Pathogens and Immunity

Definitions:
• Pathogen: disease-causing microorganism.
• Transmissible disease: disease in which the pathogen can be passed from one host to
another.
• Host: the organism [human / animal] in which a pathogen lives and breeds.
• Table 10.1– to be learnt.
Modes of transmission:
The pathogen for a transmissible disease may be transmitted either through:
1. Direct contact, e.g. through blood or other body fluids.
2. Indirect transmission:
a. from droplets of moisture in air or on contaminated surfaces [E.g. cold and
influenza viruses]
b. from food - E.g. Salmonella [bacterium that causes food poisoning]
c. from water – polio virus and cholera bacterium
3. Via vectors – Plasmodium [causes malaria] through female Anopheles mosquito.
Body defences:
• Mechanical barriers: skin and hairs in the nose
• Chemical barriers: mucus and stomach acid
• White blood cells: phagocytosis and antibody production by white blood cells [which can
be enhanced by vaccination]
Other defences:
1. Hygienic food preparation:
• Wash hands before and after eating / preparing food.
• Keep food away from animals [insects, rats etc.]
• Refrigerate: do not keep food at room temperature for long as this allows the
growth of microbes in food.
• Keep raw meats away from other foods as bacteria can be transferred from meats
to other foods such as fruits and vegetables.
2. Good personal hygiene

1
3. Waste disposal
• Reuse and recycle to reduce the amount of waste.
• Landfill sites should be managed carefully. Methane gas is produced in landfills
which is flammable and can cause explosions. Placing pipes in these sites can
allow methane gas to escape, which can be collected and used as fuel.
4. Sewage treatment :
• Sewage should be treated before its allowed to run into streams / rivers, as it can
cause the spread of water-borne diseases such as cholera.
• Sewage treatment also allows water to be recycled.

Antibodies:
• Antibodies are protein molecules with
fixed shapes that can bind with
specific antigens.
• The body therefore needs specific
antibodies which fit the specific
shapes of different antigens carried on
different pathogens.

How antibodies destroy pathogens:

● Antibodies bind [lock on] to antigens leading to direct destruction of pathogens in the
following ways:
● Some ‘mark’ pathogens for destruction by phagocytes. They may clump pathogens
together, making it easier for phagocytosis to occur.
● They may neutralise the TOXINS [poisonous proteins] produced by the pathogens.
● They may prevent replication of viruses.

Immune response:
● Lymphocytes with specific antibodies recognize pathogen.
● These lymphocytes divide by mitosis
● Forming a large clone of lymphocytes
● These secrete antibodies which are specific to antigens
● Antibodies mark pathogens for destruction by phagocytes / phagocytosis
● Some lymphocytes [in clone] remain as memory cells and provide immunity in a
secondary infection.
● Memory cells provide long term immunity.

2
 Memory cells:
• Formed when lymphocytes clone themselves during a primary infection.
• Do not produce antibodies during primary infection.
• Remain in blood for a very long time.
• During a subsequent [secondary] infection, they produce antibodies immediately,
providing immunity.

Vaccination:
● vaccine contains harmless / attenuated / dead / form of pathogen with antigens
● antigens in vaccine stimulate an immune response
● lymphocytes make antibodies specific to these antigens
● antibodies destroy pathogens
● production of memory cells which give rapid immune response if exposed to same
pathogen
● vaccination gives long-term immunity

Active and Passive immunity:

active immunity passive immunity

Antibodies produced by lymphocytes after ● antibodies acquired from another

infection by pathogen or after vaccination individual e.g. by breast milk / /
through placenta / injection of
antibodies / antitoxins / antivenom.
● no antibodies produced by the body
permanent / long-term immunity short-term defence against pathogens
Memory cell produced Memory cells not produced.
Initial response is slower as antibodies have to Initial response is faster
be produced.

Auto- Immune diseases:

• Some diseases are caused by the immune system targeting and destroying body cells, e.g.
Type 1 diabetes.
• WBCs attack and destroy beta cells in the pancreas that produce the hormone insulin.
• Pancreas produce less insulin, so blood glucose levels stay high.
• This leads to dehydration, weight loss [due to loss of glucose in the urine].
• Develops in young children.
• Diabetics need to take insulin at regular intervals and control their diet.

3
Cholera:
• Cholera bacterium: Vibrio cholera
• Spreads through water and food contaminated with faeces of infected person.
• Epidemics can occur in cramped unhygienic areas such as refugee camps.
• The cholera bacterium produces a toxin that causes secretion of chloride ions into the
lumen of the small intestine
• This causes osmotic movement of water [from blood] into the lumen of the small
intestine.
• Causing diarrhoea, dehydration and loss of salts from blood