UNIVERSITI TUN HUSSEIN ONN MALAYSIA

BDA 30502 MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY

GROUP ASSIGNMENT
SEMESTER 2
SESSION 2021/2022

GROUP NUMBER: 5
NAME MATRIC NO. SECTION
(1) NAIM ASHRAF BIN CHE MAZLAN CD190026 5
MEMBER

(2) MUHAMMAD TAUFIQ BIN KAMARUDDIN CD190203 5

(3) MUHAMMAD THAQIF AMJAD BIN ABU BAKAR CD190192 5
(4) MUHAMMAD UMAR BIN KHAIRUL NIZAM AD190144 5
(5) ZIKRIL HAKIM BIN ZULKEFFLE AD190119 5
(6) MUHAMMAD SYAFIQ BIN SHAIFUL ANUAR CD190227 5
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INTEGRATED ENGINEERING VOL. 0 NO. 0 (2020) 1-19

© Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia Publisher’s Office

The International
Journal of
IJIE Integrated
Journal homepage: http://penerbit.uthm.edu.my/ojs/index.php/ijie Engineering
ISSN : 2229-838X e-ISSN : 2600-7916

Joining Process
Naim Ashraf Bin Che Mazlan 1, Muhammad Taufiq Bin Kamaruddin 2, Muhammad Thaqif Amjad Bin Abu Bakar 3, Muhammad
Umar Bin Khairul Nizam 4, Zikril Hakim Bin Zulkeffle 5 Muhammad Syafiq Bin Shaiful Anuar⁶

Faculty of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering,

Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia, Batu Pahat, 86400, MALAYSIA

*Corresponding Author

DOI: https://doi.org/10.30880/ijie.2020.12.03.010
Received 23 June 2022; Accepted 23 June 2022; Available online 23 June 2022

Abstract: Joining is key to the manufacture of large or complex devices or assemblies; construction of large and complex
structures; and repair of parts, assemblies, or structures in service. Joining and forming are two common types of manufacturing
processes. Manufacturing companies often rely on one or both types of processes to convert raw materials into finished
products. While joining and forming have a similar goal, however, they aren’t the same. There are stark differences between
joining and forming manufacturing processes, which you can learn more about in the following post. This article describes the
three forces for joining: physical, chemical, and mechanical. It provides an overview of the joining processes, namely,
mechanical fastening, integral attachment, adhesive bonding, welding, brazing, and soldering. Joining is a course in which
mechanical members can be fastened by method of bolt and nut, riveting arrangement or by welding process. Joint preserve be a
temporary or permanent depending ahead the usage and user specific requirement. In a manufacturing process energy efficient,
cost effective, environment conscious plays essential role for the operative or the factory organization due to stringent
environment laws. Several advances taken position in this way in current times particularly welding process. In this document,
we are highlighting and discussing the stages, catagories and types of joining process in detail in all related mechanism in
mechanical engineering.

Keywords: Welding, Brazing, Soldering, Adhesive Bonding

1.0 Introduction

Joining is an important process in a number of industries, such as aerospace, automotive, oil, and gas. Many
products cannot be fabricated as a single piece, so components are fabricated first and assembled later. Joining
technology can be classified as a liquid-solid-state process and mechanical means. Liquid-solid-state joining includes
welding, brazing, soldering, and adhesive bonding. Mechanical joining includes fasteners, bolts, nuts, and screws.
Assembly is a critical phase in the manufacture of solid objects, especially when the shape of the product is complex
with numerous geometrical aspects. Direct production of a product with a complicated form is neither practical nor
inexpensive all of the time. In this case, constructing little basic bits and putting them together is the ideal option.
Joining refers to a variety of procedures used to join two or more pieces together, regardless of their composition,
qualities, features, forms, and so on. Joining is a manufacturing process in which two or more materials are
permanently or temporarily linked or integrated together with or without the use of an external element to produce a
single product. Nowadays, a wide range of such joining techniques are accessible to meet the requirement of
assembling a wide range of materials in a variety of ways for varied processes or applications (1)

