it more acceptable to the reader.
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Effective Speaking
Avoid offensive statements even though they may be the truth. Even though
such statements may be stating the obvious, they result in humiliating the
reader. Such statements best avoided. Consider the examples.
Discourteous statement : ‘Do not allow your careless attitude to ruin
the project.’
Courteous substitute : ‘Be careful while handling the project as it is
very crucial.’
Discourteous statement : ‘You have sent the request to the wrong
department. We do not handle queries
related to domestic electricity supply.’
Courteous substitute : ‘We have forwarded your query to the
domestic electricity supply department as we
deal with the commercial supply of
electricity.’
In addition to this, courtesy can be achieved by the following techniques:
(i) Personalizing the message: This refers to singling out the reader, that
is, address the message directly to the reader rather than generating a
common message for a number of readers. Personalized messages
tend to make the reader feel important. However, many times this may
not be possible; but wherever possible, write directly to one reader to
increase the acceptability of the message.
(ii) Adopting the You attitude: Adopting a You attitude helps in adding a
sense of goodwill to the message. It holds the interest of the reader
and is a recommended style especially for persuasive writing. The
following are some examples which illustrate how the I/We attitude can
be substituted with the You attitude to improve the effectiveness of
communication.
6. Brevity: Being brief and to the point also contributes to making the writing
effective. Brevity in writing saves the reader’s time, and is clearer and more
interesting. Being brief means conveying only what is relevant and leaving
out what is irrelevant or words which are unnecessary. However, brevity at
the cost of clarity is not desirable. The following are some of the techniques
to achieve brevity in your writing.
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Effective Speaking
(i) Avoid wordiness: Avoid using 4–5 words where one or two words
can be used without loss of meaning. The following are examples of
how a phrase can be substituted with a single word without loss of
meaning.
(ii) Avoid surplus words: To achieve brevity eliminate words that add
nothing further to the meaning of the sentence. Examples of sentences
containing surplus words and their shorter version are given below
• The boys who were dismissed were asked to leave the college
campus.
• The dismissed boys were asked to leave the college campus.
• There are six poems that need to be memorized.
Six poems need to be memorized.
• The houses that were damaged by fire were reconstructed.
The houses damaged by fire were reconstructed.
(iii) Avoid using redundant words: Redundancy means duplication of
ideas through the use of different words that mean the same thing.
Avoid redundancy, as it serves no logical purpose.
Examples of redundant words include:
• Assemble together
• Longer in length
• Repeat again
• True fact
• Return it back
• Past history
• Basic fundamental
• Free gift
(iv) Brevity can also be achieved by
• avoiding the overuse of passive voice
• dropping out ‘which’ and ‘that’ clauses wherever possible Example
• I need a shirt that is blue in colour.
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• I need a blue shirt.

• I received an invitation that was of formal type.
• I received a formal invitation.
7. Appropriate emphasis: In a message there are some items that are more
important than others and these need to be emphasized to get the desired
effect of writing. There are certain techniques which can be used to give
proper emphasis to the selected parts of the message. These techniques
include:
(i) Using position for emphasis: The major emphasis positions are the
beginning and the closing of each sentence, paragraph or the message.
Place words, sentences or paragraphs at these positions if you want
to emphasize them. Other parts of the message that do not need
emphasis can be placed between these positions.
(ii) Using space for emphasis: It is natural that the more you say about
something, the more likely it is to draw attention. Thus repeating
certain points which require emphasis or elaborating them in detail is a
useful technique for emphasizing important parts of the message.
(iii) Using mechanics for emphasis: Using bold letters, italicized letters,
capital letters, underlining, using a different colour or a different font
are some of the ways in which a particular part of writing can be
emphasized to readily catch the attention of the reader.
8. Unity and Coherence: The message consists of information in the form of
words, sentences and paragraphs that need to be logically arranged to give
a unified and coherent effect. There is a slight difference between a
paragraph that is unified and a paragraph that is coherent.
A unified paragraph gives information directly relevant to the topic and
presents it logically. A way of achieving unity in a paragraph is to give the
sentence that contains the subject of the paragraph as the opening
sentence. This helps the writer to focus on the topic of the paragraph while
writing the message.
A message is said to be coherent when each sentence is smoothly linked
to the succeeding sentence. Various techniques are known to impart
coherence to the message, that is, to bind together the information that is
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presented so as to convey the big picture to the reader. These include the
use of transitional words and pronouns, repetition of key words and using
parallelism in structure.
(i) Using transitional words: Transitional words tell the reader the
thought connection between sentences and the relationship between
sentences. Some commonly used transitional expressions are: in
addition, moreover, besides, also in contrast, although, but, however,
as a result, in the same way, likewise, thus, therefore, for example, in
conclusion, to summarize, meanwhile, and so on.
(ii) Using pronouns: As pronouns refer to words that have been
previously used, they help in connecting ideas and words they relate
to. The use of pronouns like this, that, these, those, he, they, and so
on, help in relating ideas in different sentences.
(iii) Repeating key words: By repeating key words from one sentence to
the next one can provide a link between two sentences. Avoid
needless repetition but use purposeful repetition to achieve coherence
in the message.
(iv) Using parallelism in structure: Sentences need to have a parallel
structure, which means using a similar grammatical structure for similar
ideas, that is, matching adjectives with adjectives, nouns with nouns,
infinitives with infinitives, and so on. Parallel sentence structure
enhances coherence.
Examples
• The player is physically tough and a consistent player.
• The player is physically tough and consistent
• The management consultant will look into issues related to
o Training and development
o How to reduce turnover
o Managing conflict
• The management consultant will look into issues related to
o Training and development
o Turnover reduction
o Conflict management
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1. Enlist the principles of effective writing.

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2. Define the term ‘redundancy’.

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10.8 SUMMARY
• It is important for an individual to possess good speaking skills. Speaking

means the act of uttering speech which is sensible and intelligible.
• A good speaker should speak confidently, producing the right sounds,
stressing on the right words and using the right tone.
• At a gathering, you can strike up a conversation by joining a group of
people who are already conversing. You can also help others get started by
introducing them to each other.
• Public speaking is the act of speaking to an audience or a group of people.
Simply put, it is another term for oral communication with an audience.
• For effective public speaking, it is very important to be appropriately
prepared.
• Speeches can be delivered extempore or impromptu or they can be
prepared and delivered.
• The introduction of a speech should be able to arrest the audience and
make them listen. If the listeners already look bored, the opening of the
speech will have to be interesting so that the audience becomes alert.
• Before going on to the body of the speech, it would be better to inform the
audience of what you will be discussing in that part of your speech. The
body should be punctuated with humour at intervals so that the attention of
the audience is revived.
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Effective Speaking
• The conclusion of a speech should leave a lasting impact since that is what
the listeners get to hear last. It should be memorable and of the kind that
would be carried by the audience in their minds for a long time.
• Good news writing relates to communicating messages which the reader
finds pleasant and is keen to receive.
• Bad news letters are those that convey an unpleasant message. The reader
is likely to be disappointed. It may relate to failure in a test or interview,
rejection of a raise or promotion, lay off or retrenchment or any such event
that would be unpleasant to the receiver.
• The objective of any persuasive message is to seek the desired action.
• There are many ways in which a human body expresses itself. These
expressions may be obvious or subtle, conscious or unconscious,
complementary or contradictory.
• It is said that the face is the index of the mind. Thoughts of the mind and the
feelings of the heart often find expression on the face.
• Human voices, through their variations, convey different meanings. Speech
or oral delivery reaches the audience better through voice modulation.
• Posture refers to the carriage, state, and attitude of the body or mind.
Gesture refers to any significant movement of limb or body and a deliberate
use of such movement as an expression of feeling.
• Attire or dress is another important aspect of non-verbal communication.
The way a person dresses is often subjected to interpretation.
• A smile is a potent form of facial expression. It opens the door to
communication.
• Words are the fundamental unit of writing. Words combine to make
sentences and sentences are arranged logically to form paragraphs.
• In business communication, completeness of facts is absolutely necessary.
• Being brief and to the point also contributes to making the writing effective.
Brevity in writing saves the reader’s time, and is clearer and more
interesting.
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Effective Speaking
10.9 KEY WORDS
• Effective listening: It is the process of analysing sounds, organizing them

into recognizable patterns, interpreting the patterns and understanding the
message by inferring the meaning.
• Jargon: Jargon refers to technical vocabulary used by members to
communicate within a specialized group.
• Tone: Tone refers to the feelings created by words used to communicate a
message.
• Clichés: Clichés are overused phrases that become boring through
overuse.

1. Public speaking is the act of speaking to an audience or a group of people.
Simply put, it is another term for oral communication with an audience.
2. The different types of speeches include persuasive, informative, and
demonstrative speeches.

1. Bad news letters are those that convey an unpleasant message.
2. The essential parameters of persuasive communication are the following:
• Gain reader’s attention
• State clearly and reason out
• Anticipate probable resistance and try to address it
• End by seeking action

1. The word ‘persuade’ means to urge someone to do something successfully.
2. The aim of persuasive communication is to find out as to why something is
true, valid, advisable or desirable why something is true, valid, advisable or
desirable.
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Effective Speaking

1. Posture refers to the carriage, state, and attitude of the body or mind.
Gesture refers to any significant movement of limb or body and a deliberate
use of such movement as an expression of feeling.
2. Non-verbal communication takes place through the following actions and
expressions:
• Body language—facial expressions, eye contact, voice modulation
• Postures/Gestures—carriage, leaning, shrugging, nodding
• Attire
• Appearance
• Handshake
• Space
• Timing
• Example
• Behaviour
• Smile

1. The important aspects for writing chairperson’s speech are as follows:
• Content
• Choice of words
• Caching attention
2. An extempore speech is also referred to as an impromptu speech, meaning
a speech made without any planning or preparation. In an extempore
speech, a speaker does not get any advance intimation and is called upon
to speak at a short notice.

1. The following are the principles of effective writing:
• Clarity of writing
• Completeness
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Effective Speaking
• Accuracy
• Appropriate tone and language
• Courtesy
• Brevity
2. Redundancy means duplication of ideas through the use of different words
that mean the same thing.
1. What are the steps involved in effective speaking?

2. State the principles of effective conversation skills.
3. State the factors to be kept in mind while preparing to speak in public.
4. Define non-verbal communication with examples.
5. How do space, design and layout affect communication?
6. What are the characteristics of written communication?
7. What is the importance of achieving clarity in writing? With suitable
examples, illustrate how clarity can be achieved in writing?
8. Write a short note on the importance of each of these to write effectively:
(i) Brevity
(ii) Courtesy
(iii) Appropriate tone

Publishing House.
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Effective Speaking

Prentice Hall.
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Presentation and Interview
UNIT–11 PRESENTATION AND INTERVIEW
Objectives
• Define business presentation
• Enlist the kinds of interviews
• Interpret the skills required for conducting interviews
Structure
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Business Presentation
11.3 Interview
11.4 Interview Skills
11.5 Summary
11.6 Key Words
11.1 INTRODUCTION
Presentations are a commonly used tool of communication in business. For

presentation to be effective, the presenter primarily needs to be completely familiar
with his topic. The presenter should have complete understanding of his material.
Another important aspect of presentation is to have a clear understanding of the
performance as a whole which includes the pace of delivery and how one intends to
use visual aids. In this unit, you will study about business presentations, which include
presentation techniques and personal aspects of the presenter.
Interviews is a vital facet of social and business communication. They take place
between individuals, or between individuals and organizations, and are always goal
oriented. In business communication, a job interview is a type of interview taken to
select an individual for a post in any organization. Almost all working individuals, at
one point or another in their working career, have to appear for job interviews.
In this unit, you will learn about these above mentioned concepts, i.e.,
presentations and interviews in detail.
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11.2 BUSINESS PRESENTATION
To start with, it is important to understand that presentations can be both oral and
written. However, in this unit we shall restrict ourselves to oral presentations. In this
context, a presentation may be defined as a technique of formal communication that
involves speaking in front of a group of people or presenting a topic in public.
Whenever you are asked to appear in front of one or more people for the purpose
of explaining, educating, convincing or simply conveying information to them, you
are, in fact, being asked to conduct a presentation.
Preparing an oral presentation is similar to writing a formal report but with a few
differences.
• Oral presentations involve more interaction with the audience.
• Oral presentations can be supported with non-verbal cues to increase
meaning and understanding.
• Oral presentations give you an opportunity to adjust your technique, that is,
the content and delivery of the message can be modified as you go along to
create better impact on the audience.
• Since, oral presentations involve listening and humans have a limited time
span of attention, there is a need to use techniques to prevent the audience
from losing interest.
Presentations can be made in classrooms, seminars, meetings, conferences or to
simply a group of persons on some scheduled topic. The presentation is now
emerging as a popular means of interactive communication with an objective of
presenting relevant information to the interested target audience.
Principles of Presentation
A good presentation requires a good mix of communication skills, confidence,
subject knowledge and interpersonal skills on the part of the presenter. One has to
consider not only the verbal aspect of communication, but also the non-verbal
aspect. There are certain points to be borne while making and delivering
presentations. These have been listed as follows:
1. Related to preparing for the presentation
(i) One should prepare for a presentation.
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(ii) One should know his audience and adapt the contents of your
presentation to suit them.
(iii) One should begin with an attention catcher.
(iv) One should limit his presentation to two–three main points.
(v) One should be at the venue in advance and be familiar with the
lighting, seating, switches, and so on.
(vi) One should be able to anticipate questions and be ready to respond to
probable questions.
(vii) One should be familiar with what is going to be presented at the start
of the presentation, and then after the presentation, conduct a recap of
what was presented.
(viii) One should include summaries of main points as he goes along in
lengthy presentations.
(ix) One should use appropriate visual aids.
• For small informal groups, use flipcharts, boards or
transparencies.
• For larger groups, use slides or films.
• One should limit each visual aid to three or four lines or five or six
points. Use short phrases. Use large readable type face.
(x) One should make sure that he knows how to use the electronic
gadgets and that they work.
(xi) One should keep alternative arrangement ready in case the visual aid
does not work.
(xii) While preparing the presentation, one should take care of the six
cardinal questions:
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Fig. 11.1 Six Cardinal Questions while Preparing a Presentation
2. Related to delivery of the presentation

(i) The presentation should be clear and organized.
(ii) The presentation establish rapport with your audience early on.
(iii) The presentation establish eye contact.
(iv) The presentation should not go too fast.
(v) The presentation should be audible to everyone.
(vi) The presentation should be natural. Do not put on an accent. Avoid
excessive mannerisms.
(vii) One should maintain a straight posture.
(viii) One should stick to the time.
(ix) One should know his talk well enough to be flexible to skip certain
parts or expand others depending on the circumstances.
(x) The presentation should focus on the audience and the topic.
(xi) One should maintain control of his feelings even if you are criticized.
(xii) The presentation should not end abruptly. Last impressions are as
important as the first ones.
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(xiii) One should encourage questions

• Allow questions during the presentation if the group is small
• Tackle the questions at the end if the group is large and hostile
(xiv) One should not get sidetracked by questions, that is, stick to the
theme of the presentation.
Determination of Presentation Techniques

Let us go through the steps for preparing effective presentations.
Good preparation is the key to a good presentation. Whatever be the kind of
presentation, it essentially involves the following stages:
(i) Pre-preparatory stage
(ii) Advance analysis
• Know the objective
• Know and analyse your audience
(iii) Preparatory stage
• Select the main ideas
• Obtain information
• Select information, organize material and write the draft
• Support with visual aids
• Rehearse the presentation
Fig. 11.2 Steps for Preparing Effective Presentations

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Pre-preparatory stage
Before beginning with the actual preparation of the presentation it is important to
check the following:
• The exact topic of the presentation
• The date and time of the presentation
• The location and equipment available
• Time allotted for the presentation
• Whether the presentation will have a question–answer session
• Whether written handouts need to be given
Advance analysis
Advance analysis involves obtaining advance knowledge of the objective of the
presentation and information about the audience so as to prepare the presentation
accordingly.
Know the objective

Broadly speaking, the objective of a presentation is to provide information or
instructions, to motivate, to persuade to entertain or a combination of the above.
Whatever be the objective, it is essential that you know what you want to have
achieved by the end of your presentation. This will help in planning the presentation.
For example, if the objective is to try and motivate or entertain the audience, the
presenter will do most of the talking. On the other hand, the level of interaction may
be much more if the purpose is to persuade the audience for something.
Know and analyse your audience

It is important to know as much as possible about the audience whom you are going
to address because what you will speak must be adapted according to the
requirement of the audience. You will need to have information about the size of the
group, the age range, who the audience is, what are the interests and goal of the
members of the audience, the knowledge level and other similar information. The
style and content of the presentation can be geared based on the above information.
For example, if the group is small you can interact more with the audience as
compared to when the group is larger. If the members of the group are from the
same technical background, you can use scientific terms and jargon familiar to them
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in your presentation. The more information you have about your audience, the better
the rapport that you will be able to build with them.
Checklist for audience analysis
A. Audience Size and Composition

1. Estimate how many people will attend.
2. Consider whether they have some political, religious, professional, or other
affiliations in common.
3. Analyse the mix of men and women, age ranges, socio-economic and
ethnic groups, occupation and geographic regions represented.
B. Probable Audience Reaction

1. Analyse why the audience members are attending the speech or
presentation.
2. Determine the general attitude of the audience towards the topic.
(a) Decide whether the audience is very interested, moderately interested
or unconcerned.
(b) Review how the audience has reacted to similar issues in the past.
(c) Determine which facets of the subject are most likely to appeal to the
audience.
(d) Decide whether portions of your message will create problems for any
members of the audience.
3. Analyse the mood the people will be in when you speak to them—whether
they are tired from listening to other presentations like yours or fresh
because your presentation comes early in the agenda, interested in hearing
a unique presentation, restless from sitting too long in one position and
needing a minute to stretch.
4. Figure out which sort of back up information will most impress the
audience—technical data, statistical comparisons, cost figures, historical
information, generalizations, demonstrations, samples, and so on.
5. Predict audience response
(a) List ways that the audience will benefit from your message.
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(b) Formulate an idea of the most desirable audience reaction and the
best possible result.
(c) Anticipate possible objections or questions.
(d) Analyse the worst thing that might happen and how you might
respond.
C. Level of audience understanding

1. Determine whether the audience already knows something about the
subject and whether the audience is familiar with your vocabulary:
(a) Analyse whether everybody has about the same amount of
knowledge.
(b) Consider whether the audience is familiar with your vocabulary.
2. Understand whether everybody is equally capable of understanding the
message.
3. Decide what background information the audience will need to understand
the subject.
4. Think about the mix of general concepts and specific details you will need
to explain.
5. Consider whether the subject involves routine recurring information or an
unfamiliar topic.
D. Audience relationship with the speaker

1. Analyse how the audience usually reacts to speakers.
2. Determine whether the audience is likely to be friendly, open-minded or
hostile towards your purpose in making the speech or presentation.
3. Decide how the audience is likely to respond to you.
(a) Analyse what the audience expects from you.
(b) Think about your past interactions with the audience.
(c) Consider your relative status.
(d) Consider whether the audience has any biases that might work against
you.
(e) Take into account the audience’s probable attitude towards the
organization you represent.
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4. Decide which aspects of your background are most likely to build

credibility.
Preparatory stage
Preparation is the key to an effective presentation. Preparation involves the following:
Select the main ideas

You can begin by focusing on the core ideas, that is, the main ideas that you want to
convey to the audience. After this, you can collect additional information to support
these core ideas.
Obtain information
The next step is to obtain all the information you can about the core ideas listed out
earlier. Many times, your research may compel you to modify your core ideas.
Sources of information can include printed information in books, magazines,
journals, newspapers catalogues, reports, office files, and so on, verbal information
from people who know about the subject, graphical information and electronic
information from the internet, library database, and so on.
Select information, organize material and write the draft

Many times, you may not need to keep all the information you have collected.
Check the information for obsolescence, accuracy, relevance, completeness and
legal acceptability. Based on the above criteria, you can select the suitable
information and discard the rest of it.
Material can be sorted on the basis of the following:
• Need to know
• Nice to know
Sorting on the basis of need to know refers to sifting for the key points which
are very important and cannot be left out. Sorting on the basis of what is nice to
know refers to culling out material like interesting tidbits which can be used
depending on the availability of time.
The next step is to orderly arrange the selected information. One can start by
forming an initial outline followed by writing the first draft. This draft can then be
modified and polished to obtain the final presentation.
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A good presentation has three parts:

(i) Introduction
(ii) Main content/Body
(iii) Conclusion and Summary
The introduction is where you tell the audience what is going to be presented; the
body of the presentation consists of the actual presentation; and the conclusion and
summary is where you sum up the presentation.
Introduction: You need to have an important opening line to catch the attention of
your audience. You can also begin by introducing yourself if that has not been done
before. The introduction should state your purpose, that is, why you are giving the
talk followed by your agenda which gives the audience an idea of the major points
you will cover.
Fig. 11.3 Introduction
Main Content/Body: This is the heart of your presentation. In the body of the
presentation, explain the Who, What, When, Where, Why and How of your
presentation. However, one has to keep in mind the time limitation. Generally, most
presentations are limited to two or three main points. Include supporting evidence
for the main points of the presentation. To maintain the attention of the audience,
include only useful, relevant and interesting supporting evidence. Use clear simple
language which the audience can understand.
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Fig. 11.4 The ‘Heart’ of Your Presentation
Conclusion and summary: Summarize the points at the end of the presentation to
reorient the audience towards the central theme. Many times certain conclusions or
inferences drawn from the data presented may also have to be included.
Fig. 11.5 Closing Your Presentation
The closing is as important as the beginning. It is the last impression which the
audience carries with them.
Support with visual aids

Visual aids are used to supplement oral presentations. They serve a two-fold
purpose. Firstly, they serve as a tool for the presenter to help him remember all the
points of the presentation especially in case of lengthy presentations. Secondly, they
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help the audience to better comprehend and assimilate what is being said. Research
shows that audience remembers only 10 per cent of a purely oral presentation and
this percentage increases to 50 per cent when the presentation is supported with
visual aids. In addition to the above, visuals also break the monotony of only listening
to the speaker’s voice. If properly designed and used they can highly enhance a
presentation.
Choosing a visual aid to suit the presentation is extremely important. Some visual
aids have been discussed as follows:
(i) Flip Charts: These are inexpensive quick visual aids which are suitable for
small groups. A flip chart can be prepared during the presentation or before
the presentation. It is a useful method to compile audience comments or
questions. However, they may not be suitable for a large audience and they
also require considerable use of graphical talent. Some of the points to be
kept in mind while using flip charts are as follows:
• Restrict an idea or a sketch to one page.
• Words you write should be large enough to be seen by people.
• Write in block letters.
• Use colour to differentiate or emphasize sections.
• Do not write more than ten lines on a page.
Fig. 11.6 Flip Chart
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(ii) Overhead Transparencies: These are inexpensive, can be produced

quickly and are suitable for an audience ranging from 20–50 persons. An
overhead projector is required to project these transparencies on the
screen. Some points to be kept in mind while developing overhead
transparencies are as follows:
• Do not put too much of information on the transparency.
• Use bold letters while typing.
• Set the overhead projector (OHP) on a table lower than the
surrounding tables or platform so as not to obstruct the view.
• Use laser printers to prepare good quality transparencies.
Fig. 11.7 Overhead Projector
(iii) Posters: These are pre-prepared visual aids. They are available on a
variety of topics and contain photographs, diagrams, graphs, and so on.
They are suitable for a small audience. Transporting posters can be difficult.
Many a time they contain too much information which is difficult for a large
audience to see.
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Fig. 11.8 Poster
(iv) PowerPoint presentations: This is the most popular form of visual aids. A
liquid crystal display (LCD) projector is required for the projection of
PowerPoint slides on the screen.
Fig. 11.9 PowerPoint Presentation
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Rehearse the presentation

At least three rehearsals are recommended of the presentation before the actual
delivery. Rehearsals serve a two-fold objective—first, you become comfortable with
your material and second, you can identify the areas requiring revision and modify
your presentation accordingly.
While rehearsing, imagine the audience in front of you. Stand and deliver your
talk aloud. Stop at the allotted time. Then cut and revise the presentation accordingly
until you can deliver it within the time limit. Remember to take into consideration the
question–answer session.
Handling Questions
Questions from the audience are generally taken up by the presenter at the end of
the presentation. However, there may be occasions when speakers prefer the
audience to ask questions as he moves through his presentation.
Whatever be the case, the key to handling questions effectively is preparation.
One needs to spend time trying to anticipate the questions that might arise and
preparing the answers accordingly.
Christine Simons and Belinda N. Stables in their book Effective
Communication for Managers have given a pneumonic—TRACT —for handling
questions:
T – Thank the person for asking the question by saying something like ‘Thank
you for asking the question, it is a good point……….’.
R – Repeat the question for three reasons:
• To make sure everyone has heard the question
• To make sure you have understood what the question means
• To give yourself time to answer the question
A – Answer the question if you can. Do not bluff. If you do not know the
answer, admit it.
C – Check that you have provided a satisfactory answer for your questioner.
T – Thank them again for the question. ‘Thank you for raising that point. It was
most helpful……..’.
Some more points that need to be kept in mind while answering questions are as
follows:
(i) Keep you answers short.
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(ii) Do not allow one or two persons to monopolize the question–answer

period. Try and give a chance to as many people as possible to ask their
questions.
(iii) Do not focus only on the questioner while answering the question. If you do
so, the rest of the audience may lose interest.
(iv) Do not humiliate or put down the questioner.
(v) Break long complicated questions into parts that you can answer simply.
Delivery of Presentation
There are a number of delivery methods to choose from. It is important to decide
upon the delivery method best suited depending on the objectives, content and
audience. The various delivery methods are as follows:
(i) Memorizing
(ii) Reading
(iii) Speaking from notes
(iv) Impromptu delivery
Speaking from Notes Impromptu Delivery
Fig. 11.10 Delivery of Presentation
Memorizing
This method is best avoided unless you are a trained actor. It is a difficult method
especially if the presentation is a long one. One is likely to forget points. Memorizing
a presentation has the risk of the speaker forgetting the precise words and then
groping for words in front of the audience. This decreases the credibility of the
speaker. Moreover, a memorized speech is likely to sound monotonous and stiff.
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Reading
This method is suitable for a technical or complex presentation. Presentation of the
financial budget in the Parliament is one such example. It should be remembered that
if one is going to read the presentation it is important to practise enough so as to
intermittently maintain eye contact with the audience.
Speaking from notes

This is the best way to deliver a presentation. It is easy and effective. This involves
making a presentation with the help of outline notes, cards and visual aids. Reference
to notes, cards and visual aids ensures that one does not forget anything. It is flexible
and can be altered to suit the audience. It allows for eye contact and interaction with
the audience.
Impromptu delivery
One must avoid speaking without preparation unless one is a seasoned orator and
has spoken many times on the same topic. Sometimes, impromptu speeches are
unavoidable. In such circumstances, give yourself a couple of minutes to structure
your presentation and what you are going to say. Jotting down a few points can be
useful.
1. What is a presentation?
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2. What are flip charts?

