Basic Public Speaking Two Text D Parker PDF-2

BASIC PUBLIC
SPEAKING,
2ND EDITION
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BASIC PUBLIC
SPEAKING,
2ND EDITION
The Roadmap to Confident
Communications!
Douglas A. Parker
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Copyright © 2000 by Douglas A. Parker.
Library of Congress Number: 00-193353
ISBN #: Softcover 0-7388-5619-3
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in
any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying,
recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission
in writing from the copyright owner.
This book was printed in the United States of America.
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CONTENTS
Introduction ................................................................ 13
Pre-Speech Lesson Number One–The Group .............. 19
Pre-Speech Lesson Number Two–The Speaker ............. 25
Pre-Speech Lesson Number Three–
The Types of Speeches ............................................ 32
Pre-Speech Lesson Number Four: Using Hands-On
Webbing Techniques to Help Write Your Speech .... 34
BEGINNING SPEECHES
Speech Number One–The Speech to Introduce .......... 55
Speech Number Two–The Impromptu ........................ 61
Speech Number Three–
The Speech to Inform (Number 1) ......................... 66
Speech Number Four–
The Speech for a Personal Memory ........................ 73
Speech Number Five–The Speech to Inflect ................. 83
Speech Number Six–The Speech to Relate Issues ......... 86
Speech Number Seven–
The Speech to Persuade (Number 1) ...................... 90
Speech Number Eight–The Speech to Entertain .......... 95
INTERMEDIATE SPEECHES
Speech No. 9—The Speech to

Interpret Literature Orally ...................................105
Speech Number Ten–The Speech to Discuss ..............116
Speech Number Eleven–The Speech Not to Speak ..... 121
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Speech Number Twelve–The Speech to Present a
Playwright’s Newscast ...........................................126
Speech Number Thirteen–The Speech to Inform
(Number 2) the Lecture/Demonstration ...............130
Speech Number Fourteen–
The “How—To” Speech .....................................143
ADVANCED SPEECHES
Speech Number Fifteen–The Speech to Persuade
(Number 2) .........................................................155
Speech Number Sixteen–The Speech to Confuse .......162
Speech Number Seventeen–The Speech to Sell ..........169
Speech Number Eighteen–The Chain Speech ...........173
Speech Number Nineteen–The Speech to Speak
Extemporaneously ................................................177
Speech Number Twenty–
The Speech to Debate Values ...............................182
Speech Number Twenty-one–Role-Playing:
The Fictional Mock Trial ......................................190
Post-Speech Lesson ....................................................194
Appendix .................................................................. 219
THIS BOOK IS DEDICATED TO LISA, CHRISTOPHER, AND
ASHLEY PARKER FOR THEIR UNFLAGGING SUPPORT AND PATIENCE.
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Finally, a public speaking text that is written by a trained counselor
and experienced teacher. As a concise learning tool, it speaks to students
from all walks of life addressing the critical affective aspects of learning
how to speak in public.
Basic Public Speaking, 2nd Edition—The Roadmap to Confident
Communications! is unrivaled among public speaking guides. It is
the only text available that:
-takes a skills-based humanistic and sometimes humorous approach to
the psychology and strategies that must be in place before a person
can develop as a speaker;
-improves students’ confidence by slowly and sequentially accentuating
their essential speaking skills;
-presents topics in twenty-one developmentally sequenced classroom
speech activities, each building upon the skills that were achieved
by the student in the previous speech;
-serves as a primary resource for schools and districts satisfying their
Language Arts learning standards for creating their writing,
listening and speaking benchmarks;
-emphasizes the student being aware of what is happening during a
speech and how to develop hands-on strategies for taking control
of the process and its outcome;
-is written by a veteran counselor and teacher who is best qualified to
understand and present the techniques that actually work in the
classroom helping students learn;
-employs unique hands-on webbing techniques for creating speeches
-is an updated version of a best-selling resource that was sold to
Schools, libraries, students, businesses and individuals interested
in gaining the confidence to become better communicators.
Mr. Parker successfully coached his high school Debate and Speech
teams winning numerous local, state, national, and international titles
using the same lessons and techniques that he brings to his Public
Speaking and English classes. In Basic Public Speaking, 2nd Edition—
The Roadmap to Confident Communications!, Mr. Parker shares his
experiences and classroom gifts with everyone who wants to discover
Public Speaking from the thinking and feeling learner’s point of view.
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10 DOUGLAS A. PARKER
Reflections on the Author and Basic Public Speaking
Basic Public Speaking is recommended for all readers.

-The New York State Library Association
Mr. Parker’s publication, Basic Public Speaking, was a highly

successful precursor to this present public speaking treatise. Written
in a second person voice, it is an informative, easy-to-follow text,
which is liberally sprinkled with refreshing and appropriate hu-
mor. This new title offers even more firsthand tips and group tactics
for the novice speech student as well as the seasoned elocutionist. I
highly recommend it for every student’s backpack!
-E. Webster Dann, Teacher and Former Dean at the Nichols
School
My school, along with countless others uses Basic Public Speak-

ing as our main textbook for teaching speaking skills in our Lan-
guage Arts Department. I have seen hundreds of students over the
years benefit from using Mr. Parker’s work. It is sound, helpful, and
amusing. It doesn’t talk down to students, nor over their heads.
Instead, it chats informally with them and invites them to come
along for a ride that will be fun. Beyond that, it is full of practical,
graduated-in-difficulty experiences and evaluative tools. Here is a
book that is crying out to be expanded and marketed so that it
reaches a wider audience. Without reservation, I highly recom-
mend it for your school or program.
-Rupert Ray, Head of the English Department and
Director of Debate at St. Andrews College, Canada
There is no better book on the market for everyone who

wants to learn how to speak with confidence. This book works
as brilliantly in the classroom as a primary textbook as it does in
the business community as a professional development tool. I
highly recommend it!
-Diana Stanley, President of Assist Systems for
Education
BASIC PUBLIC SPEAKING, 2ND EDITION 11
In addition to coaching world famous speakers, astute de-

baters, and sharp lawyers, you have also taught us the basics.
With your help, we have learned to master our fears about Pub-
lic Speaking and refine our individual styles.
-Yearbook Dedication to Douglas Parker
The majority of the resources in the book are generated from Mr.
Parker’s twenty years of teaching experience at the secondary, col-
legiate and professional levels. Further, these resources are sub-
stantiated by the best current research available on students’ learn-
ing styles and hands-on learning techniques.
______________________________________________________________
Visit Basic Public Speaking, 2nd Edition’s author Douglas
Parker on the web at http://www.xlibris.com/html/bookstore.html
for links to updates to this text including additional graphics, and
other important information about public speaking!
Positive Speech ConditioningTM

Trained in Developmental Counseling and after years of class-
room teaching and lecturing, Douglas Parker has developed the
“Positive Speech Conditioning (PSC) Program” to help students
overcome their natural fears of speaking in front of a group. PSC
recognizes that a slow progression of self-involvement in develop-
mentally sequenced speech activities leads to a confident and suc-
cessful speaker. An individual will develop essential speaking skills
by reading the book and applying the various techniques in his or
her own educational setting. PSC teaches the student how to speak
and the group how to listen.
“I shall speak forth my sentiments freely and without

reserve.”
-Patrick Henry, 1775
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INTRODUCTION
So, you want to learn about public speaking . . .
It all began back in 351 BC with an Athenian orator and pub-
lic official by the name of Demosthenes. Despite the fact that he
was born with a speech impediment, Demosthenes decided that
he wanted to become the best public speaker of his time, so he
packed up some supplies and sojourned to the Athenian woods.
After pitching camp, he took to his task. He put several small
Grecian pebbles in his mouth and began to recite some of his old
speeches and verses while out jogging.
At first he sounded much like you would expect him to have
sounded—a fellow with rocks in his mouth. However, after a few
weeks of practice he began to sound “normal.”
As you may have guessed by now, he spit out the Grecian
pebbles and was all the better for the experience; the theory being
that if he could speak normally with pebbles in his mouth, he
would be that much better without them. Unfortunately, you cannot
follow in Demosthenes’ footsteps. First off, you will not be able to
find any Grecian pebbles or Athenian woods unless you happen to
live on that side of the ocean. In addition, you would lose many of
your friends if you walked around with rocks in your jaw. So, what
can you do?
Don’t worry, Public Speaking will come to you. Since Oratory
was one of the three major studies of the Middle Age’s Seven Arts
along with logic and philosophy, you can still achieve classical
skills in this modern age. Public Speaking cannot be taught in a
normal lecturing kind of way; it is not something that you are
born with; you can’t even discover it in the normal sense by
downloading it from the Internet—it must be experienced! You
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can only learn by doing. Think of this book as your road map to
the experience of Public Speaking. Don’t be afraid to grow!
Also, do not worry about the size of your audience (in the
future, often referred to as the group or the listeners). This program
will work with two people or two hundred people. Any veteran
speaker will tell you that the size of the audience is not the issue–
preparation is!
This book talks to the developing and experienced speaker
who wants to develop his or her skills in the most important life
skill a person can have in the new millennium–the ability to stand
up before a group of people and communicate a message. It does
not matter if you are a student or a teacher in a high school or a
college, or if you are a manager, salesperson, politician, trainer, or
other kind of professional businessperson. If you want to improve
your public speaking skills, this is the book for you.
Thinking. Planning. Communicating. These universal life skills
appeal to everyone in all different countries and in different learn-
ing environments. The best way to reach your academic and pro-
fessional goals is to be able to stand up and express exactly what is
on your mind. This book is on your side for reaching those goals
by helping you to obtain the skills you need to move forward.
Positive Speech Conditioning
This book uses a technique known as Positive Speech Condi-
tioning (PSC). PSC recognizes that you cannot just jump behind
a podium and deliver a blood-stirring speech the first time at bat.
Growth comes only from practice. A child does not spring up
from her crib and run a 10k race. First, she learns to crawl, then
walk, and then run. In the same manner, a child usually does not
decide to abandon the idea of walking if she falls over a few times
(“Sorry mom, I gave it a good shot . . .”).
Growth comes in small steps or sequences. Each step is a little
more involved than its predecessor is. Each step is evaluated and
rewarded. PSC exercises this exact psychological policy; the les-
sons and activities imbedded in each speech are progressively more
advanced. Each speech has a new message and a new set of goals to
achieve. You will gain confidence along the way because you will
have a solid base upon which to build.
Delivery Styles
Before you begin, you should know about the various tactical
speaking delivery styles. Whether you are delivering a classroom
speech, or talking before your professional peers, you can decide
which style is best for each speech when the time comes.
The three fundamental ways you can deliver a public speech
are having your materials and notes in hand, memorizing your
speech verbatim, or speaking extemporaneously, or “off the cuff.”
Certain situations call for different styles. For example, a formal
speech that you have known about for some time would warrant
either a memorized or a prompted speech; speaking off the cuff
could seem disrespectful.
1. Materials in hand. Here you have your speech in front of you,
either in a major outline form or word-for-word. The advan-
tage here is that it is hard to lose any material. The major
disadvantage is that you cannot establish much eye contact
with the group.
2. Memorized. If you have the time to sit down and memorize a
speech, you will be greatly rewarded in terms of group inter-
action. Further on in this text are memory enhancement tips
and suggestions for interacting with an audience.
3. Extemporaneous Speaking. Extemporized speeches are pretty
much “off the cuff.” These are the most difficult speeches to
deliver since you have to think on your feet, and unless you are
very confident about your ability to synthesize information,
process the data, and say it all in a normal conversational tone
you may want to avoid this style as much as possible early on.
Of course, there are times when you simply must speak at a
moment’s notice. In Speech Number Two, you will discover
some of the tactics to employ in these occasions.
Written vs. Spoken Language
You should realize from the beginning that material delivered
in speech form often times does not read well and vice-versa. While
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in the composition of the basic ideas there are many similarities, as

you will soon find out, you cannot write a speech using the same
presentational techniques that you would use for a written essay.
It could sound very dry.
It is true, however, that the two do have some traits in com-
mon. Both require proper organizational skills and send a message
that is received and decoded by a listener. However, there are some
major differences. Of greatest importance is the difference in sound.
A speech must not only be right, it must sound right. As you will
discover, numerous vocal considerations come into play. No essay
ever had to worry about tone or pitch to be effective. Further, a
speech has the human element: things can, and often do go wrong.
This is what makes Public Speaking so dynamic and yet elusive to
so many.
The Basic Speeches
The Public Speaking lessons and suggestions are all imbedded
within the following twenty-one speech formats. It is quite possible
that you will only be interested in a few certain topics. If that is
the case, skip about the book and take from it what you need to be
successful. However, if you choose to develop your skills in a more
holistic fashion, you can make use of each speech and the activities
within sequentially. If you are a member of an academic group,
club, or classroom you can work your way through the speeches
allowing each of your peers the opportunity to listen, to speak, to
critique, and to learn. If you are in a business environment and
you are using this book as a professional development tool, the
same sequential approach would apply.
If you are an individual who is asked to make public speeches
as part of your job, as a role in your club or society, or through
your participation in public forums you can use various elements
from each sequential speech starting with Speech Number One
and moving forward every time you take the podium.
In a conscious effort to keep this text true to its mission and to
make it as concise as possible, you will not find many “workbook-
like” activities following the chapters. These would include fill-
in7-the-blank questions, prescribed writing activities, or multiple

choice quizzes designed to drill and test your understanding of the
vocabulary and contents. In this text, the essential objective is your
acquisition of the skills imbedded within the speeches, which is
assessed only to improve your confidence as a speaker.
How the Speeches are Constructed
Most of the speech assignments in this text are broken down
into these sections to help you to understand what is expected of
you:
The Procedure—the “how-to” of the speech.
The Lesson—the important body of knowledge you need to
master to deliver the speech.
The Strategy—tips on how to glide through your delivery.
The Comments and Goals—observations on the speech and
what you should gain from the experience.
The Example—an original speech that can act as a representa-
tive model. Not every speech lesson will have an example speech.
The Group Reaction–for those of you who are using this text
in a group environment, this section provides lessons and techniques
for the group on how to attend, think and critique.
Time Out Skills Review–a brief review of the things you should
know and be able to do after completing the speech.
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PRE-SPEECH LESSON
NUMBER ONE–THE GROUP
If you are using this book as a member of a group, you must all
take special care to recognize what is at stake here. No personal or
professional growth can take place unless you have a caring and
knowledgeable group listening and responding to you. This is not
the “real world.” This is guided practice. You will have enough
opportunities for speaking in the real world soon enough. The
truth is if only one person in your group is not focused, chances of
your becoming an effective public speaker drop considerably.
This makes the Public Speaking class unique as far as in any
other subject, if someone falls asleep or is acting in a non-involved
manner, it is only his or her loss. In Public Speaking, it is your loss
as well. The obvious message here is that your group will either
sink or swim as a unit and you need to attend to that fact from the
beginning. Several of the pre-speech lesson activities following will
help you develop the kind of group dynamics that will help each
of you be as successful as possible.
You as an individual can do a great deal to make sure that your
group “floats,” because a group is really only a collection of indi-
viduals. Each member in the group will grow through the group’s
help, and as such, the group itself will mature. The formal task of
the group is to offer appropriate feedback to each speaker through
formal and informal critiques. You will learn the appropriate tech-
niques for critiquing at a later point; however, for now you need to
know only three formal rules for offering feedback to a speaker:
-Describe the speaker’s mistakes–do not get personal.
-Offer specific comments.
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-Only comment on things that the speaker has control over, such as
tone, content or speed.
The group has two basic roles while a member is speaking,
one as a listener and one as an evaluator. Their responsibilities are
outlined below:
As a Listener . . .
-Do not judge the person by his or her speech. Be genuine and sincere.
-Do not practice or think about your comments while the person is
speaking.
-While the person is speaking, have a positive regard for the speaker.
-Try to understand the speaker from his or her point of view.
As an Evaluator . . .
-Share feelings and thoughts with the speaker.
-Make “I” statements (e.g., “I think your speech was . . .“ or “I feel
you need to . . .“)
-Be specific.
-Be constructive, not destructive.
-Remember that each speaker is unique.
-Comment only on the speech—not on the speaker.
-Do not project your own biases onto the speech.
As mentioned before, the group is a collection of individuals,
each with his own or her own thoughts, likes, dislikes, prejudices
and preconceptions. Sometimes communication becomes difficult
in such a group, so it is important to realize from the start that it
is okay to disagree with someone in the group. To disagree does
not mean to become disagreeable. Rather, the even flow and ex-
change of ideas are most beneficial and can only be hampered by a
disagreeable person.
Experiential Learning and Processing
Recent brain-based research has indicated that learning by
experience alone is only a small part of the total learning process.
While the experience is valuable, you need to take the time to
review and process what just happened with your group. Coaches
have always known to break down each game for the players on
videotape or the chalkboard to evaluate what happened and how
to improve for the next time out. For you to develop as a speaker,
you too will need to do some work after each speaking event with
your group. After each speech your group will assess your efforts so
that you can take an honest look at your presentation, help you
decide what you did well and what you need to improve, and
guide your plans for your next trip to the back of the podium.
While speaking experiences will help you to become accustomed
to public speaking, processing your efforts with your peers will
help you to develop the confidence to communicate!
Exercise–the Telephone Game
Sometimes messages are lost in a large group as communication
breaks down. A good group exercise to illustrate this point is the
children’s game “telephone.” Everyone sits in a circle. One person
thinks up a long sentence (e.g., the circus will be in town next
Friday, and stay until everyone sees the clowns.) The original person
whispers the sentence to another, who in turn passes it on to the
next, and so on. The last person should then say the sentence
aloud. Odds are that the sentence will have mutated substantially
by the time it reached the last person. Try it in your group!
If one sentence can be jumbled up in just a few minutes, imag-
ine what can happen to an entire speech! As you will learn, a good
deal more goes into human communications beyond the words
themselves. There are issues that affect the sender and the receiv-
ers; is someone tired today, did someone have a fight with some-
body else the night before, or did someone discover the wrong side
of the bed while waking up today? What is even more troubling is
that in general people do not always listen closely enough to the
words of a speech so that only approximately 10%—15% of what
you know and you learn comes from what you hear.
The Group’s Goals
The group has three basic goals to attempt to achieve while a
speaker is speaking. All three are important elements of the speaker’s
development:
-To assess the speech and the speaker by first creating standards for
evaluation.
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-To lower the speaker’s anxiety by focusing and not providing

distractions.
-To prescribe the steps to take for the speaker to improve confidence.
Hidden Agendas
The group must be careful to avoid hidden agendas in its cri-
tiques. A hidden agenda is a message or a purpose beneath the
message being communicated to the speaker. An obtuse example
of this might be if someone in the group is madly in love with the
speaker, his or her critique might be overly kind, even if a more
terse critique was due.
Five Absolute, Guaranteed Ways to Discourage a Speaker
during a Critique
To help you get a better feel for some of the behaviors that
really damage a speaker’s pride and eventual development, these
five simple actions can delay a person’s growth. When you are
speaking you tend to be very aware of how people are sitting and
what kinds of facial expressions they are wearing. Later on, you
will discover techniques for monitoring the group’s reactions and
adjusting your presentation; however, for now it is important to
realize that even when a group seems to be paying attention, if
their reflective comments are not honest it is just as potentially
damaging. To avoid these problems, whatever you do as a member
of a group when offering a critique do not:
-Offer clichés as real advice.
-Drift off during the speech and then pretend to have all of the right
comments.
-Try to show-off by listing trivial concerns or to nit-pick.
-Make comments directed at speaker’s personality.
-Moreover, maybe the worst of all—let someone “get away” with a
flawed speech. This proves that you do not care about the
speaker’s growth enough to take the personal risk of being honest.
It is very difficult to develop trust within a group if everyone
sweet-talks to one another instead of employing genuine
communications.
Opening Day Behavioral Rules

Exercise: As an opening cooperative project, your group may
want to consider this activity. First, break your group into two
teams. Each team will take one of two classroom absolutes: each
day we will make progress, and we will respect each other. Each team
will discuss what this really means; what does it look like? Each
team will then create a list of observable behaviors that indicate
what the absolute means. Then each team will report its decisions,
and as a group, you decide on which indicators you will accept as
your “ground rules” for the year. This list should then be hand-
printed on a large sheet of paper, signed by everyone (including
the group leader or teacher), and posted throughout the year.
To help you begin, consider these four ideals for inclusion on
your list:
-Communication should be honest
-Commitment is important
-Each of us is responsible for supporting risk-taking in others
and ourselves
-No “Gotchas,” or I know something you need to know but I am
not going to tell you until it is too late and then I am going to
spring it on you
Time Out Skills Review
What to know or be able to do:
Demosthenes—Athenian orator credited with formalizing
Public Speaking.
Evaluator—A member of the Group that: Share feelings and
thoughts with the speaker. Makes “I” statements (e.g., “I think
your speech was . . . “ or “I feel you need to . . . “). Is specific. Is
constructive, not destructive. Remembers that each speaker is
unique. Comments only on the speech—not on the speaker. Does
not project own biases onto the speech.
Extemporaneous Speaking—Style of delivery—mostly “off the
cuff ” with notes.
Group—A caring and knowledgeable collection of colleagues
or classmates listening and responding to you.
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Group’s Goals A form of assessment to improve speaker’s

confidence:
Describe the speaker’s mistakes–don’t get personal
Offer specific comments.
Comment on things that the speaker has control.
To lower the speaker’s anxiety.
To evaluate the speaker and to present standards.
To prescribe the steps to take for the speaker to improve
confidence.
Group Leader—A teacher, natural leader, or other person who
takes responsibility for the development of the Group.
Hidden Agendas—Message or a purpose beneath the message.
Listener—A member of the Group that: judges the person by
his or her speech. Is genuine and sincere. Does not practice or
think about the comments while the person is speaking. While
the person is speaking, has a positive regard for the speaker. Tries
to understand the speaker from his or her point of view.
Materials in hand—Style of delivery—speech in front of you.
Memorized—Style of delivery—verbatim memory of whole
speech.
Positive Speech Conditioning—Speech skills development
using small steps or sequences.
PRE-SPEECH LESSON
NUMBER TWO–THE SPEAKER
The main idea behind this book is to increase your confidence as a
speaker by helping you overcome your natural fears of speaking in
front of groups. That being said, you should know from the start
that if your group is being honest, or if your audience is comprised
of normal people with normal distractions, you are going to hear
critiques from time to time that you do not like. Some of these will
seem unfair and unfounded. If you are using this text without a
supportive group and you are progressively trying new techniques
with each talk you make, you almost certainly will hear comments
from the listeners that hurt your feelings. While the critiques may
cause some damage to your ego at first, the most problematic
reaction you can have is to shut these comments out of your
consciousness.
Let’s be frank. If you learn to swim, you are going to get wet.
If you learn to ride a bicycle, you are going to skin a knee. If you
learn to speak in public, you are going to receive some critical
commentary.
Take this unconditional fact and tuck it away in your mind.
Once you have parked this safely in your psyche and know that
you are going to take some verbal hits, you can move forward with
the rest of the people who take this conversational leap of faith.
Ego-Defense Mechanisms
Not knowing this universal truth can lead to some problems.
Many student speakers sometimes ignore valid, constructive com-
ments just to protect their pride. You must be careful not to over-
look helpful critiques just because they are not what you want to
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hear. These are some of the classic speakers’ ego-defense mecha-

nisms to dodge the reality of the situation and how they usually
sound:
-Projection—put the ‘blame’ elsewhere. “Oh, I did badly
because the teacher is ridiculous.”
-Escape—simply to deny reality. “Hey, my speech was great, if
you don’t like it, it’s your problem.”
-Rationalization—trying to explain away a poor speech. “Oh, I
didn’t like the topic anyway.”
-Backstep–unfortunately, this one is very popular among student
speakers, it means lowering one’s maturity level to respond
to a negative critique. “Oh, well you’re wrong, pal, my
speech was fine. You want to make something of it?”
-Repression—the brain accidentally “forgets” a negative critique.
“Oh, I forgot your comment somehow; silly me.”
Exercise–Terror at Ten Thousand Feet
A good way to examine how you and your peers respond to
evaluations is to conduct a straightforward exercise in which every-
one has the opportunity to promote himself or herself and to speak
critically about others. Normally you would not want to engage in
an exercise like this because you have been taught that if you don’t
have anything nice to say about somebody, you should keep it to yourself.
To help you adjust to your new role as an evaluator in as safe an
environment as possible, first you will have to understand how to
role-play. In this exercise, you will practice how to develop a char-
acter, how to listen to “unfair and unfounded comments,” how to
respond appropriately to these critiques, and how to offer critical
comments back to your peers.
Role-playing is a way of telling a story in which you play a
central character. The story has a basic skeletal outline at the be-
ginning, but it is up to you and your peers to decide where the
story’s plot line goes from there. You and your peers will develop a
story where each person portrays a character in a plot that is un-
folding in front of you. In role-playing, you adopt a person’s indi-
viduality other than your own, which means that you are free to
be as expressive as you wish without revealing any of your own

personal feelings.
Role-playing has become extremely popular in the past few
years. Role-playing is regarded as a critical developmental activity
in formal training programs for almost every professional occupa-
tion. You can play out various scenarios that could occur in “the
real world,” and then step back and analyze what worked and
what did not work in the safety of your own learning environ-
ment. Role-playing has also become enormously popular in com-
puter and Internet games as many people enjoy acting out ideas
without actually putting themselves in harm’s way. This is an im-
portant skill for you to develop as you progress as a public speaker
since many of the speeches you will encounter in this text and in
real-life involve role-playing in one form or another.
Not surprisingly, most people prefer role-playing games that
involve a narrative that has some kind of danger attached to it.
Role-playing an action-packed trip to the grocery store in the family
minivan just doesn’t compare to trading bullets with a desperate
villain deep in the mysterious tropical forest.
In this exercise, you and each of your peers should choose one
of the following occupations to role-play. You can develop other
occupations to add to this list, but you can use this file for starters:
-A banker
-A medical doctor
-A lawyer
-A veterinarian
-A sailor
-A mechanic
-A professional wrestler
-A writer
-A teacher
-A scientist
-A cook
-A soldier
-A young child
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-An airline attendant