*Corresponding author: AD170061@uthm.edu.my

2020 UTHM Publisher. All right reserved.
penerbit.uthm.edu.my/ojs/index.php/ijie

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1.1 Joining processes

1.2 Adhesive bonding

Adhesive bonding is applicable to all classes of materials and is increasingly used for metals. Extensively used
to join polymer (both thermoplastic and thermoset) and composite components. Several classes of polymer are used as
adhesives: e.g. epoxies, phenolic, acrylics, polyurethanes. Adhesives are mostly thermosets, made by mixing two
components (resin and crosslinking initiator) before use. Some require curing at modest temperatures (100 to 200 ºC).
Adhesive joints require careful surface cleaning and preparation, and selection of adhesives which are compatible with
the component materials. Adhesives are often susceptible to take-up of moisture, which can affect joint integrity and
can lead to degradation of properties in service. Joint designs are usually some form of lap joint, because the adhesives
are much stronger in shear than in tension (which would produce hydrostatic tension leading to void growth and
failure).

1.3 Brazing and Soldering

In brazing and soldering a low melting point filler alloy is used between the parts being joined, which themselves
never melt. The joint is usually designed with a small clearance so that the molten solder or brazing alloy is drawn into
the gap by capillary (surface tension) forces. It is therefore particularly important that the molten filler wets the two
surfaces, and a flux (which is an aggressive chemical agent applied with the filler metal) is used to remove oxide from
the metal surfaces and allow good wetting by the filler. The difference in terminology is essentially associated with
melting temperature: so-called ‘soft solders’ melt below 450 ºC, and brazing alloys or ‘hard solders’ melt above 450
ºC. Soldering is used very widely in electronics (e.g. to bond components to circuit boards, wires to contacts, etc.) –
these joints are often primarily for electrical continuity, with mechanical performance of secondary importance.
Traditional solders were lead-tin alloys (e.g. 37%Pb-63%Sn eutectic melts at about 180 ºC) but for environmental
reasons these have largely been replaced by lead-free solders based on tin-copper-silver alloys, which are more
expensive (e.g. the eutectic Sn-3.5%Ag-0.9%Cu melts at 217 ºC). (The EU Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment
(WEEE) and Reduction of Hazardous Substances (ROHS) directives required lead to be eliminated from electronic
systems by mid-2006.) Brazing is used for mechanical purposes and often uses a copper-zinc or copper-silver alloy.
With appropriate filler alloys and fluxes (and in some cases an inert atmosphere or vacuum environment) brazing
methods can join a wide range of metals, including steels, stainless steels, aluminum alloys as well as ceramics. Both
brazing and soldering suffer from the disadvantages that the strength of the joint is limited by the strength of the filler
alloy, and also that this is often much more expensive than the metal of the parts being joined. However, for many
applications, and for joining dissimilar metals, or metals to ceramics, the processes are very valuable – and since the
temperature involved is lower than for welding they usually produce less distortion (2).

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1.4 Welding processes for metals

Welding processes join two components either without any filler material, or
with filler material of very similar composition (and melting point) to the
materials being joined. The strength of a welded joint can approach that of the
neighboring material. Contamination present on the original surfaces (e.g.
oxide) is broken up or removed by melting or in some processes by plastic
deformation.

1) COLD welding (T < 0.3 Tm): uses low temperature plastic deformation to
provide good metal-metal contact and disrupt oxide films. Examples:
 roll cladding: to clad Al alloys with pure Al for corrosion resistance
 - ultrasonic welding: for thermoplastic polymers (in which the T rise is
significant in promoting interdiffusion and bonding), and for making
metallic bonds in light components e.g. Al or Au wire contacts between
i.c. chips and mounting substrates, other electrical contacts.

2) HOT welding (0.5 Tm < T < Tm): uses hot plasticity/creep/diffusion to provide
good metal-metal contact. Examples:
 Friction welding: rotating parts are forced together producing simultaneous frictional
heat generation and local plastic flow. Mainly used for joints with circular symmetry
(pipes, shafts etc) – e.g. automotive components (steering column, drive shafts). 4 IM
Hutchings, Nov. 2012

 Diffusion bonding: Slower process in which heat

and pressure lead to interdiffusion across the joint
interface. Used for Ni-based superalloys and Ti
alloys in aerospace (also for ceramics). Process
analogous to sintering of powders.