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3. Enlist the various delivery methods, of a presentation.

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11.3 INTERVIEW
Interviews consist of yet another significant facet of social and business

communication. Interviews take place between individuals, or individuals and
organizations, and are always goal oriented. Interviews relate to a meeting, often on
a formal note, where some kind of information gathering and assessment takes
place. The objective of any interview is to find out as much as possible/necessary
about a person or an event. There are two parties to any interview — the
interviewer and the interviewee. The interviewer elicits information with a view to
making an assessment of the interviewee through the interview process. The
objective of an interview, in its broader sense, is to gather details and elicit relevant
information by talking to the interviewee, and thereafter making an assessment,
appraisal or evaluation about the suitability of the candidate for the offer or position
available with the interviewer. Although, most interviews take place through formal
meetings and discussions, there are also occasions when there is no personal
meeting, like in the case of a telephone interview.
The Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary provides the following different
descriptions of an interview.
• A formal meeting at which somebody is asked questions to see if they are
suitable for a particular job, or a course of study of a college, university,
etc.
• A job interview, or an admission interview.
• A meeting (often a public one) at which a journalist asks somebody
questions in order to find out the person’s opinions.
• A television interview, a radio interview and a newspaper interview.
• To give an interview is to agree to answer questions.
• A private meeting between people where questions are asked and
answered.
• An interview with a career adviser.
• The police waiting to interview an injured man.
• To ask somebody about their life, opinions, etc., especially on the radio or
television or for a newspaper or magazine.
Together, these descriptions present the varieties of interviews. Interviews have
become an integral part of social and business life. From play schools, where
parents seek admission for the child, to old-age homes where senior citizens seek
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admission, entry interviews and exit interviews, there are indeed a plethora of
interviews which take place in one’s life. These interviews may be public or private,
formal or informal, social or business, personal or telephonic and career-related or
otherwise.
Interviews, as we have noted already, are always goal-oriented. The need for
interview arises because there is a choice. The need for interview arises because
there is competition, and because there are limited vacancies for a large number of
aspirants. The purpose of the interview is to assess suitability and make a selection
and get the most suitable candidate. The purpose of the interview is to meet, talk,
discuss, evaluate, counsel and sort out.
Types of Interviews
In social and business life, there are various types of interviews. Generally speaking,
the following types of interviews are very common.
By and large, all interviews are taken seriously by both the parties involved in the
interview process. The interviewees stand to gain and benefit when they put up their
best during the interview. It is therefore expected that the candidate for the interview
show a high level of keenness to face and do well in the interview. This should
translate into reaching on time, being presentable, good listening, sincere
communication and proper body language on the part of the interviewee. It is also
expected that the interviewer does the utmost to make the interviewee comfortable,
and the process of the interview pleasant, whatever be the outcome.
(i) Promotion interview: Promotion interviews are conducted by
organizations for their own eligible employees who are desirous of moving
up in the hierarchy. Unlike, job interviews at the entry point or for fresh
recruitment, the candidates called for a promotion interview are already
working within the organization. The objective of the promotion interview is
two-fold; one, to give an opportunity to the employees who meet the
eligibility norms to get promoted to the higher cadre and second, to assess
the suitability of the available eligible candidates and to select the best
among them. Given the competitive nature of the entire process, the number
of candidates called for the interview is several times more than the actual
number of vacancies, which may or may not be decided in advance. In
some cases, all the eligible candidates may be called for the interview. In
others, where the number is very large, further screening may be done for
shortlisting the candidates from within those in the eligibility zone. The
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number of candidates called for the interview would, however, be about 4–

5 times the number of vacancies in most cases, if not more.
(ii) Exit Interview: Exit interviews are conducted by organizations for those
employees who are resigning or retiring. The objective here is to get
feedback from the outgoing employees in a frank and forthright manner on
the organizational climate in order to bring about improvements. Every
organization would like to ensure that employee turnover is low. In order to
ensure that, there should be constant feedback from the employees on
various aspects of the functioning of the organization. Those employees
who are resigning, in particular, would be in a position to give valuable
feedback by way of comments and suggestions. Given the investments
made by the organizations in terms of training and orientation and also the
time and effort involved in finding suitable replacements, every effort is
made to minimize the attrition level.
Most organizations recognize entry and orientation interviews as well
as exit interviews as desirable and worthwhile HRD systems.
(iii) Reprimand interview: Reprimand implies a severe or formal reproof or
censure. A reprimand interview is conducted to express rebuke or dis-
approval. It is done to pull up or correct, usually with a kindly intent. A
reprimand interview is usually conducted in private, where the erring or
misbehaving employee is called by the supervisor or the person in authority
and advised to mend or improve his behaviour. The objective here is to
draw attention to the wrongdoing and counsel/instruct the person
concerned to correct oneself. The interviewer explains what is wrong and
rebukes the person. The nature of the cautioning, suggests that any
repetition of such an act would entail more stringent action. In an
organizational context, a reprimand interview would be appropriate in
dealing with absentees, insubordination, interpersonal problems, poor
performance and other such shortcomings.
(iv) Grievance interview: A grievance interview relates to a dissatisfaction,
distress or suffering which in turn leads to a complaint or resistance to
something that may or may not have happened that has made the person
concerned carry a grievance. Unless, the grievance is dealt with and
redressed, it may create further damage. In the business and organizational
context, there are essentially two kinds of grievances – grievance relating to
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employees and grievance relating to customers. Since grievance is quite

common, large organizations, and service sector units in particular, put in
place formal grievance redressal committees or customer complaint
redressal forums. There should be swift response in dealing with people
and matters when things go wrong.
A grievance interview relates to a face-to-face talk, where the
aggrieved person gets an opportunity to meet a person in authority to share
the distress and seek remedial action. A grievance interview provides an
opportunity to the aggrieved person to be heard. The person responding to
the aggrieved person has to have good listening skills.
(v) Stress interview: Stress interview, as the name suggests, is conducted for
assessing the ability of the interviewee to face high levels of strain or mental
pressure. Certain types of jobs, which are regarded as difficult assignments,
do require the person concerned to possess relatively greater emotional
and mental strength to deal effectively with people and situations. Security
forces dealing with border events, police personnel responding to violent
mobs and arson, industrial relations personnel in organizations dealing with
militant unions, etc. are some of the examples of situations where an
unperturbed and tactful response would be desirable. In fact, stress levels
could be quite high in various types of jobs, in terms of meeting deadlines,
recovery of amounts due, beating competition and so on. In order to carry
out the job effectively, the person concerned should be able to face the
situation boldly, keep cool even under extreme provocation, and not buckle
under pressure. This calls for a certain temperament and disposition. Just as
intelligence is assessed in terms of the Intelligence Quotient or IQ,
emotional strength is assessed in terms of the Emotional Quotient or EQ.
The members of the panel conducting a stress interview are
generally well versed in conducting such specialized interviews. They create
and simulate situations where the interviewee is put to test. They may adopt
different methods to test the stress level. They may be curt and
businesslike. They may bombard the interviewee with rapid fire questions.
They may provoke, challenge and corner the candidate into submission or
accepting the unacceptable or find fault with the canditate’s actions. They
may create or narrate pressure cooker situations and seek the candidate’s
response by stating, ‘if you were in that position, how would you respond?’
To what extent the candidate can collect his/her thoughts, and not submit or
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buckle under pressure is what the interviewer gauges from the responses.
Restraint, tact, temperamental strength, reasoning, level-headed approach
and ability to withstand aggressive postures are the qualities assessed
through such interviews.
(vi) Orientation interview: An orientation interview, as the name suggests, is
aimed at orienting the candidate towards the organization or the task.
Orientation interviews are conducted after the selection interview and are in
the nature of briefing sessions. Orientation interviews focus on acquainting
the person with the prevailing situation or environment. The interviewer
makes the interviewee comfortable and shares all the relevant details about
the organization and tasks in a cordial manner. It is by way of apprisal or
education, rather than assessement or evaluation. The candidate is told how
to fit into the organizational culture. Apart from providing oral inputs during
the interview, the interviewer may also provide relevant literature to the
interviewee to facilitate smooth and quick orientation.
(vii) Job interview : Job interviews constitute the last leg of the career selection
process for any candidate. Job seekers would probably have completed
the following steps in their quest for jobs before getting a call letter for the
interview.
• Identifying the job opportunity
• Sending an application
• Résumé or Bio-data
• Testimonials
• References
• Group discussions
Since, choosing the right career is very important for every individual,
conscious efforts have to be made in every aspect of the job seeking effort
cited above. The final selection would be a culmination of all these efforts.
A good résumé, strong testimonials, appropriate references and effective
participation in group discussions, together facilitate a high level of
confidence as the candidate faces the interview for a job. Interviewers are
normally provided the bio-data, testimonials, references and a brief report
on the candidate’s performance in the group discussion as reference
material for the interview. Any extra care the candidate takes in these areas
would certainly provide that welcome edge in facing the interview panel.
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Given the significance of performing at one’s best at the interview,

the preparation has to start well in advance and should cover many areas.
The knowledge related and subject specific inputs apart, success in the
interview also calls for a positive orientation, high level of self-confidence,
active listening, effective communication, pleasing disposition, noticeable
interpersonal skills and the right temperament.
(viii) Telephone interviews: Although, most interviews take place with the
candidates appearing in person before the interviewer or the interview
panel as the case may be, sometimes employers settle for telephone
interviews. This is more so when the employer and the candidate are in
different countries and the cost and time involved in organizing a personal
interview are disproportionately high. Obviously, telephone interviews can
only be resorted to only in limited cases. Before conducting the telephone
interview, the organization and the interviewer go through the credentials
and references in detail and convince themselves about the suitability of the
candidate. In a telephone interview, the interviewer can only hear the
candidate and cannot see him. Appearance, eye contact, body language,
personality and other such relevant factors, readily assessed in a personal
interview, cannot be gauged in a telephone interview. Subject knowledge,
communicative skills, logical thinking and conceptual clarity can be assessed
through telephone interviews. Some prerequisites for the success of a
telephone interview are (a) undisturbed telephone access (b) ability to
communicate effectively on the part of both the interviewer and the
interviewee (c) clear accent, facilitating proper comprehension by both (d)
speaking slowly and intelligibly (e) good telephone manners (f) command
over the language (g) listening skills.
Defects in Interviews
Interviews also have certain defects that surface when the interview panel is biased.
Halo/horn effect: The ‘halo’ effect takes place when an interviewer focusses
so much on just a single, strong characteristic of or point about the candidate that he
almost ignores the rest. If the candidate has studied in a particularly well known
university, for example, this might be considered a very favourable point. All the
responses and reactions of the candidate will be interpreted on the basis of his
university background. The ‘horn’ effect would be just the reverse wherein one
weak characteristic or point related to the candidate has an effect on his responses.
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Stereotyping: People belonging to different races and religions behave

differently. The opinions that are formed about the behaviour, appearance, thought
process, responses and actions of people belonging to a particular religion, race or
gender in the absence of any evidence, is known as stereotyping.
Inconsistent questioning: When the interview panel poses different questions
to each hopeful candidate, the assessment of the best performance or the most
suitable performer is inappropriate and not justified. In order to get specific
information from the candidates or to judge them on the basis of particular
information, similar questions should be posed to all the candidates.
Snap judgements: It is commonly found that interviewers are in the habit of
making snap judgements about candidates on the basis of their first impression. This
impression could be either negative or positive and may affect the judgement
positively or adversely. If an interviewee walks in dressed very smartly, for instance,
he may be considered even if he isn’t actually very smart, skilled or mentally bright.
This is because his smart attire/appearance overshadows his other qualities.
Emphasis on negative qualities: A candidate may be rejected on the basis of
some negative information received about him. Even if the information received is of
little significance, if it is negative it will definitely gain importance in the eyes of the
interviewer.
Apart from the aforementioned points, interviews have other defects.
Candidates often answer to please the interviewer. In other words, they make
cultural noise and try to say everything that will make the interviewer happy even if
they don’t really mean a word of what they say. A male candidate who hates
reporting to a female boss may say just the opposite during the interview. Another
major defect of interviews is that at times, a candidate who goes in after a weak
candidate, may appear to be stronger because he is naturally compared to the
(weak) candidate who went in before him.
1. What is the objective of conducting an interview?

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2. Mention the different types of interviews.

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11.4 INTERVIEW SKILLS
Job interviews constitute the last leg of the career selection process for any
candidate. Job seekers would have probably completed the following steps in their
quest for jobs before getting a call letter for the interview.
• Identifying the job opportunity
• Sending an application
• Resume or Biodata
• Testimonials
• References
• Group discussions
Since, choosing the right career is very important for every individual, conscious
efforts have to be made in every aspect of the job-seeking effort cited above. The
final selection would be a culmination of all these efforts. A good resume, strong
testimonials, appropriate references and effective participation at the group
discussions together facilitate a high level of confidence as the candidate faces the
interview.
Interviewers are normally provided with the CV, testimonials, references and
brief report on their performance in the group discussion as reference material for
the interview. Any extra care the candidate takes in these areas would certainly
provide that welcome edge in facing the interview panel.
Given the significance of performing at one’s best at the interview, the
preparation has to start well in advance and should cover many areas. The
knowledge-related and subject-specific inputs apart, success in the interview calls
for a positive orientation, high level of self-confidence, active listening, effective
communication, pleasing disposition, noticeable interpersonal skills and the right
temperament. In the following paragraphs, we look at the various aspects that need
keen attention prior to, during and after the interview.
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Do Your Homework
Preparation for the interview starts with good homework. Try to learn as much as
you can about the organization. What is its line of business, track record, strengths
and weaknesses, hierarchical structure, values and future plans? Then find out the
details about the job on offer—number of vacancies, place of posting, remuneration
package, work culture, job description and attributes sought and so on.
Make sure that the job on offer is what you are looking for, or at least what you
will settle for. You should ask yourself the following questions. Are you qualified? Do
you possess the skills required to take up the job on offer? Are you confidant that
you will measure up to the expectations of the company? Suitability for the job is
very essential. In essence, the interview panel would be looking for candidates who
match the job profile. Make sure that you collect the relevant details about the
organization and the job on offer and that it fits your aspirations. If yes, start your
preparation in right earnest. If not, do not waste your time and the interviewers’ time.
Anticipate Questions
After learning the basic facts about the organization and the job, get ready to face
the interviewers’ questions. Put yourself in their shoes and try to anticipate questions.
Questions will be of different types. They may be general or specific. They may be
personal or professional. They may be knowledge oriented or attitude oriented.
They may be easy or tough. They could even be tricky and provocative. The
questions may cover the details you have mentioned in your application and resume.
Think of all the likely questions and the right way of answering them. Some typical
questions are as follows:
• What would you like to say about yourself?
• Why do you consider yourself suitable for this job?
• Why are you leaving your present job?
• Why have you changed so many jobs?
• What kind of a career are you seeking?
• What will you do if you get a better offer?
• What are your strengths and weaknesses?
• Are you prepared to work in any place?
• Given your qualifications and experience, should you not be looking for a
higher level position?
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• Why are you not seeking a job in line with the subjects you have studied?
• In which extra-curricular activities have you excelled?
• What significant contribution have you made in your previous jobs?
• Why should we prefer you over somebody who has more experience?
• How well can you work as a member of a team?
• Why have you been without a job for so long?
• What kind of books do you read, music you like and what is your favourite
pastime?
• What do you know about our organization?
• What are your computer-related skills?
These are just some examples. Depending on the type of organization and nature
and level of position you are seeking, the questions can get more penetrating. There
could be questions based on your answers. The questions would normally cover
your (i) academic qualifications, (ii) work experience, (iii) extra-curricular activities,
(iv) personal contribution, (v) subject knowledge, (vi) general business awareness,
(vii) management concepts, (viii) health and fitness and (ix) ability to cope with higher
responsibilities and stress.
Remember, while it is helpful to anticipate the probable questions and prepare
the answers, it is prudent to be in readiness to face unanticipated questions.
Don’t Get Worked Up

It is very necessary that the candidate keeps his/her cool when getting ready to face
the interview. While, some legitimate concerns are perhaps unavoidable considering
what is at stake, getting unduly worked up should be consciously avoided. This is
true of all important interviews, be they job interviews, promotion interviews or
assignment selection interviews. Too much of tension and edginess starts showing up
and gives a wrong message to the interviewer. The candidate should not get unduly
worried about the type of preparations made by other competitors. Similarly, the
candidate should not get tensed up about areas which have not been covered during
the preparation. If you are composed and in control of yourself, you will think of the
right reply. Try to be at ease with yourself. It helps you become more attentive, listen
well and organize your thoughts better as you face the panel.
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Reach on Time
Reach well in time for the interview. This is an obvious, yet very essential
requirement. It gives you sufficient time to find the exact venue, get used to the
ambience and be comfortable. Arriving late for the interview may lead to guilt
feelings and put you at a disadvantage, besides creating an unfavourable impression
on the interviewer. If the place of interview is in a city/area with which you are not
very familiar, make sure to either visit the place earlier or start sufficiently early.
Physical Appearance
Any interview is much more than a question-and-answer session. For the candidate,
it is actually the challenge of marketing oneself. Given this reality, the overall
impression a candidate makes on the interview panel assumes significance. The
candidate makes the first impression on presentation of oneself. It is axiomatic that
attire oft proclaims a man/woman, especially in a serious appointment like an
interview. It is very necessary, therefore, that the candidate dresses well for the
occasion. It may be a suit, a tie, a full sleeve shirt and other accessories that make
the candidate look smart. Being well dressed for the interview gives the message that
one is keen on creating the right impression. After reaching the venue, the candidate
should look at the mirror and make sure that he or she is presentable. Although,
what dress is appropriate for the particular interview may depend on the nature of
the organization, category of the post, the climate and such other factors, it is very
essential that the appearance is not casual.
There is one more reason why a candidate should dress well for the interview.
That is on account of the level of confidence it generates for the candidate. Imagine
an interview for a senior post where most of the other candidates are in a suit and
you are in your slacks. May be if you are really smart, you may still do well, but then
it all depends on how the interviewer interprets it. It is important to be self-confident.
It is always desirable to avoid the feeling that you are likely to be at a disadvantage
for being under-dressed for the occasion. If you are not comfortable and at ease
with a suit or a tie, get used to it by practising it well in advance. At the same time,
if somebody is better dressed than you, let it not deter you from making your best
effort. How you feel about yourself is what matters. Feed your self-confidence.
Appropriate Body Language

Looks apart, there are several dimensions to body language. The candidate for the
interview should be conscious of them. Right posture, alert look, firm handshake, not
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looking nervous, confidant and clear voice and appropriate eye contact help create
the right impression. Slouching, drooping, sitting with a hunchback, fidgeting, blinking
and shaking the legs create a negative impression. More than anything else, it is
important to wear a smile. A smile projects as well as reinforces confidence.
Build a Rapport
Try to build a rapport with the interviewer or the members of the interview panel.
This can be done by looking confident, smiling, greeting and a firm handshake. This
should be done not just with the chairman of the interview panel, but with the other
members as well. Establish eye contact with and reply to the person who has asked
you a question. Be conscious of your mannerisms. Refrain from making statements
such as ‘You have got me wrong’, ‘You have not understood me’, ‘What you are
saying is not correct’, ‘It is impertinent’ and the like. Don’t look either grim or casual.
Do not interrupt them when they are speaking to each other.
Understand the Question

Make sure that you have understood the question. This is possible when you are
attentive. Active listening is very essential. Let the interviewer complete the question.
Do not be in a hurry. Do not interrupt. If you do not interrupt, there is a possibility
that the interviewer will give you some hints of what he/she is driving at. However,
after the question has been put forth, if you are not clear about it, feel free to seek
a clarification. In doing so, be polite. State what you have understood and seek a
confirmation. For example, ‘Sir, as I understand, you want me to…’.
Reply Earnestly
Organize your thoughts quickly and give earnest replies. State whatever you know
with confidence. Give correct facts and figures. Avoid mixing up figures. State clearly
the lakhs, millions, the crores, the dollars or any other statistics unambiguously. Bring
out not only your knowledge or depth of understanding of the subject, but also your
attitude and concerns. As far as possible, use positive words. Use bright, sharp and
appropriate words relevant to the discipline or profession. Be assertive, but avoid
extreme positions. There are some questions in which it is possible to hold different
views, which means that a very rigid, ‘anything else is incorrect’ type of statement is
to be refrained from. Keep balance. Make your reply as brief or as long as the
interviewer expects. For this, take the clue from the way the question is worded.
When questions are tricky, take your time in organizing your thoughts.
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Be Sincere and Truthful

Answer what you know for sure with confidence. State when you are in doubt.
Don’t ever tell a blatant lie, hoping that it will go undetected. Admit that you don’t
know the answer, if that is the position. If you know part of the answer, state that in
clear terms and if you are guessing the rest, state so. The interviewer accepts that
you know some and do not know some, but no interviewer will accept deliberate
lies. Credibility is important. Some interviewers will even encourage you to make
false statements so that you talk yourself into a trap. Be sincere and truthful.
Do Not Offend the Interviewer

As an interviewee one should conduct oneself in such a way that the interviewer is
not, for any reason, offended. Argumentation should be avoided. Be assertive
without being offensive. If you disagree with the interviewer, or if you hold a
diametrically opposite point of view, bring it out as your experience or
understanding. Never ever unnecessarily correct the interviewer’s observations or
challenge statements. Remember, you are not keen on winning the argument if it
means losing the interview.
Do Not Brag
Do state your achievements, contributions and strong points, as and when called for,
but keep it in perspective. Avoid loud mouthing and pompous or boastful statements.
Braggarts, or those who blow their own trumpets, do not find favour with the
interviewers. Do not overstate your achievements. Gracefully accept your
shortcomings and weaknesses. State the efforts you are making to overcome them,
if there is an opportunity. Give due credit to the teamwork, favourable circumstances
and such other factors that helped you perform well. Honest self-assessment always
carries a favourable impression. At the same time, don’t miss the right opportunity to
mention your high points.
Avoid Long Pauses

Take your time to organize your thoughts and give your replies. All the same, avoid
long pauses. Long pauses lead to communication breakdown and result in an
awkward situation. Keep the conversation going. Sometimes the panel members will
offer hints and tips which will be of help in collecting your thoughts. Make the best
use of such gestures. Know when and how to keep the conversation going from
your side. For example, there are some open-ended questions where the answer
should be much more than a yes or a no.
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Obviously, in all such cases, the interviewer will be looking for some positive and
logical back-up statements rather than just a mere affirmation.
Grab Opportunities
Interviewers generally follow a set pattern. They start with the candidate’s academic
and professional background before coming to job-specific and knowledge
assessment questions. Quite often, the questions get progressively tougher. Every
candidate is very likely to get a mix of easy and tough questions. The candidate
should grab the opportunity and make it a point to score more on the easy
questions. Among the panel members too, some ask general questions while some
others persevere and ask probing questions. The candidate should be alert enough
to take advantage of the opportunities as and when they show up. There may be
breaks in between on account of tea breaks, telephone calls and consultations
among the panel members. The candidate can make gainful use of such breaks to
review earlier replies and especially what was missed out. The candidate may
elaborate on the earlier replies and make such additional points as are to his or her
advantage when the interview resumes. An alert candidate makes it a point to grab
any such opportunity.
Use Wit and Humour

Interviews need not necessarily be very serious affairs. Interviewers are normally
required to conduct interviews of numerous candidates in a time-bound manner. This
results in certain tedium or wariness for the interview panel, especially towards the
end. A candidate who, even while answering the questions well, uses wit and
humour naturally scores high in the interview. In doing so, however, proper
discretion is called for. A candidate should avoid telling irrelevant jokes and
anecdotes, and maintain decorum and seriousness associated with an interview
process. Humorous anecdotes associated with great personalities like Mark Twain
or Bernard Shaw which are appropriate for the occasion may, however, add some
lighter moments.
Kinds of Interviewers
Every interview has a human dimension. Like the interviewee, a person on the
opposite side is an individual and, as such, it would be desirable to be informed about
various kinds of interviewers. They too constitute a mixed lot—some are friendly, some
are tough, some focus on positives, some on negatives, some are easily satisfied, some
are much more demanding, some look for concepts and theories, some are more into
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specifics, some focus on knowledge, some on ignorance, some lead you into the right
answers, some into traps, some are soft, some are a bully. The interviewee has to be
conscious of the many faces of an interviewer. One should learn to make a quick
assessment and learn to deal with each kind of them. The saying ‘Different strokes for
different folks’ holds true in this case. Every candidate facing an interview should learn
to understand and evaluate the kind of person the interviewer is and respond
appropriately. It would be imprudent to always expect an interviewer who makes it
easy for the interviewee to give one’s best. It would be wise to be prepared to face the
tough and difficult interviewer. The real challenge for any candidate is to face a very
tough interview panel and emerge successful.
Interviewer’s Perspective
Appreciating the various kinds of interviewers, it is also advantageous for the
interviewee to look at the interview process from the interviewer’s perspective, i.e.,
to understand what the panel is looking for. The interviewer is essentially trying to
identify and select the most suitable candidate for the post. The interviewer is trying
to match the job profile with that of the candidate. He has several questions in his/
her mind. Will the candidate deliver the goods on the job? Will the candidate
measure up to expectation? Will the candidate find the job exciting and stay on? Will
the job measure up to the candidate’s expectations? If not, the entire exercise will
become futile. Whether the selected candidate quits after appointment or whether
the organization finds the selected candidate not up to the mark on the job, the end
result is the same. Any interview panel is always conscious of the time, effort and
resources involved in organizing the interviews and the consequent imperative of
making them worthwhile.
As a candidate for interview, one should put oneself in the interviewer’s shoes
and try to assess what the organization is looking for. The interview panel normally
decides beforehand the various qualities or attributes appropriate for the job, and
the relative weightage for each of them. Depending on whether the job is that of a
generalist or a specialist, a line job or a managerial position, a customer contact job
or otherwise, the weightage to skills and qualifications sought would vary. Each
member of the interview panel would be provided with a score sheet where they will
note down the marks scored by each candidate during the interview under each
major parameter. While some interviewers would give numerical scores for each
parameter, others would settle for a gradation—A+, A, B+, B, etc., or qualitative
remarks—excellent, very good, good, satisfactory, poor, etc. Some relevant
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parameters based on which the final selection of the candidate is made would
include (i) academic qualifications, (ii) previous experience, (iii) attitude and
temperament, (iv) communication skills, (v) interpersonal skills, (vi) subject
knowledge, (vii) general awareness, (viii) age, (ix) extra-curricular activities,
(x) motivation and (xi) health and fitness. Apart from the intelligence quotient or IQ,
emotional quotient or EQ also assumes significance when the jobs carry high levels
of stress and responsibility.
Table 11.1 Interview Score Sheet