-An armed security officer
-A wealthy businessperson
-A meteorologist
-A college student
Once you have chosen your occupation, take a few minutes to
develop your character. Picture in your mind what your character
looks like and sounds like. Once you have this image in your mind,
pretend that you are that person and try to answer some of these
questions:
-What is your name?
-Where do you live?
-How old are you?
-Do you have any relatives?
-How often do you exercise?
-How sympathetic are you?
-How do you react in a crisis situation?
-How honest are you?
-How naive are you?
-How wealthy are you?
The Story’s Skeletal Outline
You are a passenger aboard a small twin-propeller airplane that
is flying unhurriedly from New York City to Yarmouth, Nova Scotia
on your way to a conference on Effective Communication Skills.
The flight is mainly over water; although, you do see tiny dots of
islands from time to time as you cruise along on a sunny summer’s
day. You have been in the air for several hours now and the long
flight is beginning to take its toll on your patience. You are tired
and bored, and you want the flight to end.
You should always be careful of what you wish for.
Suddenly, you hear a loud explosion and the airplane takes a
steep dive toward the water. After thirty seconds of screams and
the reports of breaking glasses have filled your ears, the plane levels
off maybe a mile or two above sea level according to your sight
calculations. The pilot comes over the public address system and
reports that you had experienced just a little bit of choppy air and
that everything would be back to normal, “right quick.”
“No reason to worry,” you think to yourself.
Just then, the pilot and the copilot stroll casually down the
center aisle each carrying a small toolbox. As they both disappear
behind the dark curtain at the end of the fuselage, you relax knowing
that the situation is under control.
Three minutes later your newspaper is blown off your serving
tray as someone in the rear of the cabin shouts, “Hey, they’re
parachuting out the back of the plane!”
Several of the passengers race to the rear of the plane as you
open the cockpit door. You cannot help but notice that while there
was nobody in the command seats, the controls of the airplane
were moving by themselves. “Auto-pilot,” you say to yourself as
you start checking the instruments. Everything seems all right;
except for the altimeter that shows that the plane is flying at just
below 10,000 feet adjusted for ground level and is dropping about
five feet per second! You quickly calculate that at this rate the
plane will be bodysurfing in about 30 minutes!
When you race back to report this news to your fellow passen-
gers, you hear that there are only four parachutes left onboard the
plane, but at least they are the newer static-line square parachutes
which by opening automatically increase the chances for survival,
but have to be opened by at least 3,200 feet to work! You recalcu-
late that you now have approximately twenty minutes to make
some tough decisions.
Your group will have to decide very quickly who is going to
live through the impending disaster!
Exercise Procedures
These activities do not have to be completed in twenty minutes;
that piece of information is included to heighten the sense of
urgency in this scenario. To help you reach the best possible life-
or-death decisions, you should follow these steps:
-Based on your role-playing occupation, you and each of the
other “passengers” have one minute or less to plead the case
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why you should get one of the parachutes. There should be

no interruptions during the speeches.
-After each person has spoken, you and each of the other passen-
gers have one minute or less to confront any of the other
passengers’ spoken perceptions about themselves. Again,
there should be no interruptions during the speeches.
-When everyone has spoken, each person whose character was
confronted has up to a one-minute rebuttal to defend
himself or herself.
-As an optional step to this exercise, following these speeches,
you can allow fifteen minutes for small group and one-on-
one discussions. During this time, you and your fellow
passengers should be in contention for your lives with each
other. Can your character form any alliances to guarantee
your survival? Can your character make any believable
promises that would be to the benefit of the others once you
are on the ground?
-When you are ready to continue, everyone takes a sheet of paper
and lists four occupations (not names) that should receive a
parachute. Tally the votes for all of the occupations and list
the top six on a blackboard. The six people playing these
occupations should come to the front of the room and take
turns rolling two dice. The four people with the top totals of
the combined dice will receive the parachutes and will live
to tell the story another day!
Problem-Solving Issues
While this is a fictional role-play, there still are some funda-
mental speech elements engaged in your plea for life. You might
think to yourself, “Why would anyone else want my occupation
alive if we survive the jump?” On the other hand, you might think
to yourself, “Is there anyone who could stop my occupation if I
decide to grab a parachute for myself?”
In any speech to problem-solve a situation, there are certain
strategies that you should keep in mind.
1) State the issues that are involved and why it is important that
everyone listens to your speech. What are the variables that

you can control? What are the variables that you cannot control?
2) State what differentiates your position or solution from anyone
else’s position. Why is your stance unique? In this scenario,
what can you do better than anyone else can, or what can you
offer that is superior?
3) List ahead of time your perceptions of your strengths and your
weaknesses. Accentuate your strengths and downplay your
weaknesses. In this scenario, even if you are a young child you
could think of something of value to offer the group.
4) Examine your audience. What do they need and what can you
provide to make sure that you are part of a “win-win” outcome?
5) Choose your words carefully. Use language that befits the
situation. For example in this scenario, having your character
threaten passengers with subsequent retaliation would be
pointless if you were not among the survivors. So, after hearing
bullying words why would anyone vote for your character?
Follow-up Activity
As a group, discuss each person’s speech to survive, each person’s
rebuttal, and each person’s confrontation of the others. Did each
speaker use problem-solving strategies that made sense in the given
scenario? How would each person’s occupation be more or less
influential if a new scene took place in a hospital, or a police station,
or in a school?
Projection—Put the ‘blame’ elsewhere for a poor effort.
Escape—To simply deny reality after a poor effort.
Rationalization—Trying to explain away a poor speech.
Backstep—Lowering one’s maturity level to respond to a
negative critique.
Repression—The brain accidentally “forgets” a negative critique.
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PRE-SPEECH LESSON
NUMBER THREE–THE TYPES
OF SPEECHES
Just as in literature where you can make the argument that every
theme ever imagined boils down to being supported through five
or six basic plots, so too you can claim that in all of the millions of
kinds of speeches, they all simmer to just six basic types which can
then be presented in any number of different ways. While you will
work on the presentational styles later in this text, for now the
basic types you will work with in this text are:
-Argumentative, Persuasive, or Sales—trying to change or strengthen
an audience’s position on an issue.
-Narrative, or Entertaining—illustrating issues by showing the
passage of time or the development of a plot or a story.
-Descriptive, Interpretive, or Inflecting–painting verbal pictures
attempting to appeal to the audience’s five senses to help them
grasp issues.
-Informative, Training, or Reporting–the telling of facts.
-Discussion–positively using audience participation.
-Lecturing, or How To–giving information with a specific behavioral
or conceptual goal in mind for the audience.
If you keep in mind that every speech, no matter how
complicated, is just one of these types, you can keep everything in
perspective!
Learning Standards
While Public Speaking has not been defined in terms of na-
tional standards, speaking, listening and writing are often listed as
content standards within the Language Arts curriculum by most

school districts. This text can be used to help schools and school
districts address their Language Arts learning standards in the ar-
eas of writing, listening and speaking. If you are a curriculum writer,
you can use this text as a resource in preparing benchmarks to
address the content standards from your national, state or local
standards. You should incorporate the skills as outlined in each
speech’s Strategy, Comments and Goals, and Group sections, and
in the Time Out Skills Master Review found in the Post-Speech
Lesson. In the Post-Speech Lesson, you will find a cross-referenced
speech-by-speech list of the criteria for developing your own school
or district’s Language Arts benchmarks and standards, and the
order of the contents of this book.
Presentational styles:
1)Argumentative, Persuasive, or Sales—trying to change or
strengthen an audience’s position on an issue.
2)Narrative, or Entertaining—illustrating issues by showing the
3)Descriptive, Interpretive, or Inflecting–painting verbal pic-
tures attempting to appeal to the audience’s five senses to
make them grasp issues.
4)Informative, Training, or Reporting–the telling of facts.
5)Discussion–positively using audience participation
6)Lecturing, or How To–giving information with a specific
behavioral or conceptual goal in mind for the audience
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PRE-SPEECH LESSON
NUMBER FOUR: USING
HANDS-ON WEBBING
TECHNIQUES TO HELP
WRITE YOUR SPEECH
Before you begin to write your speech, you should take a minute
to answer a few questions about why you are doing this in the first
place. If this is a classroom exercise, then the answer is obvious but
you still need some reflection on your assignment. If you are using
this book as a resource for your professional life, then you need to
do some homework.
Creating Your Objectives
As a rule, people do not do things without having a reason.
Sometimes these reasons are clear and sometimes the reasons or
motivations may have “hidden agendas.” Nevertheless, you still
need a good reason to spend a good deal of your time and emotional
energy preparing a speech to deliver before a live audience.
Another way to think about reasons is to consider what teach-
ers would call “objectives.” Objectives are what teachers want the
students to learn, how they will learn it and in what order, what
materials are needed, and how the teacher will assess if the stu-
dents learn the material content. You need to start thinking like a
teacher for this activity to be helpful for you.
First, you should have a good idea who will be sitting in your
audience (Speech Number 15 goes more into detail on sizing up
an audience). Next, you need to be able to decide what you want

to accomplish with your speech; what do you want the listeners to
do after you speak. Should they just be informed about a topic;
should they go out and buy something; do you want them to
write a member of Congress? How should they feel after your
speech? Happy, sad, excited, depressed, frightened? Once your
have these decisions firmly in your mind, you can begin to make
more informed choices about the words and phrases you use to
construct your speech.
Tightening the Focus
For some people, organizing their thoughts about a speech
topic is a most perplexing and sometimes even kind of a scary
chore! With the volumes of the research available during the re-
cent decade devoted to the functioning of the brain, is it possible
that speakers can use some of this information to draft a “hands-
on” speech without going back to graduate school for an advanced
degree in neuroscience? The answer is of course yes. As a practical
example of this, here is a model that you can employ to find order
in your brainstormed chaos by actively processing work in both
your visual and kinesthetic realms. In other words, it’s okay to get
your hands a little messy when making a speech!
In every speaking situation, from 7th Grade Art Class to ad-
dressing the board of directors, how can writing a good speech
help you become better communicators in the new millennium?
A good speech gives you the confidence to do what you need
to do when you stand up on your own two feet. Knowing that you
have a well-prepared speech that makes sense to you will go a long
way in helping you effectively make the presentation before a live
audience. Remember, as Louis Pasteur once said, “chance favors the
prepared mind.” Give yourself the best chance possible for success!
For illustrative purposes, you will use the Informative, Train-
ing, or Reporting speech here as the model for the hands-on speech
organizer. As you will see later, this technique will work just as
well for any other type of speech.
The Heart of the Speech–The Speech Focusing Statement
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The order and logical development of your speech is critical to

its success. Speech teachers have always scuffled with their stu-
dents over the eventual organization of a clearly drafted speech. As
you would probably not enjoy such conflicts, you can turn your
attention to the Speech Focusing Statement, or what English teach-
ers call the thesis statement in the hopes that it may provide the
clues for the rest of the speech. The Speech Focusing Statement is
the main idea of a speech that tells the listeners the purpose be-
hind the piece. It needs to be a clearly written and interesting road
map for the listeners to be able to comprehend where the speech is
heading. The Speech Focusing Statement is the backbone of a
speech: the main point, the central idea. Unfortunately, what you
usually hear is a simple restatement of the topic for the speech. If
you were in English 10, and the topic assigned was, “Discuss the
relationship between Hamlet and Ophelia,” most introductions
would include a sentence that resembles: Hamlet and Ophelia knew
each other . . .
Not only do Speech Focusing Statements present construc-
tional difficulties for speakers; they are also somewhat frightening!
You have learned that informative speeches contain facts, not opin-
ions, as most people are not very comfortable sharing their humble
beliefs about scholarly matters with their audiences. Writing a
Speech Focusing Statement forces you to make an assertion; you
have to take a stand on the topic. By choosing narrow details about
a wide-open topic, the speaker is making conscious decisions about
what he or she likes, feels, and supports. There are thousands of
facts about each topic; why did the speaker choose these details?
In composing a Speech Focusing Statement, you as the speaker are
fashioning an opinion merely by stating the facts!
The key in drafting successful Speech Focusing Statements is
to understand that your ideas, beliefs, insights, and hunches about
a general topic can be stated in a very non-threatening way by
writing a thoughtful Statement.
With this charge in mind, here is a five-step procedure that
appeals to speakers of most ages and developmental stages. It may
look a bit daunting at first, but once you try it, you will be amazed
how quickly you can comprehend the concepts behind these
webbing techniques!
Step One: Talk Before You Think . . .
First, take a look at a routine speech undertaking, such as the
aforementioned, “Discuss the relationship between Hamlet and
Ophelia.” If there is no research work involved, skip down two
paragraphs.
If there is researching involved, it is at this early point that you
should do your digging. Visit the library, surf the Internet, or
follow whatever procedure you like for researching as much data as
possible on the topic. Each researched fraction of data should be
written down on a separate piece of paper, or on a separate small
index card. Finally, randomly spread each of these idea papers or
cards across a table.
If the topic did not involve any formal researching, such as a
personal reflective speech, and you had to invent or imagine the
various details about a topic, then the first step is brainstorming.
A good technique to use for brainstorming is to find a quiet room
somewhere, turning on a tape recorder, and saying everything that
pops into your mind when reflecting on the topic. Or, talk before you
think. If no tape recorder is available, write each idea as quickly as
possible. Try to brainstorm nouns, verbs, descriptions, and questions
about the topic. Some types of questions are: what do you want to
know about the topic; how can you use the topic or your knowledge
about the topic; how does the topic relate to other things you
know about; how do you feel about the topic. Once the
brainstorming is finished, transcribe the tape by writing each idea
on a separate piece of paper, or on a separate small index card.
Another approach that is enormously popular is to write the
ideas on one single sheet of paper, and then to use your fingers to
rip the document so each idea is on its own shred of paper! You
might try sitting on the floor as you do this to complete the effect!
Either way, randomly spread each of these idea papers or cards
across a table.
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Step Two: “Making Sense” Is In the Eye and Mind of the

Beholder
Once you have spread the cards or papers, either researched or
brainstormed, simply look at the cards or papers as a whole for
several minutes. Do you see any patterns? Are some ideas very
similar or very different? Do some of the ideas make better sense
than the others? If an idea does not seem to fit with the others,
throw it off the table and keep going until you have between eight
and fifteen cards or papers left on the table. This begins the process
of working with and reacting to visual and kinesthetic stimuli.
With the remaining cards or papers, begin moving them around
the table to form an arrangement that makes sense to you. It does
not matter what kind of “sense” it makes to anyone else, as long as
it seems “right” to you. You are making mental interconnections,
or categorizing the ideas at this point as a metacognitive process in
which you uncover contextual relationships that make sense to
you and you alone.
Step Three: From Scraps to Maps . . .
Copy the exact pattern of ideas precisely as it sits on the table
during Step Two into a writing notebook, except now you should
be drawing a circle around each idea and randomly labeling each
circle as “Idea # 1,” “Idea #2,” “Idea #3,” etc.
Once copied, draw some lines between the Ideas that seem
related in any fashion, or that made sense to you when you were
thinking about the relationships among the Ideas. One line should
connect only two Ideas! If there are two lines between two Ideas, as
a cleaner shortcut you can draw a dashed line between the two
Ideas. You have now begun mapping your concepts of the topic!
Next, briefly label each line on the page to help jog your memo-
ries later; answer the question: how does each Idea on the line relate
to the other? Is one Idea a subset of the other? Does one cause the
other to happen? Did one Idea happen before the other? Does
each of the Ideas affect each other?
As an option at this point, you may want to put arrows at the
ends of the lines:
—A one-way arrow indicates that “A” is either a subset of “B,”

or, in other words, “A” is a member of the “B” group (e.g.,
Hamlet [A] is a member of the Danish royalty [B]); or that
“A” causes “B” to happen; or that “A” happened before “B.”
Note: you can have one line pointing one way, and a second
line pointing back to show that the two Ideas affect each
other–a dashed line between the two then represents this!
Now, count the lines between the Ideas to determine which
Idea has the most lines attached to it. Remember to count a dashed
line as two lines. Call this Idea with the most lines attached to it
the “Important” Idea. If there is a tie, decide quickly off the top of
your head, which Idea seems more “important.”
Next, list which remaining Ideas are directly connected or not
removed by more than one other Idea to the “Important” Idea.
From that list, rank order the Ideas that have the most lines at-
tached to them on the page from greatest to least. Then, make a
short list of the top three from that list. In other words, of the Ideas
attached to the Important Idea or not off by more than one, which
three have the most connections with the rest of the Ideas on the
page? Again, if there is a tie, decide quickly which ones seem more
important. Now you will need to rank order the top three Ideas on
the short list. Of these three, which ones are directly connected to
the Important Idea? Rank order these on top of the short list. Fi-
nally, of the directly connected Ideas on the short list decide which
was drawn physically closest to the Important Idea. Use these cri-
teria to make your final ranking by putting the closest Idea on top
of the short list. Write, “Item 1,” “Item 2,” and “Item 3” next to
these Ideas on your short list.
The chart below highlights the steps for sorting the Ideas:
Step Number 1: Count the lines between the Ideas. Count a
dashed line as two lines.
Step Number 2: If there is a tie, quickly decide which Idea
seems more “important.”
Step Number 3: The Idea with the most lines attached to it
becomes the “Important” Idea.
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Step Number 4: List which remaining Ideas are directly

connected or not removed by more than one other Idea to the
“Important” Idea.
Step Number 5: On this list, rank order the Ideas that have
the most lines attached to them from greatest to least.
Step Number 6: Make a short list of the top three Ideas from
that list. If there is a tie, quickly decide which Idea seems more
“important.”
Step Number 7: Rank order the top three Ideas on the short
list by:
A) Which ones are directly connected to the Important Idea?
B) Of the directly connected Ideas on the short list decide which
was drawn physically closest to the Important Idea.
Step Number 8: Label the top three on the short list: “Item
1,” “Item 2,” and “Item 3”
Step Four: Webbing Success.
Next, prepare a new sheet of paper. In the middle of the paper,
draw a three-inch diameter circle. In the middle of the circle, copy
the Idea from the other page that had the most lines attached to it,
the “Important” Idea. This term is now in the center of your web,
and is called the “Hub.”
Draw three more circles around the center Hub at 2:00, 6:00,
and 10:00 and draw temporary lines from these circles to the Hub.
Copy Items 1, 2, and 3 from the short list into these circles. Next,
draw the lines out from the Items 1, 2, and 3 circles in the same
way they appeared in your previous drawing, and copy your at-
tached Ideas from the previous page. In other words, attach the
other Ideas that were previously linked to Items 1, 2, and 3. Fi-
nally, erase the original three temporary lines from the Hub to
Items One, Two and Three.
The Hub and the three Items.
Step Five: No-Fuss Speech Focusing Statements.

You will be amazed how remarkably simple this next step is.
By duplicating the following template, you can now “plug-in” the
Items from the web above to create a preliminary Speech Focusing
Statement, which could be positioned near the end of your speech’s
introduction:
“This speech will (choose one: explore, explain, discuss, dem-
onstrate, review, etc.) HUB by examining ITEM 1, ITEM 2, and
ITEM 3.”
Please note this issue: some speakers prefer that the Speech
Focusing Statement appears at the beginning of the introduction,
which will work with this model as well. Even if you do not design
your informative speech to follow this structure, you can still use
the web as a focus for your thoughts and use the following outline
as a backbone for your speech’s development!
Once you have developed this preliminary Speech Focusing
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Statement, you can then develop an outline for the speech. The
Speech Focusing Statement appears at the bottom (or top) of the
introduction phase of the speech. Next, Item 1 becomes the subject
of the topic sentence for the first group of paragraphs, using the
“other items” that are attached to it on the web as supporting
information according to how the arrows indicate usage. The process
then repeats for Item 2 and Item 3 as you provide the subjects for
the topic sentences and supporting issues for subsequent paragraphs
using a typical “five-paragraph speech” model:
I) Introduction
Catch listener’s attention
Begin to focus the issues
End introduction with the new Speech Focusing Statement
II) Body Paragraph One
Topic sentence is Item 1
Supporting details are the strands from Item 1
III) Body Paragraph Two
IV) Body Paragraph Three
V) Conclusion
Restate Speech Focusing Statement
Move from specific to general issues
Explain to audience why it was important they heard this speech
Below is a fill-in-the-blank chart you can use for drafting your
five-paragraph speech:
1) Introduction
A) Catch listeners’ attention
B) Begin to focus the issues
C) Speech Focusing Statement________________
_________________________________________
_________________________________________
2) Body Paragraph One
A)Item One _____________________________________

Strands from Item One _____________________
____________________________________
3) Body Paragraph Two
A) Item Two ____________________________________
Strands from Item Two _____________________
____________________________________
4) Body Paragraph Three
A)ItemThree ____________________________________
Strands from Item Three ______________________
______________________________________
5) Conclusion
A)Restate Speech Focusing Statement__________
______________________________________________
______________________________________________
B) Move from specific to general issues
C) Explain to audience why important they heard this speech
After you have your outlines, you can begin filling in facts, details,
quotes, statistics, or whatever else you need to support the
topic sentences of the paragraphs. The best way to begin this
step is to use the other Items on the web as modifiers to the
main Items.
As noted above, as the first draft of the speech begins to
take form, you will most likely realize that you need to change
some of the wording of the Speech Focusing Statement, which
is fine. In fact, you should be encouraged to find more apropos
wordings than, “This speech will,” or “by examining . . . “ The
true function of the preliminary Speech Focusing Statement is
to provide direction during the early going of creating your
speech; however, the order of Items and the Hub should be
preserved. As the actual speech is developed in the Process
Speech Writing model below, it is expected that you will tinker
with the Speech Focusing Statement until you have reached
the final draft form of the speech, and the final or definitive
Speech Focusing Statement.
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Applications for Other Speech Types.