3) FUSION welding (T > Tm): components to be joined are melted along their common interface by an external
heat source. Filler metal may be used to fill the gap.
The main fusion welding processes can be classified in terms of the source of heat as:
 resistance welding
 gas welding
 arc welding
 power beam welding (laser or electron beam)
Important factors in selecting a welding method are the material to be joined, its geometry (e.g. plate, tubular
etc), the quality and strength requirements, degree of mechanization appropriate, portability required, and capital
cost of equipment.

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1.5 Resistance welding

Uses electric current to heat the metal locally by power dissipation in resistance at
contact region. Often used for sheet material. Two sheets are pressed together in a lap
joint between two electrodes. A very quick and effective method for producing ‘spot’ or
‘seam’ welds (by using rollers on each side of the joint). Easily automated, and
commonly used in robotic car body/substructure fabrication.

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2.0 Literature Review

Welding is a fabrication process whereby two or more parts are fused together by means of heat, pressure or both
forming a join as the parts cool. Welding is usually used on metals and thermoplastics but can also be used on
wood. The completed welded joint may be referred to as a weldment. Some materials require the use of specific
processes and techniques. A number are considered 'unwedable,' a term not usually found in dictionaries but useful and
descriptive in engineering. The parts that are joined are known as a parent material. The material added to help form
the join is called filler or consumable. The form of these materials may see them referred to as parent plate or pipe,
filler wire, consumable electrode (for arc welding), etc. Consumables are usually chosen to be similar in composition to
the parent material, thus forming a homogenous weld, but there are occasions, such as when welding brittle cast irons,
when a filler with a very different composition and, therefore, properties is used. These welds are called heterogeneous.
The completed welded joint may be referred to as a weldment.

2.1 Welding Work:

1. Joining Metals
As opposed to brazing and soldering, which do not melt the base metal, welding is a high heat process which melts the
base material. Typically, with the addition of a filler material. Heat at a high temperature causes a weld pool of molten
material which cools to form the join, which can be stronger than the parent metal. Pressure can also be used to
produce a weld, either alongside the heat or by itself. It can also use a shielding gas to protect the melted and filler
metals from becoming contaminated or oxidized.

2. Joining Plastics
Plastics welding also uses heat to join the materials (although not in the case of solvent welding) and is achieved in
three stages. Firstly, the surfaces are prepared before heat and pressure is applied and, finally, the materials are allowed
to cool to create fusion. Joining methods for plastics can be separated into external or internal heating methods,
depending on the exact process used.

3. Joining Wood
Wood welding uses heat generated from friction to join the materials. The materials to be joined are subjected to a
great deal of pressure before a linear friction movement creates heat to bond the workpieces together. This is a fast
process which allows wood to be joined without adhesives or nails in a matter of seconds.

Common Joint Configurations

i. Butt Joint

A connection between the ends or edges of two parts making an angle to one another of 135-180° inclusive in the
region of the joint.

ii. T Joint

A connection between the end or edge of one part and the face of the other part, the parts making an angle to one
another of more than 5 up to and including 90° in the region of the joint.

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iii. Corner Joint

A connection between the ends or edges of two parts making an angle to one another of more than 30 but less than
135° in the region of the joint.

iv. Edge Joint

A connection between the edges of two parts making an angle to one another of 0 to 30° inclusive in the region of the
joint.

v. Cruciform Joint

A connection in which two flat plates or two bars are welded to another flat plate at right angles and on the same axis.

vi. Lap Joint

A connection between two overlapping parts making an angle to one another of 0-5° inclusive in the region of the weld
or welds.