Name of the candidate
Although, the table above lists some of the more common qualities on which the
evaluation takes place in most interviews, there is bound to be some differences
depending upon the nature of the post and the position in the hierarchy. All these
parameters do not always carry equal or identical weightage. For example, in a
marketing job, appearance and communicative skills are given higher weightage. In
a specialist or R&D job, subject knowledge and conceptual clarity have greater
weightage. In positions of leadership, interpersonal skills, communication skills and
initiative are accorded higher weightage.
Try to Be Distinctive
In an interview, any candidate is obviously competing with a host of other
candidates. All of them have been called for the interview after the usual process of
screening, which means that all of them meet the minimum eligibility criteria. Given
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this reality, those candidates who are distinctive and try to stand out from the rest of
the candidates are more likely to be successful. Within the short span of time, they
try to make their presence felt. They leave behind an impression on the interview
panel members. This is done in many ways—noticeable appearance, depth of
understanding of the subject, confident conduct, quick responses, command over the
language, positive attitude, optimistic approach and so on. In the ultimate analysis,
impressions do matter. Be conscious of the need to create the right impression.
Concluding the Interview

You have had your interview—may be for 10 minutes or 30 minutes—and it is time
to conclude. The chairman of the interview panel in consultation with others suggests
that your interview has come to an end. At that time, sometimes, you may be asked,
‘Anything else you want to say?’ or you may on your own venture to add, if the
conditions are right, something which you have not had the opportunity to say. Make
good use of any such opportunity. Say something which puts you in an advantage. If
necessary, seek details about the organization and the position without being too
inquisitive. It could be anything that suggests that you are interested. At the same
time, assess the mood. Do not say something if that is not welcome and, more so, if
it is likely to detract the favourable impression you have already put up.
Preparation and Delivery

You complete your interview, say ‘thank you’ to the chairman and other members of
the panel and walk out of the room. Immediately, you start evaluating your
performance. You may feel you have done very well, reasonably well, not so well or
very bad. Just keep it to yourself. You don’t have to advertise and talk about your
performance to people waiting outside, especially if you feel you have not done well.
First, it is only your impression. Second, what matters is relative performance—how
you fare vis-à-vis your competitors. Moreover, any interview is an intense process.
How you really perform depends not only on your knowledge and sense of
preparedness, but also on a host of other factors over which you have no control. It
may start with a delay. You may not get the right questions or adequate time. One of
the interviewers may be hostile. It may start off on a wrong note. By the time you get
your turn, the interviewers may have got fatigued. Remember: It is desirable to be
well prepared for the interview. Take all essential steps as described in the earlier
paragraphs. Yet, notwithstanding all your preparedness, it is likely that the delivery
and the final outcome during the interview may not be the way you wanted. Learn to
take it in your stride.
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After the Interview

After the interview, as you wait for the results, learn to keep the anxiety level low.
The outcome can be either way. May be you have done well. However, but there
may be others who have done better. May be you have done very well in the
interview, but there may be other requirements which have not been met. In most
cases there are few posts and many competitors. Keep your sense of equanimity.
Further, it is also desirable that no direct contact is made with the interviewer/
interview panel members to know the results. Not only are such requests generally
not entertained, but also such attempts are considered improper.
Format of Structured Interview Process

The format of structured interview process is diagrammatically presented below.
Fig. 11.11 The Structured Interview Process

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1. What are the various aspects that need keen attention prior to, during and
after the interview?
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
2. What steps should be taken by a candidate after his interview has

finished?
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
11.5 SUMMARY
• A good presentation requires a good mix of communication skills,

confidence, subject knowledge and interpersonal skills on the part of the
presenter.
• One has to consider not only the verbal aspect of communication but also
the non-verbal aspect.
• Good preparation is the key to a good presentation.
• Advance analysis involves obtaining advance knowledge of the objective of
the presentation and information about the audience so as to prepare the
presentation accordingly.
• The objective of a presentation is to provide information or instructions, to
motivate, to persuade to entertain or a combination of the above.
• The introduction is where you tell the audience what is going to be
presented; the body of the presentation consists of the actual presentation;
and the conclusion and summary is where you sum up the presentation.
• In the body of the presentation, explain the Who, What, When, Where,
Why and How of your presentation.
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• Visual aids are used to supplement oral presentations. They serve a two-
fold purpose.
• Questions from the audience are generally taken up by the presenter at the
end of the presentation. However, there may be occasions when speakers
prefer the audience to ask questions as he moves through his presentation.
• One must avoid speaking without preparation unless one is a seasoned
orator and has spoken many times on the same topic.
• Interviews consist of yet another significant facet of social and business
communication. Interviews take place between individuals, or individuals
and organizations, and are always goal oriented.
• Promotion interviews are conducted by organizations for their own eligible
employees who are desirous of moving up in the hierarchy.
• Exit interviews are conducted by organizations for those employees who
are resigning or retiring.
• Interviewers are normally provided with the CV, testimonials, references
and brief report on their performance in the group discussion as reference
material for the interview.
• Any interview is much more than a question-and-answer session. For the
candidate, it is actually the challenge of marketing oneself.
• Take your time to organize your thoughts and give your replies. All the
same, avoid long pauses.
• You have had your interview—may be for 10 minutes or 30 minutes—and
it is time to conclude. The chairman of the interview panel in consultation
with others suggests that your interview has come to an end.
• After the interview, as you wait for the results, learn to keep the anxiety
level low.
11.6 KEY WORDS
• Exit interview: Exit interviews are conducted by organizations for those

employees who are resigning or retiring.
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• Reprimand interview: A reprimand interview is conducted to express

rebuke or disapproval. It is done to pull up or correct, usually with a kindly
intent.
• Presentation: A presentation is the process of presenting a topic to an
audience. It is typically a demonstration, introduction, lecture, or speech
meant to inform, persuade, or build goodwill.

1. A presentation may be defined as a technique of formal communication that
involves speaking in front of a group of people or presenting a topic in
public.
2. Flip charts are inexpensive quick visual aids which are suitable for small
groups. A flip chart can be prepared during the presentation or before the
presentation.
3. The various delivery methods of a presentation are as follows:
• Memorizing
• Reading
• Speaking from notes
• Impromptu delivery

1. The objective of conducting an interview is to find out as much as possible/
necessary about a person or an event.
2. The following are the different types of interviews:
(i) Promotion interview
(ii) Exit interview
(iii) Reprimand interview
(iv) Grievance interview
(v) Stress interview
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1. The following are the various aspects that need keen attention prior to,
during and after the interview:
(i) Anticipate questions
(ii) Reach on time
(iii) Physical appearance
(iv) Appropriate body language
(v) Be sincere and truthful
2. After the interview has finished, as the candidate sits waiting for the results,
he should leam to keep the anxiety level low. The candidate should keep
his sense of equanimity.
1. What do you understand by business presentations?

2. List out any five techniques you can use to make effective presentations.
3. Explain the principles of effective business presentations.
4. Discuss the various stages of the process of making presentations.
5. Why are exit interviews important?
6. Write a short note on stress interviews.
7. Discuss the different steps one should take while preparing for an interview.
8. Describe some of the strategies one can use in interviews.

Publishing House.
239

Prentice Hall.
240
Listening
UNIT–12 LISTENING
Objectives
• Discuss the nature of listening
• Mention effective listening exercises
• Explain the influence of place, environment and time as factors in non-verbal
communication
Structure
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Nature of Listening
12.3 Effective Listening Exercises
12.4 Non-Verbal Communication: Place, Environment and Time
12.5 Summary
12.6 Key Words
12.1 INTRODUCTION
In this unit, you will be introduced to listening as an important communication skill.

You will learn the objectives and importance of listening. It describes, in detail, the
various stages in the listening process. In addition, you will be taught the various
levels and types of listening. Research shows that after two days we retain only one
fourth of what we hear. In fact, we do not hear all that is said and forget many of the
things we hear. This is a reflection on our poor listening habits. Inefficiency of
listening can be harmful for the organization. Some people like to talk more than they
like to listen, some listen selectively, some cannot concentrate for long on what
others are saying or some may just listen superficially without really bothering about
what is being said. All this leads to ineffective listening.
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Listening
12.2 NATURE OF LISTENING
Effective listening is the process of analysing sounds, organizing them into

recognizable patterns, interpreting the patterns and understanding the message by
inferring the meaning.
Listening is not to be confused with hearing. Hearing is a physiological process
which involves receiving the sound waves by the eardrum and transferring them to
the brain. Listening is more than hearing. It involves the process of interpretation and
inference.
Listening is extremely important for the communication process. Many of the
problems we experience with people are primarily attributable to ineffective listening
or lack of listening. Good listening skills are the foundation of effective human
relations. Good listeners can be good negotiators and can handle crisis situations
successfully.
Table 12.1 Basic Communication Skills Profile
Communication Order in which Extent Used Extent Taught

it is Learnt
Listening First First Fourth
Speaking Second Second Third
Reading Third Third Second
Writing Fourth Fourth First
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Listening
Objectives of Listening
The objectives of learning may be one or more of the following:
• To learn: Listening assumes importance especially in a learning environment
say, a classroom. In classroom teaching, the teacher speaks and the
students listen to the teacher intently and try to grasp the meaning. In
today’s technology driven environment, students concentrate on what the
teacher is speaking in online learning classrooms.
• To increase one’s understanding: Listening plays a vital role in increasing the
understand of an individual. For instance, children watch quiz shows on
television which increases their understanding and increase their interest as
well in various topics.
• To advise or counsel: Another significant goal of listening is to advise or
counsel. For instance, a counsellor advises his patients. Another example is
that of a doctor advising his patients to follow a particular course of
treatment when a particular health problem is diagnosed.
• To relieve one’s boredom: One often listens to music to get rid of monotony
and dullness. One everyday example is that people often listen to music in
the metro while returning home from office. This helps them to get rid of the
monotony and boredom of work.
Importance of Listening
A lot of one’s time is spent on listening. One quarter of our waking time is spent in
listening. Research shows that at the workplace, on an average, personnel spend
about 32.7 per cent of their time listening, 25.8 per cent of their time speaking and
22.6 per cent of their time writing. Effective listening is one of the most crucial skills
for becoming a successful manager. This requires paying attention, interpreting and
remembering sound stimuli. Listening is an important skill to be inculcated by
managers and workers.
• Communication is not complete without effective listening.
• An attentive listener stimulates better speaking by the speaker.
• A good listener learns more than an indifferent listener.
• A good listener can restructure vague speaking in a way that produces
clearer meaning.
• A good listener learns to detect prejudices, assumptions and attitudes.
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Listening
Listening Process
For listening to be effective and meaningful, the process of listening should involve
the following steps:
Hearing
Hearing is the first essential step in the listening process and relates to the sensory
perception of sound. The listener further processes the perceived sound. For
learning to be effective, hearing needs to be done with attentiveness and
concentration.
Filtering
The next step involves sensing and filtering of heard sounds. The heard message is
categorized as wanted or unwanted, useful or useless. The unwanted message is
discarded. In this step, the sense of judgement of the individual comes into play, that
is, the filtering process is subjective and a person chooses to retain what makes
sense to him.
Comprehending
The next level of listening consists of comprehending or understanding. The listener
understands or interprets what the speaker has tried to convey. This activity can be
described as absorbing, grasping or assimilating. In order to grasp the meaning of
the message, the listener uses his knowledge, experience, perception and cognitive
power. The verbal and auditory message is coupled with non-verbal communication
to understand it.
Remembering
Remembering relates to a process whereby the assimilated message is stored in
memory to facilitate future recall. Remembering assumes significance because many
times messages received are meant not for immediate consideration but for future use.
Responding
For listening to be complete, a response is important. Responding to a message may
take place at the end of the communication, immediately after or later. When it is
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Listening
stored for future use, the response may take place later. However, if there is a need
to seek clarification or to empathize with the listener, it may take place earlier.
Responding may also take the form of prodding or prompting in order to show that
the message is being received and comprehended.
Levels of Listening
Based on the effectiveness of the listening process, three levels of listening have been
identified. Level 1 is that of Non-listening and is the least desirable, followed by
Level 2 which is Passive Listening. Level 3 is Active Listening, which is most
desirable. Though we listen at all the three levels during the course of the day
depending on our interest and situation, it is beneficial to move to Level 3 for
maximum listening effectiveness. Good managers and leaders spend more time
listening at Level 3.
(i) Level 1—Non-listening: Here, the listener may appear to be listening but
actually he is more occupied with his own thoughts. He is minimally aware
of the speaker speaking. He is likely to appear detached and will be
unresponsive and passive.
Fig. 12.1 Non-listening
(ii) Level 2—Passive Listening: Passive listening is more of hearing than

actually listening. The listener superficially hears the words but does not
understand in depth what is being said. He concentrates on the word
content of the message rather than the feelings and emotions associated
with the message. He does not get much involved in the communication
activity, and rather than contributing equally to the conversational exchange,
he is merely spoken to.
(iii) Level 3—Active Listening: This is the most desirable form of listening
wherein the active listener gives full attention to what is being said. The
listener concentrates on what is being said and also motivates the speaker
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Listening
to speak, making it easier for the speaker to deliver the message. An active
listener not only comprehends the message better but is also in a better
position to remember and recall the message. He not only pays attention to
the word content but also concentrates on the emotional and non-verbal
aspect of the message. In active listening, the listener is directly involved in
the conversation. He provides feedback to the speaker and voices his
opinions and arguments.
Fig. 12.2 Active Listening
1. Define effective listening.

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................................................................................................................
2. What is passive listening?

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12.3 EFFECTIVE LISTENING EXERCISES
Effective listening calls for efforts on the part of the speaker, listener as well as others
concerned with the process to remove the barriers that come in the way of effective
listening.
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Listening
Efforts by Listener
As stated earlier, conscious efforts have to be made by the listener to improve his
listening ability and develop effective listening skills. Some important guidelines to
develop listening skills by the listener are as follows:
• Concentration: To be a good listener, you must pay attention to the
speaker. When a speaker is a dull conversationalist or when it is difficult to
follow the speaker because of voice problems like a regional accent, and
so on, a listener may have to make an effort to keep from being distracted
by other things. Research shows that the more motivated a listener is, the
more receptive he is.
• Preparation: Sometimes, it is better to make some preparations
beforehand in order to improve listening; more so in the case of topics that
are perceived as difficult. Preparations may include gathering information
about the topic or removing distractions in the environment. This will help in
developing an interest in what the speaker is saying and will also help in
focusing on the message.
• Show interest: Show that you want to listen by being and looking
attentive. It is important not only to focus on the speaker, but to use non-
verbal cues (such as eye contact, head nods and smiles) to let them know
they are being heard. A listener may ask appropriate questions at the right
time to show his interest in what is being said.
• Listen for the whole message: Listen not only through the use of your
ears, but also the other senses so as to get the complete message. This
includes looking for meaning and consistency or congruence in both the
verbal and non-verbal messages and listening for ideas, feelings and
intentions as well as facts. Pay attention to the voice intensity, inflection,
emotional cues, body movements, and so on, while listening to the speaker
so as to ensure that the total message is communicated to you.
• Empathy: Empathize with the speaker that is, put yourself in the speaker’s
shoes. This will help you to better understand what the speaker is trying to
say rather than only what you want to understand. For listening to be
effective and to achieve its objective it is important that the listener
understands the message from the speaker’s point of view.
• Listening before evaluating: Listening to what someone says without
drawing premature conclusions is a valuable aid to listening. Premature
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Listening
judgement hampers effective listening. Listen patiently to what the speaker

has to say. Give him time to complete what he has to say. By questioning
the speaker in a non-accusative manner, rather than giving advice or
judging, you can often discover exactly what the speaker has in mind,
which oftentimes is quite different from what the listener had assumed.
• Note taking: Many experts recommend note taking as an important
technique to improve the efficacy of the listening process. Taking down
notes not only enhances the attentiveness of the listener but also helps him
record what is being conveyed. Further, when the speaker sees that his
listeners are sufficiently interested in take notes, it generates confidence in
him and motivates him to speak better.
• Paraphrasing: Paraphrasing is simply restating what another person has
said in your own words. Paraphrasing serves a dual purpose. Firstly, it acts
as a control device to check whether the listener has listened carefully.
Secondly, it checks accuracy because by restating what has been said and
feeding it back to the speaker the listener verifies the accuracy of his
understanding. The best way to paraphrase is to listen carefully to what the
other person is saying. It is important that the listener develops the habit of
paraphrasing.
• Body Language: The listener should maintain a positive body language—
an upright posture, eye contact with the speaker—which reflects the
listener’s interest in what is being said. An upright posture also helps a
listener have better concentration. At the same time, if the listener leans
forward slightly it shows that the listener is interested in what the speaker is
saying. Constantly fidgeting, too much of movement, and so on, reflect a
lack of interest on the part of the listener and this may demotivate the
speaker.
Ten Commandments of Listening

There are certain well-accepted essentials for good listening. More specifically, there
are Ten Commandments, credit for which is given to an anonymous writer. These
Ten Commandments are as follows:
1. Stop talking: The first commandment of good listening is to stop talking.
One cannot be talking and listening attentively at the same time. The
speaker cannot speak and get the message across if the listener continues
to talk. Stop talking and start listening.
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2. Put the speaker at ease: The speaker can really organize his thoughts
and convey them meaningfully only when put at ease. The listener does so
through several positive signals, such as sitting down, turning to the speaker,
observing and so on.
3. Show you want to listen: This calls for a positive attitude on the part of
the listener. The listener should indicate preparedness. The listener should
make it clear that the listener is attentive and is keen to receive the message
the communicator wants to convey. This may be done by appropriate body
movement, right posture or by keeping the pen and pad ready.
4. Remove distractions: Communication between sender and receiver
cannot progress if there are distractions. The receiver of the communication
should show interest in listening, just as the speaker is interested in
speaking. The listener has to remove distractions, if any, such as shut the
door, switch off the cell phone, remove objects, if any, placed between the
speaker and the listener so that body movements can be observed and so
on.
5. Empathize with the speaker: An important requirement for effective
listening is that the listener should show empathy or proper understanding.
The speaker may not be perfect and may have shortcomings. As a listener
one should learn to put oneself in the speaker’s shoes.
6. Be patient: This is an important attribute of good listening. A listener
should not only be attentive, but also patient. One should wait for the
speaker to complete the talk. The listener should refrain from making
frequent interruptions, should avoid making derogatory remarks, cynical
comments and distracting gestures. Every speaker has a train of thought,
and gestures of impatience on the part of the listener may disturb the
delivery of speech.
7. Hold your temper: Good listening also calls for the right temperament.
The listener may not appreciate what the communicator is conveying or the
listener may decide that the speaker is factually incorrect. That does not
give the listener a right to instant reaction.
8. Refrain from argumentation and criticism: This is not an uncommon
happening. Occasions are many when the listener picks up an argument
with the speaker. The listener tries to challenge the speaker and criticize the
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Listening
person. Any such argument or criticism would be detrimental to the flow of

communication.
9. Ask questions: Another essential requisite of good listening is that the
listener should ask questions with reference to the topic that he is listening
to. This ensures firstly, that the listener is listening intently and secondly, he
gets a clear idea of the topic.
10. Stop talking: This is the last commandment (in case you missed it at the
first instance) and is essential because one cannot be a good listener while
talking.
Efforts by Speaker
Since communication is a two-way process, the onus of improving the
communication process not only lies with the listener but also with the speaker. The
speaker too can influence the way in which the listener listens to the message. The
following are some of the guidelines which the speaker can use for facilitating
effective listening by the listener.
The speaker needs to have clarity of thought and purpose, that is, he should be
clear about what he is conveying to the audience.
The speaker needs to communicate the message in a lively, stimulating manner
which will capture the attention of the listener.
The speaker should try to empathize with the listeners. He should imagine
himself in their position and this will help him know if the listeners understand his
message or if they are bored or confused.
The speaker should modulate his delivery to retain the attention of the audience.
A dull monotone may induce the listeners to switch themselves off.
1. Mention two effective listening exercises.

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Listening
2. What are the ten commandments of listening?

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12.4 NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION: PLACE,

ENVIRONMENT AND TIME
Listening also forms a part of non-verbal communication. Place, environment and

time are the factors which influence non-verbal communication. Non-verbal
communication also plays an indispensable role in effective communication.
People who are deaf and cannot hear, communicate with their companions
through non-verbal communication. Hence, one needs to be good in expressing
one’s thoughts and ideas so that the person on the other side is able to understand
them easily and accurately. This is one example of environment where non-verbal
communication is effective.
Development of listening skills at various levels is very essential for business
success. Every business has its stakeholders and there is communication taking place
all the time between the organization and the stakeholders, and within the various
groups connected with the business. If communication within the organization has to
be purposeful, people need to listen to each other attentively. Hearing without
listening is often a common refrain needing attention. Progressive organizations
encourage the people within to learn and adopt active listening. Thus, the employees
working in a business environment need to be efficient in non-verbal communication.
We have entered an information era and modern day organizations are described
as information processing units. There is so much that is happening that needs to be
shared with the clients as well as other interested parties. Similarly, today’s worker
is being described as the ‘knowledge worker’. People have to constantly upgrade
their skills and knowledge, whatever be the business or profession they are
associated with. While reading is undoubtedly an important source for skill and
knowledge upgradation, active listening too can make a significant contribution.
One place where non-verbal communication is becoming particularly relevant
concerns the service industry, such as banking and financial services. In these
organizations, businesses involve person-to-person interactions. Products are sold
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and services are provided over counters and through customer outlets. Quite often,
the product is not standardized, but tailor-made to suit specific requirements. These
organizations are making relentless efforts to know customer requirements and
respond to them. There is a growing concern in every business to offer value added
services. This means that people at the counters, the sales force, the people who
make customer contacts and everyone concerned with understanding customer
needs should actively and sincerely listen to the customer. Organizations which make
a conscious effort in this regard are described as ‘listening organizations.’
Behavioural skills and attitudes that focus on attending to the customer are far more
relevant today than in the past. Training programmes that cover these groups of
service providers are focusing on various communication skills including listening.
Good listening skills are particularly relevant in dealing with customer complaints
and employee grievances, in hearing the voice of dissent and while seeking
suggestions from customers and employees. Suggestions will be more forthcoming
when people in authority lend a patient ear. The customers of today seek
reassurance that they are being heard. When they come up with a complaint, the
minimum that an organization has to ensure is that there is someone there who lends
a patient ear to what the complainants have to say. Moreover, in most organizations,
there are meetings and other interactive forums where business-related issues are
discussed and issues resolved. All these can be effective only when people learn to
listen.
1. Give one example of business environment where non-verbal

communication is largely being used.
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2. Name the factors which influence non-verbal communication.

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12.5 SUMMARY
• Effective listening is the process of analysing sounds, organizing them into

recognizable patterns, interpreting the patterns and understanding the
• Listening is not to be confused with hearing. Listening is more than hearing.
It involves the process of interpretation and inference.
• Listening is extremely important for the communication process. Many of
the problems we experience with people are primarily attributable to
ineffective listening or lack of listening.
• Listening is an important skill to be inculcated by managers and workers.
• Hearing is the first essential step in the listening process and relates to the
sensory perception of sound.
• Active listening is the most desirable form of listening wherein the active
listener gives full attention to what is being said.
• Effective listening calls for efforts on the part of the speaker, listener as well
as others concerned with the process to remove the barriers that come in
the way of effective listening.
• Many experts recommend note taking as an important technique to
improve the efficacy of the listening process. Taking down notes not only
enhances the attentiveness of the listener but also helps him record what is
being conveyed.
• There are certain well-accepted essentials for good listening. More
specifically, there are Ten Commandments, credit for which is given to an
anonymous writer.
• Since communication is a two-way process, the onus of improving the
communication process not only lies with the listener but also with the
speaker.
• Listening also forms a part of non-verbal communication. Place,
environment and time are the factors which influence non-verbal
communication. Non-verbal communication also plays an indispensable
role in effective communication.
• Development of listening skills at various levels is very essential for business
success. Every business has its stakeholders and there is communication
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Listening
taking place all the time between the organization and the stakeholders,
and within the various groups connected with the business.
12.6 KEY WORDS
• Hearing: It is a physiological process which involves receiving the sound

waves by the eardrum and transferring them to the brain.
• Empathy: It is defined as the ability to understand and share the feelings of
another.
• Monotone: It is a continuing sound, especially of a person’s voice, that is
unchanging in pitch and without intonation.

1. Effective listening is the process of analysing sounds, organizing them into
recognizable patterns, interpreting the patterns and understanding the
2. Passive listening takes place when the listener superficially hears the words
but does not understand in depth what is being said and, hence, does not
respond to the speaker as well.

1. Two effective listening exercises are as follows:
• Note taking
• Paraphrasing
2. The ten commandments of listening are as follows:
• Stop talking
• Put the speaker at ease
• Show you want to listen
• Remove distractions
• Empathize with the speaker
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Listening
• Be patient
• Hold your temper
• Refrain from argumentation and criticisms
• Ask questions
• Stop talking

1. The banking industry is one such business environment where non-verbal
communication is being largely used.
2. Place, environment and time are the factors which influence non-verbal
communication.
1. Differentiate between listening and hearing.

2. Discuss the nature of listening.
3. Mention the objectives of listening.
4. Analyse the importance of listening.
5. Explain the listening process.
6. State the effective listening exercises.
7. How do place, environment and time influence non-verbal communication?