Does this mean then that you can only use this technique
when creating informative speeches? No, because the idea behind
the procedure is to organize your thoughts to find your own “con-
nections,” this will work as well with persuasive, entertaining,
humorous or other types of speeches.
For example, does this process work for writing a story for a
Speech to Entertain? Yes, use the same steps up to the “fill-in-the-
outline” section. Then, think of a new outline form. For example,
the Hub could be the main plot development in the rising action,
with the three main Ideas being significant plot points, setting,
theme, or dialogue depending on what you value in a story. If you
are writing a poem, the Hub could be your theme and the three
main Ideas could be the tone, meaning, speaker, diction, or imag-
ery depending on what you value in a poem. If you are writing a
science-based lab report speech, the Hub could be the hypothesis
and the three main Ideas could be the procedure, equipment, vari-
ables, materials, safety precautions, observations, or results depend-
ing on the nature of the lab. If you are writing a persuasive speech,
the Hub could be the focal issue and the three main Ideas could
then support your posture.
Different tasks call for different tools. When writing speeches
for the new millennium, you can learn to appreciate writing more
by adding some new tools to the shed. By appealing to your differ-
entiated learning styles and modalities, you can reach goals that
before may have only ended in frustration and fussing, much like
the way creating speeches used to be!
Process Speech Writing: Applications and Ideas for Speech
Writing
In the past, writing a speech has always been thought of as the
duty of English and Reading classes only; however, all of today’s
research reports that these are skills that must be drilled in every
class you attend—especially the maths and sciences. If you were in
the business world, while you are called upon early and often to
make speeches, there are precious few professional opportunities

to learn how to write a speech.
The key to writing a speech once you have your Speech Focusing
Statement is an understanding of Process Speech Writing. Much
the same way that math teachers send homework back for “re-
do’s,” you have to get accustomed to the idea that a perfect speech
is not going to flow from your pen or word processor every time
you sit down to write. It takes several rewrites before a speech can
really meet both your needs and the needs of the audience.
Part of functioning in a global community means understand-
ing how to work within a team, and appreciating how things that
may seem different are actually connected. This understanding of
connectedness in speech writing is critical to your growth as a
speaker. In the same way, the ability of your audience to grasp
your meaning is based on what they already know about a topic.
Cognitive theories of understanding state that learning only takes
place when the new learning is based upon a previous learning.
The audience learning new material based upon what they have
previously mastered is much like climbing a ladder; you can only
climb to a new height once you have reached the level before.
Creating the rest of your speech becomes very much like the
connectedness exercises you performed to create your Speech
Focusing Statement! Try to bring in as many supportive topics as
possible to help your audience grasp meaning in your presentation.
Process Speech Writing must then parallel climbing a ladder.
You constantly need to bring in to the discussions the lessons that
have come before, and to show the connections among what is
being learned. In business, the sales report takes on new meaning
when the product is given relevancy in the listeners’ minds by
showing how it surpasses or replaces an item everyone knows.
The philosophy of speech writing can be summed up in one
phrase: audience involvement. What is the best way to make sure
that your audience is involved in your speech–involve your group
as you are writing the speech! If you are not working within a
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group or a class, be sure to use some of your colleagues as buddy-

editors before you create your final speech draft.
Process Speech Writing should take place within your group
as the speech is being developed. Buddy consulting, or conferencing,
is an important means of appraising the speech writing process. A
consultation is a great way to assess how the speech is developing.
The key to success in the consultation lies in asking questions that
help you focus your speech writing plans. The following are
examples:
-What is your Speech Focusing Statement?
-How did you arrive at the Speech Focusing Statement?
-Did you do any research?
-Are you following your web?
-What kind of audience do you expect?
-Are you writing a speech that makes sense to you?
-Are you writing a speech that will meet the audience’s needs?
-Does your speech build on the audience’s previous knowledge, or is it
all brand-new?
As noted, once you have your first draft, you can begin the
process of buddy-editing within your group. You should work
with your group members in reviewing and commenting on each
other’s work at several points. The normal flow of buddy-editing a
speech is this:
1) Review of your outline or web by your teacher or your boss
(usually reserved for major works).
2) Buddy-editing by two or three buddies. This is the “small group”
editing phase. After everyone has prepared the rough drafts,
take a full sheet of paper and divide it with horizontal lines
into four equal sections. On the top section put your name,
the topic of your speech, and briefly state the Speech Focusing
Statement. For sections two, three and four, write at the top of
the section:
Reader#____’s Comments. Reviewed By _________________.
Instruct the group: Feel free to offer whatever insights you feel
might help me reach my best speech. You may want to consider major
issues such as: logical organization, focus of the Speech Focusing

Statement, meaning of the speech, and other “whole speech” topics. In
general, although speeches and written works are very different, if a
speech does not work well as a written document it will not present
itself well as a spoken passage. Your buddy review comments must be
recorded on the review sheet (or attach another sheet if the comments are
extensive). Also, please do not write on my original draft!
Paperclip this work sheet on top of the draft. Remember to
number and date each draft. Keep all of your drafts together and
attach them to a copy of your final speech for review later.
3) Teacher / Boss Consultation. After everyone has had the chance
to improve his or her work (remember to date and number
each revision) you might want to meet with the teacher or
boss for a brief consultation to review your growth.
4) Large Group Review. You may volunteer to have sections (intros,
conclusions, Speech Focusing Statements, etc.) of your drafts,
from either the rough draft or a revised draft, put on transpar-
encies for large group discussions. This phase of the process is
wonderful for the group. You can learn more from each other’s
mistakes and successes than you can imagine. Becoming fa-
miliar with each other’s styles and works can only strengthen
your own speech writing.
Assessing your written speeches.
So, how do you decide how well a speech is written? The best
process is to develop scoring rubrics for your speeches. These are
the criteria that you use for “grading” your speech writing efforts.
Once your group has agreed on these standards, you can use these
when you edit your buddies’ speeches in the future. In other words,
you are going to decide what is important about your speech writ-
ing—what is good and what is not so good. Your group can dis-
cuss what “good” really means; what does each good element look
like?
What does “excellent” look like? What does “basic” look like?
You can then create a list of observable traits that indicate what
the element means. The group will take these issues raised below,
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and develop a “1-4” analytic scoring rubric with 4 points being

the highest rating for each criterion and 1 point being the lowest.
The details of this process are defined further below.
For example, if your group is writing an informative speech,
you may decide to look at the elements that would be important
in your minds for assessing that kind of speech. You may decide
that “analysis of the topic,” “does the speech use proper reason-
ing,” “is there enough proof to act as evidence that your speech
works,” “is there a clear opening, middle and end to the speech,”
“does the speech instruct the listener what to do with the informa-
tion,” and “will the speech attract and hold the targeted audience’s
interest for the duration of the speech.” If these are your assessment
criteria, you could summarize these points this way:
-Analysis: How well does the speech reflect an understanding of
the topic?
-Reasoning: Is the speech believable, and does the audience have
enough background to understand the new material?
-Evidence: Is there enough information given to prove your
points?
-Organization: Does the speech flow from beginning to end?
-Interest: Will the speech be interesting to its audience?
Assessing the Speech
The aim of assessing the written speech is to improve the
speaker’s confidence by diagnosing the elements of the speech and
providing feedback regarding how well the speaker is writing his
or her speech using specific criteria.
For each rubric you create, you should follow this formula.
First, decide what the objective for the speech will be in terms of
how you want the audience to react. Continuing the work you did
earlier in this section, try to fill in the blanks for the objective:
Speech Objective: This speech will (encourage, motivate, inform,
etc.) my audience to (learn more, buy something, do something, etc.).
Next, you decide upon your evidence, or what is your proof in
the speech that it will meet the objectives. Again, fill in the blanks
for your evidence:
Speech Evidence: The objective will be evident when the speech

contains these elements (list the hoops through which the speech must
jump here).
Finally, you have to build in an assessment piece. There are
two parts to the assessment. First, what are the observable criteria
that the speech must have to evidence that it is meeting its objec-
tive? Second, what is the rating scale (usually 1 through 4 works
well) that you will use?
Once you decide on the scale, then you need some observable
and easily understandable descriptions of what each point value
means. What does a 4-point assessment really look like? What
does a 1-point assessment look like?
Your next step within the group is to agree on these rating
exemplars, or more simply, what would a good speech look like for
each criterion? For your purposes, what does a very good, or 4-
point analysis look like? Have these discussions within your group
for each criterion so that you can create a document that everyone
can use to find examples or descriptions of each criterion. For
example, below are some illustrative descriptors for Criterion
Number Five, Interest:
4 Points. The speech is:
Interesting & Worthwhile
Well-Defined; it is clear as to what the central idea is
Supported with large amounts of relevant and appealing details
Still somewhat interesting
Defined; the point of the speech does not hit you in the face,
but it still is somewhat easy to find out what the point is
Supported with fair amount amounts of general detail. Detail
might become repetitious
Boring or somewhat uncreative
Very little to no relevant detail
Extremely hard to decipher the point of the speech
1 Point. The speech is:
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Not at all creative, hard to follow

No detail
Seems to have no point
Building the Rubric.
Once you have your five or so “hoops,” or criteria, through
which the speech must jump, you can then build an assessment
rubric, or graphic chart, to help you evaluate everyone’s speeches.
To construct your grid, you should draw a rectangle with six col-
umns and seven rows.
Across the top row, write the following from left to right into
the six squares:
123456
Under each number in the boxes from left to write, add the
terms:
Rating:, Excellent, Very Good, Good, Basic, Score:
Below Excellent, write: 4 Points
Below Very Good, write: 3 points
Below Good, write: 2 Points
Below Basic, write: 1 Point
(4 points is the highest rating for each criterion and 1 point is
the lowest)
Down the left side, write the five criteria starting in row two,
square one:
#1 The Speech will Demonstrate __________
In the box at row seven, column five write: “Total Score =”
In each of the boxes under the ratings, you should write in the
descriptions and observable traits of each criterion at each point
level, so that an editor can use this tool to rate how each criterion
is progressing. The editor can then assign the point value in the
“Score” column that best resembles the progress for each criterion.
Then, by adding the scores together and dividing by five, you
have an overall numerical performance assessment that you can

use for further editing of your speech.
Finally, as closure on the whole process and to prepare yourself
for the next speaking engagement, you might want to create an
evaluation form for your audience such as the Evaluation Form for
Speaker and Program model available in the Appendix to help you
make informed adjustments to your speeches in the future. This
kind of real-time feedback is extremely important if you are using
this text without the support of a group.
Brainstorming—Finding a quiet room somewhere, turning on
a tape recorder, and saying everything that pops into your mind
when reflecting on the topic. If no tape recorder is available, write
each idea as quickly as possible. Just getting out as much information
as you can without discarding any ideas at this stage.
Connections (Connectedness)—How topics and issues are
related that may only make sense to you.
Evidence—The proof in the speech that it will meet the
objectives.
Hands-On Webbing Techniques to Help Write Your Speech—
All of the sub-skills associated with the hands-on speech organizing
process.
Important Ideas—The central focus of your speech, which
becomes the topic of your “Hub” and the subject of your Speech
Focusing Statement.
Objective for Speech—What the speech is intended to
accomplish. For example, the speech will (encourage, motivate,
inform, etc.) my audience to (learn more, buy something, do
something, etc.).
Objectives—What teachers and you want the group to learn,
how they will learn it and in what order, what materials are needed,
and how you and the teacher will assess if the group learns the
material content.
Process Speech Writing—A series of progressively better
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speeches involving sharing your work with your buddies and editing.
Rubric—A chart that lists and rates the criteria that you use
for “grading” your speech and speech writing efforts used to improve
your confidence.
Speech Focusing Statement—The main idea of a speech that
tells the listener the purpose behind the piece. It needs to be a
clearly written and interesting road map for the listener to be able
to comprehend where the speech is heading.
Webbing—Using visuals to help organize your thoughts
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BEGINNING
SPEECHES
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SPEECH NUMBER ONE–
THE SPEECH TO INTRODUCE
The Procedure
You must stand up, walk to the front of the group, introduce
yourself, tell a little about your life, and why you are reading this
text, taking this course, participating in this club or activity, or
whatever other low-risk topic you might want to choose. There is
a 90-second time minimum.
The Lesson: Fight vs. Flight
Standing before a group and delivering a speech can be one of
the most intimidating experiences of your life. Your heart starts to
race, the blood leaves your fingers and toes, your throat goes dry,
you shake, and you really wonder why in the world you are doing
this.
Well, don’t worry. This is quite normal. Your body is undergo-
ing what is known as a psychosomatic or psychological stress. The
bad news is that there really is not too much you can do about it.
As you will discover later, the body is going to react that way no
matter what you do. In fact, the process can be broken down into
four distinct phases, which are typical of most stressful situations.
Your speech anxiety can be traced in four basic steps:
-Your assignment—this is the stressor or cause of your anxiety.
“You must deliver a speech to inform . . .“
-Conception/Reaction—you consciously react. “I’m afraid of
speaking in front of people. Oh, man, I’m dead . . .“
-The body reacts!—all sorts of natural, yet nasty chemicals are
dumped into the bloodstream (as discussed later). “Oh, my
stomach hurts . . .“
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-Resultant—a nervous start to your presentation. “I, ah, well,

you know, went to the game, and, uh . . . “
Once you understand your fears and if possible confide in
your group you will be able to cope with your Conception/Reac-
tion. You cannot avoid these speeches, but you must contain your
attitude about them. You will see, each speech will lower your
dread. PSC, remember?
What your body is doing
Your body has a complex reaction to speech making or any
perceived stressor, or danger. This reaction has been a function of
humans for a very long time! Once you get ready to begin, your
hypothalamus kicks in. Your hypothalamus is the basal section of
your thalamus, which lies in the base of your brain and controls
the autonomic nervous system. The hypothalamus activates two
systems, the nervous system and the endocrine system.
The nervous system is the sympathetic division of the autonomic
nervous system, which activates involuntary muscles, and the
medulla of the adrenal glands, which are located near your kidneys.
The adrenal glands release a natural powerful heart stimulant known
as Adrenaline (Epinephrine) and its helper, Noradrenaline
(Norepinephrine) into the bloodstream.
Meanwhile, the endocrine system activates the anterior
pituitary gland at the base of the brain to release the
Adrenocorticotrophic Hormone (ACTH). ACTH stimulates the
cortex of the adrenal glands and thyroid to produce
corticosteroids.
What all of this means is that when Adrenaline, Noradrenaline,
and corticosteroids are let loose in your body, some rather nefarious
things begin to happen to you. Your heart rate increases, your
blood pressure increases, your oxygen level increases, the blood
leaves your external body parts and your digestive system and rushes
to the large muscles, and your brain activity changes. Your body
and brain give you only two choices, run or fight. This is known as
the “Fight or Flight” theory. Living in a mature, politically correct
society that would frown upon you obliterating entire rooms full
of people or jumping out of the window leaves you with few options
except to deliver the speech.
Most sensible people without the benefit of this text would rather
play around and make jokes when it comes time to speak rather
than to admit the truth. You’re scared, and now you know that
you have a right to be!
The Strategy
Survive! Just live through this one and get it behind you. Before
you go up to speak, you may want to try a few speaking tactics.
Take a few slow, deep breaths. Force yourself to yawn a few times.
Let your body go limp. Nobody is sure why these work, but they
do seem to ease the tension. Later in this book, you will discover
how to make your nervousness actually work in your favor!
For now it is critical that you understand that the physiologi-
cal reactions that occur when you are about to make a speech do
not last on average for more than 90 seconds once you have started
your presentation! This means that if you can “live” through the
first minute or so of your speech all of the defense systems of the
body start to relax. Have you ever heard someone say, “Well, I was
nervous when I got up there, but after a little while I was fine.”
This happens because under normal circumstances there are no
longer chemicals awash in your system after 90 seconds. The physi-
ological reactions decline is a natural occurrence that you can rely on
happening when you stand up to speak.
Armed with this knowledge, you can consciously accept the
fact that you will be nervous going into your speech. You can also
understand that if you can just get through the first minute every-
thing will be all right. How do you do this? Practice the opening
of your speech more than any other part so that you are almost on
automatic pilot when you start. This will get the audience on your
side and you will witness early signs of approval. When the chem-
istry dies down, you will be able to think more clearly and can
make whatever speaking or reading adjustments you need to make.
The Comments and Goals
A reality check here; nearly everyone does poorly his or her
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first time speaking before a group. You should expect it. Simply
doing this speech will give you the courage to go on. Perhaps Ger-
man philosopher Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche’s, “He turns all of
his injuries into strengths, that which does not kill him makes him
stronger . . .“ may help put this into perspective for you.
What you must do is avoid a self-fulfilling prophecy here. Af-
ter delivering a less than stellar performance on the first speech,
some people take that as a permanent indication of their ability as
a speaker. A poor performance on this first speech should not con-
vince you that you are a total failure, but rather that you are quite
normal!
The Example
“Hi! My name is Chris and I live about three blocks from here.
I’m really pretty nervous about being up here, and I got into this
course because my friend talked me into it.”
“I like to play tennis and racquetball, and I like to scuba dive.”
“That’s about it . . . “
The Group’s Role
Now that you understand about the first ninety seconds of a
speech and what the speaker is going through, you should be more
empathetic than ever! Be supportive of the speaker, especially in
the early going. Even once the nervousness time has passed, if a
speaker sees too many frowns or signs of boredom, it will activate
the brain (not the autonomic or endocrine system) that something
is wrong and this could potentially lead to a downward spiral of
problems for the speaker.
For the speech itself, offer some basic comments on the oral
delivery. Be sure to try to empathize with the speaker, you will be
up there soon! To be that good and empathetic listener, however,
you need to develop some of the primary characteristics of active
listening. You need visually to prove to the speaker that you are
focused and really listening to the speech. Here is a good golden
rule for you to remember when listening to a speech. Try to think
of your old Norwegian friend, LARS. LARS is of course an acronym
meaning:
L-Lean forward in your seat

A-be Attentive
R-be Relaxed
S-Sit Square in your Seat
When critiquing, try to clear up any possible misunderstand-
ing of what the speaker said. Try to reflect the speech back to him
or her, which is to summarize your understanding of the speech.
Try saying things like, “What I think I heard you say is . . .“
Remember that even simple words have different meanings to
different people. Take for example “the sun came out before . . .“ A
new father would hear “son.” A tanning enthusiast would, of course,
hear “sun.” Simple reflection can clear up all of these problems.
Remember that you must actively attend and pay attention to
the speech and the speaker. Too few people listen to each other
anymore. The next time you are passing people in the hall and
they say, “Hi, how are you?” do you really think they will listen for
a response? Tell them with a smile on your face that your pet gerbil
just died, and odds are that they will say, “Oh, good, good . . .“
Adrenaline (Epinephrine) and Noradrenaline
(Norepinephrine)—Natural powerful heart stimulants.
Fight vs. Flight—A complex brain reaction to speech making
or any perceived stressor, or danger allowing you either to run or
fight.
LARS—an acronym meaning:
A-be Attentive
R-be Relaxed
Physiological reactions decline—90 seconds into speech the
body stops generating stimulants.
Reflecting—To summarize your understanding of the speech.
Try saying things like, “What I think I heard you say is . . .“
Self-fulfilling Prophesy—After delivering a less than stellar
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performance on the first speech, some people take that as a

permanent indication of their ability as a speaker. A poor
performance on this first speech should not convince you that you
are a total failure, but rather that you are quite normal!
SPEECH NUMBER
TWO–THE IMPROMPTU
The Procedure
You must deliver an “off-the-cuff ” or impromptu speech last-
ing at least sixty seconds. You can only take thirty seconds to think
over your topic before you must begin to speak. Your group leader
should give you the topic. If you are not using a group, open a
newspaper and pick out a random word or phrase by running your
finger down a page. This becomes your topic!
The Lesson: Kinesthesis
Kinesthesis, or kinesics, is the word used here to describe your
total physical makeup—your gestures, facial expressions, posture,
hands, etc. You will learn that you have to keep all of these bodily
components under control. It is not as impossible as it may seem if
you get off to a good start. Here is a checklist of rules for
speechmaking. If you can master these basics, you will be miles
ahead of everyone else who tries to make a speech.
The speaking checklist:
1) Never, never start right in on your speech when you reach the
podium. Look over your group; try to establish eye contact
with everyone. This is called “scanning” your audience. Count
to five, and then go. Remember, scan first, and then begin.
2) If someone is not looking at you, just smile and stare right at
him or her. Someone else will nudge them to attention.
3) Right before you begin, take a good breath through your nose.
Do not open your mouth to breathe since this looks like a false
start.
4) Do not make your first words “okay,” “umm,” or “unnn.” Also,
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try to avoid saying “well” first. This only works if you are a
president in the 1980’s.
5) Do not click. Some speakers have this uncanny habit of clicking
their tongues when they take a breath. Listen to a recording of
yourself speaking, or ask someone else to listen for it to deter-
mine if you do this. It happens when the front part of your
tongue is pressed against the front of the roof of your mouth,
and then you pull your tongue down and away making a “tsssk”
sound. Usually, once you become aware of the fact that you
are doing this you can consciously adjust away from clicking.
6) Kinesthesis: watch you hands; keep them on the podium or
behind your back, or at your side and absolutely out of your
pockets. Keep your feet solidly on the floor. Do not touch
your face. Try to stand straight. You might even try to smile a
little!
7) Don’t take a mental pause by saying “ahhh,” “you know,” or
“okay.” If you must take cerebral rest say, “All right then,” it
sounds more intelligent.
8) Be sure to say, “thank you” at the very end.
9) Do not rush back to your chair. After you say “thank you,” take
a final three-second scan.
10) For normal speeches, when you have a prepared text, do yourself
a favor and memorize the first few lines of your introduction.
This helps to establish rapport.
11) This is a bit old fashioned, but in formal situations you
may want to begin your speech with a salutation, such as
“Mister Chairman, distinguished friends and colleagues,
Mom and Dad . . . ” If you do use this salutatory opening,
remember to prioritize your salutation starting with the gen-
erally regarded most important person listening in the audi-
ence. For example, “Boys and girls, street vendors, friends and
Mister Prime Minister,” would not go over very well in Toronto.
The Strategy
Survive!
This may well be the most difficult speech that you will ever
deliver so get it over with and behind you. Nietzsche again? Think
of this speech as an initiation to a club; once you have done it, you
are in. Rely on your natural instincts for this speech.
Everyone will be as nervous as you are. The most critical thing
to remember when delivering an “off-the-cuff ” speech is quickly
to get onto familiar ground as possible. Make their topic your topic!
How? Try to think of something you know about that would fit
the topic. Tell a funny story that you remember. Recite some lines
from a play that you know. Talk about your cooking class. Say
anything to get on familiar ground. Remember that it is only when
people do not know what they are talking about that they will
stall and stumble.
You may be wondering why you should have to do the most
difficult speech so early on in the study of Public Speaking. The
answer is simple. By going through this together, your group will
develop a sense of trust (misery loves company, or something like
that). You are not expected to sound like a professional speaker,
but you can all try together. Besides, you have it out of the way
now!
The Example
The group gives you the topic: “My most frightening mo-
ment was when . . .“ You put your head down for thirty seconds
and come up with something like this:
“The sun had gone behind the clouds that terrible day when
my friend, Brian, talked me into downhill skiing for the first time.
Half of the fun was getting up the hill on a towrope. As I fell only
seven times, I knew that the small children didn’t really mean to
be cruel with their laughter.”
“When I finally got to the top of the awesome majestic in-
cline, I gazed down the valley for miles. My friend asked me what
I thought of the bunny hill. I was crushed.”
“I decided that this was not a very good idea so I began to
bend down to take my boots off when my wonderful, dear friend
gave me a push. Mothers for miles around covered their children’s
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ears as I snowballed down the hill. There was only one lone tree at
the bottom of the hill and my skis knew where it was.”
“Yes, my most frightening moment came when skis met bark.
Some bunny hill!”
The Group Reaction
Offer general oral comments only on the speaker’s presence,
not on the speech. Remember LARS and try to be empathetic.
When you are speaking, you naturally will look to the group for
clues on how you are doing. A few smiles tell you that you are
doing just fine, and you will try a little harder. However, frowns or
bored looks tell you that you are failing and that no matter what
you do, you have already lost it.
Again, as a member of a group you have a responsibility to try
to help the speaker. The last thing that you should do is to give the
speaker a clue that he or she is doing poorly, because this will
confirm the self-doubts and the speech will spiral downwards. You
have the power to modify the speaker’s speech performance through
your simple, nonverbal facial and bodily expressions during the
speech!
Regarding the powerful effect of audience acceptance, there is
an old story about a college class that decided, for some strange
reason, they wanted their professor to lecture only from the right
side of the room. Every time that the teacher wandered to the
right, the whole class would smile and nod approval. When the
teacher drifted to the left, the class would lean back and seem
bored. The story goes on to say that from that point on the teacher
lectured only from the right side of the room!
Malapropisms
Another way that the group can help during this speech is to
watch for slang and malapropisms, which are also known as spoo-
nerisms. As for slang, any time in a speech you say, “You know,”
your group should give you an immediate visual cue. “You know”
is deadly to a speaker’s credibility.
Malapropisms are named after Mrs. Malaprop, a character in
Richard Brinsley Sheridan’s play The Rivals. A malapropism is a
verbal slip, or an accidentally incorrect word or words. Think of

some of the things Yogi Berra would say. Spoonerisms are named
for the Reverend William Spooner, Dean of New College, Oxford,
who would mix words from one part of a sentence to another; for
example, “It is kisstomary to cuss the bride.”
Both of these may reveal something about which the speaker
may really be thinking. These are sometimes incorrectly referred
to as “Freudian Slips.” For example, if you know that the speaker
has a golf game to attend later that day and during her speech
about paper manufacturing she says, “From the trees you get your
three-wood, I mean, wood, to produce your paper stock,” you
may have a malapropism to point out.
Impromptu—Speaking at once on a topic with no time to
prepare or to generate notes.
Kinesthesis, or Kinesics—Describes your total physical
makeup—your gestures, facial expressions, posture, hands, etc.
Malapropisms, also known as Spoonerisms—A verbal slip, or
an accidentally incorrect word or words.
Speaking checklist—Learn and practice the 11 skills in Speech
Number Two.
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SPEECH NUMBER THREE–
THE SPEECH TO INFORM
(NUMBER 1)
The Procedure
You will pick a current or historical event and deliver a four to
six minute speech to the group informing them about the situa-
tion. You should become something of an expert on your topic by
researching in the library or on the Internet. For the sake of hold-
ing the audience’s interest and in not having your speech com-
pared to someone else’s, be sure that no one else has your topic
before you start your work.
The Lesson: Basic Speech Organization Skills
Several famous speakers have commented on what the most
important thing to remember for effective public speaking is: “Tell
‘em what you’re going to tell, ‘em; tell ‘em; and then tell ‘em what you
told ‘em.”
As simple as this may sound, this is the format for the typical
deductive public speech: the introduction (tell ‘em what you are
going to tell ‘em); the body (tell ‘em); and the conclusion (tell ‘em
what you told ‘em). It is important to explore the nature of these
three speech elements.
In Pre-Speech Lesson Number Four you learned the specific
construction strategies involved in creating an ideal public speech.
The following goes into detail about the functionality of each of
the main components of the speech.
The Introduction has three major roles: to catch the listener’s
interest, to move the topic from general to specific, and to deliver
the Speech Focusing Statement. Whatever you do, do not start