2.2 Types of Welding Joints:

a. Welds Based on Configuration

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i. Slot weld

Joint between two overlapping components made by depositing a fillet weld around the periphery of a hole in one
component so as to join it to the surface of the other component exposed through the hole.

ii. Plug weld

Weld made by filling a hole in one component of a workpiece with filler metal so as to join it to the surface of an
overlapping component exposed through the hole (the hole can be circular or oval).

b. Based on Penetration

i. Full penetration weld

Welded joint where the weld metal fully penetrates the joint with complete root fusion. In US the preferred term is
complete joint penetration weld (CJP, see AWS D1.1).

ii. Partial penetration weld

Weld in which the fusion penetration is intentionally less than full penetration. In the US the preferred term is partial
joint penetration weld (PJP).

iii. Welds Based on Accessibility

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2.3 Different Welding Types and functionality:

There are a variety of different processes with their own techniques and applications for industry,
these include

i. Arc
This category includes a number of common manuals, semi-automatic and automatic processes. These
include metal inert gas (MIG) welding, stick welding, tungsten inert gas (TIG) welding also known as gas tungsten arc
welding (GTAW), gas welding, metal active gas (MAG) welding, flux cored arc welding (FCAW), gas metal arc
welding (GMAW), submerged arc welding (SAW), shielded metal arc welding (SMAW) and plasma arc welding.
These techniques usually use a filler material and are primarily used for joining metals including stainless steel,
aluminium, nickel and copper alloys, cobalt and titanium.

ii. Friction
Friction welding techniques join materials using mechanical friction. This can be performed in a variety of ways
on different welding materials including steel, aluminum or even wood. The mechanical friction generates heat which
softens the materials which mix to create a bond as they cool. The manner in which the joining occurs is dependent on
the exact process used, for example, friction stir welding (FSW), friction stir spot welding (FSSW), linear friction
welding (LFW) and rotary friction welding (RFW). Friction welding doesn't require the use of filler metals, flux or
shielding gas. Friction is frequently used in aerospace applications as it is ideal for joining otherwise 'non-weldable'
light-weight aluminium alloys. Friction processes are used across industry and are also being explored as a method to
bond wood without the use of adhesives or nails.

iii. Electron Beam

This fusion joining process uses a beam of high velocity electrons to join materials. The kinetic energy of the
electrons transforms into heat upon impact with the workpieces causing the materials to melt together. Electron beam
welding (EBW) is performed in a vacuum (with the use of a vacuum chamber) to prevent the beam from dissipating.
There are many common applications for EBW, as can be used to join thick sections. This means it can be applied
across a number of industries from aerospace to nuclear power and automotive to rail.

iv. Laser
Used to join thermoplastics or pieces of metal, this process uses a laser to provide a concentrated heat ideal for
barrow, deep welds and high joining rates. Being easily automated, the high welding speed at which this process can be
performed makes it perfect for high volume applications, such as within the automotive industry. Laser beam welding
can be performed in air rather than in a vacuum such as with electron beam joining.

v. Resistance
This is a fast process which is commonly used in the automotive industry. This process can be split into two types,
resistance spot welding and resistance seam welding. Spot welding uses heat delivered between two electrodes which
is applied to a small area as the workpieces are clamped together. Seam welding is similar to spot welding except it
replaces the electrodes with rotating wheels to deliver a continuous leak-free weld

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3.0 Methodology

The joining process can be classified into some methods or other techniques to perform a good result. In this
section, the process will be chosen is welding process. This category process is under solid-state welding (SSW). One
of the process under SSW is Forge welding, in which components to be joined are heated to hot working temperature
range and forged together by hammering. Cold welding process by applying high temperature clean contacting surfaces
at room temperature. Roll welding process in which pressure sufficient to cause coalescence is applied by means of
rolls, either with or without external heat. Diffusion welding where heat and pressure are used in this process, which is
normally done in a controlled environment with enough time for diffusion and coalescence to occur. Also on the
research, there were few more process can be done.
.
3.1 Forge Welding