Publishing House.
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Listening

Prentice Hall.
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Communication for Customers/Public
(External Communication)
BLOCK-IV
PUBLIC COMMUNICATION, BUSINESS
CORRESPONDENCE AND REPORT WRITING
Communication is a pervasive activity which encompasses almost all facets of our lives. In
the organizational or business context, communication is the lifeline of every business. It takes
place at various levels and its effectiveness enables an organization to survive. In an
organization, communication may be formal following the organization’s communication
channels or it may take the form of an informal social interaction of colleagues. Employees
also communicate information through computers, talk over phone, write messages, fill out
forms, give orders and receive orders. Employees write reports about their activities make
business presentations and organize meetings. Various tools of written communication are
available for communicating within the organization such as memoranda, circulars, office
orders, notices, and so on. In addition, employees need to communicate with external
agencies like customers, suppliers, banks, insurance agencies and others. It is through
communication that any management performs its basic functions of planning, organizing,
directing, coordinating and controlling. This block consists of four units.
The thirteenth unit explains external communication and corporate communication. It then
states the role of communication in the development of society.
The fourteenth unit explains the nature of business letter and defines the use of inspirational
letter.
The fifteenth unit identifies various essentials of business letters. The unit also discusses the
significance of written communication in business.
The sixteenth unit describes short and formal reports. It then discusses the process of giving
an oral presentation. This unit also identifies various essentials of business letters and
analyses the procedure for drafting notices. This unit also discusses the procedure for
recording the minute of a meeting.
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UNIT–13 COMMUNICATION FOR CUSTOMERS/PUBLIC

(EXTERNAL COMMUNICATION)
Objectives
• Explain external communication
• Define corporate communication
• State the role of communication in the development of society
Structure
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Communication with Customers/Public
13.3 Summary
13.4 Key Words
13.1 INTRODUCTION
With the onset of digitalization, e-mail and message service is being used to interact
with customers. For instance, banks nowadays update their customers through
messages regarding the launch of any new schemes or discounts being offered to
their customers. Like big corporates hold press conferences and meetings with
media to announce the launch of any of their big projects to the general public. In this
unit, you will study about external communication, corporate communication and the
role played by communication in development of the society in general.
13.2 COMMUNICATION WITH CUSTOMERS/PUBLIC

agencies, both government and private.
‘Corporate communication’ is a much talked of term in the present day business
context—both public and private sector. ‘Corporate communication’, according to
Argenti and Foreman, ‘can claim historical links to the field of public relations (PR),
which has been concerned with the voice and image of big businesses for nearly a
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century’. Cutlip et al. explain the term as, ‘Among the Fortune 500 companies, only
one in five uses the ‘public relations title’. Other commonly used titles are corporate
communication, public affairs, public information, or PR in combination with
advertising’. Argenti also observes that corporate communication grew out of
necessity. As the various laws forced companies to communicate in situations, which
they were not used to, meant that they had to create ‘dedicated resources’ to
manage the flow of communication. P. Jackson, on the other hand, says ‘Corporate
communication is the integrated approach to all kinds of communications produced
by an organization, directed at all relevant target groups. Each item of
communication must convey and emphasize the corporate identity’. Yet there are
other experts who feel that corporate communication is a framework in which all
communication specialists, integrate the totality of organizational message, thereby
helping to define the corporate image as a means to improving corporate
performance.
There is no doubt that corporate communication is essential for organizational
growth. In an organization, its function includes investor relations, employee
communication, government relations, corporate advertising, corporate philanthropy,
business policy, Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR), public relations and media
relations, corporate image management, corporate PR, and brand promotions
through events and sponsorships, with a view to elicit the desired response from
various stakeholders in pursuance of the fulfillment of corporate goals. Some
strategies and tactics for achieving these multidimensional goals may be the following:
• Targeting the key trade press to keep the company in focus as far as its
brand equity is concerned
• Working on tactics that bring people face-to-face
• Selecting appropriate media and drafting appropriate messages to reach
out to various constituencies
• Creating a strong, positive, and identifiable corporate image
• Building the reputation of the key executives such as CEOs, CFOs,
Chairperson etc.
• Assisting top management in managing change within and outside the
organization
• Maintaining investor and shareholder relationships
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• Assisting the management in community relations through corporate social

responsibility (CSR)
• Managing crisis communication
With historical roots in public relations, the most dramatic change in the
corporate communication function has been its changing role from responsibility for
in house external communication to aligning internal and external messages engaging
the company’s stakeholders. It would not be incorrect to say that the term
‘corporate communication’ collectively refers to the communication processes that
are meant for connecting with the organization’s internal and external stakeholders
through appropriate kind of communication media and tools. Some of the commonly
used tools for communication within organization (with internal clients) include the
following:
• Inter-personal communication–face-to-face or through electronic media
such as emails, instant messaging (IMs), podcasts, webcasts,
teleconferencing, videoconferencing
• Idea boxes
• Shop-floor discussions
• Bulletin boards
• Clubs and societies
• Open house/events
• Employee blogs
• Micro-blogs (Twitter)
• Social networking sites
• Brainstorming
• Business meetings
• Conferences
• Interviews
• Electronic presentations (PowerPoint)
• Print media like house journals brochures, newsletters, memos, or business
letters
• Audio visual media such as videos, CDs, closed circuit, in-house television
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On the other hand, communication outside the organization (with external clients)
includes communication with its current/potential investors, customers, government
agencies, regulatory bodies, media and other corporate entities. It includes
communication tools like:
• Annual reports
• Lobbying and public affairs
• Marketing and public relations—promotional events such as exhibitions and
trade fairs
• Media through press releases, social conversations, one-on-one interviews,
editorial board meetings, press conferences, media availabilities, press
briefings, social roundtables, press kits etc.
• Media advisories for a public media event such as a conference call, or
media availability
• Corporate advertising through television ads, newspaper ads, radio jingles
• Inter-personal communication—face-to-face or through electronic media
such as emails, podcasts, conference calls, webcasts, teleconferencing,
videoconferencing, blogs, micro-blogs (Twitter), social networking sites,
etc.
• ‘B-roll’ and video news releases through videos, CDs, YouTube
• Third-party support
• Company website
All these tools in turn help the organization portray itself to the outside world in
common and media in particular. Besides, some other important roles of corporate
communication include brand building, aligning strategic messages to internal and
external stakeholders and creating trust and authenticity.
Ten ways of communicating more effectively with customers are as follows:
• Be cautious of interrupting
• Listen attentively
• Avoid undesirable questions
• Be sensitive to variances in technical knowledge
• Use analogies to explain technical conceptions
• Use affirmative instead of negative statements
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• Be vigilant of misinterpreted words and expressions

• Anticipate customer objections and questions
• Keep the customer informed
New Communication Technology

In this era of globalization, digital methods such as e-mail, videoconferencing, SMS
are some of the methods being used for interacting with external customers/public.
Some of the electronic innovations that have revolutionized communication are
as follows:
• Electronic mail, popularly called e-mail, is the instantaneous transmission of
a message on computers that are connected through the inter/intranet.
• Instant Messaging (IM) is the interactive real-time exchange of messages
among computers logged on at the same time.
• Fax machines allow transmission of documents containing both text and
graphics over ordinary telephone lines. These days, fax can also be sent
through computers.
• Voice mail is a system that digitizes a spoken message that is transmitted
over a network and stores the message on a disk to be retrieved later.
• Electronic data interchange (EDI) is a way to exchange documents
(invoices or purchase orders) with vendors, suppliers and customers using
direct computer-to-computer networks.
• Teleconferencing refers to the simultaneous conference between groups
using telephones or e-mail group communication software.
• Videoconferencing refers to a conference/meeting in which groups are at
different locations, perhaps across the world and can see each other
through video screens.
• Intranets refer to a network that uses internet technology but is accessible
only to organizational employees.
• Extranets are organizational communication networks that use internet
technology and allow authorized users within the organization to
communicate with certain outsiders such as customers or vendors.
• Wireless Communications allow users to send and receive information from
anywhere as there are no hard-wired network systems.
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• Knowledge management refers to a growing learning culture in which

employees systematically gather knowledge and share it through computer-
based networks to interest groups.
Role of Mass Media in Development

Let us study in brief the role played by mass media in contributing to development.
Mass media has a significant role to perform in disseminating information, in
building social and cultural awareness, in empowering people, in promoting values
that are essential for progress, in bringing in all the stake holders of development
process in dialogue with each other. As we know, through various means (traditional
as well as modern) mass media tries to reach as many people as possible, therefore
the influence of media in formulating consciousness amongst the masses has been
very significant. Let us take the example of Hindi Movies, which not only paved the
way for creating a consciousness of ‘being Indian’ amongst the people residing
within the territory of India; but has also helped unify India in terms of making people
accept Hindi as one of the most important languages in India.
Moreover, mass media is used for various other ways to promote
developmental works. The eradication of polio in India is a good example of the use
of mass media, where governmental initiatives were promoted in different forms of
mass media to vaccinate new-born babies. As mass media is a vehicle that can carry
messages to a large audience, it has therefore the potential to carry forward many
social changes. To give a famous example from India’s political struggle, Gandhi
used mass media to unite India under one banner to fight against the colonial British.
Gandhi wrote for various magazines – Young India, Harijan, etc., through which he
disseminated his ideas of non-violence and Satyagraha as a mode of protest amongst
the educated class. However, Gandhi’s views were only read by educated elite
Indians who had the convenience of reading magazines. Therefore, to organise more
people under him to fight the British, Gandhi held public meetings where he used to
communicate his ideas and plans about his movements and also held ‘padyatras’
which made people aware about the resistance movements and protests that he held
against the oppressive colonial regime. Media thus has been a means which has been
critical in our political freedom struggle and also in social reforms. The great architect
of the Indian Constitution B. R. Ambedkar also used mass media to protest against
brahmanical oppression and discriminatory caste practices in India and the problems
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and the inhuman treatment that the so called ‘untouchables’ received at the hands of
the upper castes.
Mass media has created awareness about employment schemes like MNREGA
of the government which not only ensures employment for the rural population and
consequent rural development, but also makes development activities such as water
conservation and harvesting, afforestation, rural connectivity, flood control and
protection such as construction and repair of embankments, and so on, possible.
The government has promoted many schemes like this, but the benefits of the
developmental schemes can only reach the intended beneficiaries when the
stakeholders are informed about the schemes. Mass media has a great role to play
in making people aware about such schemes. In a similar vein, the Bell Bajao
movement by the mass media bore fruits as it helped in curbing domestic violence
against women. Thus, the mass media can be a potent means of social, cultural and
economic change as it is through the media that people can not only be informed but
also empowered.
1. What are the essential points to be considered for communicating

effectively with customers.
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2. Mention new communication technologies which are being increasingly

used to communicate with customers.
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13.3 SUMMARY
• External communication refers to the communication of the organization

with external agencies, both government and private.
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• ‘Corporate communication’ is a much talked of term in the present day

business context—both public and private sector.
• In this era of globalization, digital methods such as e-mail,
videoconferencing, SMS are some of the methods being used for
interacting with external customers/public.
• Videoconferencing refers to a conference/meeting in which groups are at
different locations, perhaps across the world and can see each other
through video screens.
• Knowledge management refers to a growing learning culture in which
employees systematically gather knowledge and share it through computer-
based networks to interest groups.
• Electronic mail, popularly called e-mail, is the instantaneous transmission of
a message on computers that are connected through the inter/intranet.
• Mass media has a significant role to perform in disseminating information, in
building social and cultural awareness, in empowering people, in promoting
values that are essential for progress, in bringing in all the stake holders of
development process in dialogue with each other.
• Mass media is used for various other ways to promote developmental
works. The eradication of polio in India is a good example of the use of
mass media, where governmental initiatives were promoted in different
forms of mass media to vaccinate new-born babies.
13.4 KEY WORDS
• Corporate communication: It deals with the exchange of business

information within and outside an organization.
• Micro-blog: It is a social media site to which a user makes short, frequent
posts.
• Corporate social responsibility (CSR): It is a business approach that
contributes to sustainable development by delivering economic, social and
environmental benefits for all stakeholders.
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1. The essential points to be considered for communicating effectively with
customers are as follows;
• Be cautious of interrupting
• Listen attentively
• Avoid undesirable questions
• Be sensitive to variances in technical knowledge
• Use analogies to explain technical conceptions
• Use affirmative instead of negative statements
2. E-mail, videoconferences and messages via cell phones are some of the
new communication technologies which are being increasingly used to
communicate with customers.
1. Define external communication.

2. Differentiate between external communication and internal communication.
3. ‘Corporate communication is considered essential for an organization’s
growth.’ Explain the statement.
4. List the communication tools used for communicating with external
customers.
5. Analyse the role of communication in development.

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Prentice Hall.
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Business Correspondence
UNIT–14 BUSINESS CORRESPONDENCE
Objectives
• Explain the nature of business letter
• Define a letter of request
• Discuss inspirational letter
Structure
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Nature of Business Letter
14.3 Request Letter
14.4 Inspirational Letter
14.5 Summary
14.6 Key Words
14.1 INTRODUCTION
You have read about the forms of communication and the importance of listening,
reading and writing skills in the previous units. This unit will focus on written
communication and discuss various business letters and forms of business
correspondence.
A letter is a permanent and tangible record of a business relationship. It is
generally written to enquire, give information, give instruction, or persuade the
recipient towards a desired action. A well-written business letter can achieve much
for a business. It can act as an effective salesperson, create goodwill, strengthen
relationships with customers and act as a source of reliable, useful information.
14.2 NATURE OF BUSINESS LETTER
A badly written letter reflects poorly on the organization and is a cause of

embarrassment to the managers. Some of the deficiencies of a badly written letter
are summarized as follows:
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• Lack of clarity
• Poor use of words and expressions
• Incorrect spellings and grammatical errors
• Too short or too long
• Concentration of too many ideas in a single letter
• Incorrect facts
• Not suited to the readers wavelength
• Use of too much of jargon and technical words
• Lack of aesthetic sense
• Absence of personal touch
• Offensive nature
• Lack of courtesy
• Absence of relevant information
• Use of poor quality ink, paper, etc.
• Wrong address
Standard Parts of a Business Letter

A business letter consists of the following essential parts:
(i) Heading
(ii) Inside name and address
(iii) Opening salutation
(iv) Subject
(v) Body of the letter
(vi) Complimentary close
(vii) Signature
(viii) Enclosures
• Heading: Business letters are written on letter-heads that show the name
and address of the organization, its telephone and fax numbers; the Internet
and e-mail addresses along with the logo of the company. At the foot of
the page, the address of the ‘registered office’ and a registration number
might appear.
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Only the first page of any letter is on letter-head stationary, with subsequent
pages on blank pages. The heading also consists of:
• Reference—This could be a file number. It indicates the company’s or
the recipient’s reference if this is a continuing correspondence.
• Date—This is the date of writing the letter. There are two ways of
putting down the date—the English style (25th April 2007) and the
American style (April 25, 2007).
• Name and address of the recipient: The name and address of the
recipient as it will appear on the envelope is also mentioned in the letter.
This ensures that the letter reaches the correct person even if the envelope
gets damaged. The name includes the title of the person (Mr, Ms, Dr).
• Opening Salutation: Salutation is a way of addressing the addressee. The
words generally depend upon the relation of the writer with the addressee.
‘Dear Sir’ or ‘Dear Madam’ is a little old-fashioned and organizations now
prefer to use a more personal approach. However, ‘Dear Sir’ or ‘Dear
Madam’ are still used in very formal correspondence.
• Subject line: This is often omitted, but its inclusion means the reader can
quickly see what the letter is about. The subject heading is prefixed with
the word Subject: or Sub or Ref: and underlined to make it more
prominent.
Example:
Subject: Request for quotation
Ref: Our letter No Pur/134/ 07 Re: Delay in receipt of goods
• Main body of the letter: This part contains the actual message/content of
the letter and consists of several paragraphs. Always leave a line space
between paragraphs. The first paragraph is the introductory one which may
include a reference to a previous correspondence or a telephonic
conversation, etc. The middle paragraphs constitute the main body and deal
with the subject matter. The last paragraph is the concluding paragraph and
states the expectation of some action.
• Complimentary close: It is a polite, formal way to end a letter. Standard
forms are Yours faithfully or Yours sincerely. The complimentary close
must match the salutation.
Dear Sir or Dear Madam matches with Yours faithfully
Dear Mr Smith matches with Yours sincerely
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• Signature space: Leave space for the writer to sign the letter, usually about
five blank line spaces. The signature is written in handwriting below the
complimentary close. The name and designation of person signing letter –
writer’s name and job title are printed below signature for clarity.
• Enclosures: In case any documents are being sent with the letter, it is
indicated on the left hand bottom corner of the letter. It is abbreviated as
‘Encls’ or ‘Encl’ and after the abbreviation is given the number of
enclosures.
Layout of a Business Letter

These days, there is a tendency to adopt a friendly and informal style. However, you
should follow an established type or form to avoid inconvenience, confusion and
wastage of time. The company’s in-house style includes rules on the layout of its
business letters. A proper layout also gives the letter a formal look.
For most business letters, single line spacing is used as this gives the letter a
compact look. In case the letter is very short, you may need to use double spacing.
There are various styles of layouts available for business letters. In different forms,
there are different systems of indentation followed. The various styles include the
following:
(i) Fully-indented style
(ii) Semi-indented style
(iii) Fully-blocked style
(iv) Modified-blocked style
Fully-indented style
This style has become old fashioned and is being fast replaced by other styles. Each
paragraph appears prominently in this type of layout. This style is at times found
cumbersome because of its numerous indentations. It has the following
characteristics.
• The name, address and paragraphs of the body are five spaces indented.
• The letter is typed in single-line spacing.
• The subject heading is two-line spacing below the salutation which is three-
line spacing below the inside name and address.
• The paragraphs are separated by double-line spacing.
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• The complimentary close begins at the centre of the typing line, and the
typed signature and designation follow ten spaces and five spaces as is
determined depending on the length of the two.
• The inside address is offset to give the letter a balance.
Semi indented style

This is a modified version of the fully-indented style. It has the following
characteristics:
(i) The inside name and address does not have any indentation and is in a
block form.
(ii) The complimentary close and designation are typed evenly across the
centre of the typed line. However, sometimes they are placed to the right
hand side.
(iii) This style provides a neat and compact look because of the block form of
name and address.
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Semi-Indented Style
Fully-blocked style
This is a modern style and is most commonly used. Earlier, the ‘indented’ format
was used for business letters, but, with the arrival of word processing, the ‘fully
blocked’ format has now become the most commonly used one as it saves time on
setting up tabs and indents and the letters look neater and tidier. It has the following
characteristics:
(i) All typed entries including date, inside name and address, subject line
paragraph, complimentary close , signatures begin at the left-hand margin,
forming a vertical line down the page.
(ii) There is a complete absence of punctuation marks from the date, salutation,
complimentary close and the end line of the inside name and address.
(iii) In some letters, the date and complimentary close are placed towards the
right margin so as to give the letter a more balanced appearance. This style
is known as semi-blocked style.
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Fully-Blocked Style
Modified blocked style

This style is similar to the fully blocked style. The difference in this style is that the
date, subject heading and the complimentary close signature are placed like in the
semi-indented style. There is a treble line spacing between paragraphs to differentiate
between paragraphs, as paragraphs do not have indentation.
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Modified Blocked Style
1. Mention the essential parts of a business letter.

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2. What are the different styles of indentation?

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14.3 REQUEST LETTER
A letter of request is written when the writer is seeking for some help or information
from another person. It is a formal business letter, so should always be written with
utmost care and professionalism. Example of request letter might be asking for more
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information about a product or company, asking for reference or asking for an

appearance.
Direct Approach vs Indirect Approach in Request Letters

(i) Direct Approach: When you use the direct approach, the main idea (such
as a recommendation, conclusion, or request) comes in the ‘top’ of the
document, followed by the evidence. This is a deductive argument. This
approach is used when your audience will be neutral or positive about your
message. In the formal report, the direct approach usually mandates that you
lead off with a summary of your key findings, conclusions, and
recommendations. This ‘up-front’ arrangement is by far the most popular and
convenient for business reports. It saves time and makes the rest of the
report easier to follow. For those who have questions or want more
information, later parts of the report provide complete findings and
supporting details. The direct approach also produces a more forceful report.
You sound sure of yourself when you state your conclusions confidently at the
outset.
(ii) Indirect Approach: In the indirect approach, the evidence is presented
first, leading therefore to the main idea. This is an inductive argument. This
approach is best if your audience is displeased about or resist what you
have to say.
At times, especially if you are a junior member of an organization or if you are an
outsider, writing with an extremely confident stance may be regarded as arrogant. In
such cases, or if your audience will be skeptical or hostile, you may want to use the
indirect approach: Introduce your complete findings and discuss all supporting details
before presenting your conclusions and recommendations. The indirect approach gives
you a chance to prove your points and gradually overcome your audience’s
reservations. By deferring the conclusions and recommendations, you imply that you’ve
weighed the evidence objectively without prejudging the facts. You also imply that
you’re subordinating your judgment to the audience, whose members are capable of
drawing their own conclusions when they have access to all the facts.
Although, the indirect approach has its advantages, some readers will always be
in a hurry to get to ‘the answer’ and will flip to the recommendations immediately,
thus defeating your purpose. Therefore, consider length before choosing the direct
or indirect approach. In general, the longer the message, the less effective an indirect
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approach is likely to be. Furthermore, an indirect argument is harder to follow than

a direct one.
Because both direct and indirect approaches have merit, businesspeople often
combine them. They reveal their conclusions and recommendations as they go along,
rather than putting them first or last. As a result, the approach strategy of business
reports can sometimes be hard to classify.
Two Sample Introductions for Formal Reports
Direct Approach (assumes audience will favour or be neutral

to your recommendations)
Since the company’s founding 25 years ago, we have provided regular repair service
for all our electric appliances. This service has been an important selling point as well
as a source of pride for our employees. However, we are paying a high price for our
image. Last year, we lost $500,000 on our repair business.
Because of your concern over these losses, you asked me to study the pros and cons
of discontinuing our repair service. With the help of John Hudson and Susan
Lefkowitz, I have studied the issue for the last two weeks and have come to the
conclusion that we have been embracing an expensive, impractical tradition.
By withdrawing from the electric appliance repair business, we can substantially
improve our financial performance without damaging our reputation with customers.
This concl usion is based on three main points that are covered in the following
pages:
• It is highly unlikely that we will ever be able to make a profit in the repair
business.
• Service is no longer an important selling point with customers.
• Closing down the service operation will create few internal problems.
Indirect Approach (assumes audience will be hostile to or resistant to

your recommendations or that you are much lower
in the organizational power structure than the primary reader)
Since the company’s founding 25 years ago, we have provided regular repair service
for all our electric appliances. This service has been an important selling point as well
as a source of pride for our employees. However, the repair business itself has
consistently lost money.
Because of your concern over these losses, you asked me to study the pros and cons
of discontinuing our repair service. With the help of John Hudson and Susan
Lefkowitz, I have studied the issue for the last two weeks. The following pages
present my findings for your review. Three basic questions are addressed:
• What is the extent of our losses, and what can we do to turn the business
around?
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• Would withdrawal of this service hurt our sales of electric appliances?

• What would be the internal repercussions of closing down the repair
business?
Direct requests letters should be convincing enough for the reader to act upon it.
Before writing the letter some preliminary work like gathering information, knowing
about the reader and his needs are very beneficial. It makes the work of a writer
easy while drafting the letter and making it reader friendly. Some points to be kept in
mind are as follows:
• Before drafting a letter, ask yourself as to why should the reader read your
letter and accept your request, and how will it benefit the reader. If you
yourself cannot provide a satisfactory answer, there are chances that your
request might be ignored. However, if you can think of a suitable answer to
this query then the chances of your request being granted will increase.
• The letter should be drafted very carefully, as it is a request letter.
• The letter should be coherent for the reader. The ideas and sentences
should have a relation to each other and should follow one another. A letter
with vague and broken sentences does not interest the reader.
• Letter should be clear and concise. On reading the letter it should not give
a feeling that it is too long and over exaggerated. The receiver should be
able to quickly grasp the content and purpose of the letter. To maintain this,
the sentences should have clarity and brevity.
• If the letter is not formulated precisely, the reader may lose interest and
your request might be ignored. To make sure that this does not happen and
the reader does not loose interest in the letter, make the letter interesting.
Some guidelines to make a request letter more effective are as follows:
1. Sequencing: For maximum impact of a request letter, state the main idea
at the beginning with all the relevant details. The letter should follow a
logical sequence.
2. Use your words carefully: Since, you are making a request in your letter
make sure that words used are chosen carefully. The purpose of the letter
is to result in an action, so it’s necessary that it is clear and does not contain
any ambiguous words. First formulate the opening clearly, then work on the
middle portion while drawing out the reader’s attention and interest in the
end.
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3. Invoke reader’s interests: The letter should specify why the reader
should comply with the request. The letter should indicate how the reader
would benefit by agreeing to the request. If the letter can successfully take
care of this factor while drafting the letter the chances of request being
complied increased a lot.
4. Use sub-headings or points: In most cases there are multiple requests
embedded in one main request. In such cases the formal request should be
broken down in to smaller points so that, it is clear and impactful. Various
ways like using lists, bullet points, sub-headings, etc., can be used to
provide details in a clear manner.
5. Logical and coherent: The letter should be articulate and arranged in a
rational manner. The most important points should be stated first, followed
by less important point or any other queries. All the points mentioned in the
letter should be related to each other and have a logical flow. The reader
must be able to understand the content and assimilate the purpose easily.
6. Effective closing: Like the opening, the closing of the letter also has
maximum impact. The closing should contain the request to perform some
specific action, so that the reader is clear on what he needs to do next. As
a courtesy, the closing should also express gratitude and appreciation for
devoting time to the request and going through the letter.
7. Specific address: Preferably the letter should be addressed to an
individual rather than an organization or institution. Doing that ascertains
that the letter would reach the right hands and is paid the attention it
demands. Additionally doing any follow-ups on the letter also becomes
easy as you directly know whom to contact. Another important benefit is
since it is addressed to an individual, it makes them responsible for taking
an action.
8. Polite tone: Every letter should be tactfully drafted and it is more important
for a request letter. The tone of the letter should be respectful and polite.
Avoid any statements which violate the principle of politeness. Towards the
end of the letter statements like ‘I appreciate your time, I would be grateful’
etc., can be used to show that you are courteous towards the reader.
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Sample Request Letters

1. Request a Change in a Contract or Agreement
(a) As you know, I have faithfully paid my rent on the tenth of the month
for the past three years. However, my grandmother has taken ill, and
I must pay her medical bills on the first of the month. I will need more
than ten days to recover financially to pay rent, so I am requesting that
my rent due date be changed to the fifteenth of the month. You have
been a most reasonable landlord. I appreciate your taking the time to
consider this small amendment to our rental agreement.
(b) You will recall that I have a spotless record of adherence to club
policies per our contract. However, I would like to request that our
contract be amended to allow nonmembers to sail club yachts in the
presence of certified Yacht Club members. I often entertain out-of-
town guests for whom it would be impractical to obtain club
membership. It would be my privilege (and my responsibility) if I were
permitted to allow my guests occasionally to take the helm when
aboard a club vessel. Please advise me as to your thoughts on this
matter. I would be delighted to sign off, at your convenience, on any
amendment we make to this effect.
2. Request a Raise or Promotion
(a) According to the notes I took during my six-month review, I was
entitled to a raise last pay period, provided I brought in the Doe
account, and I have done so. Doe Inc. signed a contract for services
on March 1. Accordingly, I am requesting the salary raise promised in
my interview. Thank you for considering my request.
(b) Since John Doe left the company three months ago, I have been acting
as temporary night supervisor. I feel that I have done the job well, and
am ready to take on these responsibilities permanently. I would
appreciate your looking over my records, and trust that you will agree
that I merit the promotion and associated raise in salary. Thank you
for your consideration.
3. Request an Explanation For a Denial of Credit
(a) I just received your letter denying my application for credit due to ‘late
payment history’ and ‘insufficient income.’ I have never been late on
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any payments and I just received a raise. Either there was a mistake in
your evaluation or the credit information you used was incorrect.
Would you please reconsider my application? If there is any additional
information you need, please let me know.
(b) Your denial of our recent credit application has caught us off guard. As
we were very confident of acceptance, we are hoping you will
provide us with an explanation of your decision. We are aware that
John’s name has been confused with another H. Doe in the past, and
fear that this may have been the case once more. We will be happy to
resubmit our income and debt information if this will help in your re-
evaluation of our file. Please contact our office when you have
reviewed our application and arrived at a decision.
4. Request Information
(a) Thank you for submitting your resume in response to the nanny
position we advertised. In addition to your resume, we also need three
references and a list of past employers for the past five years, along
with their phone numbers. Our policy is to thoroughly review the
background of each candidate in order to select the most suitable
nanny for our children. Thank you for your assistance.
(b) As we welcome the New Year, we also look back on 2001 and begin
preparations for filing income tax returns. To assist you, we have
prepared a personalized Client Tax Organizer. By completing this
organizer you will help us prepare your return more accurately and
minimize your tax liability. Please attach all the applicable tax
documents listed on the cover sheet and return the completed
organizer at least one week before your appointment. We will then be
able to have a more successful meeting with you.
Thank you for taking the time to send us this important information.
1. What is a letter of request?