your speech by merely stating your topic!
Catching the Listeners’ Interest
To catch the listener’s interest you may want to try a few tech-
niques. You could ask a rhetorical question (Is humankind really
heading towards disaster). On the other hand, you could start
with a short story that will pull the listener in, such as a small
narrative about a soldier in battle. It really does not matter what
technique you use to attract the listener as long as you follow two
basic rules:
1) The story or question you choose is germane to your topic
2) You finish the story or answer your question in your conclusion
Moving Down the Funnel
Once you have everyone’s attention, you next move your in-
troduction towards your exact topic. Most speakers give a general
background of the topic. For example, if your topic is on World
War II, you might want to discuss wars in general with such ele-
ments as arms and planes and strategy. Then once you have set the
stage, you can begin to tighten the aspects about World War II,
which will be included in the body of the speech. For example, if
your topic is still World War II, you might find it a bit difficult to
cover every facet of the war. What you have to do is to zoom in on
three or four of the basic areas of World War II, such as the air war,
naval battles, and the major weapons used.
Think of the process like a funnel sitting on a bottle. You start
with a wide discussion at the top, and then constrict your discus-
sion sliding down to the specifics of your topic. By the time you
hit the neck of the funnel, the audience knows exactly where you
are heading and what the elements of your topic will be.
Finally, once you are sliding down the neck of the funnel and
have announced the specifics of your speech, you deliver your Speech
Focusing Statement (see Pre-Speech Lesson Number Four for details
on creating a Speech Focusing Statement). The Speech Focusing
Statement is your “tell ‘em what you’re going to tell ‘em.”
After you have your introduction, you have to move along to
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the “meat” of your speech—the body. The body tells all of the
facts and explains all the details of your Speech Focusing State-
ment. Tips on how to construct the body are covered in the Strat-
egy section. You should be very careful to follow the pattern as
outlined in your introduction. If you tell your listeners that you
are going to discuss issues A, B and C in your introduction, then
you must discuss A, B, C, not B, C, A or C, B, A, etc.
While the order of your topics is an important issue, the logi-
cal design and construction you employ is equally as important.
In other words, what reasoning did you use for ordering your
speech? Are you showing how something developed over time? Are
you explaining why something happened the way it did? Are you
detailing how to do something?
Speech Construction Methods
To answer these concerns, there are several logical patterns you
can follow when designing your speech. Some of the most obvious
methods for construction are as follows:
-Trace—show the exact steps taken on how your topic came
about.
-Define and differ—first, place your topic into its class (e.g., a
koala is an animal that lives in a tree). Next, show how your
topic differs from all other members of its class (the koala
differs from all other tree-dwelling animals as far as it lives in
Australia, is a marsupial, has thick, gray fur, and does
television commercials).
-Process—show how something is done or how to do something.
-Problem solving–show how to address a specific or general
concern about something.
-Describe—describe your topic with details, trying to create a
mood for your listeners. This style works well when talking
about out of the ordinary topics (e.g., paint a word picture
to affect the listeners’ emotions. If there was a fire, describe
the searing heat and the blue-red fire rather than just listing
the factual details).
Methods of Presentation
Once you have decided on the logical development of your

topic, you can consider some of the various methods to present the
order of your ideas:
-Chronological order—the time order in which events took
place.
-Cause to effect—show how your topic was the result of essential
events.
-Climax order—work from the least important information to
the most important.
-Anti-climax order—work from the most to least important
information.
-Spatial order—describe the physical setup of your topic.
Finally, you move to your conclusion. To begin, never say, “in
conclusion,” or “at last,” in your speech. This gives the listener
permission to tune you out. It is a much better idea to simply
restate your introduction and tell the audience why it was impor-
tant that they listened, and what you want them to do or to get
out of the presentation.
End-game
The most important consideration of you conclusion is your
end-game. The idea behind an end-game is to leave the listeners
thinking about your speech, or to leave the listeners with one last
thought. Here are some suggestions:
-Finish the story you started in the introduction.
-Answer your rhetorical question.
-End with a rhetorical quotation.
-Pose a final question to challenge your listeners’ intellect.
The Strategy
Finding and Preparing Your Research Data
An informative speech must have both quantitative and quali-
tative support data: in other words, there must be a lot of good
information. The first thing you have to do is to gather as much
“raw” information as possible. There are three B’s to finding and
preparing your data:
-Brainstorm—sit down and just write ever idea on the topic that
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pops into your mind. After you have a large enough list,
select the better ones for further consideration (see Pre-
Speech Lesson Number Four for more details).
-Bag your ammo—get all of the information you can: facts,
statistics, quotations, observations, interviews, etc. You will
want to check out the Internet, encyclopedias, dictionaries,
newspapers, newsmagazines, a thesaurus, guides to periodi-
cals, almanacs, and atlases. And by all means, make use of
the best source of information known to humankind: a
librarian—they love to help!
-Busy Bee-Active. If you do not spend enough time looking, you
may miss some of the most critical information available.
Spend the time necessary to do a good job.
Next, make your final preparations:
-Review your material once again.
-Re-read your notes.
-Create a basic outline (covered in detail in the Speech to Relate
Issues).
-Get your supporting ammunition from the library, a teacher, a
parent, friend, or perhaps the Internet: graphs, findings,
quotes, examples, historical details, famous speeches, original
documents, etc.
-Write and deliver the speech. Always use legal pads for writing
and delivering your speech, it looks professional and besides,
cards can be dropped and become mixed up, and papers just
look messy.
-In your presentation, never apologize! Some people say things
like, “Well, this isn’t too good, but . . .“
-Avoid saying, “I think” and “I feel.” Take a position and stand
by it.
The Comments and Goals:
Recursive Words
This is your first chance to really express yourself, so make
your words exact, and avoid “fluff.” Also, avoid recursive words,
which are words that define each other and never really reveal their
meanings, such as defining “oculist” by saying ophthalmologist,

and then defining “ophthalmologist” by saying oculist. Another
variation of a recursive or circular term is when the definition of a
word includes a variation of the word being defined, such as defining
“goodness” as a state of being good.
You should also stay away from amphiboles, which are phrases
that can be misunderstood due to poor grammar, ambiguity, or
lack of an antecedent (e.g., “I sat by my wife singing.”) So, who is
doing the singing?
Finally, again try to memorize the first and last few lines of
your introduction and your conclusion as it leaves a strong first
and last impression.
The Example
Imagine what it would be like if you were arrested. The lights
are flashing—the siren dying out—your friends are crying. How
would you feel? What would you do? What would your life be like
after this? Last year millions of arrests took place in America. Most
of the arrests ended in some form of plea-bargain or acquittal, but
many went to trial.
Of those that went to trial, some went before a jury, some
before a judge. Each form of trial, having its own advantages and
disadvantages, makes your decision a difficult one. Finally, after a
good deal of decision-making, you decide upon a jury trial. Today
we will discuss the major elements of what goes into a trial. We
will look at the twelve-person jury style, the anatomy of the evi-
dence that the jury may consider, and the impact of a good lawyer.
(The body of this speech is omitted, as several different styles of
presentations are possible.)
As you can see then, the jury has several influences acting upon
it: its size, the evidence, and the lawyers. It is important that you
know about our legal system since it is the backbone of our
Democracy, and who knows, maybe some day the siren may be
screaming for you to pull over. Can you be sure?
The Group Reaction
The group should offer oral comments on the speaker’s
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organizational skills, not on delivery! Watch for all of the elements

of composition and presentation.
End-Game Planning—To leave the listeners’ thinking about
your speech, or to leave the listeners with one last thought.
Logical Design of Speech:
about.
-Define and differ—first, place your topic into its class. Next,
show how your topic differs from all other members of its
class.
mood for your listeners.
Methods to Order Speech:
place.
events.
the most important.
-Anti-climax order—work from most to least important.
Rhetorical question—A question that begs an answer.
SPEECH NUMBER FOUR–
THE SPEECH FOR A
PERSONAL MEMORY
The Procedure
Pick a good, vivid personal story, or anecdote to create a speech
to relate that story. The speech should be of interest to the group
and should last between 5-7 minutes.
The Lesson: Communication Skills
All living things communicate; you cannot not communicate.
Even the smallest microorganisms can send messages to each other.
Albeit they can’t order a pizza on the telephone, they can still
signal basic needs and wants to each other.
Humans communicate via a process known as interpersonal
communications. One interpretation of this term is that “Inter”
means between and “personal” comes from the Latin word for a
mask used by actors, the “persona.” Interpersonal Communication
is literally the mask you all wear for each other.
As a member of a public speaking group, you must be careful
that your mask reflects what is really going on inside your brain,
and not what you think people would like to see. The etymology
above of “interpersonal” gives you clues on how to proceed.
To keep your mask in proper shape, you should take care to
appear sincere-sincere in language and in physical appearance. Take
the time to make sure that you are ready to go—check your tie or
hair or dress. Is your speech prepared as well as it could be? Did
you make sure that the speech reads well?
Remember, you cannot appear to be sincere if people don’t
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accept you, even if you’re trying your hardest! If you have the best
speech in the world and you are dressed like a ne’er-do-well, no
matter how sincere you try to be, nobody will listen. Your mask is
your total appearance and what you do with it.
Dressing for the part
You must be careful when you accept a speaking engagement
to make sure that you have a good understanding of the nature of
the event. Ask the person who is acting as your contact what the
dress and nature of the event will be. For example, if you are being
asked to speak at a charity event and you discover that it is being
held at a fancy country club and everyone will be dressed in tux-
edos, it would behoove you to make sure that your dress is equally
as formal. If it is not, you will have alienated some of your audi-
ence before you even open your mouth. The converse is true as
well. If the occasion is informal and you overdress, people will feel
just as uncomfortable.
Dress the way your audience will dress, or a touch above. When
in doubt, tend toward the conservative. If you start to research the
effects of color on people, you will notice that people who wear
dark suits or dresses do so to emphasize their confidence and power.
It is held that people dressed in red or wearing red ties or suspenders
radiate action and energy.
No matter how many words you speak out, most of the mes-
sage received from a public speech is non-verbal, as you will dis-
cover in Speech Number Eleven. Therefore, it is critical that you
can be seen during your speech. This is where good grooming comes
into play. If you have long hair that normally covers part of your
face, consider pulling it back for your speech. Beards need to be
well trimmed so even the people in the back row can see if you are
smiling or grimacing. Make sure that you have a non-verbal plan
in place for your dress. Ensure that you understand what the mes-
sage behind your dress will be before you take the microphone;
know how the audience will react and do not leave anything to
chance.
Overshining
A word about overshining. There will be times when you are

asked to make a speech where your role is to introduce or to pro-
mote someone else. In many situations, the person you are work-
ing with will not have the public speaking skills that you humbly
enjoy. It is very important in these situations that you do not
overshine, or upstage your guest. You may even have to pull back
the reigns a bit to make sure that you do not steal the spotlight.
Storytelling elements
Once you are sure about your interpersonal communication
skills, you can concentrate on your storytelling. There are six basic
elements of storytelling to remember, they are:
1) Use vivid language—try to make the group “feel” the story
through your language. Try to find synonyms for dull or non-
exact words. Never say “good,” “nice,” or “a lot;” these are
tired old words. Try “auspicious,” “congenial,” and “sundry.”
Check your thesaurus and grammar check and rid your speech
of verbal dinosaurs! Use specific details from your memory of
the story. What was the setting: time, place, dress, and weather?
What were your feelings: happy, sad, melancholy? Human
emotions help develop a working theme in a story. Make your
work reflect these details.
2) Be sincere—as mentioned earlier, the only way that you can
make a story come alive is if you are sincere. Look at the obvi-
ous logic: you are telling a story about an event that happened
somewhere else at some other time. For your story to affect
anyone, you have to coax him or her into suspending reality
and to step into your story. It is the same principle in opera-
tion at a theater or at the movies. The audience is sitting in
their seats—they are not really climbing a mountain or driv-
ing a racecar, but if the story is presented sincerely, the audi-
ence will allow themselves to be carried away. Keep this in
mind during your presentation. A good story will actually draw
in the group. Watch their eyes, you can tell if they are really
into your story!
3) Keep in order—make sure that you relate your story in the
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proper order of events. Nothing sounds worse than someone

telling a story and then backing up to fill in a missed event.
Keep the story in order and do not skip around. Another very
good thought on this issue is to tell your story in the present
tense, or at least in past participle (e.g., “I was running to the
store” as compared to “I ran to the store.”) Having an “ing” at
the end of your verb makes the story more immediate and
alive!
4) Have a memorable message—this should seem obvious. Pick an
interesting story. A story about a trip to London is more likely
to be interesting than a tale about cleaning your silverware. If
you are unsure about your story, try it on someone and get his
or her reaction. Who knows, maybe your silverware fascinates
you but might not be quite as thrilling to others. The best
stories not only relate an event, but also have a “message” to
them. A story that has a moral to it, or a lesson attached, is
more memorable than story that merely tells events. This is
the basic formula for a fable or a parable. “I guess I’ll never tell
a lie again” would be a typical lesson learned.
5) Shift your plot—your story should have a clear beginning,
middle, and ending, much the same way a movie does. The
beginning tells how you became involved in your story; the
middle is the bulk of the action; and the ending ties up the
loose ends (known as the denouement), relates the end to the
plot, explains how the story affected your life, and conveys
your moral.
Most people have an intuitive ability to tell stories, but few
know how to move the story from the beginning to the middle,
and from the middle to the end. In storytelling, these transitions
are known as “shifts.” Every story has two shifts, one in the
beginning and one in the middle. The shift is the event that triggers
the next section (e.g., “Everything was fine that morning until the
brown bear came along.”). The shift must occur at the end of the
section; it would seem somewhat impractical to jump to the ending
halfway through the middle! The shifts are noted in the Example
speech in this chapter. Notice how the logic of the speech spins
around these sentences.
6) Abstract vs. Concrete Language—there are two basic types of
storytelling languages, abstract and concrete. Abstract language
is connotative; it suggests rather than describes. It uses figura-
tive languages (metaphors, similes, etc.) and is used in speeches
that deal with feelings or emotions or abstracts. “Love” is an
example of an abstract. Concrete language is denotative, it lit-
erally describes, and it shows exact meaning. You would use
concrete language when describing a person, place, or physi-
cal thing. When you say “chair,” everyone knows that you mean
a four-legged stool used for sitting. If you say that you “love”
your “chair,” then you have successfully mixed both concrete
and abstract language!
Neither language type is better, but you must be aware enough
to use the proper one at the proper time. If you are talking about
a tender memory from your past love life and use concrete lan-
guage, you may not get your point across effectively (e.g., “As I
held her blanch, affable digits and we looked at Luna, I pondered
osculation.”).
Clichés
Another thing to remember about language in any speech is
to avoid using clichés. Clichés have no real meaning in your speech,
can tend to turn off your listeners, and are just substitutes for
meaningful descriptive language. It is a phrase or saying that most
everyone uses along with the fact that everyone understands the
meaning or idea behind the cliché. It is like a verbal shorthand
that has a metaphorical meaning. Here is a list of some of the
immortal clichés:
- “As if ”
- “What goes around comes around”
- “Out of the frying pan into the fire”
- “Busy as a bee”
- “Dressed to kill”
- “Let’s lunch”
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- “Easier said than done”

- “Sadder but wiser”
- “Money is the root of all evil”
- “Thick as a brick”
- “I need feedback”
- “Try, try again”
- “C’est la vie”
- “Personal space”
- “Nobody is perfect”
- “Awesome”
The Strategy: Make Your Speech Interesting: Variances and
Humor
The best barometer of how you are doing is watching the
audience watching you. If they seem bored, you had better
improvise something to snap them back to your speech. Try yelling
a few words as if you had planned on it all along. Scream. Stand on
chair. Do anything to get their attention. It is your story after all,
how do they know if you really are not supposed to yell at that
point? If you are really brave, you might want to try to inject some
intelligent humor, but be careful! If you are not a humorous person
by nature, do not force it. Humor can easily backfire. There is no
greater motivation for wanting to crawl in a dark hole on the stage
than telling a joke and having nobody laugh; you can mentally
hear the crickets chirping in the back row.
Remember that the best humor usually flows from the hu-
morous details of the story itself, not from a canned or prefabri-
cated joke. Listen to some late night talk shows and watch how the
pros do it. It is not easy.
While everything that you have explored thus far, and will
continue to do in this text focuses on expressing thoughts clearly,
humor has a way of delivering a very real message without actually
coming out and saying what you mean. These are some of the
“gray areas” of language and communication, using devices such as
innuendo and allusions. Most successful humor relies on the listener
being able to “read between the lines.”
Successful humor is much more than simple slams, insults,

sarcasm, or put-downs. Engaging humor is based in both reality
and in understandable humor. Sometimes you laugh so that you
do not cry. When someone drops something in class and someone
calls him a name and everybody laughs, that is not about being
clever, that is about putting somebody down and hurting his feel-
ings. It has nothing to do with humor and everything to do with
power. Anyone can call someone else a name to hurt his or her
feelings, but successful humor has a purpose in mind. When some-
one cleverly parodies or satirizes someone or something else, the
person performing the satire is more often than not positively re-
garded as being witty, and nobody’s feelings are hurt because ev-
eryone is laughing with the joke, not at a victim. Think of it this
way, would you rather have Mark Twain or a boor down the street
make a comment about you?
Think of good humor as being a verbal thump to your listen-
ers’ heads, a humorous wake-up call about an issue or a person.
Again, the only limit is that the listeners must “get it.”
For example, if you made a humorous reference to your au-
thoritarian, dog-owning next-door neighbor when you were a child
as being, “a very dogmatic person,” you might think that it is
endlessly funny; however, it is doubtful that any of your audience
would “get it.”
Audience Participation
It is fair to say that different kinds of speeches call for different
levels of audience participation and interaction. In this speech,
you will not be asking the audience to participate with you unless
you want to try to get some kind of personal effect from the in-
volvement. Asking an audience to participate is a very risky ven-
ture. When you are delivering a routine public speech, most people
are content to sit back and listen. When you call for participation,
you are involving them physically and actively in the process of
your speech. When you give up this kind of control, you need to
be able to pull back the reigns when the time comes. Standup
comedians rely on audience participation to provide them fodder
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for their act. Nevertheless, you should know that while standup
comedians appear to be reacting spontaneously to what the people
say, they have spent many long hours preparing “what-if ” sce-
narios so that they have a quick response no matter what anyone
says or does.
In general, you call for audience participation as a strategy for
getting them on your side, making them think that you are one of
them and that you are all together on a single issue, or “one of the
gang.” In terms of presentation, this can take on three levels of
difficulty.
-The easy level—ask the audience routine questions before you get to
the introduction of your speech. For example, you can ask who
has same first name as you, or the same birth date, or where the
people are from. This is more of a warm-up than a real
interaction.
-The moderate level–ask volunteers to help with a demonstration or
ask questions to solicit answers.
-The difficult level–invite comments or arguments to issues that you
bring to the floor. This can take on a press conference feel, so you
should avoid this unless you are ready for a conflict.
Another form of audience participation is your ability to watch
your audience and adjust your presentation accordingly to the
non-verbal cues you receive from them. This will be covered in
Speech Number Fifteen.
Know Your Speech!
You must become intimate with your speech; it is like your
baby. After all, you are the world’s leading expert on your life, so
go for it! You should know all of your speeches well enough that if
a distraction occurs, such as someone entering the room, you can
deal with it. The mistakes that most novice speakers make is that
they try to ignore the distraction. Well, you cannot. You know it is
there and so does everyone else, so you might as well acknowledge
its existence. You should stay with your speech, yet deal with the
distraction. Just nod to the person who walked in on your speaking,
point to a chair, and keep right on going. The key to coping with
distractions is knowing your speech well enough that you can take
the time to think about dealing with an unexpected variable!
The Example
“It started off the way most normal days start: the cat jumped
on my face, the coffee poured like 10W-40 and I mixed up my
toothpaste and acne cream tubes again. The bus ride was nothing
special and homeroom was a joke. Yes, it seemed like a typical,
normal, fun-filled day at school until my best pal, Tom, talked to
me. (Shift #1)
“What history test?” I asked.
It couldn’t be, I couldn’t have been that stupid, I would have
known if there was a history test!” But, there was old “ton of fun”
handing out the tests. “I’m ruined!” I thought. I raised my hand
and pleaded for clemency, but to no avail. “Hey, what the heck?” I
thought. “I’ve got nothing to lose.” So, I stood up and thumped
old Mr. Butler right in the mouth. He went down like a ton of
pine needles.
One of the pencil pushing goodies ran for a security guard, so
I bolted from the room. Then, one of the guards threw an open
field tackle on me and pinned me to the floor.
I kept my wits about me, and pulled out my peanut-butter
sandwich and gave him a quick jab in the kidney region. Man, did
he bellow! As I was flying out the front door, a police officer drew
a squirt gun and ordered me to halt. “Remember the people!” I
screamed back and ran for the street. The officer took aim and
fired at my back. I remember the sounds that the water drops
made as they bounced off my back, “ting-ting-ting.” (Shift #2)
“Hey, sleeping ugly, wake up, huh.” my brother insisted.
As I sat up in bed, I checked the pillow for powder burns. All
was well. My brother’s right, I’ve got to hurry, I’ve got a history
test today. As I thrashed the alarm clock to a silence, I vowed never
again to eat an anchovy pizza before bed again.
The Group Reaction
The group should focus on the six basic elements of storytelling.
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After each speech, the group should offer an oral critique address-
ing each speaker’s adherence to the elements. Again, the group
should remember LARS, and offer comments designed to help the
speaker toward the next task.
Audience participation-A strategy for getting listeners on your
side.
Clichés—Substitutes for meaningful descriptive language.
Dressing-Ask the person who is acting as your contact what
the dress and nature of the event will be to make strategic decisions.
Interpersonal Communication- “Inter” means between and
“personal” comes from the Latin word for a mask used by actors,
the “persona.”—the mask you all wear for each other.
Overshining—Doing a better job speaking than the person
who is being honored or acknowledged at a gathering.
Storytelling elements:
-Use vivid language
-Be sincere
-Keep in order
-Have a memorable message
-Shift your plot
-Use Abstract and concrete language
SPEECH NUMBER FIVE–
THE SPEECH TO INFLECT
The Procedure
Write a two-minute speech on any topic. Next, read your speech
aloud at your desk. Everyone in the group should do the same
thing. The group then takes a vote and picks the most popular
speech, or the one that everyone feels the most comfortable using.
Everyone takes a turn and reads the same speech from in front of the
room, the strategy being that no two readers can use the same
inflections. Speaker order should be randomized since it
becomes more difficult to think of a new inflection as the
speeches continue.
The Lesson: Paralinguistics
Paralinguistics is the term given to describe the total package of
how you inflect your words and the emotional tone behind them.
Fundamentally, paralinguistics encompasses your basic word speed,
pitch, tone, volume, etc., and of even greater importance, the emo-
tions behind the words—it is what makes an angry person’s words
sound angry!
With different inflections, you can make a simple sentence
mean several different things. “I love you,” can be spoken
romantically to show true love. However, it can be read lifelessly to
show a lack of love. Or, it can be read as a question to show surprise
or sarcasm.
You should be sure that your rendition does not change the
words or make up sounds different from everyone else’s, but that it
has a different emotional pitch behind it. This is your first step
towards your verbal interpretation of language.
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The Strategy
Do Not Give Up!
Novice speakers, as well as some veterans, have a nasty habit of
dropping their voices at the end a sentence, which in effect robs
the group of the final word. Make sure that you take extra care to
punch out the last word of each sentence and that you pronounce
each syllable of each word. “Washington” is not pronounced “Wash-
n-ton.”
If you feel that you can hit every word and the syllables then
you are ready to try to vary the paralinguistics of your speech from
the speaker before you.
First, pick out an emotion, there are plenty of them: happy,
sad, glum, vengeful, uplifted, depressed, angelic, etc. Once you
have decided on your emotion stick to it through the speech. Think
to yourself, “how would a glum person recite these words?”
The rest will come easy! Just use the tools of paralinguistics:
speed, pace, volume, and tone. As a new tactic, try to use a caesura,
or pause, before a word to give it special importance. If you feel
your emotion, the words will take care of themselves.
Meanings
Observe through this exercise how the basic meanings of the
words will change. The old saying “It’s not what you say, but how
you say it that counts,” is quite apropos. The emotions behind the
words motivate the interpretation of the words. Usually when
people make a statement, there are two levels to it: the implicit
meaning, and the rationale behind it. When a business associate
tells you, “nice job,” with a sly smile, you cannot be sure if he or
she really means you well or has another idea in mind. Your only
real clue to this is the use of paralinguistics
The Group Reaction
The group should confine their individual critiques to the
degree of difference among the speakers’ renditions. Try to guess
what each speaker’s emotion was and whether the speaker was
consistent in his or her portrayal.