3.1.1Theoretical/Experimental Modelling
Forge welding (also known as fire welding) is a solid-state welding procedure that involves heating two pieces of metal
to a high temperature and then smashing them together. It may also entail heating and pressing the metals together with
presses or other methods, resulting in plastic deformation at the weld surfaces. It's a versatile method since it can join
metals that are both comparable and dissimilar. Due to the invention of electrical and gas, forge welding has been
phased out in most commercial settings. Forge welding of similar metals is possible thanks to solid-state diffusion. It
results in a weld seam made entirely of welded metals, with no bridging or filler elements. Forge welding between
different metals is caused by the formation of a lower melting temperature between the materials. As a result, the weld
seam is typically stronger than the component metals. Pure Ni (NW2201) and AI alloy (A5083) sheets (dimensions:
100 × 30 × 1 mm3) were used as the test materials. The Ni plate was placed on top of the Al plate after annealing at
500 °C for 60 seconds with a hot plate, and the two plates were aligned with an SKD61 round-column jig press
(diameter: 8 mm; thickness: 5 mm; hardness: HRC 52), as illustrated in Figure 1.

Figure3.1.1 – Model of forge welding

3.1.2Result of Experiment/Analysis
The effect of the R ratio on the tensile shear load is seen in Fig. 2(a). The filled marks represent Al alloy BM fracture
(plug fracture), while the unfilled markers indicate Al alloy BI fracture. With R, the joint strength improved. Around an
R-value of 2, the fracture mode changed from BI to BM, and the joint strength peaked at 5.3 kN with an equivalent
shear stress of 105 MPa. The strength and fracture morphology obtained are superior to those produced using earlier
approaches. Forge welding is a plastic flow-assisted diffusion bond. The creation of a new surface is highly influenced
by plate thickness reduction. The joint strength remained stable after shifting to the BM fracture, despite an increase in
R. The influence of peak surface pressure on the tensile shear stress is seen in Fig. 2(b). On the Al alloy side, the filled
markers indicate BM fracture, while the vacant markers indicate BI fracture. The peak surface pressure increased the
joint strength. The fracture mode changed to BM fracture when the peak surface pressure was 1,870 MPa or above,
with a maximum of roughly 2,250 MPa. The fatigue test results are shown in Figure 2(c). In the tensile shear test, the R
of the joints ranged from 2.1 to 2.7, which could result in BM fracture. For 107 cycles, the fatigue limit was 1.3 kN. In
addition to the static test, the BM experienced fracture mode; there were no issues with practical strength

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Fig. 3.1.2(a)

Fig. 3.1.2(b)

Figure 3.1.2(c) (3)

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3.2 Cold Welding

3.2.1Theoretical/Experimental Modelling

Cold welding, often known as contact welding, is a solid-state welding procedure that joins two or more
metals together with little or no heat or fusion. The energy used to make a weld is instead in the form of pressure. In
the 1940s, cold welding was recognised as a generic materials phenomenon. It was later discovered that if two clean,
flat surfaces of comparable metal were brought into touch while in a vacuum, they would strongly adhere (see Van der
Waals force). Micro- and Nano-scale cold welding have recently been discovered and have showed promise in
nanofabrication processes. Cold welding can be used to manufacture a wide array of joints, but the most common joints
that can possibly be made through this process include:
 Lap joints
 Butt joints
Surface layers (oxide) surround all metals, which must be disrupted if they are to be welded. Cold pressure
welding at room temperature requires a high compressive pressure of between 1400 and 2800 N/mm2 for aluminium
and at least twice that for copper. It causes interfacial deformations of 60% to 80%, breaking the oxide layers and
allowing fresh, uncontaminated metal to make contact. In this stage, the weld is produced by interatomic forces..

Fig – Cold Welding Butt joints

Fig – Cold welding Lap Joints

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3.2.2 Result of experiment/Analysis

Cold Welding Butt joints

The process of improved joint mechanical properties can be elucidated by looking at the fracture trajectories,
as shown in Fig. 12, where the two joints have quite distinct behaviours. The fracture path for the joint with a Ni
interlayer travelled through the upper shoulder affected zone, where the Ni interlayer was shattered and somewhat
moved from its original interfacial location, and then to the middle and bottom stir zones, which are primarily Al alloy.
The fracture route appears to simply propagate along the Al/Cu interface in the joint without a Ni interlayer. Because
thicker brittle phases may lower joint strength, the varied facture position of two joints could be linked to the different
IMC thickness mentioned in Fig. 7[1] Moreover, the reported higher hardness of the Al–Cu based IMC compared to
the Al–Ni based IMC (4)will also increase the micro-scale stress concentration effect and become a preferred fracture
location.