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2. Enlist some guidelines to make a request letter more effective.

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14.4 INSPIRATIONAL LETTER
Everybody needs inspiration in life. It helps in motivating an individual and, hence,

accomplishing various tasks. Inspirational messages are significant in giving hope and
determination to an individual’s life. When an individual listens to an inspirational
message, he is inspired and motivated to attempt to fulfil his targets or ambitions. In
other words, there seems to be immense hope for the individual.
Inspirational messages are of several kinds depending upon the circumstance or
situation. For instance, some inspirational messages can come in the form of
autobiographies where individuals express their real-life incidences which are quiet
heart-warming and motivating. Individuals who read autobiographies are able to
relate to the feelings and experiences expressed in the book and recollect their own
experiences excitedly.
However, other inspirational messages come be spiritual messages which can be
lectures delivered to inspire the congregation. Such inspirational messages tend to be
based on the religious books which record several events happening throughout
history. Religious books contain accounts of great men and women who catapulted
to fame and fortune and met their downfall as well. These are like historical dramas
which instigate the hearers to incorporate the good traits and be cautious of the
negative aspects.
A simple inspirational message could be motivational words or inspirational
words spoken by an individual to another giving hope and courage. It is at times
tough to give a personal inspirational message as it would be a true experience of an
individual who would perhaps have undergone a painful experience. Also, it
becomes difficult to speak about the painful experience unless time has really healed
all the wounds.
Below is a sample ‘Inspirational’ message letter from an individual to another
who has experienced a bad incident.
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Sample ‘Inspirational’ message

From:
Vaishali Rana
Sector, 108, Noida
20 November 2016
To:
Julie C. Lavender
Connaught Place, New Delhi
Dear Julie,
Subject: The Power of Prayer!
I heard that you met with a terrible accident three weeks ago. It must have
been quite an unnerving experience. As you lie on the bed, strapped to allow
your bones to heal again, you feel excruciating pain.
I was once in your position, Julie. I too met with an accident some time ago.
I was hospitalized for five months. At first, I thought I would be discharged
in a week or two but the weeks turned to months. I felt so frustrated that my
bones were not healing quickly enough.
Everyone who visited prayed for me. I had nothing else to hope in. The
doctors and nurses cannot give me hope. I had to hope in something or
someone to continue living; otherwise, I wither away. So, determined to live
to walk again, I hope in the One and only, for there was no other already at
that fifth month. I had enough of crying, shouting, accusing, unforgiving and
bitterness.
I believe in the one great God who loves; who loves enough to heal. As
others prayed, I believed. I felt hope rising within me daily. I prayed for
healing on myself. I reached out in faith. And one day, the doctors came in
smiling with the good news. My bones and nerves are in perfect order. I
was discharged exactly at the end of the fifth month. God, the Healer, is
willing to heal if you would call on Him. He is only a prayer away.
Praying for you,
Julie
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1. What is the objective of writing an inspiration letter?

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2. Give one example of inspirational message.

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14.5 SUMMARY
• Business letters are written on letter-heads that show the name and address
of the organization, its telephone and fax numbers; the Internet and e-mail
addresses along with the logo of the company.
• For most business letters, single line spacing is used as this gives the letter
a compact look. In case the letter is very short, you may need to use
double spacing.
• Business letters, to be good and effective, must contain certain essentials. In
other words, business letters should conform to certain minimum standards
of letter writing.
• Business is all about creating goodwill, favourable impressions, attracting
attention, creating interest, wooing customers, reaching prospects, and
building relationships.
• A letter of request is written when the writer is seeking for some help or
information from another person.
• It is a formal business letter, so should always be written with utmost care
and professionalism.
• Every letter should be tactfully drafted and it is more important for a
request letter. The tone of the letter should be respectful and polite. Avoid
any statements which violate the principle of politeness.
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• Inspirational messages are significant in giving hope and determination to an

individual’s life.
• Inspirational messages are of several kinds depending upon the
circumstance or situation.
• A simple inspirational message could be motivational words or inspirational
words spoken by an individual to another giving hope and courage.
14.6 KEY WORDS
• Letterhead: Letterhead is a heading, usually comprising the name, address

and logo of an organization that appears at the top of a sheet of letter
paper.
• Indentation: Indentation is a space at the beginning of a written line or
paragraph.
• Request letter: A request letter is written when the writer is seeking for
some help or information from another person. It is a formal business letter,
so should always be written with utmost care and professionalism.

1. A business letter consists of the following essential parts:
(i) Heading
(ii) Inside name and address
(iii) Opening salutation
(iv) Subject
(v) Body of the letter
(vi) Complimentary close
(vii) Signature
(viii) Enclosures
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2. The different styles of indentation are as follows:

(i) Fully-indented style
(ii) Semi-indented style
(iii) Fully-blocked style
(iv) Modified-blocked style

1. A letter of request is written when the writer is seeking for some help or
information from another person. It is a formal business letter, so should
always be written with utmost care and professionalism.
2. Some guidelines to make a request letter more effective are as follows:
• Sequencing
• Use your words carefully
• Invoke reader’s interests
• Use sub-heading or points
• Polite tone

1. An inspiration letter is written by an individual with the objective of giving
hope and courage to another person so that the latter can aim to achieve
the aims and ambitions of his life.
2. An example of inspiration message is that of religious sermons which are
addressed to large gatherings to inspire them.
1. State the deficiencies of a bad business letter.

2. Discuss the significance of using appropriate language in a business letter.
Give examples.
3. Write a letter to a sweets manufacturer, placing an order for hundred
packets of a particular sweet for the employees of your organization. Use
the semi-indented style of writing.
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4. Summarize the guidelines to make a request letter more effective.

5. Explain the standard parts of a business letter.
6. State the characteristics of the following:
(a) Fully-indented style
(b) Semi-indented style
(c) Fully blocked style
7. Write an inspirational letter sharing your experiences with your friend.

Publishing House.
Prentice Hall.
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Effective Business Letters
UNIT–15 EFFECTIVE BUSINESS LETTERS
Objectives
• Identify various essentials of business letters
• Discuss the significance of written communication in business
Structure
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Basic Elements of Effective Business Letters
15.3 Summary
15.4 Key Words
15.1 INTRODUCTION
Written correspondence is the most well-known form of business correspondence.

It is crucial for small entrepreneurs and directors to create powerful composed
relational abilities and to support the same in all representatives. A business letter is
normally a letter starting with one organization then onto the next, or between such
associations and their clients, customers and other outer gatherings. A percentage of
the different manifestations of composed correspondence that are utilized inside for
business operations incorporate notices, reports, releases, sets of responsibilities,
worker manuals, email, and Instant Messages (IM).
In this unit, you will learn the basic elements of effective business letters.
15.2 BASIC ELEMENTS OF EFFECTIVE BUSINESS LETTERS
Business letters, to be good and effective, must contain certain essentials. In other
words, business letters should conform to certain minimum standards of letter
writing. One can look at these essentials from different angles—language, content,
context, length, structure, layout, taste, tone, impact and purpose orientation. Any
letter is amenable to description in terms of these characteristics or features. To
qualify, the letter should measure up as good when viewed from any of these
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considerations. It may or may not encompass all these features. Nevertheless, a

good letter writer should have a clear understanding of all the characteristics that
make the letter effective. In order to be clear about what is a good letter, it is also
very necessary to know what a bad letter is. While, a good letter can be good on
many counts, a bad letter may have one undesirable feature which can mar the
beauty of the entire letter.
A bad letter stands out like a sore thumb for any of its deficiencies, which might be
any of the following:
• Lack of clarity
• Poor use of words and expressions
• Incorrect spelling and grammatical errors
• Too short or very lengthy
• Too many ideas crowded into one letter
• Not accurate or factually incorrect
• Fails to convey the main purpose
• Not to the reader’s wavelength
• Too much jargon and technical words
• Lacking in aesthetic sense
• Language used not familiar to the reader
• Lengthy paragraphs
• Offensive in nature
• Absence of personal touch
• Lacking in courtesy
• Creates ill-will
• Written out of context
• Absence of relevant information
• Use of poor-quality paper and ink
• Wrong address
• Absence of address
Business is all about creating goodwill, favourable impressions, attracting
attention, creating interest, wooing customers, reaching prospects and building
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relationships. All this calls for conscious efforts, concerted action and
correspondence on a regular basis. As this has to be done in a world that is full of
competition, one bad letter can cause avoidable damage to the reputation of the
business. Badly written letters cause embarrassment to the people behind the
business and show the organization in poor light.
Before discussing the essentials of a good business letter, it would be desirable
to keep in view what such a letter can achieve for business. A good business letter
can reach out and directly address the target, be it a customer or a prospect or a
patron or the regulator. A good business letter can address the prospect and set the
sales pitch. A good business letter can act as an effective salesperson. A good
business letter can strengthen the bond and provide further details to an existing
customer. A good business letter can, thus, act as your relationship officer. A good
business letter can dispel disinformation and create goodwill. It thereby acts as your
ambassador. A good business letter can make announcements, share relevant
information and keep you in touch with people who matter. In this way, a good
business letter can be your public relations officer (PRO). Well-written and
imaginatively drafted letters can play the role of a salesman, a relationship officer, an
ambassador and a PRO for business establishments. This is true especially for small
businesses which cannot afford to employ people specifically for carrying out these
functions.
Let us now briefly discuss the requisites or essentials of a good business letter.
Clarity
A letter must have clarity. The underlying message should be expressed in clear
terms. Care should be taken to avoid ambiguity. The purpose of communication
should be made clear. Whether it is to inform, invite, reiterate, emphasize, remind,
announce, seek participation or clarity and correct the earlier message, the purpose
should clearly be stated.
If a letter writer is writing a letter on behalf of somebody else, it should be done
after obtaining clear instructions. There are occasions when one may receive a letter
informing the date and the venue of a meeting without an accompanying invitation or
request to attend. The reader or the receiver of the communication, in such an
instance, will be in a dilemma. Is the invitation intended and implied but not
specifically stated? Or is the letter just meant to be informative and no invitation is
being extended? One way or the other, the message should be clear. Just imagine
the embarrassment that is caused when people not meant to be invited turn up at the
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venue and have to be turned back or when people who have to attend the meeting
feel there is only intimation and no invitation and hence fail to turn up! When this
happens due to lack of clarity in communication, any business suffers. This is just
one example. There are umpteen ways in which the lack of clarity affects the
intended purpose of the letter. A letter writer should be conscious of this and
exercise due care.
Impact
The letter should create the necessary impact. Behind every letter there is an
objective and the letter should have a clear purpose. The purpose of writing a letter
is not just to reach out to the customer. Every letter has an intended impact which
must be felt. To create the desired impact, it is often necessary to lay emphasis.
Emphasis can be laid in many ways. It can be done by proper positioning—placing
them in an important position. It can be done by repetition. It can be done by
underlining or using a larger type or font. Similarly, to create the right impact, the
letter writer should address the letter to the right person. The right person is the
specific person who is the target of the communication, and whose action or
response the business considers to be of value. Creating an impact also calls for
establishing an appropriate wavelength. The letter writer should write keeping in
view the skill, knowledge, status and comprehension ability of the reader or the
addressee.
Yet another requisite of an impact-creating letter is coherence. It is necessary to
use words, phrases and clauses clearly, so as to form balanced sentences.
Coherence seeks to establish a proper relationship and links sentences to make the
intended message clear. Coherence brings consistency and orderliness to the
encoded message.
A letter succeeds in creating the desired impact when it ensures purpose orientation,
lays the right emphasis, establishes an appropriate wavelength and is coherent.
Some of the common questions asked or statements made in relation to these
attributes are as follows:
• What is one trying to convey? (Purpose orientation)
• Which of these is really urgent? (Emphasis)
• Is it too elementary or is it an overhead transmission? (Wavelength)
• What is the sequence? (Coherence)
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It is necessary to give due attention to these areas and build up skills so that the
letters become impact-creating.
Relevant Information
The letter should provide the relevant details forming part of the message. Facts,
figures, illustrations and other such information, which are both accurate and reliable,
as well as relevant to the context of the communication, should be incorporated in
the letter. The principle of communication that we are referring to here is also known
as adequacy or completeness. A communication can be said to be complete only
when it contains all the facts and details which the receiver needs to know in order
to respond or act on the basis of that communication. Not giving all the required
details leads to protracted correspondence, loss of customers or lack of response.
Worse still, although non-submission of full details may be due to an oversight or
inadequate attention to details, the receiver may infer that there is a deliberate
attempt to withhold or conceal facts and figures. Imagine a letter received from a
departmental store announcing the opening of a new branch and seeking your
patronage that does not give details of the new address or timings. Another
requirement of a business letter is concreteness. A communication is said to be
concrete when it is specific, definite and to the point and not vague and generalized.
Often the letters are so rambling in nature that one can imagine the reader screaming,
‘Please come to the point and be specific.’ A concrete letter does not ramble and is
sharp and focussed.
Brevity
Any good communication—oral or written—should necessarily incorporate this
essential feature. Brevity is a very important attribute for any business letter. For
everyone connected with business, time is of essence. The time that one can allot for
reading business letters is certainly limited. The receiver does not have unlimited time
to spare towards reading and re-reading the letter and drawing out the message in
its entirety. On the contrary, any business letter is competing with a huge mass of
business-related and other communication targeted at the receiver, waiting to catch
attention and time. Recognizing this, any business will have to value the receiver’s
time. Brevity in letter writing, therefore, is a must. Long letters, whatever be their
merits, are often kept aside for ‘later reading’. Brevity in communication is also
referred to as conciseness. Conciseness refers to the skill of conveying what one
wants to convey in the fewest possible words, without sacrificing completeness or
courtesy. Conciseness eliminates unnecessary words and phrases, repetitive
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sentences and keeps the letter focussed. A good letter makes economical use of
words. Brevity is a skill that a business communicator must develop. As people
move up in an organizational hierarchy, their ability to condense messages into brief
and focussed letters counts for a lot. In typical bureaucratic and hierarchical work
situations, one can see the ‘drafts’ of letters prepared by the junior staff moving
upwards tier by tier ‘for final approval’ and much time and effort are wasted if
brevity is not ensured.
Simplicity
Simplicity is the hallmark of any good communication. Simplicity refers to the ease of
understanding. Simple writing is the opposite of complex and involved writing. The
art of simple writing is mastered through conscious effort and practice. A letter
written in a simple, easy, informal style using easily understood words catches the
attention, and makes an impact. Simplicity in writing does not, however, necessarily
imply simple or plain thoughts. The thoughts may be complex, and the subject quite
complicated, but the manner of expression or presentation is kept simple. It takes
tremendous insight and skill to express complex matters and complicated issues in a
simple form. The normal tendency on the part of the communicator is to resort to
complex sentences, clichés, technical jargon and high-sounding words to
communicate not-so-simple thoughts and developments, resulting in confusion and
bewilderment. One must make constant endeavours to write simple, yet meaningful
and impact-creating, business letters. It involves not only the use of simple words,
but also, more importantly, a clear insight into the structure of sentences and
paragraphs. Brevity and simplicity are so essential for good communication that
many writers refer to it with the acronym KISS—Keep It (the letter) Short and
Simple.
Timeliness
Business letters, to be effective, should have proper timing. Letters should be written
and dispatched on time. Some messages have a sense of urgency. They call for
action, which is ‘immediate’ or ‘urgent’, or within a given time frame. Letters which
carry such messages should reflect the associated urgency. They should be so
addressed and delivered that there is enough time to permit action within the given
time frame. It is not uncommon to see letters seeking some action by a specified
date reaching the receiver after that date. Some not-so-uncommon examples of this
are as follows:
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• A communication from a controlling office to a branch stating, ‘Please send

us the statement without fail by 30 September 2001’ reaching on 2
October 2001
• A letter from a committee secretariat asking the member to attend the
meeting scheduled on the 10th of the month, reaching him that evening
• A letter from a departmental store announcing ‘clearance sale for 3 days’
reaching after the sale
• A letter from a personnel department asking an officer to appear for her
promotional interview on 6 October 2001 at the regional office reaching on
5 October 2001
Apart from negating the purpose of communication, such letters reflect poorly both
the organization and the sender of the message. If the action called for is so urgent,
the minimum that anyone would expect from the sender is a clear demonstration of
the urgency by ensuring speedy communication. This necessitates not only timely
writing but also timely dispatch. For example, there may be occasions when a letter
dated 15 September 2001 or 20 September 2001 reaches the addressee on 2
October 2001 or 5 October 2001. Goal-oriented and effective communication
presupposes that the person concerned acts and intervenes at every stage in the
transmission of communication. Timeliness in business writing also involves the
choice of the right channel—mail, telegram or courier, as the case may be. Sending
letters too much in advance is also to be avoided because unless there is a timely
reminder, the message is likely to be forgotten.
Language
Language is an extremely important facet of business communication. First and
foremost, it is necessary to ensure that the language used is appropriate, i.e., the
language with which the reader is at ease. Apart from English and Hindi, various
regional languages are in common use in businesses in different parts of the country.
Public sector organizations such as banks follow the three-language formula. Many
printed letters are bilingual—both in Hindi and English. Business letters should use
the language which the prospect, customer or addressee can read and understand.
Choosing the appropriate language for a large multi-national or multi-regional
organization is important not only for furthering business interests, but also for
ensuring that the sensibilities of certain sections of people are not offended. When
organizations and businesses get global, the choice of appropriate language becomes
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highly relevant. Having chosen the right language, the next step is to ensure that the
phrases, expressions, words, grammar and spellings are correct.
Grammatical errors and spelling mistakes have no place in a good business
letter. They create a poor impression on the reader. Every business writer may or
may not achieve grammatical perfection. The use of commas at all relevant places in
the sentence and avoidance of split infinitives, for example, may not always take
place. In fact, certain grammatical imperfections such as the use of split infinitives are
tolerated as long as the message is clear. The important point emphasized here is
that while the letter writer may or may not achieve grammatical perfection, glaring
and obvious grammatical errors have no place in good writing. A good letter writer
should know his grammar well and seek appropriate reference when in doubt. A
business letter with noticeable bad grammar, notwithstanding other merits, creates a
poor impression on the reader.
Appeal
A good letter should appeal to the reader’s sensibilities. It should go beyond the
message it conveys and make a good impression. It should have elegance, which
means taste, beauty and decency. A good letter also ensures certain aesthetic
appeal. No letter can be called elegant or aesthetically appealing if it does not give
due attention to appearance. Mistakes and corrections, striking, overwriting,
improper ink flow, unintended gaps and other such deficiencies rob an otherwise
good letter of all its elegance.
A letter is appealing when it shows consideration. Consideration means
thoughtfulness. It means keeping in mind the reader and putting oneself in the
reader’s shoes while writing the letter. Consideration means visualizing the reactions
of the reader and accommodating them in the approach to the communication. A
good letter writer invariably makes it a point to think from the other person’s point
of view. Another essential for a good writer is empathy. A letter shows empathy
when it reflects understanding and comprehension of the impact on the reader. It
tells the reader what is of interest to the reader. A good letter uses the ‘you’ more
frequently than ‘I’. A good letter makes the reader feel important.
Style
Style refers to the manner of writing. It constitutes the collective characteristics of the
writing or impression or way of presenting things. Each person has an individual
style. The writing style, to create an impact, again needs conscious effort, on an
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ongoing basis. While encompassing various requisites of letter writing, the letter
brings to bear the individual’s stamp on the letter. If you are regularly reading the
letters emanating from a particular source, you get to identify the style. People tend
to judge the style and categorize them—good style, bad style or free style.
Style can be associated with the person writing the letter and carries certain
distinctiveness. Style is also understood as ‘Proper words in proper places’. One
can also describe style in other ways—personal or impersonal, formal or informal,
narrative or descriptive, rambling or focussed, considerate or harsh, simple or
verbose. A simple, informal, considerate and focussed style of writing scores high in
building a rapport with the reader.
Good writing style also implies the proper use of idioms and expressions. An
idiom is described as the way ideas are used in a language. It is a form of expression
peculiar to a language. Like any other language, English too has its idioms. Another
aspect worth noting in the context of developing a good writing style is to avoid
clichés.
Clichés are hackneyed literary phrases. They are often repeated ad nauseum.
Some commonly used clichés are: last but not least, better late than never, and there
is no room for complacency.
Good writing style carries sincerity. Sincere writing is straightforward and there
is no attempt at manipulation. The writer comes through as honest, genuine and
frank. Sincere writing also gets described as candid and transparent. Being sincere,
therefore, means writing naturally. The words reflect feelings, concerns and
expectations in a forthright manner.
Good writing style should also encompass politeness or courtesy. It should
respect the reader as an individual. It should reflect the basic minimum courtesies
that any transaction or relationship demands. It should be appreciative and
complimentary to the extent appropriate in the given context. Business letters, by and
large, seek to strengthen the relationships that are good for the business when the
occasion demands. The writer should not hesitate to apologize for omissions or
errors.
Good writing style also refers to writing naturally, without undue efforts.
Otherwise the writing becomes laboured and loses spontaneity. After a while, the
tediousness starts showing. The ability to write spontaneously and effortlessly for all
occasions has to be consciously developed.
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Positive Approach
A good business letter, in the ultimate analysis, is that which has a positive approach.
It creates a friendly atmosphere. It avoids negative feelings. One must be in a proper
frame of mind to write a really good letter. Thoughts and words must synchronize.
The basic objective should not be lost sight of. The letter should bestir and motivate
the reader to act or respond as visualized. Good letters cannot be written under
extreme emotional conditions such as sorrow, depression, anger, frustration or
shock. Such letters may not carry the overall balance in approach which is so
essential for effective writing. Similarly, a good letter cannot be written in a hurry.
One must take adequate time to put thoughts into words, choosing the most
appropriate ones for the context. The writer should write the letter taking adequate
time, with due attention to all relevant considerations.
Apart from the various characteristics already listed, a good letter should have
integrity, accuracy and promptness. There should be respect for values and ethical
and moral standards. The writer should demonstrate a sense of legitimacy in his
writing. Messages should be accurate and there should not be any misrepresentation
and out of context passages. Positive approach also means being prompt in
responding. A writer is often a recipient of communication also. The writer should
make it a point to respond without any undue delay.
Positive approach does not mean that one has to say ‘yes’ to everything. Any
business has its commercial considerations. It has its rules, norms and compliances.
One cannot say ‘yes’ if it is commercially imprudent and if the set norms are not met.
Good letter writing, therefore, is the art of learning to say ‘no’ by packaging ‘no’ in
a pleasing manner. It is the art of packaging ‘no’ in an acceptable format. It is the art
of winning over the customer even while losing that particular offer or transaction.
The business offer may or may not come up to the expectation, but, nevertheless,
the communication should leave behind a favourable impression.
In any organization and in any business, there will be umpteen occasions to say
no, to disagree, to convey displeasure, to punish, to pull up, to do plain speaking
and to call a spade a spade. Quite often this will have to be done by way of a letter.
In all such instances, it is necessary that the damage, the feeling of hurt or ill will, if
any, is kept to the minimum. While, the nature of the message would have certain
unpleasantness associated with it, the tone and style can make a difference and
soften the blow. It is under such circumstances that the skill of good writing comes
into full play. A skilful writer learns to mitigate the hardship or adverse impact of the
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message through choice of words and manner of presentation. Although, what is

being said is not pleasant, how it is being said makes it less unpleasant.
Positive approach in letter writing does in many ways create goodwill for the
writer and the organization. It creates regard for the writer and a friendly disposition
towards the business. It generates heartiness and a kind feeling so essential for the
success of any business organization in today’s market place.
Another very essential characteristic of good business writing is imagination. The
writer has to bring a unique perspective and experience and, to the extent
appropriate, relate them to the letter on hand. It is this imagination that brings
excitement into the communication. Communication becomes active and creative.
Imaginative writing takes the level of writing to a reader-friendly mode.
Organizations and businesses that succeed in the present intensively competitive
environment are those that sparkle with innovations and creativity. Written
communication emanating from business organizations should, therefore, duly reflect
enthusiasm. A good letter radiates enthusiasm.
Any good communication should have variety. It is said that variety is the spice
of life. Variety adds spice to writing. It makes communication lively and interesting.
A good letter makes its impact the very first time. When the letter is repeated,
however good and relevant it may be, the impact gets diluted. The reader’s interest
wanes. When the subject of the message is repetitive in nature, in terms of thoughts
and ideas, there may not be much change. Nevertheless, in terms of choice of
words, structure of sentences and intensity of the tone, the letter can and should be
different.
Viewed against the backdrop of so many essentials for good letter writing,
models or drafts or stereotyped formats of letters are of limited value. Barring areas
such as documentation, legal drafting and routine procedural forms, it is not
desirable to follow such stereotyped writing models. Any draft or model letter would
also carry the writer’s style or approach. Moreover, copying or adopting such
formats blindly restricts the writer’s ability to develop a distinctive style of writing. In
any case, each situation and every context is quite different and no standard format
can be followed without appropriate refinements. At best, such formats can only be
taken as broadly suggestive or indicative. Instead of taking a model and attempting
to make requisite modifications to suit one’s specific needs, it would be worthwhile
to understand the principles and develop one’s writing skills.
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In the foregoing paragraphs, we have looked at numerous essentials or requisites

of good writing. The attempt has been to make it fairly exhaustive rather than to
cover only the minimum requisites. One can refer to the minimum requisites as the
‘ABC’ of good letter writing, where A stands for accuracy, B for brevity and C for
clarity. The minimum requisites are necessary, but by no means adequate.
Striving for Excellence

A good letter writer should try to achieve a significantly high standard of letter writing
and endeavour to achieve excellence. All the dozen or so essentials outlined above
are relevant in building up the skills of effective letter writing. When we talk of
business letters, we refer to a great variety of letters. They range from the routine,
repetitive letters to the more complex, goal-oriented ones. They seek not only to
inform, educate and appeal, but also to carry out complex and composite functions
such as evaluation, justification, motivation, persuasion, penetration, dispelling of
wrong impressions and even award of punishment. They may be as short as half a
page or as long as eight to ten pages. The bigger and more complex the letter, the
greater the scope for skilful writing.
The essentials outlined above are not to be taken as a checklist against which
every letter has to be evaluated. Some letters need to be just simple and
straightforward and there may not be much scope for imagination or creativity. The
nature of the subject, the context of the communication and the relationship of the
recipient determine how many qualities or essentials can one build into any letter.
Being aware of as many essentials as are relevant in writing a wide range of business
letters helps in developing effective letter-writing skills.
Understand the Context