Paralinguistics—The term given to describe the total of how
you inflect your words and the emotional tone behind them. Also,
your basic word speed, pitch, tone, volume, etc., and of even greater
importance, the emotions behind the words
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SPEECH NUMBER SIX–THE
SPEECH TO RELATE ISSUES
The Procedure
Pick a current world issue and present a four-minute analysis
of the situation. You must use only an outline for this speech; you
cannot read this speech verbatim.
The Lesson: Outlining Skills
In order to gain some degree of eye contact, webs or outlines
are important for the speaker; so, try to put away the text every
now and then. Making eye contact is a very difficult thing to do if
you have a word-for-word speech in front of you. Therefore, what
veteran speakers do is take only an outline of their speeches to the
podium and to speak from that rather than following a fully text-
driven speech. Remember, you can convert your webbed speech to
a traditional outline if you choose to do so.
If you choose to use an outline, there are two basic types:
1) The phrase outline—the phrase outline uses full sentences or major
phrases from the paragraphs of the text.
2) The signature outline—the signature outline uses only key words
from the paragraph of the text. Some speakers can even develop
symbols to replace words (e.g., an up arrow means good or more, a
star * means important, etc.).
It is advisable that when you pick an outline type that you
stick to it throughout the entire speech. Of the two, the signature
outline is a better choice since it allows for more eye contact.
A speech outline works the same way that an outline for an
essay would work, except that you do not have to number and
hypostructure the information. For example, a typical essay outline

section on the federal tax code might look like this:
I) How to File a Long Tax Form 1040
A) The Form
1) Need to examine—has several items of importance.
2) Needs much information to complete
3) Has several parts to it.
a) The deductions forms
b) The business forms
If you were to translate this into a speech outline, it might look
like this:
Phrase Outline Form:
How to File a Federal Long Form Tax Packet:
-First, look at form itself.
-It has several items.
-You will need a lot of information.
-It has several parts, such as deductions and business form.
Signature Outline Form
Federal Tax Forms:
-Examine forms.
-Many items.
-Need information.
-Many parts (deductions and business)
The Strategy
Remember the Group
Try to pick a topic that will interest your group, or to be more
exact, will fulfill the needs of your group. If your group is a collec-
tion of business executives, the odds are against you if you plan a
speech on the “effects of skateboarding on the urban environment.”
Also remember that by now your group is becoming more aware
of what makes a good speech work, and they probably will be less
tolerant of a speech that was obviously not rehearsed.
Rehearsals
You should never try to conclude all of your rehearsing in one
day. The human brain works best when it is given a chance to
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assimilate its new data. Rehearse for a while and then move on to
something else. Then, the next day or so come back to it! It will be
like meeting an old friend again, and your rehearsal time will be
all that much more beneficial. Remember: the best way to cut
down on nervousness and increase your confidence is to prepare!
Increase Your Awareness
Too many people today are so wrapped up in their own little
spheres that they have almost no idea what is going on in the real
world. If you stay aware of world events, you will be able to fit this
knowledge into almost every speech that you make (remember:
get to common ground). However, merely knowing the news is not
enough. In order to relate this information, you must have your
basic public speaking skills in place. If you are sensitive to your
group’s needs and you do your homework, this speech can be very
rewarding as you watch your group members’ eyes light up. Again,
the group’s eyes are your best indicators of how you are doing!
The Example
(Signature Outline)
American Tax System
Introduction
-Price of democracy is tax
-Must have central government
-Government must have power
-Power comes from people
-Costs money to run government
-Money from people and companies
-Fair share
-Look at who pays; forms; budget (this is your Speech Focusing
Statement)
Body
-Who pays?
-Individuals
-Graduated tax scale
-Flat tax scale
-Rates
-Late fees
-Companies
-Tax on profits
-Many breaks
- “Loopholes”
Forms
-Examine forms
-Many items
-Need information
-Many parts (deductions and business)
Budget
-IRS collects for USA
-Need tax money to run country
Conclusion
-Looked at who pays; forms; budget
-Tax needed in democracy
-If no tax, how else government gets money
-Better than any other system
The Group Reaction
The group should focus comments on how well you were able
to fill in the cracks from your outline. In other words, did your
outline provide you with enough clues to make your speech flow?
In addition, did you as the speaker deliver a thoughtful content
from that outline? Notice the goal in this speech is not necessarily
to deliver a fluent speech.
Outlining speeches:
The phrase outline—the phrase outline uses full sentences or
major phrases from the paragraphs of the text.
The signature outline—the signature outline uses only key
words from the paragraph of the text. Some speakers can even
develop symbols to replace words.
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SPEECH NUMBER SEVEN–
THE SPEECH TO PERSUADE
(NUMBER 1)
The Procedure
Pick a proposition that not everyone would agree with such as,
“nuclear power plants are superior energy sources.” Write a 6 to 8-
minute speech in outline form to persuade the group.
The Lesson: Your Voice and Body are Your Best Tools
You are a natural persuader! You have done it all your life.
Every time you enter a conversation, you engage in elementary
persuasion techniques. It is true, any time you make a statement
of fact, you are asserting its validity and assuming that your listener
agrees.
This speech goes further than a normal conversational asser-
tion; now you have to assume that not everyone will agree with
you from the start, and it is your job to make them see things your
way. The goal of this speech is to change someone’s mind or way of
thinking about a topic. This is not a speech to sell, as you do not
ask that the listener do anything except to agree with you or to
begin to listen to your way of thinking. Your message is, of course,
very important in this speech to persuade, but your voice and
body language are even more important. Up to this point, you
have learned how to develop a message, now you will see how the
delivery can help.
There are several important areas of presentation to keep in
mind:
1) Body—make sure that you have a proper posture. If your
shoulders are sagging and your legs are crossed, you will not
appear as being sincere and people just will not accept your
message.
2) Articulation—articulation means how your total vocal process
works. There are several steps to this entire process. First, you
need air from the lungs, your vocal cords in your larynx must
be working, your mouth and tongue must be in sync, and you
have to make sure that you have got some saliva in your mouth
to keep things oiled. You should be aware of your physical
makeup to be able to understand how you speak.
3) Pronunciation—pronounce each word. Avoid slang, except to make
a point, and do not slur your words. Avoid saying, “you know.”
4) Pitch—pitch is the highs and lows of your voice. Whatever you
do, avoid a monotone!
5) Speed—your speed, or pace, is an important variable to con-
trol. Between 140-160 words per minute is the normal pace
for a persuasive speech. Any faster and you may appear to be
glib, any slower and you sound like you are lecturing. If you
are not sure about your speed, tape yourself for one minute
and then replay it and count the number of words you used in
the minute! The human ear and brain can compile and decode
over 400 spoken words per minute, so if you are going too
slow your listeners’ minds are going to start to wander as the
brains finds other ways to keep themselves occupied.
6) Pauses—the pause, or caesura, is a critical persuasive tool. When
you want to emphasize a certain word, just pause for one sec-
ond before; this highlights the word. If you really want to
punch it, pause before and after the word!
7) Volume—volume is another good tool for persuasive speech,
but you should use it with caution. If you scream all the way
through your speech, people will become accustomed to it
and it will lose its effectiveness. On the other hand, a few well-
timed shouts can liven up the old speech! Try to “project” or
throw your voice out over the entire group—speak to the last
row.
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8) Quality—quality of voice is gauged by the overall impact that

your voice has on your listeners. Quality of voice is the net
caliber of your voice, its character and attributes. Try to keep
your vocal quality high; it is what separates your voice from
everyone else’s.
9) Variance—variance of vocal elements is your most important
consideration of all! One of the most persuasive speakers in
modern history was Winston Churchill. One of his most re-
markable qualities was his ability to vary the elements of his
voice. He would start with a slow, laconic voice and then switch
gears to a more rapid speech. People were light-headed after
listening to him! Even if you have no desire to run for political
office, you can still use the tools of variance. Change your pitch,
volume, and speed at least once every 30 seconds, if only for
just one word. Never go more than one paragraph without a
vocal variance. This keeps your group locked into your speech,
if for no other reason than it sounds interesting! Let the words
speak for themselves; reflect their nature through your voice.
If you use the word “strangle,” say it with a hint of menace in
your voice. If you say the word “heave,” let the group feel the
onomatopoeic force behind it. If you say the word “bulldozer,”
make it sound like a titan earthmover, not like a baby with a
shovel.
Be aware of how the whole process works!

The Strategy: Appear Rational
When you are trying to convince someone of something, you
must first establish your credibility, or in other words, you must
sell yourself before sell your message. If people feel that you are
not being reasonable or rational, you do not stand a chance. You
must be committed to the ideals and goals of your speech and
what you are saying. Do not use words such as “maybe” or “might”-
use positive words such as “will” and “must.”
You are the authority figure in this speech, so you had better
supply enough information to prove your points so that you can
seem knowledgeable, and you had better know your material cold.
People can usually spot someone who is trying to “wing” a speech.
You should also appear to be truthful-even when you are really
stretching a point. If you do not appear to be earnest, even if your
message is the 100% truth, people will doubt your word and tune
out your speech.
Lastly, do not be afraid to show a little emotion, this is not a
sterile or static speech. Your body and voice must match the tone
of your words. If your language is strong, you must present a
physical force to go along with your delivery.
Self-control?
Your speeches are no longer passive. You cannot sit back and
let your words do all of the talking. You must use your total self to
deliver your message, and this means that you will have to expose
a little of your personality to the group. However, do not worry.
By now, everyone is accustomed to speechmaking. Your group will
be supportive.
The Group Reaction
The group has two major criteria after each member’s speech.
First, the delivery. Were the speaker’s body, words, and actions in
synchronization and harmony? Did one support the other or was
there tension between the body and the voice? Secondly, were
you persuaded? Why or why not? Discuss what makes a
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persuasive speech work and how the intangibles effect a positive

outcome.
Persuasion techniques:
-Body—make sure that you have a proper posture.
-Articulation–articulation means how your total vocal process
works.
-Pronunciation—pronounce each word.
-Pitch—pitch is the highs and lows of your voice.
-Speed—your speed, or pace, is an important variable to control.
-Pauses—the pause, or caesura, is a critical persuasive tool.
-Volume–the intensity of your voice
-Quality—quality of voice is gauged by the overall impact that
caliber of your voice, its character and attributes.
-Variance–variance of vocal elements is your most important
consideration of all, to vary the elements of your voice.
SPEECH NUMBER EIGHT–
THE SPEECH TO ENTERTAIN
The Procedure
Write a 6 to 9-minute speech of some form to entertain the
group. You must use the signature outline or no notes at all for
this speech.
The Lesson: Tone and Figurative Language
In order to entertain a group, you must have a good under-
standing of the basics of tonal devices. Tone is the sound property
of your speech, which includes the lyrics, rhythm and rhyme,
musical considerations, and the oral figurative language used. Figu-
rative language is the use of words that represent other meanings.
The basic elements of figurative language are as follows:
1) Understatement—understatement is used to underscore an
important idea with an ironic twist. Understatement extenu-
ates the obvious and highlights the insignificant elements of a
topic (e.g., “Churchill was a good golfer.”).
2) Allusion—allusion hints at a topic, but never comes right out
and says what it really is. It would be like a child suggesting,
“The hot dogs at “Fred’s Grill” are yummy,” but never saying
that he actually wanted to eat there. The listener is often left
to draw his or her own inference.
3) Hyperbole—hyperbole is the opposite of understatement. Hy-
perbole blows everything out of proportion: it turns a com-
mon cold into fatal emphysema; it turns a cricket’s chirp into
a cacophony; it transforms puppy love into Romeo and Juliet!
Hyperbole is overstatement.
4) Juxtaposition—juxtaposition places opposite ideas side by side
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to create a new truth, much like a paradox or oxymoron. Some

examples would be: “The soldier died to preserve life,” “Hand
me the diet ice cream,” “This is almost exactly what I need,”
or “Now then, I am driving to the sanitary landfill.”
5) Metaphor and simile—the metaphor and simile are the two
primary forms of comparison in the English language. A meta-
phor is an implied comparison not using “like” or “as.” It is a
figure of speech denoting an object or an idea. An example
would be defining a camel as a “desert boat.” A camel is not a
boat, but it acts like one in the desert. A simile is an implied
comparison using “like” or “as.” “I’m as hungry as a bear.” A
simile does not imply that you are a bear the way a metaphor
would, it merely notes a common trait.
6) Personification—when you give human characteristics to non-
human things, you have personification. When the wind whis-
pers and groans, or when a tree dances in a breeze, or a car
sighs relief, you have personification.
7) Irony—when something happens that you do not expect, you
have irony. Usually irony involves a twist of fate, or having a
plot backfire, “The villain crept up behind the young hero
with an evil looking, twisted knife in his wicked clutches. As
he grew near, he raised the dreadful knife above his head as he
prepared to strike. Unfortunately for the villain, he did not
notice the stool on the floor. So, as he lunged toward the hero,
the scoundrel tripped over the stool and drove the knife deep
into his own nasty heart.”
8) Sound devices—sound devices are the musical variations you
can make in your speech. The basic four are:
a) Alliteration—the repetition of initial sounds in words next to each
other. (e.g., Big Boys Buy Bread in Baskets).
b) Onomatopoeia—making words from sounds. (e.g., “tick-tock,”
“clang,” “pow,” etc.)
c) Assonance—the repetition of vowel sounds in words next to each other.
d) Consonance–the repetition of consonant sounds in words next to
each other.
9) Poetry. If you decide to write a poem, you might want to know

these basic poetry elements before you take a pen in hand:
-Meaning and Value. What a poem means to the listener.
-Speaker of Poem. The speaker is like a narrator in a story. The
narrator is not the author, and the speaker is not the poet. You as
the presenter do not have to be the speaker in this case!
-Subject. Literally, what poem is about.
-Narrative or Epic Poem. (e.g., The Odyssey or Paradise Lost.) Tells a
poetic story of great people doing great things. This is always a
popular choice.
-Lyrical Poetry. A poem that can be sung. Can be and maybe should
be a song.
-Tone of Voice. Speaker’s (not yours) attitude to subject of poem.
-Masculine (final syllable) and Feminine (not final syllable)
Rhymes.
-Diction. The words you choose to put in your poem.
-Imagery. Triggers memories through listeners’ senses and emotions.
-Allusions. References in a poem to something or someone great or
famous.
-Syntax. The order of the words you choose to put in your poem.
-Theme. Human motifs that contribute to the meaning (love, hate,
jealousy, other emotions).
Now that you have seen the various elements of tone, you have
to decide what type of speech to write. There are really only two
rules to keep in mind for a speech to entertain:
-If you decide to poke fun at someone, poke fun at yourself first.
-Whatever you decide to do, keep in mind that an entertaining
speech should sound good—remember your elements of tone.
Here are some ideas for topics for your speech.
-Satire—a new spoken work that mocks human weaknesses
-Parody—a humorous imitation of a person, song, or book
-A humorous story
-A sincere story
-A graduation or moving-up speech
-A poem
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-A stand-up comedy routine

-Retelling classic stories with bizarre endings
The Strategy
Have Fun!
This is a good chance to “break the ice” in your group, so have
fun with this speech; however, do not underestimate the rigor of
this speech. Despite its entertaining nature, because of the vocal
issues this is by far the most technically complicated speech that
you have attempted to date.
Laughter
Wit is the ability to make humorous remarks; and wisdom is
the experience that you need in life to have the background and
credibility to make the humor. For example, a teenager can tell a
perfectly delightful story about two old retired gentleman playing
chess. To his peers, it may strike them as funny since they have no
real frame of reference to judge the authenticity of the humor. To a
room full of octogenarians, it would not seem as clever.
If by some miracle the group does begin to laugh, remember
the two policies for dealing with laughter:
1. Wait until the laughter starts to diminish before you give your
next line. If you keep talking while the group is laughing, you
will teach them not to laugh because they will miss something.
Just stay frozen in place until the time is right to continue.
2. Never laugh at your own jokes—the group will laugh at you,
not with you. The best way to get the laughs out of your
system is to tell the joke to a few people before your speech. It
will be old news when you spring it on the group.
Try to use expressive language, words that will appeal to both
the ear and the brain, and keep a logical order to your speech.
There is nothing quite as embarrassing as telling a joke and giving
the punch line too soon.
You Can’t Please Everybody
Realize before you begin that you will not be able to entertain
every member of your group. This is what makes the human race
so diverse. If everybody liked the same thing, there would be no

variety. So, do not be afraid to try something totally ridiculous,
not everyone will like it, but on the other hand, some people will!
The Group Reaction
Ask yourself these questions after every speech:
-Did the speaker make use of various tonal elements?
-Were you entertained? Why or why not? Would you pay to see this
speech?
Keep in mind that you do not have to have the group laugh-
ing in order to entertain them: a sincere yet subtle and unadorned
speech is just as effective as one that raises bellylaughs. All you
really have to do is catch their attention and to focus their thoughts
to a single theme.
The Example
Good morning and welcome to our graduation. Mr. Smith
and members of the Board of Trustees, Mr. Jones and fellow teach-
ing colleagues, parents, grandparents, brothers and sisters, friends,
students, and of course, the students of the hour, our graduates.
We have gathered this morning to both acknowledge and cel-
ebrate the achievement of an important milestone in the lives of
these young people during their lifelong journeys of self-discovery.
I would like to take this opportunity behind this bully pulpit
to say a personal thanks to all of you who have touched our lives. I
am not going to mention them by name, but I suspect that you
have much the same feelings for them I do right about now.
This is a class whose identities intertwined early in the going,
and since then they have been one of the tightest, most supportive
groups I have ever seen move through a school. Now, it has not
been all sweetness and light among the students. Believe me, there
have been some spirited discussions about some weighty matters
over the years. On the other hand, if someone from outside of the
class has in any way imperiled any member of this group, I have
never seen a collection close its ranks so quickly, speaking well for
their esprit de corps.
You have studied together, you have played together, and you
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have grown together. Your years were filled with the wonders and
joys of discovering who you are, what your body and mind are
capable of doing and becoming, and that life is a complicated yet
dazzling set of trials and errors. For those of us who have the excellent
good fortune to be working with you, we share in your reveling;
we draw our own professional strength from your overabundant
pools of energy, courage, and sometimes sheer tenacity.
As we prepare to deliver these young people on to the next
level, I must say of all of the life-skills one could achieve in prepa-
ration for the new millennium, the ability to work with others in
a cooperative team fashion is the most critical. I am very happy to
report that this group seems to have a good head start.
Together you came, you saw, and you did a darn good job.
You have made our school the best.
It has been a distinct pleasure to have known you these past
four years; you have my finest wishes for everything.
Laughter policy:
next line.
not with you.
Figurative language:
-Understatement—understatement is used to underscore an
important idea with an ironic twist.
-Allusion—allusion hints at a topic, but never comes right out
and says what it really is.
-Hyperbole—hyperbole is the opposite of understatement.
-Juxtaposition—juxtaposition places opposite ideas side by side
to create a new truth, much like a paradox or oxymoron.
-Metaphor and simile—A metaphor is an implied comparison
not using “like” or “as.” A simile is an implied comparison
using “like” or “as.”
-Personification—when you give human characteristics to non-

human things.
-Irony—when something happens that you do not expect.
-Sound devices—sound devices are the musical variations you
can make in your speech. The basic four are:
-Alliteration—the repetition of initial sounds in words next to
each other
-Onomatopoeia—making words from sounds.
-Assonance—the repetition of vowel sounds in words next to
each other.
-Consonance–the repetition of consonant sounds in words next
to each other.
Poetry elements:
narrator is not the author, and the speaker is not the poet. You
as the presenter do not have to be the speaker in this case!
-Narrative or Epic Poem. (e.g., The Odyssey or Paradise Lost.) Tells
a poetic story of great people doing great things.
-Lyrical Poetry. A poem that can be sung. Can be and maybe
should be a song.
-Tone of Voice. Speaker’s (not yours) attitude to subject of
poem.
Rhymes.
-Imagery. Triggers memories through listeners’ senses and
emotions.
-Allusions are references in a poem to something or someone
great or famous.
-Syntax. The order of the words you choose to put in your
poem.
-Theme. Human ideas that contribute to the meaning (love,
hate, jealousy, and other emotions).
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Tone and Figurative Language. Tone is the sound property of

your speech, which includes the lyrics, rhythm and rhyme, musi-
cal considerations, and the oral figurative language used. Figura-
tive language is the use of words that represent other meanings.
INTERMEDIATE
SPEECHES
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SPEECH NO. 9—THE
SPEECH TO INTERPRET
LITERATURE ORALLY
The Procedure
Choose a cutting of literature (from a novel or play). The piece
should be a published work. Read aloud an 8-10 minute cutting
from the piece. You should use no hand gestures or body move-
ments. In addition, there is no eye contact allowed. This speech is
designed to test only your voice!
The Lesson: The Nervous Voice & the Vocal Warm Up
Athletes just do not walk out onto the field and start into their
games—they take special care to warm up before they play. Speak-
ers must do the same thing; it is called the vocal warm up. The
vocal warm up stretches the mouth out and gives the lungs 40%-
60% more available space to use for projection. It looks like you
are swallowing a watermelon when you are doing it, so you might
want to do this warm up in private at least one-half hour before
you speak.
The first thing you do is take a good, deep breath, and then
slur through your vowels one at a time, stretching your lips and
mouth to exaggerate the sounds. Keep running through the vow-
els, making the kinds of sounds that you would when the doctor is
checking your tonsils, until you run out of air. Then take another
deep breath and do it all again. Make up some weird sounds and
change your volume as you do this exercise three times. If you have
to do this in public, just put your hand in front of your mouth
and pretend that you are yawning. This may make as much sense
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to you as wearing a tuxedo to a beach party, but try it, the experts
swear by it!
Vocal Range Elements
While making a speech can make you feel out of control, in
fact there are four elements to your vocal range that you do have
control over during your speech:
-The pitch—do not squeak too high or boom too low.
-The volume—project from your diaphragm, not from your
throat. Practice this by putting your hand on your chest,
speaking at different volumes, and trying to feel the
vibrations.
-The pace—try to stay between 130-160 words per minute.
-The quality—try to keep your voice rich and avoid slips in
diction and enunciation.
All of this is fine, but what do you do about those butterflies
caged in your esophagus? Can you control your nerves? Sorry, no.
Make your nervousness work for you!
Face it, you cannot control your nerves, and you know why—
the Adrenaline is pumping through your body. So, why try to
control your nerves—contain them and use them to your advan-
tage! Nervousness means Adrenaline, and Adrenaline means en-
ergy—use the energy! Do not try to fight it, go with it! Have your
speech so well prepared that you are like a rocket ready to blast off!
If you are prepared, then you are ready. If you are not prepared,
then and only then do you have a good reason to worry. You know
what to do and how to do it—go for it!
Last Minute Nervous Problems & Remedies
However, no matter how psyched-up you are, some things
still seem to be happening to your body. Here is a list of the last
minute nervous problems you may have and how to deal with
them.
1) Tongue-tied—you start tripping over simple words. Of course,
your tongue is not really tied, nor is it taking a holiday. The
remedy to this problem is very simple—just slow down!
2) Sweating—you cannot dry your hands or face off. The remedy
is to look over the group’s heads or pick out a few friendly faces
to focus on. If this does not work, just imagine that everyone
in the audience is stark naked except for a few fig leaves. This
always seems to work for some strange reason.
3) Muscle cramps—all of a sudden your muscles freeze. Remedy:
they are not really frozen; they are just lacking blood pressure.
Gesture and take a few steps and the cramps will disappear!
4) World War III in your stomach—the classic “Butterfly
Syndrome.” Remedy: just remember why it is happening and
then suppress thinking about it. Once you get into your speech,
you will forget about your stomach as your physiology changes.
5) Shaking—your hands are shaking like the proverbial leaf.
Remedy: you cannot stop them from shaking at that moment,
so either grab the sides of the podium or put your hands behind
your back! Again, do not worry, it will stop.
The Strategy
Like Your Literature
Make this one easy on yourself; choose a cutting that you like.
Try to find something that fits your personality. Check some of
your old literature books; there must have been a story or a poem
somewhere from your past that you remember well.
Viva Voice!
Your voice is your essential ally in your speech; make good use
of all of your vocal qualities. Also, make sure that you do not hide
your face behind the book. Many people will hold the book up so
high that their faces are buried in the text. Just because this speech
highlights your voice, this does not give you a license to become
an ostrich!
The Group Reaction
Active Listening—Paralinguistics
From here on in, the group’s role becomes more involved. As
listeners, you must begin to take a more active role in the process
of communication. Active listeners not only hear what is said, but
also hear the hidden messages through paralinguistics.
Studies show that the average listener will miss over 75% of
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the spoken message! The reason behind this is simple: the average
speaker speaks at a rate of 130-170 words per minute; whereas,
the average listener’s brain can comprehend over 400 words per
minute. This means that the average brain starts to wander since it
becomes starved for stimulus. In short, your brain gets bored.
You must take special care that your brain does not shut down
from boredom, because even consciously interesting speeches can
be subconsciously boring. To do this, you must concentrate physi-
cally on the speech and avoid all distractions, such as noises from a
fan or other group members. You have to lock onto the speaker
and the speech.
To accomplish this goal of Active Listening you have to be able
to do the following:
-Try to hear the “big message” or Speech Focusing Statement as
quickly as possible.
-Maintain a positive regard for the speaker.
-Do not become defensive or tune out if you hear something
that you do not like.
-Do not judge the speaker during the speech.
-Observe the speaker’s body language and the paralinguistics.
-Be able to retell and synthesize the essential points of the
speech or story.
-Be comfortable in your chair.
-Most importantly: focus your attention on the speech!
Active Listening takes a great deal of practice and hard work, but
its rewards are significant!
The Example
In this silly soap-opera example, there are a number of speak-
ers including a narrator. Decide ahead of time if your group would
like to give different roles to several members, or if one person
should try to portray all of the characters!
Also, decide how will you deal with the written cues for the
delivery (e.g., “”Now-now, my dear, “ Dyna cooed,”–how would
you “coo” the words?). Should one member of the group read the
delivery cues?
The Characters are:

Constance McGuire (Mac): the protagonist of the story;
recently widowed
Dyna: Mac’s best friend
Lance Andover: Mac’s blind date
Patrick O’Sheas (Red): the waiter
Narrator
Setting: The Club Le Blanc
Time: Today
Waiting on Love.
“A gin fizz sounds fine, “ Mac smiled at her carrot-topped
waiter.
“Constance McGuire, really now,” Dyna patronized her friend,
“when out for an evening at The Club La Blanc, one simply does
not order a gin fizz. Waiter, bring me a champagne cocktail.”
“As you wish,” and the Red Head darted towards the lounge.
“You must attempt to act with greater panache my dear, “Dyna
smiled, “or you’ll just never find your prince.”
“I don’t remember saying that I was looking for a prince, or
even a jester; we came in here to relax, remember? I’m not interested
in . . .“
“Now-now, my dear, “ Dyna cooed, “ you must come out of
your shell sometime. It’s been over a year since Billy’s death and . . . “
“Dyna! “ Mac protested, “Come on, I’ve told you I just need
time.”
“Time!” Dyna laughed, “ Constance, you’re no spring chicken
anymore. Twenty-eight is a ripe old age to be on the prowl these
days.”
“Okay Dyna, you win. But let’s just listen to the music for
awhile, okay?”
However, it was not okay for Mac. As she accepted the frothy
libation from her waiter, she couldn’t help but to notice that the
cut of his oxford shirt was the same as Billy’s. The conservative
form of his muscular shoulders reminded her of the weekend sandlot
rugby matches, as she would wince every time Billy threw his
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body into the scrum. His hair, well . . . Billy’s was blond; however,
she did like the Redtop’s smile, which was just like the smiles from
yesterday.
No! It was just too painful to start remembering again, what is
gone is over. Nevertheless, they were such good friends, even when
they were married. Billy had always been “the boy next door” and
then “The All-American Boy” in high school and logically then
“the perfect husband.”
“My,” she quietly whispered to herself, “I was married to a
walking cliché!” Mac giggled to herself and it seemed to help relieve
the swollen knot in her chest.
“So, what kind of little boy would you like, little girl?” Dyna
belted out in her best Santa voice.
“Dyna, the thought of being with someone, anyone, right now,
just does really appeal to me.”
“So have a long swallow on that classy drink of yours and you’ll
feel all better,” Dyna responded preparing her claws.
“Not tonight, Dyna, you just don’t understand.”
“Oh I understand perfectly.” Dyna circled her scratching post.
“You would much rather wallow in self-righteous pity than face
up to the real world. Oh, my dear, I do feel more sorry for you now
than I ever have.”
“You don’t understand.” Mac tried again as she turned her
head aside. The single tear she had shed fell into her fizz as she
finished a long draw.
How could she make Dyna, her best friend for years who had
watched her undergo the metamorphosis from young college girl
to conscientious bride, appreciate the irony of her predicament—
her need for someone to hold her tight and to tell her everything
was all right, yet living in the same heart tortured by the pangs of
guilt over such thoughts. Dyna could never understand.
Billy was so young; it wasn’t right, it wasn’t fair. Elderly people
get diseases and die, not healthy young American boys. How could
she take the chance to love again? Men are so fragile, and she is so
drained.
“Well, my dear,” Dyna attacked, “if you’re not going to stick

out your neck then I will do it for you.”
“Dyna,” Mac was jolted back to reality, “what are you saying?”
“Well, nothing, my dear, “ Dyna purred, “except that I have
asked an old male acquaintance of mine to drop by tonight.”
“Dyna! How could you!”
“It’s for your own good, my dear.” Dyna said.
“Who is this acquaintance?” Mac pushed.
“Well, his name is Lance Andover . . . “
Mac laughed, “ You’re joking of course.”
Mac judged by Dyna’ s glance that she was indeed serious.
“His name is Lance,” Dyna continued, “he’s twenty-seven,
dresses acceptably, drives a ‘58 Corvette, and in a word is a tad
gorgeous.”
“When I meet him, should I shake his hand or merely curtsy?”
Mac wondered aloud.
“How clever of you,” Dyna noted, “and you’d best decide fast;
he’s standing right behind you.”
Mac turned embarrassingly quickly to find the most attractive
male she had ever seen; and yet something was not right in her
mind.
“Lance; Darling,” Dyna drooled, “so good of you to come.”
Mac blushed.
“Lance, meet Constance McGuire; she’s the one I told you
about.”
“Oh please,” Mac smiled, “my friends call me Mac.”
“How very pleasant to meet you Connie,” Lance lied as he
bowed deeply with false bravado.
Connie! How she hated to be called Connie. Her great aunt
Maggie had always called her that. She was such an old biddy.
“Likewise,” offered Mac, “ I think . . . “
“I hope you can forgive me Dyna,” Lance leered, “I’ve brought
a bottle of champagne, but alas, only two glasses.”
“Oh, I suppose I understand,” Dyna said as she withdrew
herself with a wink to Lance.
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Something was rotten at Club Le Blanc, and Mac knew it.

How could her friend leave her stranded with such a wolf?
“So, Dyna tells me that you’re divorced,” Lance began.
“Yes, yes I am,” Mac lied to avoid the usual questions that
follow.
“A pity. I myself plan to stay single, which I am now, and will
be for the rest of my life.”
“How nice,” Mac responded to her folded sweaty hand.
As Lance began to open the champagne, Mac noticed that he
kept inching closer to her. His feet would wander and he would
readjust his chair, as if to facilitate the champagne’s birth. When
the cork finally flew, he reacted as if he were startled. His hand
flew back and met with the nape of Mac’s collar. His one hand
poured the bubbly while the other hand found Mac’s shoulder.
Mac froze.
She could not believe that this pompous fool was that sure of
himself. He had known her for only but a few minutes and already
his advances were in top gear. She doubted he even knew her name.
In her daze, she watched herself take the glass and toast some
stupid sailboat. It was as if she were outside of her body watching
herself reacting, or as if she were spying on another cozy couple.
She had to act, now.
“Look Mr. Andiver, or whatever your name is, I think you’d
better . . .“
“Calm down, Babe, you’re kind of cute, “ Lance said.
Cute! Oh wonderful, she has been cute all of her life. Never
pretty, never beautiful, never anything she wanted to be—just
cute. And now Lance is trying to placate her with ‘cute.’ That was
the last straw; she had to leave before anything else happened.
“Wait a minute Baby,” Lance rasped, “calm down.” He squeezed
her even harder.
“I want you to let go, now.” Her composure was fading fast.
“I want you to relax Baby, I want you to . . .“
A new voice took over. “I think it’s time for you to leave, mister,”
said Patrick O’Sheas, her carrot topped waiter.
“And I think you should go back to your dishes, boy,” Lance

growled.
Patrick simply lifted Lance out of his seat. “Have a pleasant
evening sir,” Patrick said as he persuaded Lance towards the door.
Not being one to be led anywhere, Lance twirled on the balls
of his feet sending his fisted forearm towards the back of Patrick’s
skull.
“RED!” Mac yelled from her seat.
Patrick twisted and caught the blow with the side of his wrist
and deftly pinned Lance’s arm behind his back in a hammerlock.
“Good night, sir,” Patrick exhaled as he rushed Lance out of
the door.
Returning to Mac’s table, Patrick apologized for having to make
a scene.
“Red?” Patrick inquired in a deep, yet playful voice.
“I didn’t . . . I don’t know your name and he was going to hit
you from behind and..” Mac blurted out.
“Patrick; Patrick O’Sheas,” Patrick offered.
“Mine is Constance McGuire, my friends call me Mac.”
“Well Mac, nice to meet you. Say, I don’t mean to sound too
very forward, but would you consider having, or sharing, a gin fizz
with a total stranger?”
You’re no stranger, you’re . . .” Mac stopped.
“I’m what?”
“You’re, you’re just like someone I used to know.” Mac said,
“You really are.”
“I’m glad.” Patrick said with that ‘boy next store’ smile as he
helped Mac to her feet.
“Cocktail lounge okay?” Patrick wondered.
“Couldn’t be better.” Mac said.
As they were taking their seats in the cocktail lounge, Mac was
not sure, but she thought she felt something stirring inside of her
heart that she had not felt for a very long time. Oh no, Mac thought,
it is that awful ‘gee, I’m glad to be alive’ feeling. Mac, you are too old
to feel that way . . .
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Patrick was explaining his duties as a second year medical stu-

dent and how hard it is for him to wait on tables all night and
attend classes during the day. She wondered to herself how long
she had been staring at Patrick’s blue eyes. She wondered even if
Patrick wasn’t the right one, if she had turned the corner. She
would have to take it slow, no more romance. Be friends first and
then see what happens.
“So, what do you think?” Patrick repeated.
“About what? Sorry, I’ve been drifting.”
“Ah, this weekend, maybe at the shore,” Patrick said.
“The shore, this weekend . . . “ Mac smiled and drifted off
again.
Active Listening:
-Try to get the “big message” or Speech Focusing Statement as
quickly as possible.
that you don’t like.
-Observe the body language and the paralinguistics.
speech or story.
Nervous problems:
-Tongue-tied—The remedy to this problem is very simple—just
slow down!
-Sweating—The remedy is to look over the group’s heads or pick
out a few friendly faces to focus on.
-Muscle cramps Remedy: they are not really frozen; they are just
lacking blood pressure. Gesture and take a few steps and the
cramps will disappear!
-World War III in stomach—the classic “Butterfly Syndrome.”
Remedy: just remember why it is happening and then

suppress thinking about it. Once you get into your speech,
you will forget about your stomach as your physiology
changes.
-Shaking—Remedy: you cannot stop them from shaking at that
moment, so either grab the sides of the podium or put your
hands behind your back!
Vocal Range Elements:
speaking at different volumes, and try to feel the vibrations.
-The quality—try to keep your voice rich and avoid slips in
Vocal warm up—Take a good, deep breath and then slur
through your vowels one at a time, stretching your lips and mouth
to exaggerate the sounds. Keep running through the vowels, making
the kinds of sounds that you would when the doctor is checking
your tonsils, until you run out of air.
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SPEECH NUMBER TEN–
THE SPEECH TO DISCUSS
The Procedure
This is a full group discussion. The entire group should agree
on a topic and designate a discussion leader the meeting before the
discussion actually begins. You are working together to address a
problem or concern in this exercise.
The Lesson: Discussing an Issue
Every discussion must begin with a central problem or question
to be resolved. If you are discussing the truth of a “fact,” the operant
verb in the resolution is “is” (e.g., Uncle Max is in financial trouble).
If you are debating a value or policy issue, the operant verb of the
resolution is “should” (e.g., The U.S. should develop a better
antiballistic defense). This speech is a discussion and not debate;
therefore, the operant verb is “is.”
Leading a discussion usually implies that there is an issue that
needs to be addressed and a change that needs to accompany that
decision. Change is never easy on people, and the more input they
have into the change process, the more likely they are to buy into
the change when it happens. Without discussing an issue, you
take the chance of having people feel alienated and not part of “the
team.” Niccolo Machiavelli summed this up best, “There is nothing
more difficult to take in hand, more perilous to conduct, or more
uncertain in its success, than to take the lead in the introduction of a
new order to things.”
Steps to a Discussion
There are six primary steps to a discussion. Notice that to
accomplish some of these steps, some homework must be done.

The steps in order are:
1) Define every word of the resolution—everyone should agree
over the usage of every word. Discussions can easily bog down
if people have different conceptions of key words.
2) Study the issue—what is its history? What factors control it?
What caused the problem? Who is to blame?
3) Shotgun solutions—everyone brainstorms ideas rapid fire. One
member should write down every solution on a blackboard or
have a recorder write them down.
4) Eliminate inadequate solutions—get rid of obviously defective
solutions. A simple majority decision is good enough to reject
weak ideas.
5) Discuss—This is the heart of your discussion. Take each solu-
tion or idea left on the blackboard and discuss its relative
strengths and weaknesses. Rank order each successive solution
or idea—”Is this new one better or worse than the one before?
Where does it fit on a hierarchy from good to best?”
6) Action plan—once you have decided upon best action or solu-
tion, create a hypothetical “action plan” to implement your
solution. Be as specific as possible within realistic boundaries.
Discussion Leader’s Duties
The discussion leader will be kept busy during this process.
The roles and duties of the discussion leader include:
-Keeping the discussion moving along.
-Remembering that this is not a debate, the leader encourages
cooperation among the group, not conflict.
-Since parliamentary procedures do not apply to a discussion,
the leader must make decisions on how to proceed.
-Summarize what has been said and agreed upon from time to
time.
-Keep control!
-Make sure that everyone participates.
-Make final summations.
-Make sure everyone agrees with the outcomes.
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The Strategy
Participants’ Roles
As a participant in an open discussion, you will be expected to
behave like a civilized human being. All it takes is one power hun-
gry member and the discussion is in danger. Just as you learned
the requirements for a group leader, these are the requirements of
each participant in a discussion:
Participants’ Duties
-Do your homework!
-Be willing to compromise on your “pet” issues.
-Keep an open mind.
-Make sure that everyone gets a chance to speak, or in other
words, do not monopolize the discussion.
-You may attack a person’s position, but never the person.
-Avoid “blanket statements” (e.g., “You’re always wrong.”).
-Be consistent on your views. If you do change your mind, be
sure to explain why.
-Be willing to drop losing arguments.
-Be willing to go along with the group’s decision; nobody likes a
sore loser.
Group Participation
Think of this speech as an interactive game. Take a few min-
utes to just sit back and watch process of human decision-making
and interaction. At times, it can be amusing, and it is always inter-
esting. If you can be objective enough, try to “step outside” your-
self and observe how you are fitting into whole scheme of things.
How do you react to the group and how do they react to you? If
you are not able to do this, ask a friend to take notes on how often
you speak, to whom you speak, to whom you respond, and on
your general body language and verbal tones. This is important
information because it gives you a good reflection of how others
see your role in the group.
The Group Reaction
At the next meeting after your discussion, try to come to grips
with the group interaction process, not the resolution or solution!
Try to discover who talked the most, and talked the least. Ask
them why they did. Was the leader effective? What you are trying
to do is to get a reading on each person’s involvement in the
discussion. This is important feedback to the group for making
future decisions about group processing.
The Example
Try to decide if it would be best for your school or organiza-
tion to launch an “adopt-a-hallway” plan to keep things clean. For
example, this could be an illustration to help you develop a topic:
The Smith School is deciding if it wants to make plans to assure
that our hallways and stairs are free from trash. Following the model
from the Department of Transportation, we are deciding if we want
our own “Adopt-A-Hallway” plan. One part of our group believes that
when the students take responsibility for their own learning environ-
ment, they will have a better appreciation for the necessity of keeping it
clean. In this way, it’s not someone else’s problem, it is his or her own!
The students are instructed that if they see a piece of paper on the floor
on their designated watch, they should stop and pick it up and dispose
of it properly. It should also be said that this does not mean it is okay to
toss paper on the floor; it is everyone’s responsibility to take pride in our
school. When teachers see someone picking up paper, we all congratu-
late him or her, and in turn, we act as good role models ourselves by
picking up papers! On the other hand, one part of our group feels that
students will not do this unless they are watched constantly and that
would take more effort than keeping the hallways clean in the first
place.
Can you develop a topic for discussion from this statement?
Discussion—Implies that there is an issue that needs to be
addressed and a change that needs to accompany that decision.
There are six primary steps to a discussion:
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What caused the problem? Who is to blame?
have a secretary record them.
4) Eliminate inadequate solutions—get rid of obviously faulty
solutions. A simple majority decision is good enough to reject
weak ideas.
5) Discuss—This is the heart of your discussion. Take each solution
or idea left on the blackboard and discuss its relative strengths
and weaknesses. Rank order each successive solution or idea.
6) Action plan—once you have decided upon best solution, create
a hypothetical “action plan” to implement your solution. Be
as specific as possible within realistic boundaries.
Discussion leader skills:
-Keeping the discussion moving along.
time.
-Keep control!
-Make final summations
-Make sure everyone agrees with the outcomes
Discussion participant skills:
-Do your homework!
-Keep an open mind.
words, don’t hog the discussion.
-Avoid “blanket statements”
-Be consistent on your views.

-Be willing to go along with the group’s decision.
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SPEECH NUMBER ELEVEN–
THE SPEECH NOT TO SPEAK
The Procedure
You should prepare a 4—6 minute voiceless scenario. Write
down the specifics of your scene before you begin so the group can
determine how close they came to guessing and understanding
your interpretation.
The Lesson: Non-Verbal Communication
In the Oral Interpretation Speech, you assumed that what
you said was the most important variable. Now you must convey a
message without using words. In a mimed speech, all of the elements
of body language (which is not a real language, but is still a form
of communication) come into play: your face, hands, feet, posture,
and movement are all critical elements. Proxemics, the cultural
understanding of the physical space between your body and things
around it, is also very important. Aside from a discussion of cultural
interpretations of personal space and distances between people,
for this speech your body must display a physical relationship
between itself and an invisible world around it!
Consider the key factors in this mimed speech:
-The head—your head is the most important factor in a mimed
speech. It begins every movement and contains the brain.
Your head can tilt and rotate, and make facial expressions.
-The eyes—the eyes are said to be the gateways to the mind.
They control the focus of attention and can act
independently of the rest of the head. They can act in
harmony with the rest of your body or act in ironic contrast.
The eyes create the illusion of speaking or reacting to a

speech or event.
-The mouth—the mouth cannot move to make words—that’s
cheating! Nevertheless, it can show pleasure or displeasure,
and it can taste, and it can form an “0” to show surprise!
-The ears—you can turn your head to show “hearing” of a
sound.
-The torso—you can’t do too much with your trunk, there’s not
a lot to be expressive with; however, a certain posture can
depict an emotion (a slump is unhappy, etc.)
-The hands—your hands are very expressive! Control of the
hands reflects the role of your character. For example, a
surgeon’s hands are more delicate in motion than a ditch
digger’s hands.
-Legs—your legs are the framework for your body. They show
action and motion.
A list of traditional mimed movements:
-Move forward to agree or show comfort.
-Move backward to display shock or surprise.
-Hunching shoulders show sadness.
-A quick turn indicates new “sentences” or that you have had an
idea.
Even when making normal speeches, these following move-
ments have special meanings. These are the classic Body Language
movements:
-Moving feet show nervousness.
-Hands folded in front of your body show that you are not
prepared and are worried.
-Arms crossed across your chest is a defensive posture; as if to
say, “Keep away.”
-Hands behind your back or at your sides show confidence.
-Hands in your pockets suggest your absent-mindedness.
The Strategy
Tell a Story!
You should pick a situation that is out of the ordinary and act
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out only one character from the scene. You should try to emote, or
display, the proper emotional reactions to the situation. Keep in
mind that you want to create a situation and discover how your
character reacts in the situation.
Here are some examples:
-A nervous bank robber in a crowded bank.
-A sneezing surgeon in a delicate operation.
-A sleepy astronaut re-entering the capsule.
-A new teacher in the wrong classroom.
-The first big date and you discover a pimple.
-A lost dog in a big city.
-A new student in the wrong classroom.
Learn to Speak a Good Body Language
Sometimes you just will not have the best text in the world for
your speech, or your voice might be a little weak on a given day. It
is good to know at times like this, if you understand body lan-
guage, then your physical appearance will not give your secret
away.
Body language will not win any speeches for you, but know-
ing about it can save you from admitting to having a bad speech or
having a long night studying the night before.
Remember that approximately 1/3 of the message your audi-
ence receives comes from your words and that 2/3 of the message
comes from nonverbal cues. When the verbal and nonverbal are
contrasting (e.g., your voice sounds excited but your body lan-
guage and your eyes seem bored) the audience will tend to listen
more to your body than your voice. They will “hear” that you are
bored and not pay attention to your verbal message. This is also
why you need to pay attention to your dress, your nervous habits,
your attitude about your topic and your hand movements.
A Group Body Language Exercise
Split your group into smaller groups of four or five (or less)
each. Have a leader cut up five or six large sheets of paper into
twenty or so pieces and then mix them all together. Repeat this
process for each group. Then each member of the group grabs
some pieces until the pile is gone for each group. Someone says,
“go,” and all you have to do in each group is to re-assemble the
original sheets of paper. There are only a few rules or conditions:
-You cannot take pieces of paper; you can only give them away to
others.
-You must keep at least two pieces to yourself at all times. In other
words, you cannot give them all to one person.
-You may not speak or try to communicate in any manner–that
would be cheating!
-The winning team is taken out to lunch
During this drill, you will see an incredible amount of non-
verbal communication going on. You will see expressions of
joy, frustration, anger, disgust and most of all, impatience. If
possible, have someone videotape this drill for subsequent
debriefing.
The Group Reaction
Discuss each member’s ability to relate a character and de-
velop a story. Have the group try to guess the specifics of what the
mimed speaker was doing. The speaker should have written down
the specifics of the scenario ahead of time—how closely does it
compare to the group’s observations?
Body Language and Mimed Speech Actions:
-Move backward to display shock or surprise
idea.
-Hands folded in front of your body shows that you are not
say, “keep away.”
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Non-Verbal Communication—Communicating without using
voice.
Proxemics—The use of physical space between your body and
things around it:
Your head can tilt, rotate, and make facial expressions.
They control the focus of attention and can act indepen-
dently of the rest of the head.
-The mouth—It can show pleasure or displeasure, and it can
taste, and it can form an “0” to show surprise!
sound.
-The torso—you cannot do too much with your trunk, there is
not a lot to be expressive with; however, a certain posture
can depict an emotion.
hands reflects the role of your character.
action and motion.
SPEECH NUMBER TWELVE–
THE SPEECH TO PRESENT A
PLAYWRIGHT’S NEWSCAST
The Procedure
You should make a short list of some of your favorite stories
from books, television, or the movies. From this list, pull out some
of the more memorable plot points and try to imagine how it
would sound if the action from the story were reported as if it were
on the evening news. Write an 8–10 minute news report detailing
information from your stories as the headlines. You can create filler
information to personalize the stories to your school or organization.
The Lesson: Positive Mental Attitudes
PMA can be summed up in one word: confidence. This is why
when you are assessing each other’s written speech (and later how
it is presented) the main objective of the assessment is to increase
your level of confidence in yourself and your speech. It is a simple
equation: experience and preparation = Confidence = PMA. By
now, you should have formed some good attitudes about speak-
ing. If you feel better about speaking, then you will be more likely
to take some chances, or engage in risk-taking. Do not worry about
seeming a little silly making a wild broadcast because you have
developed a trust in your group and in yourself.
For this speech, watch how real television newscasters work in
the formats their shows take. For example, you might want to do a
news format, or a sports or weather format, or maybe all three!
For example, depending on the stories you choose, your
headlines might sound like these:
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World news—Martians invade Los Angeles

Regional news—Dinosaurs walk over Lake Erie
Historical news—Prince Hamlet dies in sword battle
Sports—The Slugger strikes out all night
Weather—Asteroids crash onto Boston streets
Proper English
As long as you are role-playing, you might as well go all the
way and use proper English. Here is a list of speaker’s “Abominable
Words”—words that can trip up even a seasoned veteran:
-A lot vs. alot—say “a lot” as two words meaning “a great
number.” “Alot” does not exist.
-Almost vs. most—”almost” is an adverb (I almost gave a good
speech). “Most” is an adjective (most speeches are fun!).
-Among vs. between—”among” is used when talking about three
or more persons or things. “Between” is used for two people
or things.
-Beside vs. besides—”beside” means “next to something.”
“Besides” means “in addition to.”
-Good vs. well—”good” is an adjective (He is a good
speaker).”Well” is a predicate adjective or an adverb (She
speaks well).
-Hanged vs. hung—people are “hanged.” Pictures are “hung.”
-His and her vs. their—use of personal pronouns in speeches
require either a “his” or “her,” or “he” or “she” for singular
reference.
-Irregardless vs. regardless—”irregardless” is a double negative—
use “regardless.”
-Lay vs. lie—people “lie” down, things are “laid” down.
-Ourself vs. ourselves—”ourself ” does not exist—use the reflexive
pronoun “ourselves.”
-Sit vs. set—people “sit,” things are “set.”
Have Fun! This is not the normal type of activity. Let your
imagination run untamed on this one, but remember the rules for
humor.
The Group Reaction