Fig3.2.2 – Cold Welding Butt joints (3)

Cold welding Lap Joints
To evaluate the lap welding of titanium/aluminium dissimilar metals, the welding parameters in Table 2 were used.
The front and back surface morphology of varied welding offset welded joints are presented in Table 4 when the
current value is fixed at 70A. The front and back of the weld have quite different macro morphologies, as can be seen.
The plasma arc is close to the Al and the Ti-6Al-4V alloy edge is entirely melted when the offset is 2 mm, as illustrated
in Table 4. The heat transfer of the plasma arc severely scorched one side of the Al on the back side, causing
significant melting and loss. The welding flame is inclined to the higher Ti-6Al-4V alloy when the offset is 4 mm, and
the heat is focussed on Ti-6Al-4V alloy. In the lap area, there is no melting at the edge of the Ti-6Al-4V alloy, and the
bonding between the Ti-6Al-4V alloy and the aluminium is poor, with a minor amount of incomplete fusion visible.
The front side of the weld is uniform and beautiful, the Ti-6Al-4V alloy edge is melted, and the aluminium base metal
on the rear side is totally melted and equally spread on the surface of the titanium when the welding torch offset is 3
mm (5).

Table 3.2.2.1 : Chemical composition of 1060 aluminum (mass fraction wt%).

Table 3.2.2.2 : Joint appearances of welding seam at different torch offsets (6)

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3.3 Roll Welding

3.3.1 Theoretical/Experimental Modelling

Solid-state welding technology that uses rolls to apply enough pressure to cause coalescence. Also, what we called as
roll welding. There are two types of roll welding, either the process using the heat which is hot roll welding or not
using any heat which is cold welding. The principle of the roll welding actually pretty same with the forge welding but
the way it’s being forge is different. For the forge welding, the pressure will be applied by the hammer hits but for roll
welding the metal will be shape by using roller in the means of rolls. Diffusion at the faying surfaces causes
coalescence at the contact between two sections. Weldable parts must be ductile and free of work hardening. The
surface to be joined should be thoroughly cleaned before welding. If the items to be welded are tiny, the pressure
applied by rolls can be accomplished with simple hand tools. Power presses are used to apply pressure on pieces that
are larger in size.

Figures 3.3.1.1 - The roll welding principles.

The three-dimensional models were created to approximate bead-on-plate welding on flat profile plates. In order to
decrease the computational time and due to the geometry that will be produce, the geometry modelled that will be use
for the experiment will be half, which was also used for the subsequent rolling mechanical models. Figure 4.3.1.2
depicts a typical mesh. On the weld bead region and locations where rolling would be applied later, a denser mesh was
used. To confirm that the results presented are independent of mesh size, the influence of mesh density was
investigated. The workpiece dimensions will be 750 x 150 x 6 mm, and the weld seam was 600 mm long. Coules et al.,
2013a, Coules et al., 2013b, Coules et al., 2012b, Coules et al., 2012c found that the average weld bead dimensions
were Ø = 13.8, H = 2.9, and W = 5.6 mm.

Figure 3.3.1.2 - Post-roll welding model.

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3.3.2 Result of experiment/Analysis

In the trials done by (Coules et al., 2012), the position of the thermocouples is illustrated in Fig. a. Figure b shows a
comparison of the experimental and anticipated temperature distributions from the welding heat transfer analysis of the
post weld models. The model was found to be quite close to the experimental data.

Figure 3.3.2.1 : Position of the thermocouples on post‐weld rolling experiments (Coules et al.,
2012) (dimensions in millimeters) & Fig b. Comparison between experiments (Exp) and modelling
results.