Business letters will have to be necessarily business like. The letter writer should
understand the context and make the letter specific and precise. There is often not
much scope to make the letter lengthy and verbose. When we refer to letters from
the accounts department or the purchase department, the message will have to be
direct and specific. On the other hand, when it comes to the marketing department,
it is possible to be descriptive and qualitative. When we refer to the letters relating
to the personnel department, the general requirement would be to keep such letters
polite, and yet firm wherever necessary, and also show respect for authority. A good
business letter writer necessarily takes cognizance of the context. The general tone
of letters should take note of the subject matter, context, the person to whom it is
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addressed and be informative, persuasive, firm or authoritative, as the situation

warrants.
Use Words Appropriate to the Subject

Whether it is accounts, purchase, sales or personnel, there are words, phrases and
abbreviations which are relevant and appropriate to each function or department.
Words and abbreviations like ‘closed tender’, ‘free on board (f.o.b)’, ‘after office
hours (a.o.h)’, ‘clearing cheque’, ‘effects not cleared’ and ‘tax deduction at source
(TDS)’ are often used in business correspondence. The business letter writer should
familiarize himself or herself with such words and use them appropriately.
Abbreviations are to be generally avoided and if at all used, the letter writer should
ensure that they are understood as intended and that there are no misunderstandings.
Business letters, as we have noted, also vary in terms of intensity and approach.
There are routine letters, reminders, persuasive letters, goodwill letters, informative
letters, mild and strong appeals, circular letters and memos and representations, and
the letter writer should develop the skill of using appropriate words relevant to the
context.
Use Short Sentences and Paragraphs

In business letters, any temptation to use high-sounding language and long-winding
sentences should be resisted. The business letter writer should consciously use short
sentences with about fifteen–twenty words at the most. Long sentences carrying
thirty–forty words tax the reader and make comprehension unnecessarily difficult.
Another important requirement is to break the message into appropriate and
adequate paragraphs. Short paragraphs, each covering an idea or a message, are
generally appealing to any reader.
Provide Relevant Details

Brevity of letters should not be at the cost of clarity and all relevant details should be
furnished. The date, time and venue of the meeting, whether invitation or information,
the number and the amount of cheque whose payment is to be stopped, the date,
time and place of interview, due amount of money which the collection letter seeks,
the exact amount of discount offered are all details which, though seemingly
elementary, may escape attention. (It is worth noting here that while the first sentence
of this paragraph has eighteen words, the second sentence has as many as sixty
words and the ease of comprehension or effort involved is much more in the latter.)
Omitting such relevant details would lead to confusion, misunderstanding and
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repetitive correspondence. A good business letter writer gives attention to all such
minute details.
Use Standard Drafts or Formats

Most of the routine correspondence is repetitive in nature. Once the basic approach
for writing a variety of letters is mastered, it would be beneficial to build a set of
ready-to-use drafts and formats. In banks, insurance companies and a host of other
institutions and businesses, there are often printed formats in use. These include stop
payment instructions, over draft facilities, account opening and making claims. When
a business letter writer uses them appropriately and consciously, the formats help in
minimizing the time spent on writing the same type of letters. Care should be taken,
however, to review such formats or drafts periodically and also improvise and
update them to cope with emerging situations.
Specialized Writing
Specialized writing such as journalistic writing, advertisements of various types, press
releases, developing a questionnaire or preparing an advertorial call for higher level
of skills and application. Skills in these areas are acquired through constant study and
efforts.
Constant Improvisation
Business writing is dynamic in nature. There should be an ongoing effort at
improvisation. The business letter writer should learn to do self-editing. Before
finalizing important letters, one should make sure that the message is clear, the
language is appropriate, surplus words if any are removed, unwarranted repetition is
avoided and the letter is appealing. Yesterday’s words, phrases, formats and style
may not appeal today. Good letter writers keep themselves updated and modern.
Vocabulary or Word Power

For the language to be effective, an important prerequisite is abundant vocabulary or
word power. Words are the very essence of written communication. Words
translate thoughts and carry the message through to the reader. They lay emphasis as
and when required. Since, words have the potential to make or mar the language of
the business communicator, this aspect has been dealt with in some detail in the
following paragraphs.
The world of words, as we have noted earlier, is wonderful and fascinating.
English language has an enormous stock of words. With new words being added
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constantly, the stock of useable English words keeps growing. The Oxford
Advanced Learner’s Dictionary (2000 edition) gives as many as 80,000 words
and references covering both British English and American English. This vast and
growing reservoir of words offers, at once, both an opportunity and a challenge to
the communicator. It is an opportunity because there is a tremendous choice of
words available to the person. It is a challenge no doubt, for the building up of word
power calls for a systematic and ongoing effort, using familiar words and learning
new words. One can easily spend one’s lifetime learning new words, understanding
their shades of meaning and effectively using all the words available.
Words make the letter. A good letter writer should choose the words with care.
To do so, one must necessarily build enormous word power. Every person keen on
becoming an effective communicator should delve deeply into words and their
meanings. Most of the words have many shades of meaning. The appropriate word
or set of words depend on the context, tone and gravity of the message and also on
the relationship with the person to whom it is addressed.
Much as one would like, it is not always possible to readily recall the exact
word. As a result, one may often find oneself groping for the right word. Any person
keen on building word power and using the most appropriate word in every piece of
write up must take recourse to a standard English dictionary and also Roget’s
Thesaurus. Until a writer gets a fine command over English words, and even
thereafter when a reconfirmation is required on the shades of meanings a word
conveys, constant reference to these two sources would be immensely helpful. It is
worth emphasizing that the author of this book has made umpteen references to
these sources while writing this book. To make it clearer, let us take a look at a few
words and try to understand all that they convey.
Take, for example, the word ‘communication’. Roget’s Thesaurus refers to the
following shades of meaning:
Joining, Transfer, Intercourse, Information, Messages, Oral communication,
Conversation, Epistle, Passageway, Giving, Social intercourse.
Each one of them is in turn elaborated under different sections with nouns, verbs,
adjectives and exclamations associated with the word. One of the meanings of
communication listed above is information. In turn, the word ‘information’ covers the
following:
Enlightenment, Light, Acquaintance, Familiarization, Instruction, Intelligence,
Knowledge, The know, The dope, The goods, The swoop (all slang),
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Communication report, Word, Statement, Mention, Notice, Notification, Intimation,

Sidelight, Inside information, The low-down, Tip-off, Point, Pointer, Hint, Indication,
Suggestion, Suspicion, Inkling, Glimmer, Cue, Clue, Scent, Telltale, Implication,
Allusion, Insinuation, Innuendo, Gentle hint, Broad hint and many more.
Let us take another word, ‘satisfaction’. The thesaurus again refers to the
following shades of meaning:
Adequacy, Satiety, Reparation, Fulfillment, Duel, Payment, Pleasure, Content,
Reprisal, Atonement.
Out of these, let us take a look at the word ‘content’.
Again, this word could mean the following:
Content, Contentment, Contentedness, Satisfiedness, Satisfaction, Ease, Peace
of mind, Happiness, Complacency, Bovinity, Self-satisfaction, Self-contentedness,
Satisfactoriness, Sufficiency, Adequacy, Acceptability, Admissibility, Tolerability,
Agreeability, Objectionability, Unexceptionability and many more.
Since vocabulary building is of immense value to a communicator, we are giving
below some more examples of words and their meanings.
Take for example the word ‘piece’. It essentially means a small amount. There
is a range of words to talk about this aspect. The communicator or writer should be
in a position to choose the right word to go with the substance being talked about.
The range of words relevant here are as follows:
Piece, Bit, Chunk, Lump, Fragment, Speck, Drop, Pinch, Portion.
Similarly, when you want to say someone is fat, you have to choose the word
most appropriate from the following range:
Fat, Overweight, Large, Heavy, Big, Plump, Chubby, Stocky, Stout, Obese.
Apart from knowing the word, it would also be desirable to know the various
words belonging to that word family. Some examples of this are:
Rely, Reliable, Reliability, Reliance.
Perceive, Perception, Perceptive, Perceptible.
There are also words whose meanings are close to each other. One should be
clear about the fine difference that exists to be in a position to choose the right word.
Some examples of such words are as follows:
Condition, State
Classic, Classical
Altogether, All together
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All the above examples and many more such helpful suggestions are highlighted
in the Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary. The point to be noted here is that
words in the English language have multifarious connotations and uses. There are
words which convey the same meaning but each one perhaps has a context where it
fits in perfectly.
Similarly, there are many words belonging to the same word family. A good
writer must build up his word power in such a way that words of all kinds are on top
in memory, or as an alternative, the writer has ready access to sources like the
thesaurus. In the absence of a proper supply of words, the smooth flow of writing
gets obstructed. Groping for the most appropriate word or even just a sufficient
word causes frustration.
In letter writing or any other written communication, it is very essential that
words are not frequently repeated. Repetition tends to irritate the reader. If you
come across a particular word repeated again and again in a sentence and the
sentences that follow in the same paragraph, the reader is likely to get a poor
impression of the writing.
To be able to avoid repetition, the writer should have a good stock of equivalent
words or synonyms. Synonyms are words identical and co-extensive in sense and
usage with another of the same language.
Ivor Brown, in his introduction to the third edition of Roget’s Thesaurus, has
beautifully summed up the significance of word power and its effective use for any
good writer. He says, ‘Words as well as ideas are the raw material and that he
requires in good supply. However, words can be the decoration as well as the tools
of good writing. This does not mean that they should be splashed around recklessly:
a good artist with the riches of his paint box at hand does not use them in a lavish or
slapdash way. The artist considers, selects and blends tints to get both strength and
delicacy in the finished picture. So it is with words. To have a copious supply and to
use it with judgement is an excellent foundation for good writing and for the
possession of what is called style.’
1. State the importance of coherence in a letter.

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2. What is the principle of communication?

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15.3 SUMMARY
• Any letter is amenable to description in terms of these characteristics or

features. To qualify, the letter should measure up as good when viewed
from any of these considerations. It may or may not encompass all these
features.
• Business is all about creating goodwill, favourable impressions, attracting
attention, creating interest, wooing customers, reaching prospects and
building relationships.
• A good business letter can act as an effective salesperson. A good business
letter can strengthen the bond and provide further details to an existing
customer.
• A letter must have clarity. The underlying message should be expressed in
clear terms. Care should be taken to avoid ambiguity. The purpose of
communication should be made clear.
• The letter should create the necessary impact. Behind every letter there is
an objective and the letter should have a clear purpose. The purpose of
writing a letter is not just to reach out to the customer.
• The letter should provide the relevant details forming part of the message.
Facts, figures, illustrations and other such information, which are both
accurate and reliable, as well as relevant to the context of the
communication, should be incorporated in the letter.
• Brevity is a very important attribute for any business letter. For everyone
connected with business, time is of essence.
• Simplicity is the hallmark of any good communication. Simplicity refers to
the ease of understanding. Simple writing is the opposite of complex and
involved writing.
• Business letters, to be effective, should have proper timing. Letters should
be written and dispatched on time.
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• Language is an extremely important facet of business communication.

• A good letter should appeal to the reader’s sensibilities. It should go
beyond the message it conveys and make a good impression. It should
have elegance, which means taste, beauty and decency.
• Style refers to the manner of writing. It constitutes the collective
characteristics of the writing or impression or way of presenting things.
• A good business letter, in the ultimate analysis, is that which has a positive
approach. It creates a friendly atmosphere. It avoids negative feelings. One
must be in a proper frame of mind to write a really good letter.
• In business letters, any temptation to use high-sounding language and long-
winding sentences should be resisted.
• Specialized writing such as journalistic writing, advertisements of various
types, press releases, developing a questionnaire or preparing an
advertorial call for higher level of skills and application.
15.4 KEY WORDS
• Brevity: Brevity refers to the quality of expressing much in few words.

• Business letter: A business letter is a letter written in formal language,
usually used when writing from one business organization to another, or for
correspondence between such organizations and their customers, clients
and other external parties.
• Vocabulary: Vocabulary is the body of words used in a particular
language.
• Oral communication: Oral communication is the process of expressing
information or ideas by word of mouth.
• Thesaurus: Thesaurus is a dictionary of synonyms and homonyms.

1. Coherence seeks to establish a proper relationship and links sentences to
make the intended message clear. Coherence brings consistency and
orderliness to the encoded message.
2. Adequacy or completeness is the principle of communication.
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1. What are the advantages of a good business letter?

2. Write a short note on positive approach as an essential element of a
business letter.
3. Explain the requisites of a good business letter.
4. What are the basic elements of a business letter?

Publishing House.
Prentice Hall.
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Types of Report and Notice, Report
UNIT–16 TYPES OF REPORT AND NOTICE, REPORT

WRITING AND AGENDA AND MINUTES
Objectives
• Describe short reports and formal reports
• Discuss the process of giving an oral presentation
• Identify various essentials of business letters
• Analyse the procedure for drafting notices
• Discuss the procedure for recording the minutes of a meeting
Structure
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Reports and Presentation
16.3 Notice and its Types
16.4 Resolution/Offer
16.5 Reports and their Types
16.6 Report Writing
16.7 Agenda and Minutes
16.8 Summary
16.9 Key Words
16.1 INTRODUCTION
Report writing is creating an account or statement that describes in detail an event,

situation or occurrence, usually as the result of observation.
What is a report? The English dictionary covers several interpretations of the
word ‘report.’ These include bring back account of; state as an ascertained fact; tell
as news; narrate or describe or repeat especially as eyewitness and relate as spoken
by another. While each of these interpretations has its relevance in the context of
report writing, the most appropriate one would be, ‘account given or opinion
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formally expressed after investigation or consideration’. In other words, a report

refers to information that has been carefully gathered and logically presented.
Report writing is, in a sense, the ultimate in business communication. It calls for
a considerably higher level of writing skills. Reports are of various kinds, varying in
terms of complexity and size. Reports are such a common feature that people in
organizations, businesses and institutions, at various levels, are called upon to not
only read related reports, but also write or associate with the preparation of the
reports. It is desirable, therefore, that anyone who is keen on developing varied
business communication skills acquires a good insight into the art of report writing.
In this unit, you will learn about the various types of report writing, notices,
meetings and agendas.
16.2 REPORTS AND PRESENTATION
Reports allow information to be presented in a structured format. They should

contain facts and arguments that can be supported with clearly researched and
referenced information. They should not contain opinions. Reports are usually
written in the third person, and should not contain the word ‘I.’ For example, write
‘questionnaires were issued to all staff’ rather than ‘I sent all staff a questionnaire.’
Statistical and numerical information should be presented so that it can be easily
understood by the reader, for example, in the form of charts, graphs and tables.
Where a large amount of information has been collected, it may be easier to include
the detailed information in appendices, which can be referenced in the main body of
the report. The information should be presented in a logical order. Clearly numbering
sections and subsections can make the report easier to follow.
There are three types of reports, which are listed as follows:
(i) Extended formal report
(ii) Short formal report
(iii) Informal report
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Table 16.1 Types of Reports

Type of Report Structure Purpose
Extended Formal Report (i) Title page Formal reports are used for
(ii) Contents external publication,
(iii) Synopsis particularly government, local
(iv) Terms of reference authority, public corporations.
(v) Procedure
(vi) Detailed findings
(vii) Conclusions
(viii) Recommendations
(ix) Appendices
(x) Bibliography
Short Formal Report (i) Title page (a) Formal reports for internal
(ii) Terms of reference use, particularly for
(iii) Procedure management decision-
(iv) Findings
making and non-routine
(v) Conclusions
(vi) Recommendations issues.
(vii) Appendices
(b) Memorandum format is
often used for these
reports, although a more
formal presentation style
may be used where
appropriate.
Informal Report (i) Introduction: Purpose (a) Informal reports for

of report and actions internal use, particularly
taken to complete the within departments and for
report dealing with routine
(ii) Main section: findings issues.
(iii) Final section: (b) Memorandum format is
Conclusions and often used for these
recommendations if reports.
required
Structure of a report
The following elements form a part of the report structure:
(i) Title page: A report should have a title on the front page. The title page
should also include the author’s name and the date.
(ii) Terms of reference: This is the introductory section of the report and
should clearly state the following factors:
(a) Who the report is being prepared for, for example, the staff welfare
committee
(b) The purpose of the report, for example, to present the current use and
provision of the staff canteen.
(c) Deadlines for preparation of the report, for example, to be presented
at the staff welfare committee meeting on 19th August 2014.
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(iii) Procedure: The steps taken to collect the information contained within the
report should be outlined in this section. This is where information sources
are referenced. The steps should be numbered and set out in a logical
order.
(iv) Findings: The findings section of the report should contain a summary of
the information that you found out as a result of your procedure. More
detailed information may be included in appendices. In this section of the
report the facts and figures that have been collected should be listed. Any
interpretation of the information should be included in the conclusions.
The findings may be listed in numbered format, and these numbers should
reflect the sections listed in the procedure section. Information, facts and
figures can be presented in a variety of ways, and it is important to select
the most appropriate method for the information contained in the findings.
(v) Conclusions: This section of the report contains the conclusions that you
have been able to draw from the information shown in the findings. This is
where you show how you have interpreted the information. You need to
clearly show how you came to your conclusions and that they are based on
the findings.
(vi) Recommendations: The final section should include your
recommendations, and should list the actions that need to be taken as a
result of your conclusions. They should be practical steps that can be
carried out. The recommendations could be that no changes need to be
made or that further investigations should be carried out. Care needs to be
taken to ensure the recommendations fall within the terms of reference of
the report.
(vii) Appendices: The appendices listed in the report should be included. Take
care to number the appendices carefully and to include them all in the
report.
(viii) Bibliography: A list of reference sources used as a basis for preparing the
report should be listed at the end of the report.
(ix) Additional literature: You may also include copies of leaflets and other
literature that you have referenced in the report, for example, price lists or
photocopies of specific information.
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(x) Page numbering: It is of utmost importance that each page of the report
should be numbered. It is also a good practice to include a footer, which
identifies the report. For example: Tata Motors/TMP/August 2014.
When a report is prepared in the prescribed form and is presented according to
an established procedure, it is called a formal report. Formal reports have a
uniform structure and format which is specific to the organisation. Generally formal
reports have the following characteristics:
• Longer than an informal report
• More thorough and often based on a detailed examination of a problem
• Formal in terms of format, structure, language
Formal reports may be:
(i) Statutory reports: These are reports which are prepared as a mandatory
requirement by law. The format of such a report is as prescribed by the
concerned body.
(ii) Non–statutory reports: There is no legal binding for preparation and
submission of these reports but these are asked for by the management to
facilitate the various managerial functions.
Report Preparation
A report should be drafted keeping in mind the following points:
(i) Purpose of the report
(ii) Time within which it is to be submitted
(iii) Level of authority for which it is intended
The procedure for report writing includes the following steps:
(i) Determine the purpose of the report.
(ii) Identify the audience who will be reading the report: Collect information
regarding their expertise, hierarchial positions, educational background, etc.
(iii) Collect the data necessary to prepare the report.
(iv) Identify and classify the data.
(v) Outline the report.
(vi) Prepare the final report.
(vii) Present the report.
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Structure of a report
A report consists of the following parts:
(i) Title page- may include all or some of these subject, author, date of
completion, file reference, confidentiality
(ii) Table of Contents
(iii) Acknowledgements
(iv) Executive Summary (sometimes called ‘Abstract’ or ‘Synopsis’ if the
report is academic in nature)
(v) Body of the report
(a) Introduction
(b) Procedures/method
(c) Analysis & Findings
(d) Conclusion
(e) Recommendations
(vi) Appendices
(vii) Bibliography
Executive Summary
• Very important part of a report
• Extends from a paragraph to two pages in length
• Should include a bit of all components of the report
• No one particular part of the report should dominate
• Written after the entire report is complete
• Gives a gist/summary of what is there in the report
• Is an independent document and may be circulated to people who do not
have the time to read the entire document
• Should not be a cut and past activity from the main report
• It should be written afresh
• It should also be very accurate as decisions might be taken based on just
the executive summary
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Body of the report

The various parts of the body of the report are discussed briefly:
Introduction
• Gives a brief background to the report.
Procedures/Method
• Outlines how the data was collected, observations, etc.
Analysis & Findings
• The major findings after the analysis of data is presented in an organized,
logical and objective form.
Conclusion
• It states what the findings have shown objectively. It is different from an
executive summary and should not be confused with it. They are generally
written in the past tense.
Recommendations
• Should logically flow from the conclusion.
• Generally expressed in future tense.
• Outlines direct possible course of action.
• No explanation of action is required in the recommendation.
Appendices
• All supportive materials and documents—questionnaire, detailed data,
news-clipping, etc., are presented in this part of the report.
Bibliography
• List of references used in the preparation of the report including citations of
all websites, books articles
• Consistency should be maintained while citing references
• Listed alphabetically by author’s last name
• Various formats are available for bibliographies
Oral Presentation
A presentation may be defined as a technique of formal communication that involves
speaking in front of a group of people or presenting a topic in public. Whenever you
are asked to appear in front of one or more people for the purpose of explaining,
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educating, convincing or simply conveying information to them, you are, in fact,

being asked to conduct a presentation.
Preparing an oral presentation is similar to writing a formal report but with a few
differences.
• Oral presentations involve more interaction with the audience.
• Oral presentations can be supported with non-verbal cues to increase
meaning and understanding.
• Oral presentations give you an opportunity to adjust your technique, that is,
the content and delivery of the message can be modified as you go along to
create better impact on the audience.
• Since, oral presentations involve listening and humans have a limited time
span of attention, there is a need to use techniques to prevent the audience
from losing interest.
Presentations can be made in classrooms, seminars, meetings, conferences or to
simply a group of persons on some scheduled topic. The presentation is now
emerging as a popular means of interactive communication with an objective of
presenting relevant information to the interested target audience.
Factors Affecting Presentation

It is very important to know how to give effective presentations in today’s business
world. A great idea if not presented properly will not be well-received by the
intended audience. Some factors which affect the effectiveness of a presentation are
as follows:
• Communication environment: The location where the presentation is
going to take place should support the presenter and enhance the
presentation’s impact. Things like stage, sound and light arrangement,
background, seating arrangement etc affect the effectiveness of a
presentation. The audience should be able to listen properly and there
should be no surrounding noise or activity to distract the audience.
• Personal appearance : Presenter should be dressed appropriately, have
a good posture, be clean and well groomed, posses a sure walk and use
facial expressions and gestures during the presentation.
• Body language: A positive body language makes an impact on the
audience. The speaker who maintains eye contact with the audience is
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considered confident, well informed, and friendly. Making eye contact with
the audiences helps create a rapport and make the audience think that the
speaker is actually talking to them.
• Voice quality: A good voice is a requirement for a good speaker. Voice
modulation is likely to have a greater impact rather than a monotonous
voice.
• Audience analysis: It is important to know your audience and know their
characteristics like age, size, gender, knowledge, level of understanding etc.
Insufficient audience analysis might lead to ineffective presentation.
• Visuals: Use of visuals aids add to the professional image of the
presentation. There are different visual techniques available and the speaker
should use the most appropriate to this presentation and test it in advance
for any faults.
• Introduction and closing of presentation: An interesting opening creates
interest in the listeners while a poor opening will leave the audience
inattentive and bored. Similarly, the ending should be impactful. The
beginnings and endings of a presentation hold maximum impact so should
be prepared accordingly.
• Organization of presentation: Presentation should be organised clearly
to be most effective. Any of the following patterns could be used to
organise the contents:
(i) Chronological: It starts with the past, moves to the present and ends
by looking ahead.
(ii) Problem-Causes-Solution: It explains the symptoms of the problem,
identifies its causes and suggests the remedial measures.
(iii) Excluding alternatives: It shows the symptoms of the problem,
suggests possible solutions, explains the reasons why these don’t
work and ends the discussion with a solution that will work.
(iv) Pros-cons: It explains the advantages and disadvantages of
problem(s).
(v) 1-2-3: It discusses three aspects of a topic: introduction, body and
conclusion.
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• Language and words: The language used by the speaker should be

understood by the audience. Also, the presenter should use simple and
catchy words which grab the audience’s attention and have maximum
impact.
• Answering questions: Last but not the least, it is very important to give a
chance to the audience to ask any questions at the end of the presentation.
The speaker should be skilful in handling questions.
Sales Presentation
A sales presentation is an event at which a company representative meets with
clients to demonstrate the company’s products and services, with the goal of making
a sale. Sales presentations are an important part of the marketing process, as they
allow company representatives to meet directly with their customers, creating a
personalized and individual sales approach. There are a number of different styles
and formats for sales presentations, depending on the industry and the product being
sold.
In some cases, a sales presentation takes place at the customer’s business, as
when a pharmaceutical representative visits a doctor’s office to discuss a new line of
medications. Sales presentations can also be held in hotels and conference centers,
in which case they are usually designed for a crowd, rather than a single client.
Clients can also travel to a company for a sales presentation, a method which is
sometimes used when products are bulky. Airline representatives, for example, may
travel to an aerospace company to inspect a new aircraft. Online sales presentations
are also popular in some industries.
During a sales presentation, the company representative provides information
about what the company is selling. He or she creates a pitch which is tailored to the
customer and designed to draw the customer in, promoting the company’s
reputation and product and showing customers how the company’s product will suit
their needs. The representative also answers questions during the sales presentation,
often using questions as marketing opportunities.
Classically, sales presentations include giveaways. Gifts are used by companies
to make sure that they stay in their minds of their clients, as every time the client sees
or uses the gift, he or she will think of the company. Product giveaways can include
things like pens, mugs, and free samples, along with more elaborate giveaways, like
weekends at resorts, free trips on aircraft, and so forth. In the case of a sales
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presentation which is designed to land a major contract or deal, the company may
be quite lavish.
Visual aids are also used during a sales presentation, including physical models,
product samples, and slideshows such as PowerPoint presentations. Commonly,
people are invited to take product literature and information with them so that they
can read up about the product after the sales presentation. They are also invited to
take order forms and contact information for sales representatives so that they can
place orders. A skilled sales representative can land a sale at a sales presentation,
closing the deal before he or she even leaves the building.
Once you get an opportunity to make a sales presentation it is very important to
make it a success. You should create a rapport with the client and project
confidence. Some steps which can help you make a successful sales presentation
are:
Before the Presentation

• Research and know about the customers: You should know your
customer’s businesses as well as you know your own product, its trends,
problems and competitors. This helps to tailor the sales pitch to fit the
customer’s need. Internet, company’s reports, brochures, trade
publications can help you know the potential client.
• Design and write the sales presentation: The presentation should best
fit the needs of the prospective client. The presentation should be structure
around 5 main points - building rapport, introducing the topic, asking
questions, summarize the key selling points and close the sale.
• Contact the right person: While making the sales presentation its
necessary to engage the person who can make the buying decision.
During the Presentation

• Build rapport and develop relationship: Before starting with the actual
presentation try to build a rapport with the prospect.
• Ask questions: Ask questions to the customer to get a better
understanding of his business requirement, his purchase intent and the
decision-making process.
• Record notes: Check with the prospect if he is fine with you taking notes
and then write down the key points which can be referred later.
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• Listen: Good listening skills are very important to make a successful sales
presentation.
• Tell about your company and the product: You should give a brief
background of your company and the product you are selling. You need to
tell the client how the product suits his needs and result in profits for his
company. If needed use visual aids to use the product and give examples
for better understanding.
• Deal with objections: If the prospective clients raise some objections, do
not jump in with a response. Instead show concern, try to understand more
about his objections and work towards a solution. Even if you do not have
an answer to his questions, tell them that you will find the answer and get
back to them. Make sure you get back to them. Some ways you can
isolate the objections are: Offer a choice, Get to the heart of the
matter, Work toward a solution.
• Close the sale: You should close your presentation by thanking the client
for his time and asking them to call or email you at their convenience. As a
different approach you can also lead the client to a decision and ask them
about the order in a non-threatening way.
Training Presentation
A training presentation is a presentation whose goal is to inform, teach and train the
audience. The primary purpose of a training presentation is informative. It also aims
at pushing the employees to follow the procedures and processes prescribed by the
organization. Trainings can also be given to employees to help them use a new
product or application or train them on a process. Some of the main steps involved
in a training presentation are:
1. Decide the objective: The purpose of the training presentation should be
clear and the presenter should be focused on that.
2. Study the audience: Training presentations usually are for a certain type of
group with the same background, age range, interest, knowledge and level
of understanding. But even though the group is homogeneous it is important
to know your audience.
3. Start to prepare for the presentation: Once you have analyzed your
audience and decided on the goal of the presentation, you can work on
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preparing for the presentation. Start collection of information and do

research for the presentation.
4. Draft the presentation: After all the material is collected it is drafted in a
systematic way. The material can be divided in various sections to maintain
a smooth flow of information. Each presentation should have an
introduction, the middle and the end. Also consideration should be given
that the presentation finishes in the allotted time frame.
5. Choose visual aids: To make the presentation more interesting and vivid,
the use of visual aids like, projectors, diagrams, tables etc is very effective.
Several questions which are needed to be asked to execute a training
presentation are:
Who will be the trainee?