Basic Communication: Myths about Communications
Since this is a more informal speech, this is a good time to deal
with communication skills. Communication is the process of giv-
ing and receiving information. Effective communication skills must
be learned through experience and reflection; they are not with
you at birth.
You can learn to communicate better if you can overcome these
five typical myths about communications:
-The message sent is the message received. Wrong. People do not
always interpret your words in the spirit in which they were
sent.
-You can stop communicating any time you want. Wrong. You
cannot not communicate. Every move you make is a form of
communication.
-Facts are facts. Wrong. Some facts may seem valid enough to
you because of your frame of reference. To an older person,
the fact that “teenagers today are all irresponsible” may seem
valid enough. Be sure to separate hard facts from soft
opinion facts. In addition, for what it is worth, in most
cases, people’s perceptions of someone or something are
more real for them then the actual reality of the situation.
-Only the words are important. Wrong. Just the same way as an
A.M. radio signal is transmitted by a carrier wave, our words
are transmitted by a human voice. Sometimes humans have
“hidden agendas,” or ulterior motives behind their words.
-Reality is reality. Wrong. Reality all depends on your point of
view. The best way to confirm a reality is to communicate
information. For example, “an ounce of gold is valuable”
seems realistic enough as a proposition. However, to a person
dying of thirst in the desert, an ounce of gold is worthless.
Now, if that desert man could find a desert telephone and
call a desert gold dealer, then he could have all the water he
wanted! The truth of a given reality is best assured through
the listener’s reflection of the message. In a conversation, this
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is accomplished by saying something like, “I think I heard

you say . . . “ and allowing the other person to confirm the
interpretation or amend the thought.
Myths about communications:
-The message sent is the message received.
-You can stop communicating any time you want.
-Facts are facts.
-Only the words are important.
-Reality is reality.
Positive Mental Attitudes—Confidence—to increase your level
of confidence in yourself and your speech. It is a simple equation:
experience and preparation = Confidence = PMA.
Proper English—Learn the Abominable Words
SPEECH NUMBER
THIRTEEN–THE SPEECH TO
INFORM (NUMBER 2) THE
LECTURE/DEMONSTRATION
The Procedure
Use the same rules for this speech as you did in Speech 3, the
Speech to Inform, Number 1. First, everyone should write and
prepare to deliver a normal speech to inform on a new and differ-
ent topic. This time you will add visual aids to your presentation.
The Lesson: Visual Aids
An ancient Chinese proverb states that a picture is worth 10,000
words. This probably is not accurate since they did not have com-
puters back then to perform the arithmetical computations. Nev-
ertheless, pictures and visual aids should save you at least a few
hundred breaths.
To be effective when you use visual aids you need to have your
hands free most of the time. To make this happen, you should
have your speech either memorized or in a signature outline form
so you can use your hands to point and gesture.
As you use your visual aids to emphasize or explain your topic,
remember the credo often used by professional speechmakers:
“K.I.S.S.,” or “ Keep It Simple, or Straightforward so everyone gets
it!” The idea being that you may be tempted to meander on about
complicated details since now you have a visual aid. The visual aid
should be kept simple and direct, and used only to reinforce your
message.
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One final word on your script for this speech and this is true
for every speech you will ever make—take a photocopy of it and
store it apart from the original! You may only lose a speech once in
your lifetime, but that once will make it all worthwhile!
Why use visual aids?
Visual aids are used to enhance what you have to say to your
audience. Briefly, visual aids need to be colorful and simple. They
do not replace you or your words; they are merely a tool you use in
your communications efforts. Visual aids are very effective sensory
tools when used to support the opening to your speech, when you
need to explain complex issues, when you present statistics, or
when you need to focus your audience’s thinking on a topic.
Issues for visual aids
You need to use visual aids very carefully. First, you should be
sure to practice your speech using the aids several times before you
go live. Make sure that the aid is not a distraction by pulling the
audience’s attention away from you and to the bells and whistles
of the aid. Keep to the point! In addition, when you arrive at your
speaking location, if possible perform a dry run with the aids to
make sure everything is working properly. Most importantly, when
you have finished using the visual aid, turn it off and put it away
or it will distract your audience!
Always make sure you have a backup plan to your visual aids.
Things can, and often do go wrong. If you are using a computer-
based aid, you should make overhead transparencies and have a
projector ready just in case your projector goes out or the laptop
freezes.
Types of Visual Aids
Handouts—photocopy the basics of your speech and hand
them out after your presentation. If you are delivering a speech
supported by a computer-based media make sure that you copy
and print out each of the cells from your presentation. These are
excellent for your listeners’ later reference to your speech. Be sure
to hand out paperwork after your speech! If you hand out the bulk
of your materials before or during your speech, your audience will
be tempted to tune out your speech and start reading for them-
selves. Remember that the human mind can process much faster
than you can speak. Therefore, reading is a good way for someone
to fill in the mental gaps.
Models—make a scale model of your topic and use it to illus-
trate various physical aspects of the specifics of your speech. These
are very practical tools, especially if your topic is something too
large to carry, such as the World Trade Center!
Transparencies—Your transparencies or overheads can detail
complicated issues as you sequentially move through your stacks.
They are reusable and travel well (be sure to put a sheet of paper
between your transparencies). Make sure that you only put essen-
tial ideas on the transparency and that you speak extemporane-
ously from the sheet–do not read verbatim from the transparency
itself. Be sure to use a sheet of paper that covers the materials
below where you are working on the transparency otherwise people
will tend to read ahead and ignore what you are saying then. In
addition, while you prepare them ahead of time, you can leave
some sheets blank so you can fill in some key words as you move
along your speech to add emphasis. Some of the more popular
transparencies are:
-Maps—create a vividly colored map if your topic needs a geographic
perspective. If you remember to limit the amount of lines and
names on the map (K.I.S.S.), you will discover that a map is a
good tool for a discussion.
-Illustrations—there is no tool more effective for driving home a point
than a well-prepared, humorous drawing. It must be intelligent
and clever if it is going to work properly.
-Graphs—graphs, charts, and diagrams should be large enough to be
seen by everyone in the room. They should be clear and easy to
understand (K.I.S.S). Graphs are used to show how your topic
relates to another variable. For example, if your topic is “the
value of an education,” you might want to plot “amount of
education” as the ordinate on a graph, and “income” as the
abscissa. Graphs are used to show the relative degree of your topic
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using three popular styles: the bar graph, the pie graph, and the
line graph. You should check with your encyclopedia to find out
which type of graph would best fit your needs.
Newspaper Flip Charts–flip charts work well as aids for speeches.
You can prepare them ahead of time and just fill in some key
words as you move along your speech, or you can write lightly in
pencil on the chart giving yourself some “invisible notes” that you
fill in as you speak. Use large and colorful letters, put only one
theme or thought on a single page, and use no more than ten lines
on a page. Finally, make sure that everyone in the room has a clear
line of sight to the flip chart, if not you may have to put it on a
table or find some way to lift it to eye level for everyone.
Microphones–this is one aid you should practice a good deal
before you begin your speech. Most people are unaccustomed to
using any kind of a microphone and it shows during their speeches.
Know ahead of time that things can and will go wrong. Even though
you made sure to check the volume and sound quality before you
started your speech (please say something other than “testing, test-
ing”) your first few words might boom or squeak across the room
and you should be ready to react if this happens. Ask that the
volume be turned down if you are getting a feedback sound. Move
away from the microphone. See if the wires are connected prop-
erly. If nothing else works and nobody sprints to your rescue, turn
off the microphone and do the best you can under the circum-
stances. Unfortunately, this is also the time during which your
speech anxiety is at its highest and if you are not mentally pre-
pared for a potential problem it could begin a negatively spiraling
self-perception.
Video Clips–showing a brief clip from a film can be a very
powerful presentational tool. The obvious drawback is that you
have to carry the equipment around. If you decide to show a clip,
be sure to tell the audience what to look for during the presenta-
tion. This focus for viewing will help them actively zero-in on your
specifics instead of passively watching.
Slides—this could be your most expensive option with the
developing expenses; however, slides can act as a superb vehicle for

presenting your lecture/demonstration. With slides, you can whisk
your group off to Egypt or into the guts of a nuclear reactor. Make
sure that your slides are in the proper order and that you practice
your timing with the projector.
Whiteboards—using a white or blackboard is not a strong vi-
sual aid for a formal speech. You have to turn your back on your
audience and it seems slow in today’s hurry-up world. Only use a
board if you need to answer a question by illustrating an answer.
Even then, it would be better to use a blank transparency and
draw on the screen.
Computer-Based Media–using your laptop in conjunction
with a projector has become the most popular form of visual aid.
While it is used more in the business world than in schools, many
teachers are discovering the benefits of having these presentational
tools. Many forms of software are available for presentations and
you should take the time to research which one will work best for
you. Again, the only caveat is to make sure that everything is set
up well ahead of time and given a dry run. Finally, make sure you
have a backup plan, as noted above you should make overhead
transparencies and have an overhead projector ready just in case
your computer projector goes out or the laptop freezes.
Criteria for Computer-Based Media Presentations
The basic rule is that computer-based media presentations
should be succinct, colorful, and playful. In an age where audi-
ences are very accustomed to “sound bites” as substitutes for full
length discords, you must resist the temptation to use a full li-
bretto when a few expressions would suffice to make your point.
You should be certain that if you are going to go through the
trouble and expense of using a computer-based media that you
make sure that you use them as effectively as possible. Ask yourself
some preliminary questions, and if the answers come back as “no”
you should consider another form of presentation. Ask yourself if
the media will actively engage your audience. Ask yourself if the
media will support your message and not take it over and become
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an end unto itself. Ask yourself if the media will be easy to follow
for the audience. If you feel comfortable with your answers, you
can then use this checklist to make sure that you have everything
in place for your presentation. As a note, if you are employing a
performance assessment such as a rubric for this speech, you can
easily use some of these as the criteria for your assessment:
-Does the presentation run well without problems 100% of the time
during practice?
-Does the presentation fulfill its content requirements giving the
audience enough support information?
-Does the presentation have at least seven slides or view screens?
-Does the presentation use consistent text that is grammatically
correct?
-Does the presentation have slides or view screens that are organized
in a logical fashion?
-Does the presentation use and give credit to various resources?
-Does the presenter know how to use the technology effectively?
-Does the presentation have at least two colorful charts, clip arts, or
photos?
-Does the presentation not try to impress the audience with sounds
and spinning words or other “bells and whistles?”
-Does the presentation have a clear introduction, body and conclusion
so that it tells a story?
-Does the presentation reinforce the speaker’s attempt at the end of the
speech to motivate the audience to act?
Questions, anyone?
Think through all of these aids and decide which one, or ones,
would best facilitate your presentation. Once you have decided upon
your aid and you have written your speech, you have to prepare to
answer questions.
Most people will ask straightforward questions dealing with
the specifics of your topic, so you had best become an expert on
your area before you speak. When someone from the audience asks
a question, you need to say the question again so everyone knows
what was asked. In addition, as a way to put the question into
terms you can work with, always remember to repeat the question
in your own words before you answer it. You can say, “What I hear
you asking is . . .“
You will want to be as informative as possible with your
answers, but try to keep from turning your answers into
marathons. Sometimes a question will come in that you are not
ready for, or you will get a question that could turn your response
into a debate. Here are some tips for dealing with “troublesome
questions:”
-Say, “I don’t know “—if you do not know an answer, just admit
it! Some people will try to “snow” their way through or give
a trite answer, but this can only serve to ruin a good speech.
People will understand—just say, “I don’t know.”
-Paraphrase—this is a good technique because you simply repeat
the question (as you would do anyway), but in your own
words! You will want to rephrase the question into one that
you have an answer ready to go! For a model of this, watch a
political press conference some day; they are masters of this
maneuver.
-Agree with the person–by saying, “You’re right, this is a
concern . . . “ you have acknowledged the person’s interest
and validated the importance of the question. Once you do
this, you can then spin it off in any direction you want (try
to paraphrase, “I don’t know,” or any of the other tactics
listed here).
-Mirror the question—psychologists have used this approach for
years—answer a question with a question. If you feel that a
question was asked with a hidden agenda behind it (such as
to make you look like a fool), just turn the tables on it. All
you have to do is to present the questioner with the null
version of the original question. For example: “Do you really
think that nuclear power plants are safe?” You respond,
“Why do you think that nuclear power plants are not safe?”
-Higher Source—what this means is that it would be
inappropriate for you to answer a question and that it
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should be referred to a higher source, “Well, that question

should be answered by a qualified doctor.”
As a final thought on answering questions, for this speech, a
speech to sell, or whatever form of speech you are using, remember
that most of the questions that you receive you will be able to
handle with no problems at all. However, if something does go
wrong and the above methods do not work, never lose your tem-
per. Invite the people to stay after your speech and you will discuss
it with them one-on-one.
Thoughts on Audio Visuals
You will find that a lecture/demonstration is a much more
effective speech than a simple speech to inform. The reason be-
hind this is that people remember details clearer and longer when
they hear and see the subject at the same time. Adding color to the
presentation makes the effect even stronger. This should be obvi-
ous considering that you have two major senses working for you
instead of just one. As a foreshadowing of things to come, you
should start to become aware of graphs, charts, and statistics. People
can make statistics do anything that they want them to do, so
keep your wits about you.
The Group Reaction: Performance Assessments
Your objective for this speech is to point out the differences in
terms of overall effectiveness between a simple speech to inform
and speech to inform with visual aids. How and why are they
different? Which is easier?
Simple Skills Assessments
For each speaker, take a small scrap of paper (3"x5" is fine),
write the speaker’s name on the top and sign your name on the
bottom. What is in between the letters are your comments.
Write down these code letters in order as shown here:
A
R
E
O
D
Dl
D2
D3
D4
D5 (if needed for other delivery topics)
Each of these letters stands for an area of the speech evaluation,
each being a critical part of a person’s speech. After each letter, you
will award a written number on a 1 to 5 scale. “1” is very poor. “2”
is okay. “3” is average. “4” is very good. “5” excellent. “D/A” means
does not apply to the speech.
So, what do all of these letters stand for?
A= Analysis—how well does the speaker understand the
topic?
R = Reasoning—is the speech reasonable? Do you believe it?
E = Evidence—what was the quality of the support material
offered? Did it justify the claim made?
O = Organization—did the speech have a clear beginning,
body, and ending. Did it “flow?”
D = Delivery—overall, how was the delivery?
Dl = Relaxed—did the speaker seem relaxed?
D2 = Eye contact—was there sufficient eye contact?
D3 = Physical Relationship. What was the physical relation-
ship with the audience? Did you feel comfortable with the speaker,
or did he or she make you nervous?
D4 = Vocal quality—was the rate, tone, pitch and volume
appropriate to the subject material?
C = Comment—just write down a one or two-sentence
comment on anything that struck you as being important.
After the presentation, the speaker should collect all of the
critiques and either read these later or present them to the group
leader. A critique or simple evaluation such as this is designed to
give the speaker the basic information needed to improve his or
her confidence. These kinds of evaluations force the group to make
decisions and to “grade” the efforts. An assessment tool, such as
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the one following is designed to diagnose and prescribe techniques

for improving the speaker’s confidence.
Here are some basic rules on critiquing:
-Be honest!
-Don’t “sugar coat” your comments to prevent hurting someone’s
feelings. Nobody will improve if everyone is being artificially
kind.
-At no point should anyone ever jump to someone else’s aid if he or she
is receiving a negative comment. As public speakers, you must
learn to accept criticism, so if someone rushes to your side every
time you are under the gun this will hinder your growth as a
speaker. After all, a negative comment is constructive criticism,
but most people do not like having shortcomings pointed out.
-It is better to offer a negative comment than to offer no comment at
all. Take a chance to be helpful!
-Avoid saying “but.” “I really liked your speech, but . . .“
Rubric Performance Assessments
The aim of assessing the speech is to improve the speaker’s
confidence by diagnosing the performance and providing feed-
back regarding how well the speaker is achieving using specific
criteria.
Just as you did in Pre-Speech Lesson No. 4–Using Hands-On
Webbing Techniques, you will need to create a rubric. Before you
create each rubric, you should follow this formula.
First, decide what the objective for the speech will be in terms
of the speaker. Try to fill in the blanks for the objective:
Speech Objective: The speaker will (use persuasive language, sell
something, and other speech lesson criteria) during this speech.
Next, you decide upon your evidence, or what is the proof
that the speaker demonstrates during the speech that will meet
the objectives. Again, fill in the blanks for your evidence:
Speech Evidence: The objective will be evident when the speaker
demonstrates these elements (speed, tone, body language, volume,
persuasiveness, etc.) during the speech.
Finally, you have to build in an assessment piece. There are
two parts to the assessment. First, what are the observable criteria
that the speaker must demonstrate to evidence that he or she is
meeting the objective? Second, what is the rating scale (usually 1
through 4 works well) that you will use?
Again, after you decide on the scale, then you need some ob-
servable and easily understandable descriptions of what each point
value means. What does a 4-point assessment really sound like?
What does a 1-point assessment sound like?
Your next step within the group is to agree on some rating
exemplars, or more simply, to describe in detail what a good speech
would look and sound like for each criterion. Have these discus-
sions within your group for each criterion so that you can create a
document that everyone can use to find examples or descriptions
of each criterion.
Just as you did when you were writing your speech, once you
have your five or so “hoops,” or speech criteria, through which the
presentation must jump, you can then build an assessment rubric,
or graphic chart, to help you evaluate everyone’s oral speeches. To
construct your grid, you should draw a rectangle with six columns
and seven rows.
Across the top row write the following from left to right into
the six squares:
123456
Under each number in the boxes from left to write, add the
terms:
Rating:, Excellent Speech, Very Good Speech, Good Speech, Basic
Speech, Score:
Below Excellent Speech, write: 4 Points
Below Very Good Speech, write: 3 points
Below Good Speech, write: 2 Points
Below Basic Speech, write: 1 Point
(4 points is the highest rating for each speech criterion and 1
point is the lowest)
Down the left side, write the five criteria starting in row two,
square one:
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#1 The Speaker will __________

In the box at row seven, column five write “Total Score =”
In each of the boxes under the ratings, you should write in the
descriptions and observable traits of each criterion at each point
level, so that the listeners can use this tool to rate each criterion as
you speak. The listeners can then assign the point value in the
“Score” column that best resembles each criterion. Then, by add-
ing the scores together and dividing by five, you have an overall
numerical performance assessment that you can use for further
development as a speaker.
If you are using this text without a supportive group, it would
be very beneficial for you if you could create the rubric and ask
several members of your next audience to assess your live
performance for you.
KISS—Keep It Simple, or Straightforward so everyone gets it!
Questions—Answering most questions will be very easy. For
dealing with troublesome questions, try these skills:
-Say, “I don’t know “
-Paraphrase—repeat the question in your own words.
-Mirror the question—answer a question with a question.
-Higher Source–the questions should be referred to a higher
source.
Rubric Performance Assessments—To improve the speaker’s
confidence by diagnosing the performance and providing feedback
regarding how well the speaker is achieving using specific criteria
you develop the rubric. Learn how to design an appropriate rubric.
Simple Skills Assessments—Write down these code letters in
order as shown here:
A
R
E
O
D
Dl
D2
D3
D4
will award a written number from a 1 to 5 scale. “1” is very poor.
“2” is okay. “3” is average. “4” is very good. “5” excellent. “D/A”
means does not apply to the speech.
Visual aids—Learn the various visual aids available for you.
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SPEECH NUMBER
FOURTEEN–THE
“HOW—TO” SPEECH
The Procedure
The group should break into pairs with one group of three
being just fine if necessary. You will have to explain a complicated
physical procedure to a partner without using your hands or any
other body parts–just your voice. You can continue to coach the
listener as he or she is completing the task. This is a mastery activ-
ity, so there is no time limit on the explanation. The authentic
finished product is the assessment of how well the “how-to” is
delivered and received, and how well the listener is able to perform
the task.
The Lesson: How-To’s
You can choose any normal physical activity that can be per-
formed within the confines of your environment. Your partner
should be unable to perform the task without your instructions.
Some examples you might want to consider are instructing your
partner:
- “How-To” tie a bow tie or a regular tie
- “How-To” shuffle a deck of cards
- “How-To” create a cat’s cradle with yarn
- “How-To” throw a curveball
- “How-To” tie an artificial fly for fishing
- “How-To” spin a pen around your thumb
Delivering a “How-To” speech is one of the few times you will
use the second person pronoun (you) in the body of your
presentation. The pronoun “you” is normally reserved for the

conclusion when you are asking the audience to do something
after listening to your speech. Narrating in the second person
requires the speaker to have a credible background so that the
listener has faith in what is being told. If a person makes a “How-
To” speech and does not appear to have the age, experience, or
credentials to make the speech, the message will be ignored for the
most part.
Multiple Intelligences
Over the past few decades there has been a good deal of re-
search done on how people think, and the general opinion now is
that individuals can be “intelligent” in ways other than what has
been traditionally accepted. In fact, along with the conventional
“IQ” there have been several intelligences documented recently;
some of them are: kinesthetic, verbal, musical, logical and math-
ematical, visual, natural, interpersonal, and intrapersonal “intelli-
gences.”
Knowing this means that you have an opportunity to appeal
to different people in many different ways by using a variety of
techniques in your speeches:
-Asking for different behaviors after listening to the speech
-Using colors and sounds in your presentations
-Changing the physical configuration of the room and the seats
-Using more charts and other visuals
-Speaking with more people one-on-one before and after the speech
-Story telling
-Posing verbal problems for people to figure out during your speech
-Using art in your presentation
-Dancing as part of your speech
-Using poetry and songs
-Using silence
-Talking about the weather
Using Multiple Intelligences
In this speech, you have the opportunity to appeal to listeners
who may be strong in the kinesthetic, verbal, and logical
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intelligences. As the speeches continue, have discussions in your

group that attempt to identify which intelligences will be
accommodated with your speeches and which intelligences will be
not addressed. Can you think of a way to use this information
when you are identifying your audience and developing speech
objectives to reach them?
The Strategy: General Survival Grammar
While there are several excellent workbooks available on the
elements of grammar, you will find below some of the basic, or
survival aspects of grammar, which you should have in your
command as you begin to draft your “How-To” speech.
Parts of Speech:
-The Noun. As you know, a noun is a person, place, thing, or
idea. There are two categories of nouns: proper/common,
and collective:
Proper nouns are capitalized names of people, geographic lo-
cations, businesses, etc. These indicate that there is only one of a
special kind of noun.
Common nouns are the non-capitalized regular things filling
the rest of the world.
Collective nouns are singular nouns used to indicate a group
of persons or things. They use a singular verb when the noun shows
the group acting as one (e.g., The team IS playing well today).
They use a plural verb when the noun shows members of the group
acting alone (e.g., The team ARE playing different positions). Hint:
if you can plug in the word “members” before the verb meaning
that each member is doing something different, use the plural
verb.
-The Pronoun. A pronoun is a word that stands in the place of a
noun. Remember: Pros always stand up for one another!
There are many different forms of pronouns. A subjective
pronoun is used in place of a noun as a subject of a sentence
(e.g., The boy ran home . . . HE ran home). An objective
noun is used in place of a noun as a predicate of a sentence
(e.g., The boy hit the ball . . . The boy hit IT). Pronouns are
used with all six parts of the verb “to be,” I am, you are, he,
she, or it is, we are, you are, they are. There are also possessive
pronouns that show possession (e.g., my, your, his, etc.).
Reflexive pronouns end in “self,” or “selves,” (e.g., myself,
ourselves, himself, etc.). Relative pronouns start adjective
clauses. These pronouns are that, which, who, whose, whom,
where. The interrogative pronoun is used when asking
questions: who, whom, what, which. There are other forms of
pronouns, but the last one to discuss here is the demonstra-
tive pronoun: this, that, these, and those. Be sure to use them
as pronouns, and not as adjectives: (e.g., THIS textbook is
great! In this example, THIS is an adjective—THIS is great!
In this example, THIS is a pronoun).
-The Adjective. This one is straightforward. An adjective
modifies, or portrays a noun or pronoun (e.g., A RED ball is
attractive). For the record, the articles: a, an, and the are also
adjectives!
-The Verb. The verb shows action in a sentence: run, ran, hit,
jump, etc. The verb also joins the subject of a sentence with
its predicate, but more on that later. Do not forget the little
words that help the verbs, the helping verbs: am, is, has,
could, be, etc. These helpers come before a verb (e.g., I AM
running).
-Linking Verbs. Just when you thought you knew everything
about verbs, here comes a twist. Linking verbs do not show
action. A linking verb links, or glues, a noun or pronoun
with its modifier adjective or noun. Think of an adjective
such as “happy.” Imagine that you want to say that your
friend is in a state of happiness. You could say, “Happy
friend.” However, this does not sound very educated.
Instead, you would say, “My friend IS happy.” In this way,
you have linked the noun (friend) with its adjective (happy).
In this example, “is” is the linking verb, and “happy” is called
the predicate adjective, because it is an adjective and it is in
the predicate rather than coming before the noun it
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describes. Be careful with this one. If someone asks how you

are feeling, and you say, “I am well,” what you have really
said is that your fingers have the capacity to sense pressure
and heat to a high degree (well is an adverb). You should
have said, “I am good,” because good is an adjective
modifying yourself. If someone asks, “What do you do for a
living?” you could answer, “I am a student.” In this case,
“student” is a noun telling what you are. This is called a
predicate nominative.
-The Adverb. An adverb is a word that modifies a verb,
adjective, or another adverb. Most adverbs end in “ly,” such
as “quickly.” Other adverbs are: soon, now, and too.
-Conjunctions. Simply put, conjunctions (and, or, nor, but, for,
yet) join words and groups of words. They also join
independent clauses with each other with a comma coming
before the conjunction.
-Interjection. No Way! Get it? It is a fast command or comment
with no subject, usually followed by an exclamation point.
Putting It Together: Bigger Parts of Speech, Phrases, Clauses,
and Sentences:
-The Preposition and Prepositional Phrase. The preposition is
usually a small word that defines where or when something
is happening. Some popular preps are: above, below, after,
before, at, off, in, on, beside, between, down, during, until,
since, through, to, up, on, and out. There are many more
examples. Prepositions usually do not stand by themselves;
they usually begin what is called a prepositional phrase.
A basic phrase is a group of words that do NOT have a verb on
board, such as “in the car,” “before the game,” or “under the cat.”
If a phrase begins with a preposition and ends with a noun or
pronoun, it is a prepositional phrase! “ . . . IN the BACKYARD,” is
a prepositional phrase. It begins with prep, and ends with a noun.
The noun or pronoun is referred to as the object of the preposition.
-Prep phrases are used as big adjectives or adverbs. In other
words, a prep phrase acts just the way an adverb or adjective
would! Watch this phrase: “in the backyard.” In the sentence,