3.4 Diffusion Welding

3.4.1 Theoretical/Experimental Modelling
Diffusion welding is an old welding technique that has a wide range of applications (American Welding Society,
2007). Solid-state welding process that the welding is performed with the applications of pressure and elevated
temperature for coalescence of faying surfaces. The method involves mating two metal surfaces, regardless of whether
they are the same or different types of metals, so that they can grow and join through atomic diffusion. There are two
stages to the diffusion welding process.
Surface contaminants and oxides are eventually eliminated and surface asperities are reduced to isolated pores along
the bond line, which are gradually filled, when relatively close mating surfaces are held together under moderate
pressure and at high temperatures, typically >0.6 Tm (melting temperature on an absolute temperature scale). Grain
boundary migration and grain growth dynamics can finally result in a joint that is indistinguishable from the underlying
materials microstructurally.

Figure 3.4.1.1 - Diffusion welding stages.

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The first stage is to make contact between the intimate metal and the metal. The pressure will be
applied from the top and bottom of the two metals to roughen the substrate and disturb and enlarge
the surface layers and impurities discussed previously. Diffusion and grain growth are used in the
second stage to finish the weld and remove the contact created in the previous stage.

Figure 3.4.1.2 – Diffusion welding process.

Diffusion welding parameters are consisting of pressure, temperature and time surface. The higher temperature serves
the critical role of boosting the surface energy while the uniform pressure ensures the stability of bond formation
(mobility of the atom). An increase in temperature, for example, is a dependent process characteristic that reduces the
time necessary to finish the confounding process. Within that, the diffusivity can be expressed as below:

𝑫 = 𝑫𝒐 𝒆−𝑸/𝒌𝑻

Where, 𝑫 = Diffusivity, the diffusion coefficient at temperature;

𝑫𝒐 = A constant of proportionality;
𝒆 = An exponential value defined mathematically;
𝑸 = Activation energy for diffusion;
𝑻 = Activation temperature;
𝒌 = Boltzmann’s constant.

3.4.2 Result of experiment/Analysis

Figure a. is a slightly serendipitous example of the impact of crystal orientation on diffusion welding, in this case in
Alloy 242. This weld, like most of the others covered here, started with a 15-meter nickel foil and demonstrated
complete interpenetration of base metal grains across the interface after welding. On both sides, however, a quirk of the
etching process (bromine in methanol) produces a pale line about 20 m from the original foil centerline. It's unclear
what this is, but it appears to be a key ingredient for the etchant's interaction with the surface. It can also be seen in
optical micrographs and with Alloy N, but it is particularly obvious in this specimen. The step changes in the position
of this line when it crosses grain or twin boundaries is most easily explained by enhanced or retarded diffusion rates,
because of changes in crystallographic orientation in these neighboring regions. The program effort did not allow for
the detailed exploration of this phenomenon, for example, obtaining electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD) data to
identify the absolute direction of the crystals, or fine scale (e.g., transmission electron microscope [TEM] or very high-
resolution SEM) examination of the compositional gradient within each grain. But it is an interesting side effect of the
planar nature of these diffusion welded joints.

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Naim Ashraf et al., Int. J. of Integrated Engineering Vol. 0 No. 0 (2022) p. 1-19

Figure 3.4.1.3 : Weld in Alloy 242 bar showing different diffusion characteristics, depending
on crystal orientation. (7)

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Naim Ashraf et al., Int. J. of Integrated Engineering Vol. 0 No. 0 (2022) p. 1-19

4.0 Conclusion
As noted in the introduction, joining technology is an essential component of virtually every manufactured product.
There is such a variety of processes for joining such as forming of profiles, sheet, bulk, and sheet-bulk-components
was introduced, including the achievable joining mechanisms as well as the significant process parameters, influencing
these mechanisms. Due to the variety in processes, each process is summarized separately, including an outlook of
prospective focuses of research. The choice of processes and materials can seem endless unless we learn to assess the
service requirements of the joint (temperature, strength, hermeticity, corrosion resistance, ease of disassembly, etc.)
and to compare these with the capabilities of each process. There often are a number of potentials joining processes,
from which the most economical process must be chosen. Manufacturing companies use joining and forming processes
in their regular operations. Joining processes are designed to “join” multiple components, whereas forming processes
are designed to manipulate an object. As the person who must "put it all together," it is necessary for the engineer to
interface with virtually every other aspect of the manufacturing process.

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