Depending on the training program, it is important to choose the trainees. Trainees
might be of the new hires or it might be an existing personal for continuing training.
Some of the criteria’s used for selecting the trainees might be as a reward or
punishment for performance, availability of trainer and trainee, seniority of the staff,
etc.
Who will be the trainer?

It again depends on the type of training planned. For an initial sales training, it might
be an internal manager or executive. Sometimes external experts are also hired to
conduct training programs, etc.
Where will the training be done?

Training can be centralized or de-centralized. In centralized training, the trainees are
brought at a central location as it provided better training but it involves higher costs.
Usually large companies do decentralized trainings where they can take new people
near the actual territories.
What instruction material would be used?

Training programs with different goals, contents use different types of instructional
materials and training aids. Some of the common types used are training manuals and
workbooks, printed handouts, training aids like blackboards, assignments, etc.
Irrespective of the type of the audience, if you want the presentation to be
effective, it should be engaging and interesting. The presenter should be confident on
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the subject he is presenting and know it thoroughly. It is important that the

information presented is corrected and researched carefully. Some clear objectives
of the presentation should be specified at the start to give some direction to the
audience and be aware of what they can expect to learn from it. You can also start
with an outline of the presentation. Also, plan some time for the questions that might
be asked during or after the presentation. Visual aids are a vital part of the
presentation as learners respond better to audio-visual mode. However it should be
taken care that the visual aids used complement your presentation and help in
presenting your topic in a better way, it should not distract the audience.
At all times the presenter should be ready to react and adapt to his audience
reactions. Interacting with the audience during the presentations gives an idea of their
understanding .You should try and anticipate the questions which may be asked and
have your answers prepared. Training presentations are an effective tool in providing
a realistic experience of what has been learnt and have fruitful discussions among the
team.
1. How are formal reports classified?

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................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
2. Enlist the three types of reports.

................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
3. What is a training presentation?

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16.3 NOTICE AND ITS TYPES
As the name suggests, notices are written messages which are meant to be noticed
by a number of people. Generally, notices are categorized as tools of internal
communication, i.e., they are used for communication within the organization.
However, this need not always be the case. Notices are also used for external
communication and such notices may take the form of Public Notices, Auction
Notices, Tender Notices, etc. The one feature which all notices have in common is
that they reach out to a number of people for whom they are meant.
Notices for Internal Office Communication

Notices are widely used in offices to disseminate information. Mostly, they are used
for downward communication. Notices are generally pinned on a notice board or a
wall and are a popular way of effectively reaching out to the persons for whom they
are meant. Notices follow more or less a standardized format, though the format
may vary slightly from organization to organization. While drafting notices, one needs
to be very careful. Persuasivenes and tactfulness ensure that they are acted upon
and add to their effectiveness. Notices need to be precise, clear, polite and simple.
They need to adopt a requesting tone rather than a commanding or threatening one.
Notices are mostly signed by the concerned person .
A sample notice is given below:
XYZ Engineering Works
Ghaziabad
NOTICE
This is to inform that a lecture is being organized at the company auditorium
at 2: 00 pm on June 26, 2016. The topic of the lecture is ‘Effective Time Management’
and the speaker is Prof SK Murthy from IIM Lucknow. All are requested to be seated
by 1:55 pm. The lecture will be followed by refreshments.
KM Shah
June 25, 2016
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Notices for External Communication

Public notices, notices to invite tenders and bids, auction notices, etc., are notices
which are used to communicate with people and groups outside the organization.
These notices are a regular feature in all newspapers.
A public notice is an important announcement giving information to the public. It
should essentially possess the following characteristics:
(i) The writing style should be such that it catches attention.
(ii) It should contain complete information covering all aspects.
(iii) The language should be clear and precise.
(iv) It should have a suitable heading indicating the subject matter.
In his book, Business Communication, KK Sinha has summarized the key
points to be considered while drafting tender, bid or auction notices. Tender notices
are invitations to contractors giving details of construction or engineering works to
be done and asking interested parties to submit estimates for the completion of the
works. Invitation for bids ask suppliers to send in estimates for supplying specific
specialized goods or services detailed in the bidding document.
(i) All such notices must clearly state the purpose for which they have been
sent to the press.
(ii) Both active voice and passive voice are used in drafting these notices.
However, as there is no personal involvement, passive voice is more
prominent. It is important to note that the notice speaks for the organization
and not for a person.
(iii) Sometimes the tender notice begins with active voice for example, ‘ONGC
invites sealed tenders……………………’
(iv) All details of the works to be completed, items to be supplied, or the
articles/ materials to be auctioned must be clearly stated.
(v) The terms and conditions of the business requirements of the organization,
and eligibility requirements of the applicants must be clearly laid down in
the notice.
(vi) As far as possible the notice must be brief. Nothing important should
however be left out.
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Sample Public Notice for grant of environmental clearance to Western

Coalfields Limited for its expansion programme
Western Coalfields Ltd
(A subsidiary of Coal India Limited)
NOTICE
Sub: Environmental Clearance for the expansion of Durgapur Rayatwari
Underground Coal mine Project (increase in production from 0.30 MTPA to 0.92
MTPA )of Western Coalfields Limited located in Village, Tahsil & District Chandrapur
(Maharashtra)
The Ministry of Environment and Forests has accorded Environmental
Clearance for the expansion of the Durgapur Rayatwari Underground Coal mine
Project (increase in production from 0.30 MTPA to 0.92 MTPA & increase in lease
area from 529.29 ha to 779.29 ha) of Chandrapur Area of Western Coalfields Limited.
Copy of clearance letter is available with the Maharashtra Pollution Control Board
and may also be seen at the website of the Ministry of Environment and Forests at
http://envfor.nic.in.
Sample Tender Notice
Bharat Sanchar Nigam Limited

(A Govt of India Enterprise)
Office of the General Manager Telecom
Wardha –442 006
TENDER NOTICE
Sealed tenders are invited by the General Manager Telecom, Wardha , on
behalf of Bharat Sanchar Nigam Limited , for Cleaning and Upkeep of the departmental
telephone exchange/ administrative office building and premises in Wardha Telecom
district. Last date of issue of tender form: upto 1400h of 16.7.2007. For further details,
kindly visit our website www.mahatastra .bsnl.co.in or contact on telephone number
07212-253131.
A.G.M. (Administration and Planning), G.M.T. ,Wardha
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1. Mention the two characteristics of a public notice.

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................................................................................................................
2. Give examples for external communication.

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16.4 RESOLUTION/OFFER
Proposal, also known as an offer, constitutes a regular feature in the context of

business. In the market place, in business organizations, varied offers are put up
from one party to the other or from one authority to the other for their consideration.
Generally, offers are put up for the consideration of the appropriate party or
authority. An offer is a proposal to do something or a request for some sanction or
permission. Proposals are of a wide variety such as credit sanction proposal, new
premises proposal, new office proposal, staff allocation proposal, sales proposal
and project proposal. Any proposal in the business context seeks allocation of
resources. These resources may be funds, men and material, office space, vehicles
and so on. A proposal while seeking the allocation of resources should substantiate
the need and make out a case.
Once a topic is selected and finalized, appropriate research needs to be
conducted in order to gather ample information. Once research is completed and
facts are collected, the writing process can begin. Proposal/offer writing may be
accomplished by following these steps:
• Prewriting: Analysing your audience, determining your purpose in writing,
limiting the scope of what you will cover, and generating potential content.
• Writing/Drafting: Making a case and structuring your evidence for that
case.
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• Revising: Putting yourself in the place of the reader, rethinking your

approach, and making changes that will improve your case.
• Polishing: Editing and proofreading to eliminate errors and improving the
coherence and readability of your presentation.
A project proposal, as the name indicates, is a proposal for undertaking a
project. Since any proposal is a kind of persuasion, a project proposal puts forth
clearly the nature of and need for undertaking the project. A project could be a plan,
a task, a turn key job, an assignment or a research study. A project proposal may be
internal or external. It may be submitted by a department within an organization to
the sanctioning authority or senior management. Externally, it may relate from one
business organization to the other, which has a need for that facility. Preparation of a
project report requires substantial skills.
A typical project may involve the following:
• Technical feasibility: To decide whether in terms of technical aspects, the
project is doable. If so, then details of availability, expertise, time frame,
quality and level of sophistication should be worked on.
• Economic viability: To decide whether the project has merits in terms of
demand and supply, resources to be put to use, environmental and seasonal
factors and so on.
• Financial strength: To decide what kinds of funds the project requires,
both short-term and long-term, how the funds can be raised, cost-benefit
analysis of the proposal and so forth.
Some examples of projects would be a residential school project, a poultry
development proposal, an irrigation or power project, a travel agency proposal and
so on. It could be small or large, a new activity or an expansion, undertaken
independently or jointly with other agencies. Each has its own implications for
drafting or preparing the project proposal. Each aspect, whether technical or
economic or financial should be properly presented. Cost-benefit details have to be
clearly spelt out. The receiver of the proposal should be in a position to get a total
view of what is proposed, and take an appropriate decision on merits. Sometimes
large proposals are put up to committees and the person submitting the proposal
may be invited to make a presentation and clarify doubts. Technical jargon, if any,
may have to be explained in clear terms.
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It is worth noting that proposals are essentially a form of persuasion. The

proposer has to state clearly the rationale, the merit or the ‘why’ of the proposal. In
other words, the purpose statement has to be very carefully drawn up in respect of
large proposals. In a business context, given intense competition, it is likely that there
are several competitors submitting their proposals for consideration and sanction or
award. Clarity, completeness, forceful presentation, timeliness and a user-friendly
approach have to be essential ingredients for any good project proposal.
Request for Proposal (RFP)

RFP is a method of seeking or inviting proposals. Government organizations, public
sector undertakings and large institutions often resort to RFP to ensure transparency
and competitive bids from competent bidders. While issuing an RFP, the
organization concerned specifically lays down all the relevant details of the
requirements. To make the RFP highly participative, these are publicized in the
newspapers and are given wide publicity.
Let us take the example of a bank issuing an RFP inviting bids from consultants
for undertaking a comprehensive management study. The RFP is a document that
has been drawn up with due care. The RFP serves the purpose of inviting bids from
the interested parties. The RFP documents should necessarily contain the following:
1. A brief description of the party calling for RFP
2. Whether the bids have to be submitted in two parts, viz, technical bid and
price bid
3. Specific eligibility conditions for the bidders
4. Scope of the study or work
5. Selection criteria such as credentials, exposure, prior experience and so on
6. Price schedule, i.e., how the price is to be quoted, whether in Indian
rupees, escalation clauses, taxes and so on
7. Commercial terms and conditions such as terms of payment, documents to
be submitted and so on
8. Validity period and last date
9. Arbitration and applicable laws
10. Cancellation of the contract and compensation
11. Confidentiality obligations
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Those responding to the RFP should scrupulously follow these requirements and
submit their complete proposals.
Sample for Proposal/offer Writing

Orchard Middle School
387 Pine Hill Road Orchard, VT 02331
703-555-1212
October 6, 2002
ABC Foundation
13 Hill Street
Boston, MA 02116
RE: Read to Succeed! Project
The Orchard Middle School in Orchard, Vermont is seeking a grant to
provide help at risk students improve their reading skills. These at-risk
students are currently reading at two or more grade levels behind their
peers. The objective of the Read to Succeed! programme is to help at risk
students improve their reading speed, comprehension, and reading attention
span to the point where they are reading at grade level. Funding in the
amount of $16,504 is requested to implement this program and for the
purchase assistive reading software and hardware for the school’s resource
room.
Orchard Middle School has 276 students. Of those 276 students, 59 have
been determined to be at risk in their reading skills for a variety of reasons
including learning disabilities, such as dyslexia and attention deficit disorder
(ADD), or other economic and language based difficulties. Additionally,
Orchard Middle School is eligible for Title 1 funds and if these students are
not given an opportunity to improve their reading skills, they are at greater
risk of falling further behind their classroom making truancy and dropping
out of school more likely.
The Read to Succeed! project will provide students with access to five
computers equipped with scanners and assistive reading software. Students
will be able to see their text books and classroom materials on-screen with
words and text highlighted, as it is read to them in a human-like voice.
Included in the Read to Succeed! project will be a day of training for the
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Special Education Specialist and the classroom teachers on the features and
use of Kurzweil 3000 software.
The goal of the Read to Succeed! project is to enable students with learning
and reading disabilities to improve their reading skills to the point where they
can succeed in school and develop the reading skills that will prepare them
for high school and post secondary education. The budget includes funds for
a Lab Pack containing five copies of Kurzweil Educational System’s Scan/
Read Color software and five computers and scanners. This will enable five
independent assistive reading workstations. This will give students the
greatest flexibility in using their textbooks and other classroom materials. The
Kurzweil 3000 is a research-based assistive reading program developed
with guidance from leading reading experts. Standardized reading tests will
be conducted at the beginning of the Read to Succeed! programme to
determine reading speeds and comprehension and again at the completion of
the school year to determine the level of improvements. Additionally, those
students with ADD will be tested for increased reading attention spans.
We appreciate ABC Foundation taking an interest helping Orchard Middle
School implement a program that will help our students succeed! Please give
me a call at 703-555-1212 x342 if you require any further information.
Respectfully submitted,
Jennifer Hazelton
Special Education Coordinator
(Source: http://www.kurzweiledu.com/files/proof_resources_grant1.pdf)
1. List the steps to be followed in writing an offer/proposal.

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2. State the objective of using Request for Proposal (RFP).

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16.5 REPORTS AND THEIR TYPES
Reports can be in both oral and written forms, though written reports are preferred.
Written reports have the following advantages over oral reports.
In this section, we will be dealing with written reports. Reports can range from
one page to those running into several volumes. In all cases reports should be clear,
concise and objective in their tone as decisions are based on them.
Advantages of Written Reports
Oral Reports Written Reports
• Oral reports can be denied at any • Written reports can be referred to

time. again and again which is not the
case with oral reports.
• Oral reports tend to be vague as • Written reports can be transferred

compared to written reports. from person to person without the
risk of distortion.
We will classify reports into the following types:

• Informational reports and analytical reports
• Routine or periodic reports and Special reports
• Informal and Formal reports
Informational reports and analytical reports

Informational reports only contain information in the form of facts and data. They do
not contain any analysis or suggestions based on the information presented.
On the other hand, Analytical reports contain both facts as well as analysis of
facts and conclusions. Recommendations/ Suggestions based on the analysis may
also be included in such a report.
Routine or periodic reports and Special reports

Routine reports are submitted to the management at regular intervals by individuals,
sections, departments, etc., to help the management control administration
effectively. These are the most common type of business reports. These may be
submitted on a daily, weekly, quarterly, monthly basis. These are generally meant for
internal consumption by the organisation and are not public documents. The length of
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these reports may vary from a single page to about ten pages. These include
budgets, monthly accounts, cost reports, production reports, etc.
Special reports are prepared to deal with problems or issues specifically developed.
They are specifically asked for by the concerned authority and are custom prepared
to suit the particular purpose.
Informal and Formal reports

Informal reports do not follow any fixed form or procedure for submission. They are
prepared according to the convenience and requirement of the organisation. The
term ‘informal reports’ does not mean the style and language of the report is
informal. It only indicates simplicity in terms of structure or format.
The following are some of the forms these reports may take:
(i) Short reports: These reports are presented in a simple letter format. They
are less than five pages in length. The presentation style of such reports is
kept simple and facts are reported.
(ii) Progress reports: These reports contain information regarding the progress
of a particular work or project.
(iii) Staff reports: These reports are prepared to resolve particular staff
problems.
(iv) Justification report: These reports are used to justify a particular
recommendation or a course of action.
When a report is prepared in the prescribed form and is presented according to an
established procedure, it is called a formal report. Formal reports have a uniform
structure and format which is specific to the organisation. Generally formal reports
have the following characteristics:
• Longer than an informal report
• More thorough and often based on a detailed examination of a problem
• Formal in terms of format, structure and language
Formal reports may be:
(i) Statutory reports: These are reports which are prepared as a mandatory
requirement by law. The format of such a report is as prescribed by the
concerned body.
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(ii) Non-statutory reports: There is no legal binding for preparation and

submission of these reports but these are asked for by the management to
facilitate the various managerial functions.
1. What is the difference between oral and written reports?

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2. What are special reports?

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16.6 REPORT WRITING
Reports are an integral part of an organizational activity. Managers are constantly

required to submit reports to supervisors and executives to enable them to take
informed decisions change policies, etc. Reports are a good way for the
management to get a constant and reliable source of information. A report may be
defined as a form of systematic presentation of information relating to an event,
progress of action or some activity. Reports present facts for the interested reader.
More specifically, business reports may be defined as an orderly and objective
communication of factual information that serves a business purpose.
The characteristics of business reports can be briefly summarized as follows:
• Generally submitted to a higher authority
• Communicated upwards in an organization
• Logically organized
• Objective in tone
• For a limited audience
• Both short and long
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Purpose of business reports

A report carries information from someone who has it to someone who needs it. It
is a basic management tool used in decision making. Reports may be used to
provide information (information reports), analyse information and give suggestions
(analytical reports), request for action or give recommendations to initiate action.
Thus, in a business context reports serve the following purposes:
• Reports give factual information to the management.
• Reports record facts and results of investigations or surveys for future
reference.
• Reports are useful tools for providing shareholders, customers, creditors
and general public with useful information.
• Based on detailed investigations, reports give recommendations which can
be used in future.
Importance of reports
The following are the importance of reports.
1. Conveyor of information: Reports serve as conveyors of information.
They provide necessary information to various parties who need it.
2. Review and evaluate operations: Reports help management to review
and evaluate operations continuously. They help in coordinating the
activities of the different departments.
3. Decision making: A report aims at providing correct , objective and
suitable information to persons who require it so that correct decisions can
be taken at his end.
4. Better coordination: Reports aim to promote common understanding of
information between different groups in the organisation, thus ensuring
better coordination.
5. Tools for measuring performance: Reports are useful tools for
measuring departmental performance. The operational data from various
departments helps management to assess performance of each department.
6. Help in making desirable changes: Reports help in making and
implementing desirable changes to business policies.
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Essentials of a good business report

For a business report to serve effectively the purpose for which it is intended, it is
essential that it possess certain essentials. Following are some of the characteristics
of a good business report:
(i) Accuracy: The information presented in a report should be as accurate as
possible, because on it are based several important decisions and actions.
While preparing reports make sure to double check figures to ensure
accuracy.
(ii) Clarity: Business reports should be clear and completely understandable.
The paragraphs should be logically presented with suitable headings.
(iii) Consistency: The report should be consistent with the main theme and
should not deviate. It should serve the purpose for which it is meant.
Irrelevant information should not be included. At the same time useful
information should not be left out while preparing the report.
(iv) Objectivity: Objectivity involves freedom from personal prejudices. There
should be objectivity in observation, collection of related facts and writing
the report.
(v) Completeness: The report should be complete in all respects and free from
ambiguity.
(vi) Brevity: Time is precious both for the writer of the report and the reader.
Therefore reports should not be too lengthy. They need to be brief and to
the point, excluding all irrelevant details.
(vii) Simplicity: Reports are not a test of your command over literary aspects of
language. A report should be simple and easily understandable and free
from too much of jargon.
(viii) Appearance: The arrangement, organisation, format and layout of a report
should be pleasing and eyecatching as far as possible. It should be
grammatically correct and free from typographical errors.
(ix) Reliability: A report should be reliable. Objectivity and accuracy of
information contribute towards the reliability of a report.
(x) Timeliness: To be useful and purposeful a report should reach the reader
well in time, otherwise it is of no use.
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1. What are the characteristics of business reports?

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2. What are the essentials of a good business report?

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16.7 AGENDA AND MINUTES
An agenda is a list of matters to be discussed in a particular meeting. It is a written

official document that indicates the nature of business to be conducted at a meeting.
It is drafted by the Secretary in consultation with the Chairperson. It gives
participants the time to prepare for the meeting. It is a device to structure meetings.
Along with the items to be discussed, an agenda also distributes time allotted to each
item which takes the form of a bell curve. Time allocation is critical for the
effectiveness of meetings as it familiarizes members taking part in the meeting with the
status and priority of each item of the agenda and categorizes the items into those for
discussion, those for information and those for decision.
Categorization of items on an agenda into seven:
• Minutes of previous meeting 10 minutes
• Announcements 15 minutes
• Decision (easy) 15 minutes
• Decisions (moderately difficult) 15 minutes
• Decisions (difficult) 25-40 minutes
• Discussion (complicated issues) 15-30 minutes
• Discussion (simple issues) 10 minutes
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This categorization of the items and time allocation structures the meeting into a
warming up session, intense decision making session beginning with the easier ones
and gradually advancing to more difficult decisions, and slowly tapers off with
discussions on difficult issues followed by discussions on easier issues. The result is
a meeting that helps attending members to slowly get involved in interpersonal
exchanges, leaves space for decisions to be reached first by consent and then by
presenting varied views for conflicting opinions to be aired regarding complicated
issues, and finally for the intensely charged environment to return to a more stable
one with discussions on simpler issues.
An agenda can be enclosed as part of a notice or can be sent in separately. The
objective of writing an agenda is to familiarize attendees with the matter to be
discussed and to give them adequate time for preparation. It also indicates the
outcome they can expect from the meeting.
An agenda ensures that all attendees are aware of the points of discussion and
that they get the time to come prepared. As such they are important for the
effectiveness and time management of meetings. In addition, they bring clarity and
direction to discussions and provide a structure to it.
Meetings
Meetings are vital for management and communication. The planning and running of
effective meetings for business, sales, strategic planning and team-building are crucial
for effective functioning of organizations. Properly planned and conducted meetings
help save time, increase motivation and productivity, solve problems and create new
ideas. There is no substitute for physical face-to-face meetings.
What is a Meeting?
Meeting is a term to describe the process of people getting together to talk and
share their knowledge, opinions, experiences, views and suggestions. Meetings may
be of many kinds and may serve many purposes, but some characteristics common
to all meetings are as follows:
• All meetings have a definite purpose
• Interaction has to take place between the members attending the meeting
• Certain rules have to be observed during meetings
• Generally a chairperson is in control of the proceedings of a meetings
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Objectives of a Meeting
Meetings need to be held for a definite purpose. Meetings without a purpose are a
waste of time and resources. Only if absolutely necessary should a meeting be held.
The broad objectives for which meetings may be held are as follows:
• To obtain information
• To provide information
• To solve a problem
• To persuade or sell an idea
Meetings may also be held to serve a combination of the above purposes.
To obtain information
The aim of such a meeting is to obtain facts, figures, opinions and viewpoints from
those attending the meeting. This information is important to take decisions, and to
plan or to complete tasks. Meetings to discuss how to improve sales or to assess the
progress of a newly launched product are examples of a meeting held to obtain
information.
The chairperson needs to stimulate members to readily voice their opinions. He
should be a good listener and encourage the members to speak. He should create an
atmosphere wherein the participants willingly cooperate and contribute information
and do not do so out of fear or coercion.
To provide information
Here, the aim is to convey facts, figures and viewpoints to the members attending the
meeting. The purpose is to disseminate information. A meeting held to brief the
members of a new policy or procedure is an example of such a meeting.
The chairperson has an important role to play as a speaker. He is required to
provide participants with clarifications in case they need any. The participants in this
case primarily need to listen; but they have to be active listeners voicing their doubts
and seeking clarifications if need be.
To solve a problem
This type of meeting is held to arrive at a solution to a problem being faced by the
organization, department or section. A meeting held to find measures to boost up the
declining sales of a product is an example of a meeting held to find solutions to a
problem.
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The chairperson has to ensure that a viable practical solution is arrived at by the
active contribution of all the members attending the meeting. A chairperson with
considerable experience and expertise in a related area will be suitable for
conducting such a meeting.
To persuade or sell an idea

This kind of meeting is held to convince the participants that a particular idea or
course of action has to be accepted. The aim is to make the participants believe in
the suitability of the idea/decision. A meeting held by the sales department with select
customers to launch and advertise a new product is an example of such a meeting.
Here, the chairperson should have the ability to sell. He should have a well-
developed persuasive ability and should sound convincing.
Conducting Meetings
A badly held meeting is a waste of time, money and resources and is worse than
having no meeting at all. When you run a meeting, you are making demands on
people’s time and attention. The need to run effective meetings is more intense than
ever in modern times, given the ever-increasing pressure on people’s time. New
technology—such as telephone conferencing and video conferencing—provides
several alternatives to the conventional face-to-face meeting around a table.
Whatever are the reasons for the meeting, it is important to conduct and manage the
meeting well so that it is a positive and helpful experience for all who attend it.
Planning a Meeting
Planning is the key to effective meetings. One needs to plan the various aspects of
the meeting so that maximum benefits may be derived from the meeting. The
following are the issues which need to be considered while planning:
• Purpose
• Size
• Timing
• Location
• Layout
• Visual aids
Purpose of the meeting

All meetings need to have a purpose. The various objectives for which meetings can
be held have already been discussed earlier. The objectives of the meeting should be:
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• Clearly expressed
• Known to all the members attending the meeting
• Kept in mind during the course of the meeting
At the end of the meeting, you need to ascertain the extent to which the purpose
of the meeting has been achieved.
Size of the meeting

The effectiveness of a meeting is, to a large extent, dependent on the size of the
meeting. The number of members should not be too many or too few. A meeting of
about ten–twelve members is big or small enough to provide considerable
opportunity for the members to interact with each other. Also, each member gets
more or less an equal opportunity to talk and contribute to the deliberations.
In a meeting with a greater number of members, the chairperson does most of
the talking and the other participants generally listen. Occasionally, some of the
participants may voice their opinions, provide feedback or seek clarification. A
meeting with a large number of participants is suitable when the purpose is merely to
disseminate information.
To have an optimal size of the meeting, it is essential to ensure that only those
members are asked to attend who can contribute effectively to the meeting. The
participants can be decided on the basis of their relevant experience/knowledge and
awareness. Sometimes, participants are decided by virtue of the position they hold.
Timing of the meeting

There are three aspects related to the timing of the meeting. The first is the choice of
the date and the time of the day when the meeting will be held, the second is the
duration of the meeting and the third is the time allocated to the individual items.
• Date and time of the day: The date on which the meeting is to be
scheduled is, in most of the cases, decided based on the convenience of
those attending the meeting or the urgency of the issue to be discussed. In
the case of routine meetings, the date of the meeting may be fixed. For
example, a meeting to evaluate the sales progress may be held on the fifth
of every month.
As regards the time slot for the meeting, if you have a choice to select a
time slot for the meeting, you should consider a time when people are
energetic, receptive and fresh enough to effectively deal with dynamic
issues which need a decision to be made. However, in most cases, the
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meeting has to be scheduled at a time which is convenient to all the

members depending on their availability.
As far as possible, you must try to avoid slotting meetings immediately after
lunch when people are generally dull and sluggish. Similarly, it is better to
avoid end-of-the-day meetings when participants may be impatient to
reach home.
• Duration of the meeting: The duration of the meeting is dependent upon
the number of issues to be discussed, the complexity of the issues and the
competency of the members to deal with the issues.
If for any reason the duration of the meeting has already been fixed, then
you can limit the number of items on the agenda of the meeting or reduce
the time allowed for discussing each issue.
• Timing of the items: It is important to decide in advance the amount of
time to be allotted to each item. This ensures the timely completion of the
meeting. The sequence in which various issues are to be covered is also
important. Some points which need to be considered while drawing the
sequence of items to be discussed and the time allotted to them are as
follows:
o Take up urgent items first followed by the less urgent items because if
need be the less urgent matters can be postponed to another meeting.
o Challenging issues which require active contribution from members
should be dealt with first when the members are fresh.
o Items that are likely to create more discussion and about which
opinions of members are divided, should be dealt with first before
items that are likely to generate consensus. This is psychologically
beneficial as the meeting will be concluded on a consensual note rather
than with differences.
Location of the meeting

Deciding where the meeting is to be held is another prime consideration. Most
organizations have conference rooms of adequate size to cater to the internal
meetings of the organization. However, some issues that influence the choice of the
location include the following:
• The size of the room should be appropriate for the number of people
attending the meeting. It should not be too large or too small.
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• The location should be convenient for the majority of the members to

attend.
• The room should have appropriate physical arrangements such as:
o Lighting should be adequate. If visual aids like OHP projectors are to
be used, lighting should be controllable.
o The room should be neat and clean.
o Plug sockets and facilities for visual aids should be available.
o The room should be well ventilated and the temperature of the room
should be comfortable.
o The seating should be comfortable
o The room should have minimal disturbance from outside.
o Arrangements for water should be there. In case the meeting is likely
to carry on for a long duration, there should be a provision for tea and
refreshments.
Layout of the room
The layout of the room, that is, the seating arrangement is another issue that requires
consideration. Some of the possible layouts are discussed as follows:
• Classroom layout: This type of layout is appropriate when the purpose of
the meeting is to provide information and where the chairman does most of
the talking. This arrangement is not appropriate for proper interaction
amongst members and is, therefore, inappropriate when the meeting calls
for considerable interaction.
Classroom layout
• U-Shaped layout: The basic advantage of this type of layout is that

everyone is visible to everyone else and this facilitates interaction and the
exchange of views among members. In this kind of layout, the chairman can
come to the centre of the ‘U’ to lay stress on a particular point or to
increase his interaction with the other members and decrease the formality
of the meeting.
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U-shaped layout
• Committee layout: This is the traditional type of layout, wherein the

chairperson sits at the head of the table. This arrangement reflects formality.
The secretary or the minutes-taker sits on the left or right side of the
chairperson.
Committee layout
• Round table layout: This arrangement is similar to the committee layout

with the difference being that it suggests less formality. Being seated around
a round table indicates that the chairperson is very much an equal part of
the meeting and is not superior to the other members.
Round table layout
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Visual aids
Many meetings require to be supported with visual aids to serve the purpose for
which they are intended, like a meeting called to give some information. This kind of
meeting may need one to give certain facts and figures, for which visual aids are best
suited. Some of the visual aids that can be used to assist meetings and make them
more effective are discussed as follows:
• Handouts: Handouts contain information in the form of reports,
summaries, tables, graphs, proposals, and so on, which need to be
referred to by the participants of the meeting. The handouts should be brief
and clear and should be of relevance to what is being discussed. Care
should be taken to ensure that the handouts are free from typographical
errors and mistakes.
Handouts can be distributed to the members with the agenda or during the
meeting.
When the handouts are dispatched with the agenda in advance, the
participants get a chance to go through them at leisure and frame their own
points. Handouts distributed during the meeting can at times create
distraction or also lead to spontaneous reactions.
• White board/chalkboard: These also are useful during a meeting
especially if something needs to be explained with the help of a sketch or a
diagram. Sometimes, when points need to be compiled, whiteboards are
useful. They are easily available and do not need any special facility like
electricity, projector or screen. However, their use is limited especially
when a large amount of graphical data or data in the form of complicated
figures needs to be displayed.
• Flip charts: These can be prepared beforehand or can be used to note
down the salient points to be discussed or the suggestions that emerge
during a meeting. Flip charts are easily transportable and are not dependent
on power supply or other equipment. However, they are not of much use if
the number of members in the meeting is large.
• Overhead projector (OHP): An overhead projector (OHP) is used to
project overhead transparencies. These are inexpensive and can be
produced quickly. These are very commonly used and can be pre-
prepared or prepared during the course of the meeting.
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• Computer-generated slides: Computer-generated slides are becoming

one of the most popular forms of visual aids. These require a screen and an
LCD projector connected to a computer. Slides prepared on the computer
are very versatile as it is possible to add colour, sound effects and
animation to the slides.
Drawing the Agenda

The agenda is a list of items which are to be dealt with during the meeting. The
agenda provides a framework for the meeting and ensures that no item is left out.
Agendas may be thought of as a planning and control device for meetings.
An agenda for a meeting communicates important information, such as the topics
for discussion, the presenter or discussion leader for each topic, the sequence in
which the various items will be dealt with and the time allocated for each topic.
An agenda contains the following information:
• Exact place and date
• Time for starting the meeting
• Names of expected attendees
• Objective of the meeting
• Issues to be discussed
• Approximate indication of time for each item
• Any specific preparation required by the members
• Documents containing any information that needs to be provided to the
members, attached with the agenda
Advantages of a good agenda

The advantages of a good agenda are as follows:
• It ensures that all issues are covered and no issue is left out.
• It ensures that a proper sequence is followed.
• It informs the members on what will be dealt with.
• Since members are made aware of what will be discussed in the meeting
they can prepare accordingly and this leads to greater effectiveness of the
meeting and also saves time.
• It provides guidelines for the time allocated for each item and hence
minimizes wastage of time.
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Steps for creating a good agenda

The following are the steps involved in creating a good agenda:
• Send an e-mail stating that there will be a meeting; the goal of the meeting
as well as administrative details should also be shared.
• Ask those invited to accept or decline the meeting. Make it clear that once
they have accepted the meeting, they are expected to attend.
• Ask those participants requesting for an agenda item to be discussed in the
meeting to contact you no less than two days before the meeting with their
request, and to inform you about the amount of time they would require to
present it.
• Once all of the agenda requests have been submitted to you, summarize
them in a table format with the headings—Agenda Item, Presenter and
Time. It is your responsibility to ensure that each agenda item is directly
related to the goals of this particular meeting.
• Send the agenda to all the meeting participants the day before the meeting
with a reminder of the meeting goals, location, time and duration. At this
time, ask the presenters if they are happy with the order in which they will
be speaking and the amount of time they have been allocated.
• The most important part of creating an effective agenda is to follow it during
the meeting.
Agenda guidelines
The guidelines for preparing an agenda are as follows:
• The agenda should not be vague. Each item should be explained clearly
with no scope for ambiguity.
• Clearly specify who is expected to contribute to which item.
• It may be helpful to circulate some additional information with the agenda.
• Put an approximate indication of the time for each item.
• Ensure the items are in a logical sequence.
• ‘Any Other Business’ at the end of the meeting can be avoided if a draft of
the agenda is circulated in advance of the meeting. Ask for any other items
for consideration. Otherwise this creates at times a free-for-all session that
wastes time.
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• Attach labels if possible, such as ‘For information’, ‘For decision’, ‘For

action’ to each of the agenda items.
• Review the items to make sure that not too many items have been
scheduled in too short a time.
Running the Meeting

After planning the various aspects of a meeting and drawing up the agenda, the next
stage lies in actually conducting the meeting. This includes opening the meeting,
starting the discussion, developing the discussion and concluding the meeting.
The chairperson starts the meeting with apologies for his absence followed by
his approval of the minutes of the previous meeting. He should restate the purpose
of the meeting. If the agenda has not been circulated before, then it should be
circulated next. Give members time to go through it. Take up the items on the
agenda one by one. Breaking the ice and setting the ball rolling is the responsibility
of the chairperson. There are several ways of getting the discussion started. The
chairman can start by addressing the meeting and giving views on the item of the
agenda. He can give reference to some source like a policy document or report. The
chairperson can call upon the person responsible for the particular agenda item to
give his points. This is followed by the other members joining in with their
contribution towards the issue being discussed. The chairperson needs to steer the
discussion back on course in case it goes on to irrelevant issues. The chairperson,
from time to time as well as at the end of the discussion on each item, needs to
summarize the discussion.
Conclude the meeting on a positive note. Ensure that there are no more ideas
that are forthcoming and that an acceptable solution has been reached by viewing
the issue from all relevant angles.
A follow-up is essential to ensure that the decisions taken during the meeting are
implemented. The minutes of the meeting take care of this aspect. The minutes also
mention the specific responsibilities assigned by name, making the task of
accountability and follow-up easier.
Basic structure of meetings

The basic structure of a meeting is as follows:
• Use the agenda as a planning tool.
• Circulate the meeting agenda well in advance.
347
• To run the meeting, keep control, take note of the agreed-upon outcomes,
actions and responsibilities, and take notes.
• Write and circulate all notes in the form of minutes, especially those related
to action and accountability.
• Follow up on the actions and responsibilities agreed upon.
Role of the secretary

The secretary too plays an important role in organizing and running the meeting. He
should be well aware of the objectives, rules and procedures of the meeting. The
duties of the secretary include the following:
• Assisting the chairman in fixing the date, time, location and agenda of the
meeting
• Taking notes during the meeting
• Preparing a draft of the minutes of the meeting for the approval of the
chairman
• Despatching meeting notifications, agenda, minutes, and so on
• Making administrative arrangements for the meeting
Role of the members

The members are the prime players in a meeting and their cooperation and
contribution are essential for the effectiveness of the meeting. The members of the
meeting are not merely participants; they too have certain duties. These include:
• Contributing ideas, opinions, views and suggestions based on their
knowledge and experience
• Being well informed about the meeting by studying in detail the agenda,
additional reports or other related matter
• Respecting and following the rules laid down by the chairperson
• Listening actively and attentively
• Cooperating and giving support to fellow members
• Arriving at the meeting punctually
Minutes of the Meeting

The proceedings of the meeting are noted in detail and these are referred to as the
minutes of the meeting. Generally, it is the responsibility of the secretary to take down
notes for preparing the minutes. However, in the absence of the secretary, either the
junior most member or any other member may be requested to take down the notes
348
for the minutes. The minutes are finalized within a day or two of the completion of the
meeting and are circulated to the members for information and action.
There are two kinds of minutes:
• Narrative minutes: These record who said what and when.
• Decision minutes: These record the decisions taken, the names of the
people responsible for implementing them and the deadline for taking
action. Most of the time, decision minutes are written as they provide the
members with clear guidelines regarding who is to do what and by when.
Parts of the minutes document

The standard parts of the minutes document are as follows:
• Location, date and time of the meeting
• Apologies of absence which includes names of people who were expected
to attend but could not attend
• Names of people who attended the meeting
• Decisions taken along with the names of people who have been assigned
responsibility for related action
• Names and signature of person writing minutes
SAMPLE MINUTES OF MEETING

Heading (Title of the meeting)
Date and Time
Venue
Attended by:
Apologies of absence: (names of persons who could not attend but were
expected to attend)
The following were the issues discussed during the meeting
1. Approval of previous meeting minutes
2. Items discussed as per agenda along with the action to be taken,
assignment of responsibility and deadline for completion
3. Any other business (issues not covered under agenda items)
4. Date of next meeting
5. Time at which the meeting finished (normally for formal meetings only)
6. Minutes recored by ………(Name and signature of person who has
written the minutes)
7. Signature of attendees (Optional)
Sometimes, the signatures of all attendees as well as the Chairperson
349
Guidelines for Effective Meetings

For meetings to run smoothly and efficiently and to derive maximum benefit from
them, certain guidelines can prove useful. These include the following:
• Always have a clear purpose otherwise, it is better not to have the meeting
at all.
• Decide the issues that are to be included for dicussion in the meeting and
their relative priority. Depending on their importance and urgency, they are
quite different and need to be treated in different ways.
• Consider the time required for the various items rather than arbitrarily
deciding the length of the meeting. Allocate a realistic time slot for each
item. Keep the timings realistic—usually things take longer than you think.
• Decide the date of the meeting well in advance.
• The key to a successful meeting is keeping control. One can keep control
by sticking to the agenda, managing the relationships and personalities and
concentrating on outcomes.
• As a chairman, politely suppress the overzealous and encourage the
nervous.
• Take notes as you go, recording the salient points and the agreed-upon
actions, with names, measurable outcomes and deadlines.
• Do not be late for the meeting.
• Do not interrupt others when they talk.
• Follow the instructions and requests of the chairperson.
• Take care of your body language. For good body language, you must:
o Sit straight
o Face the speaker
o Look attentive
o Make adequate eye contact with the speaker
o Nod at appropriate junctures
Bad body language is reflected through negative actions such as:
o Sitting outside the group
o Avoiding eye contact
350
o Folding your arms

o Clicking pens
o Shaking legs
o Holding your head in your hands
Need for Recording Minutes

Minutes are required in order to:
• Confirm any decisions made
• Record any agreed actions to be taken
• Record who has been allocated any tasks or responsibilities
• Prompt action from any relevant attendees
• Provide details of the meeting to anyone unable to attend
• Serve as a record of the meeting’s procedure and outcome
After the meeting the minutes should be checked with the chairperson to confirm
accuracy and then circulated to all attendees and anyone else affected by any
decisions taken at the meeting.
Minutes differ in style and details, moving from bullet points on one end of the
spectrum to verbatim record in the courtroom style. In the bulleted style, decisions
and action plans are recorded as a list without reference to explanations or
elaboration of the discussion. This style of recording minutes works for small team
meetings. On the other hand a complete record of what was said or discussed or a
verbatim rendition of the discussion, though time consuming and difficult, works for
meetings that may have legal implications. Business meetings usually settle for a
compromise and produce content minutes with each item on the agenda dealt with in
two separate paragraphs.
• Summary of main points of discussion
• Summary of decisions taken/action agreed on including name of person
responsible for action and the timeframe allotted.
Minutes of meetings are divided into two sections. The first deals with details of
meeting, attendees and absentees, venue and time. The second records the outcome
of the meeting.
351
The Table below details the two sections of minutes writing:

Details of meeting Details of outcomes
1. Names of members present at the 1. Decisions taken
meeting 2. Action initiated with name of
2. Names of members absent from person/s responsible and the
the meeting deadline decided on
3. Venue and time of meeting 3. Summary of discussion
4. Venue and time of next meeting
as decided
Advantages of recording minutes

• The minutes of meetings are legally valid and binding documents that
organizations depend on.
• They record the progress of work, fix responsibility and record completion
deadlines. All this is important information for organizational planning and
decision making.
• Record summaries of discussion.
• In the modern globalized world of business, turnover rates are high. This
poses a problem for those that are inducted into organizations, particularly
at higher levels of the hierarchy. The minutes of past meetings ensure that
the new entrant easily and speedily catches up with the scenario in the
organization as leads the team forward.
• Provide absente members with the gist of discussions and decisions in the
meetings they are unable to attend. This is important to make their
contribution meaningful in subsequent meetings and to cut down on
repetition in discussion.
Sample Format of Meeting Minutes

Name:
Date/Time of Meeting:
Location of Meeting:
Members Present: (list all members that attended meeting)
Members Apologies: (list members that did not attend the meeting)
Guests: (list any guests that attended such as speakers, or any potential new
members)
Reading and Approval of Minutes: (specify date of minutes being approved)
352
Agenda Item #1:

Discussion: (summarize the discussion at the meeting)
Action: (list any action to be taken by whom and by when)
Agenda Item #2:

Agenda Item #3:

Agenda Item #4: Old Business (create separate agenda item for each unfinished
business item)
Agenda Item #5: New Business (create separate agenda item for each new
business item)
Announcements: (list any announcements made)
Future Agenda Items: (list any suggested agenda items that are to be tabled for
the next meeting)
Next Meeting: (list Date/Time/Location of the next meeting)
Minutes Prepared By: (minutes of meetings should be written up and emailed to
all members for review within one week of the meeting. Copies may also be
provided at the next meeting)
Signed
Minute taking is a skilled job because the minute taker has to follow what can be
confusing and inarticulate debates and summarise accurately what was said. A good
minute taker has note taking and summarizing skills as well as the ability to quickly
capture concepts and idea and transform them into concrete words. They are initially
recorded as informal notes describing events and discussions and later formalized
and presented for circulation among attendee and absentee members. As minutes are
endorsed by the Chair, they carry weight and importance.
353
Checklist for Minutes writing

• When was the meeting?
• Who attended?
• Who did not attend? (Include this information if it matters.)
• What topics were discussed?
• What was decided?
• What actions were agreed upon?
• Who is to complete the actions, by when?
• Were materials distributed at the meeting? If so, are copies or a link
available?
• Is there anything special the reader of the minutes should know or do?
• Is a follow-up meeting scheduled? If so, when? where? why?
1. State any two advantages of a good agenda.

................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
2. What is a committee layout?

................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
3. What are the broad objectives of a meeting?

................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
354
16.8 SUMMARY
• Reports allow information to be presented in a structured format. They

should contain facts and arguments that can be supported with clearly
researched and referenced information.
• When a report is prepared in the prescribed form and is presented
according to an established procedure, it is called a formal report.
• A presentation may be defined as a technique of formal communication that
involves speaking in front of a group of people or presenting a topic in
public.
• Presentations can be made in classrooms, seminars, meetings, conferences
or to simply a group of persons on some scheduled topic.
• A sales presentation is an event at which a company representative meets
with clients to demonstrate the company’s products and services, with the
goal of making a sale.
• Sales presentations are an important part of the marketing process, as they
allow company representatives to meet directly with their customers,
creating a personalized and individual sales approach.
• Visual aids are also used during a sales presentation, including physical
models, product samples, and slideshows such as PowerPoint
presentations.
• A training presentation is a presentation whose goal is to inform, teach and
train the audience. The primary purpose of a training presentation is
informative. It also aims at pushing the employees to follow the procedures
and processes prescribed by the organization.
• Training programs with different goals, contents use different types of
instructional materials and training aids. Some of the common types used
are training manuals and workbooks, printed handouts, training aids like
blackboards, assignments, etc.
• Notices are widely used in offices to disseminate information. Mostly they
are used for downward communication.
• Notices are generally pinned on a notice board or a wall and are a popular
way of effectively reaching out to the persons for whom they are meant.
355
• Public notices, notices to invite tenders and bids, auction notices, etc., are
notices which are used to communicate with people and groups outside the
organization. These notices are a regular feature in all newspapers.
• Reports can be in both oral and written forms, though written reports are
preferred. Written reports have the following advantages over oral reports.
• Reports are an integral part of an organizational activity. Managers are
constantly required to submit reports to supervisors and executives to
enable them to take informed decisions change policies, etc.
• A report carries information from someone who has it to someone who
needs it. It is a basic management tool used in decision making.
• An agenda is a list of matters to be discussed in a particular meeting. It is a
written official document that indicates the nature of business to be
conducted at a meeting.
• Meetings are vital for management and communication. The planning and
running of effective meetings for business, sales, strategic planning and
team-building are crucial for effective functioning of organizations.
• Meeting is a term to describe the process of people getting together to talk
and share their knowledge, opinions, experiences, views and suggestions.
• The proceedings of the meeting are noted in detail and these are referred to
as the minutes of the meeting. Generally, it is the responsibility of the
secretary to take down notes for preparing the minutes.
• The minutes are finalized within a day or two of the completion of the
meeting and are circulated to the members for information and action.
16.9 KEY WORDS
• Statutory reports: Statutory reports are reports which are prepared as a

mandatory requirement by law.
• Formal report: When a report is prepared in the prescribed form and is
presented according to an established procedure, it is called a formal
report.
• Sales presentation: A sales presentation is an event at which a company
representative meets with clients to demonstrate the company’s products
and services, with the goal of making a sale.
356
• Tender: Tender is an offer or a proposition made for acceptance, such as

an offer of a bid for a contract. It is something that is offered in return for
a specific payment, and is subject to well laid down terms and conditions.
• Minutes of a meeting: Minutes, also known as protocols or notes, are
the instant written record of a meeting or hearing.
• Agenda: Agenda is a list of items which are to be dealt with during the
meeting. The agenda provides a framework for the meeting and ensures
that no item is left out.

1. Formal reports are classified into statutory and non-statutory reports.
2. The three types of reports are listed as follows:
(i) Extended formal report
(ii) Short formal report
(iii) Informal report
3. A training presentation is a presentation whose goal is to inform, teach and
train the audience.

1. The two characteristics of a public notice are as follows:
(i) The writing style should be such that it catches attention.
(ii) It should contain complete information covering all aspects.
2. Public notices, notices to invite tenders and bids, auction notices are some
of the examples for external communication.

1. The steps to be followed in writing an offer/proposal are as follows:
• Prewriting
• Writing/Drafting
• Revising
• Polishing
357
2. RFP is a method of seeking or inviting proposals. Government

organizations, public sector undertakings and large institutions often resort
to RFP to ensure transparency and competitive bids from competent
bidders.

1. Oral reports can be denied at any time, whereas, written reports can be
referred to again and again which is not the case with oral reports.
2. Special reports are prepared to deal with problems or issues specifically
developed. They are specifically asked for by the concerned authority and
are custom prepared to suit the particular purpose.

1. The following are the characteristics of business reports:
• Generally submitted to a higher authority
• Communicated upwards in an organization
• Logically organized
• Objective in tone
• For a limited audience
• Both short and long
2. The following are some of the essentials of a good business report:
• Accuracy
• Clarity
• Consistency
• Objectivity
• Brevity
• Timeliness

1. The advantages of a good agenda are as follows:
• It ensures that all issues are covered and no issue is left out.
• It ensures that a proper sequence is followed.
358
2. Committee layout is the traditional type of layout, wherein the chairperson

sits at the head of the table. This arrangement reflects formality. The
secretary or the minutes-taker sits on the left or right side of the
chairperson.
3. The broad objectives for which meetings may be held are as follows:
• To obtain information
• To provide information
• To solve a problem
• To persuade or sell an idea
1. Evaluate the different parts of the body of the report.

2. Differentiate between an oral presentation and a written formal report.
3. List the steps required to make a successful sales presentation.
4. Notices are meant for both internal and external communication for
businesses. Discuss.
5. Name the various kinds of proposals.
6. ‘An offer is a proposal to do something or a request for some sanction or
permission.’ Explain the statement.
7. What are the main features of reports?

Publishing House.
359

Prentice Hall.
360
NOTES
NOTES

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BUSINESS COMMUNICATION

Under Graduate Commerce Programmes

Centre for Distance and Open Learning

Prof. Talat Ahmad Prof. M. Mujtaba Khan

Prof. Mohammad Miyan Mr. Prashant Negi

Prof. Y.P. Singh Dr. Arvind Kumar

Prof. K.V. Bhanu Murthy Dr. Ritu Sapra

Prof. Madhu Tyagi Dr. Sunayana

Prof. Attam Prakash

Block II Methods of Communication Unit-5: Dimensions of

Block IV Public Communication, Business Unit-13: Communication for Customers/

BLOCK-I : COMMUNICATION CONCEPTS AND FUNCTIONS

UNIT 1 COMMUNICATION: CONCEPT AND ITS

UNIT 2 COMMUNICATION PROCESS 29-48

UNIT 3 GOOD COMMUNICATION 49-58

UNIT 4 VERBAL AND NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION 59-80

BLOCK-II : METHODS OF COMMUNICATION

UNIT 5 DIMENSIONS OF COMMUNICATION 83-92

UNIT 6 INTRA-ORGANIZATIONAL COMMUNICATION 93-106

UNIT 7 COMMUNICATION CHANNELS 107-126

UNIT 8 BASICS AND BREAKDOWN IN COMMUNICATION 127-140

BLOCK-III : EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION,

UNIT 9 GUIDELINES FOR EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION 143-156

UNIT 10 EFFECTIVE SPEAKING 157-200

UNIT 11 PRESENTATION AND INTERVIEW 201-240

BLOCK-IV : PUBLIC COMMUNICATION, BUSINESS CORRESPONDENCE

UNIT 13 COMMUNICATION FOR CUSTOMERS/PUBLIC (EXTERNAL

UNIT 14 BUSINESS CORRESPONDENCE 269-288

UNIT 15 EFFECTIVE BUSINESS LETTERS 289-308

Effective communication is central to the success of any business organization.

UNIT–1 COMMUNICATION: CONCEPT AND ITS ROLE IN

concerning communication. It is seen as an interchange, an expression, a

1.2 CONCEPT OF COMMUNICATION

Communication is a pervasive activity, which encompasses almost all facets of our

Need for Communication

Communication connects all living beings

Communication ushers progress

Communication galvanizes action

Communication stems from the desire to express oneself

Fig. 1.1 The Various Needs of Communication

Check Your Progress - 1

1. What is the foremost objective of any communication?

2. What is the need for communication?

1.3 STAGES OF COMMUNICATION

Fig. 1.2 Process of Communication

Stage 4: Receiver receives the message and decodes it.

In the organizational context, in particular, the communication process moves a

Evolution of Process of Communication

Check Your Progress - 2

1. Mention the first stage of communication.

1.4 TYPES OF COMMUNICATION

In an organization, communication can be of two types. These are the internal

(iii) Ensure healthy and even growth of businesses: Organizations have a

Check Your Progress - 3

1. Name the two types of communication.

2. What is the main function of internal communication?

1.5 MAJOR BARRIERS RELATED TO COMMUNICATION

Organizational communication must be interpreted and understood in the same

(c) Improper or inadequate information: The information must be

• A manager may assume that his or her subordinate’s perception about

(ii) In Austria and France, children are not permitted to do television

10. Psychological barriers

Being unsure of the speaker’s ability

Check Your Progress - 4