“Let’s play in the backyard,” the prep phrase modifies the
verb play; therefore, the whole phrase is a big adverb, called
an “adverb phrase.” In the sentence, “The boy in the red coat
is happy,” in the red coat is an “adjective phrase” because it
acts like an adjective! Try this: The boy in the red coat is happy
to play in the back yard. How many prep phrases can you
find?
-The Other Phrases:
-The Verbals. You do not want to spend a great deal of time on
these, but you should be aware of their existence. Look first
at a gerund and gerund phrase.
-A gerund is a verb that thinks it is a noun in context (e.g.,
Running is fun). As you can see, if you did not know about a
gerund, you would have a very hard time explaining that
what looks like a verb ending in “ing” is actually a noun.
When you start a phrase with a gerund, and end it with an
object, you have a gerund phrase: Gerund plus Object
(Running the park is fun) be careful! You can be fooled here.
For example, what about this sentence: Running in the park
is fun. Is that a gerund phrase? No. “In the park” is a prep
phrase, and “running” is a regular gerund!
-A participle is sort of a mix between a verb and an adjective.
Most participles end with an “ing,” “ed,” or “d.” Examples of
a participle are: a running boy, or a crying baby. The Participle
Phrase then follows a familiar pattern acting just like an
adjective: Participle plus Object (e.g., Removing his hat, Bob
sat down).
-An infinitive is a form of a verb that starts with the word “to.”
Examples are: to run, to sleep, and to dream. An infinitive can
be used as a noun, or as a modifier (adjective or adverb). As a
noun: To forgive is divine. As an adjective: The time to play is
near. As an adverb: I stood to run away. Essentially, if a noun
comes before the infinitive, it probably acts like an adjective.
If a verb comes before the infinitive, it probably acts like an
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adverb. If nothing comes before the infinitive, it probably

acts like a noun. An infinitive phrase is very tricky to spot. It
begins with an infinitive and completes a thought with
other modifiers or nouns (e.g., “We want to watch the game
as soon as possible).
-Appositives. Appositives are nouns describing other nouns, set
off by commas (e.g., Bob, the letter carrier, is nice).
The Sentence
A sentence contains a noun & verb plus maybe a direct object
or indirect object, and maybe a few other modifiers. Just remem-
ber this: your basic sentence has one noun and one verb and maybe
an object or two; everything else is just window-dressing (also
known as: modifiers).
-A direct object comes after a verb and takes the action of the
verb (e.g., I hit the ball). The indirect object shows
where or to whom the action happened (e.g., I threw him
the ball). If you are in doubt about which object is
which, try removing the object and seeing if you can add
the prep “to” in front of it. In “I threw him the ball,” you
can switch the sentence to say, “I threw the ball to him”;
ergo, him is the indirect object!
Dependent and Independent Clauses
In the same way as in a sentence, all clauses have a noun and a
verb. There are some clauses that can stand alone, and some that
cannot. Independent clauses can stand alone (e.g., You are run-
ning). Dependent clauses cannot stand alone (Tell us what you
said). Notice, both still have a noun and verb!
Now that you have a basic understanding of clauses, examine
how they act as big adjectives, adverbs, and nouns!
-The infinitive clause contains an infinitive (“to” & verb) plus a
subject (e.g., I asked Bob to vote for me). Bob to vote cannot
stand alone; therefore, it is a what kind of clause?
-The adjective clause starts with a relative pronoun (you
remember, that, which, where, who . . . ) plus a noun and a
verb that acts like adjectives (e.g., The story that you told was
great). That you told cannot stand alone; therefore, it is a

what kind of clause?
-The adverb clause starts with a subordinating conjunction
(because, since, unless . . . ) plus a noun and a verb that acts
like adverbs (e.g., Because you study Public Speaking, you will
be world famous).
-Finally, noun clauses begin with indefinite relative pronouns,
which look identical to relative pronouns (that, what, who,
whom) plus a verb and maybe a name or a pronoun (e.g.,
Tell us what you said). One way to discover if you have a
noun clause instead of an adjective clause is to remove the
clause from the sentence. If the sentence losses its original
sense, it is just like taking a main noun out of a sentence!
On the other hand, if you remove an adjective clause, it is
just like taking a mere modifier out of a sentence, nothing
fundamentally changes!
Voices
-Active and Passive Voices. If the subject verbs the object, then it
is in the active voice. For example, I hit the ball. I am verbing
(hit) the object (ball). On the contrary, if you said, “The ball
was hit by me,” then the object (ball) is coming before the
verb (was hit) and the sentence is in the passive voice. When
creating your speech try to avoid using the passive voice
unless you are trying to make a specific point.
-Voices. There are four main types of voices, or purposes of a
sentence: the interrogative, the imperative, the exclamatory,
and the indicative (or declarative). The interrogative sen-
tence asks a question and ends with a question mark. The
imperative issues a command and usually ends with an
exclamation point. The indicative simply states a fact or idea
and ends with a period. The subjunctive sentence usually
contains the verb “were” and indicates that the subject
wishes or dreams about something.
The Group Reaction
This is a good speech activity for the group to give itself a
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break. Everyone is going to be busy trying to accomplish new

tasks during the “How-To” speeches. This activity has a potential
for high levels of anxiety being generated, so if you or anyone near
you begins to start taking things too personally, it would be a
good time to take a few minutes rest.
In public, when someone does not follow directions exactly
the way they are given the speaker often becomes frustrated and
tends to raise the vocal levels. Again, human communications are
far from being perfect as the message sent is not always the message
received or processed.
Grammar—Learn the grammar elements as presented.
Mastery activity—An activity you do until you do it properly.
Multiple Intelligences—People can be “intelligent” in ways
other than what has been traditionally accepted. In fact, there
have been several intelligences documented recently; some of them
are: kinesthetic, verbal, musical, logical and mathematical, visual,
natural, interpersonal, and intrapersonal.
ADVANCED
SPEECHES
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SPEECH NUMBER FIFTEEN–
THE SPEECH TO PERSUADE
(NUMBER 2)
The Procedure
Write another speech to persuade using all the same rules as
before, except that this time you should choose a topic that is
almost impossible to substantiate (e.g., “The Earth is flat,” or “Air-
planes can’t fly”). This speech should last between 9—15 minutes
and should score poorly on the Reasoning evaluation level.
The Lesson: The Audience Assessment
Since you are presenting an almost impossible message, you
should take extra care to evaluate the needs of your audience. You
must try to discover the composition of your audience, and try to
gauge their initial attitudes about your topic in order for you to
decide upon which approach you will take in your presentation.
Different group attitudes require different methods of presentation!
If possible, try to detect certain essential factors about your
audience:
-Note their special interests.
-Discover their level of formal education.
-What is the size of your audience?
-Will they have a sense of humor?
-Do they want to hear what you have to say?
-What is their cultural background?
-Do they have any inherent values you need to address? You can
discover potential values by noting their:
a)Education
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b)Profession
c)Gender
d)Age
e)Financial status
f )Religion
g)If your group is heterogeneous or homogeneous
Multiple Intelligences Review
As you discovered in Speech Fourteen, different people learn
in different ways and have different kinds of “intelligences.” Know-
ing this, you can assume that your audience has certain strengths
and weaknesses. As a part of your audience assessment, again have
discussions in your group that attempt to identify which intelli-
gences will be accommodated with your speeches and which intel-
ligences will be unaffected. How can you use this information for
developing your speech objectives to reach them?
Once you have answered all of these questions, you can begin
to tailor your speech to cater to their specific needs. The more you
can find out about them the better off you will be. If you have a
highly educated group, your rhetoric had better be perspicacious.
If have a religious group, perhaps you might want to use a little
ecclesiastical rhetoric.
Conflict
One thing that you should be ready for is conflict—you will
be conflicting with the audience’s sense of reason. To meet this
challenge you should make use of the following tips:
-At the very beginning of your speech, ask the audience to keep
an open mind and to postpone judgement until the end of
your speech.
-Divorce yourself from your topic; in other words, do not
become the authority figure—let your logic and evidence
speak for themselves—you are merely their spokesperson.
-Try to remain as empirical as possible—choose your evidence
judiciously. Remind your audience that facts do not lie.
The Strategy
Valid Arguments
Let’s face it, you are trying to ram an illogical proposition

down your audience’s throat. If you can actually convince some-
one that the earth is flat, then you have mastered the skill of per-
suasion and should immediately move to Washington. Remember
that the word “con” comes from “convince” or “confidence.”
Aristotle, in the famous Discourse on Rhetoric noted four major
steps to winning an argument in the eyes of an audience: establish
your arguments and attack the opponent’s position, promote your
strong arguments and minimize your weak claims, remind your
audience what you are trying to prove several times during a speech,
and put emotion into your presentation. Aristotle also claimed
that there were three personal elements of persuasion—if you can
grasp these three personal concepts, you will be in good shape for
this speech.
The Aristotelian areas of personal persuasion for your
understanding in this speech are:
-Logos—logos means your logical, philosophical reasoning.
-Pathos—pathos is the audience’s feeling towards your topic.
-Ethos—ethos is your conviction, or belief, in the topic.
Fair Warnings
This speech and the next speech are designed to force you into
thinking about the ways that people can manipulate the English
language. Language is not an exact science. There is no tangible
method for discerning the truth in a statement, so you had better
be accustomed to the fact that some people will deliberately try to
mislead, confuse, delude, and deceive you. As Mark Twain noted,
“It is my belief that nearly any invented quotation, played with
confidence, stands a good chance to deceive.” Forewarned is forearmed.
The Example
The Earth is Flat
“My friends, you’ve been lied to. From the moment when your
first grade teacher introduced you to Christopher Columbus, to
this very moment, you have been lied to.”
“You’ve been told that the earth is round, which in itself is a
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contradiction, if anything, it’s spherical! Already you’ve been lied

to! But no friends, the earth is not round, nor spherical, circular,
nor oblique, nor taking any other curvilinear construction. No my
fine friends, the earth is flat.”
“You may be thinking that I have become a victim of sun
stroke, but please, hear me out before you cast aspersions.”
“Let’s look at how you’re so sure that the earth is a sphere.”
“Well, the government tells us so.”
“The government also tells you that taxes are fair, do you believe
that one too?”
“Well, when a ship come into harbor, you see the tip of its mast
first, so the earth must be round.”
“Come on, wake up and smell the mizzenmast. If you buy
that one, you have a lot of explaining to do. The same so-called
‘scientists’ tell us that the equatorial circumference of the earth is
24,902 miles. Now I happen to know that a sphere has 360 de-
grees to it and that you would have to be at least one degree away
before you would ‘disappear.’ If the world were round, 24,902
miles divided by 360 degrees is 69.17 miles. You mean to tell me
that your eyesight is good enough that you can see a ship’s crow’s
nest from 69.17 miles away! Right, even the modern optics on our
best satellites couldn’t see that far, but good old Christopher Co-
lumbus could, huh?”
“The scientists try so very hard to convince you. They have all
these maps of the world: the conic projection, the polyconic pro-
jection, the orthographic projection, and a host of others. Haven’t
you ever wondered just why they’re trying so hard?”
“If the world wasn’t round, there’d be no gravity.”
“Oh, good argument. When you put maple syrup on a pancake,
does it fall up?”
“The astronauts in space tell us the world is round.”
“Have you ever been in a rocket? Can you prove they exist?
When was the last time a friend or relative of yours was in space?”
“My friends, face it, the earth is flat. When the sun comes up
in the morning, it’s rising over an edge, not a curve. If you wonder
why there’s light before dawn, it’s because the atmosphere deflects
it. If you wonder why the sun rises earlier in the east it’s because of
the different time zones.”
“My friends, the earth is flat, and that is that!”
The Group Reaction
If the group or audience in this case has any sense at all, they
will not be persuaded. What the group should focus on is the
attempt to convince, not the actual product. “Reasoning” should
be scored very low.
Assessment for the Speech to Persuade Number Two
Name of Speaker___________________________
Speech Title and Date______________________________
Please award between 1 and 20 points for each category listed
below:
Presentation—Vocal Delivery Style: ___________________
(Good voice, speaks clearly, can understand speaker)
Comments:
Presentation—Physical Delivery Style:__________________
(Good poise, stance appropriate, gestures authentic, makes eye
contact, etc.)
Comments:
Literary, Logic, or Reference as Proof: ___________________
(Does speaker bring reason, logic, or other references into speech
that makes sense—do you believe the role?)
Comments:
Organization:____________________________
(Is there a clear and reasonable beginning, middle and end of
the speech? Does the ending make sense after hearing the
beginning? Were you confused?)
Comments:
General: __________________________
(Does the speech “work” for you? Were you made to be
interested? Do you believe the speaker?)
Comments:
Total points______________
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Time of Speech: _______________

_______________________
Signed
You can also use an assessment tool such as this ballot to help
you keep track of your progress.
Aristotelian argumentation—Establish your argument and
attack the opponent’s position, promote your strong arguments
and minimize your weak claims, remind your audience what you
are trying to prove several times during a speech, and put emotion
into your presentation.
Aristotelian areas of persuasion:
1. Logos–logos means logical, philosophical reasoning.
2. Pathos–pathos is the audience’s feeling towards your topic.
3. Ethos—ethos is the speaker’s conviction, or belief, in the topic.
Audience essential factors:
-Note their special interests.
-What is the size of your audience
-Education
-Profession
-Gender & age
-Financial status
-Religion
-If your group is heterogeneous or homogeneous
Conflicting with listener’s reason—at the very beginning of
your speech, ask the audience to keep an open mind and to post-
pone judgement until the end of your speech. Divorce yourself
from your topic, in other words, do not become the authority
figure—let your logic and evidence speak for themselves; you are
merely their spokesperson. Try to remain as empirical as possible—
choose your evidence judiciously. Remind your audience that facts
don ‘t lie.
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SPEECH NUMBER SIXTEEN–
THE SPEECH TO CONFUSE
The Procedure
Write a 6—10 minute humorous role-playing speech to con-
fuse or mislead your listeners. You must use a signature outline or
have the speech memorized. Try to pick a vivid character and be sure
to insert this person into an engaging plot that you create. You should
primarily express the action of the plot only through dialogue.
The Lesson: Know Your Enemy
If you know how to confuse someone, then the odds are against
it happening to you. There are two basic techniques to drafting a
confusing speech: logic errors, and big words and speed. Here are
the logic errors used most often in confusing speeches:
-Non sequitur—non sequitur is Latin for “it does not follow.” It
is a false cause and effect argument. “When I was king, the
inflation fell to a ten year low; therefore, I lowered
inflation.” Be mindful whenever you hear a word resembling
“therefore.”
-False analogy—a false analogy is an under or over simplification
of a complicated issue which demeans the reality of the
situation. “The human body is like a car, it needs regular
tune-ups,” is a false analogy. The human body is far more
complicated than an automobile and the comparison is not
valid.
-Ad-hominem—ad-hominem is Latin for “against the man.”
This fallacy is also known as “the name-calling fallacy.” It
ignores the truth of a statement and attacks its source.
“Well, that’s got to be wrong since we all know that Bob’s a
liar.”
-Sampling fallacy—a sampling fallacy means that you have bad

statistics due to a prejudiced or biased sample group, or too
small of a sample group. “We polled ten dentists that work
for us who agree our product is the best.”
-Circular logic—circular logic is a tautology, it has no beginning
or end. Each term defines itself. As you learned about
recursive words, circular logic usually assumes that part of
the subject or proposition will also be a part of the
conclusion. It usually takes the symbolic form of: A=B=C=A.
For example: “Tom” = A. “Nice Guy” = B. “Eats cookies” = C.
“Tom is a nice guy.” (A=B)
“Nice guys eat cookies.” (B=C)
“Tom eats cookies.” (A=C), therefore . . .
“Tom is a nice guy.” (A=B)
-The question mark—all you have to do is put a question mark
after a potentially libelous or slanderous statement and it
becomes more difficult to spot as a fallacy. In other words,
with this fallacy you can make an unsubstantiated assertion
by placing a question mark at the end of your declamation.
“Is Mayor Smith really a crook?”
-Misleading words—the use of euphemisms or other terms to
lower the impact of a message, or using conditional language
designed to lure you in means you have an error in reason-
ing, yet is used all of the time by some marketing agencies.
“You may have already won one million dollars!” “There is
no pain during childbirth, only discomfort.”
Confusing Tactics
The other key to a confusing speech is to use big words and to
speak as fast as you can through the logically critical areas. Here is
the experts’ list of confusing tactics:
-Check the dictionary for words that you have never heard of and
strategically throw them in your speech.
-Practice your speech often to get your speed up to around 200 words
per minute.
-Use rhetorical fluff instead of meaningful logic or evidence.
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-If you cannot find a source for one of your points, just say, “It’s
common knowledge.”
-If you plan to tell a whopper of a lie, bury it in-between several
truths.
Public Speaking vs. Acting
Since you are examining the meaning of words, this is an
appropriate point to detail the difference between public speaking
and acting. Acting assumes a suspension of belief; your listeners
are fully aware that they are sitting in uncomfortable seats in a
crowded auditorium watching a performance. They are also fully
aware that the humans on stage are portraying someone or
something else, and yet the audience will factor all of that in and
still suspend their normal levels of belief if the performance holds
their interest. If the performance does not hold their interest, they
become keenly aware of the passage of time, the comfort of the
seats and the man snoring down the aisle. Actors build a proscenium
arch over the stage, which in a way symbolizes the relationship the
actors have with the audience. The actors will not acknowledge
that there is an audience watching them as they unfold their story.
This is the kind of social contract between the actor and the
audience that is present when acting is taking place.
Public speakers in contrast do not make use of a proscenium.
Public speakers need to interact with their audience and the suc-
cess of their efforts relies heavily on their abilities to make eye
contact and connect with their listeners.
Memory Devices
If you plan to get up any speaking speed, you will want to do
some memorizing. This section will offer you helpful suggestions
on how to memorize a speech. You should always memorize at
least parts of the introduction and conclusion of your speech to
present a strong opening and closing. People will form a first im-
pression of you within the first ten seconds, and these first
impressions will dictate their appreciation of the rest of your
speech.
Never try to memorize a speech all in one day, take at least
two. Use a tape recorder to help you. Read your speech and say it
aloud for audio-visual short-term memory reinforcement.
Memory Supports
Here is a list of memory supports. One may just work for you:
-Mnemonics–The cognitive theory of understanding postulates
that we tend to clump information bits together in our
brains. Therefore, if we can make what we want to memorize
more mentally “sticky,” it will be easier to associate and to
remember. Try to think up acronyms or silly sayings to help
you memorize a difficult passage. “Every good boy does fine”
works for music students. Ben Franklin insisted, “Spring
ahead, Fall back.” The Great Lakes are H.O.M.E.S. Popular
acronyms include “RADAR for “radio detecting and
ranging,” and “laser” is really “the light amplification by
stimulated emissions of radiation.”
-Outline reduction—first, write out your whole speech. Next,
outline it into a signature outline. Then, make sure that you
can deliver your whole speech from the signature outline,
and finally outline the outline. Simply keep cutting down
on the substructure of the outline until you are left with
only a few key words. Memorize the key words, in order, via
a mnemonic device!
-Mental photographs—try to picture the elements of your
speech in one figure form. Pretend that you are an artist and
that you are painting one big picture of your entire topic. If
your topic is the tax system, draw a mental picture of a king
holding forms, with people at work around him, handing
him a part of their food. This holistic tactic of memorization
is very popular among professionals.
-When in Doubt, Punt—one last word on memorization. If you
forget something, never admit to it! Keep right on going,
never go back! Nobody in the room knows your speech—the
only way they would find out that you had forgotten
something is if you tell them! If you go blank, don’t panic,
just make it look like you’re taking a reflective pause—take
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few steps and make it look as if you’re deep in thought (even

though your mind is racing for a scrap of help).
Loosen up!
Do not take this speech very seriously; pretend that you are a
Mississippi riverboat gambler, or famous spy, or a tottering carnival
barker. Your mission is to deliver a fluent and funny confusing speech.
Exercise: Show and Tell
As a way to promote your focus and understanding of the
vivid character you have chosen, and the context of the setting
(time, place, climate, situation, etc.) you might want to complete
this hands-on exercise. Try to think of a household object that
represents your character somehow. In other words, if you had to
choose an object to act as an icon or symbol for your character,
what would it be? For example, if you chose a heartbroken lover in
a bittersweet romance you might chose an empty bottle to sym-
bolize the sense of loss. Before you give your main speech, do a
brief show and tell for your group explaining how and why the
object that you have chosen embodies some kind of characteristic(s)
of the person you are about to portray. After you give the speech,
as a follow-up activity the group can assess how well you captured
and symbolically portrayed the essence of your character.
The Example
“Ladies and gents, gather around. As you all well know, I am
David Pharnus Thompson the First, and I am running for the
position of dogcatcher of this fair city. I am honored to be among
such a lustrous gathering of prone individuals.”
“As you know, the rabid dog population of our fair state capi-
tal took a sharp decline when I was in that city, and now I feel that
I am ready to do something about that right here. Why? Because I
believe that hard work is good, and it’s good to work hard.”
“Dog catching is like fishing, and I’m an expert fisherman.
Innocuous vocations are not my style nor is the heartbreak of los-
ing one’s bow-wow. My opponent says that he has a plan for cleaning
up the city. Pernicious, I must say. Is my opponent really a felon?
After all, let’s listen to what the experts have to say and then it’s up
for you to decide.”
“In closing, let me say that if you cast your vote for me, I’ll get
every male stray dog off the streets and make life a real yammer for
the bitches.”
The Group Reaction
How can you tell when someone is stretching the truth or
trying to confuse you? Most people watch the speaker’s face, but
the problem here is that most people who are used to being con-
fusing can control their faces and their eyes. Therefore, what you
have to do is look for some “leaks.” A leak is a subconscious physi-
cal imperfection. Some classic leaks are:
-Nervous feet and hands.
-When the speaker keeps pressing a dubious issue.
-When the speaker’s body language is incongruous to the speech.
-Smiling a great deal.
-Constantly complementing the audience.
-A fast delivery.
Along with your standard written critique, comment on each
speaker’s “leaks.”
Leaks recognition:
-When the speaker ‘s body language is incongruous to the
speech.
-Constantly complementing the audience.
-A fast delivery.
Logic errors:
-Non sequitur—non sequitur is Latin for “it does not follow.”
-False analogy—a false analogy is an under or over simplification
of a complicated issue which debases the reality of the ation
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small of sample group.
or end. Each term defines itself.
becomes more difficult to spot as a fallacy.
lower the impact of a message.
-Big words and to speak as fast as you can through the logically
critical areas.
For speed:
-Check the dictionary for words that you have never heard of
and throw them in your speech somewhere.
-Practice your speech often to get your speed up to around 200
words per minute.
truths.
Memory devices:
-Mnemonics—try to think up acronyms or silly sayings to help
you memorize a difficult passage.
outline it into a signature outline.
speech in one figure form. This holistic tactic of
memorization is very popular among professionals.
-When in Doubt, Punt—if you forget something, never admit
to it! Keep right on going, never go back!
Public Speaking vs. Acting—Acting assumes a suspension of
belief and not recognizing an audience; public speaking
needs an audience and to make eye contact and link with
listeners.
SPEECH NUMBER
SEVENTEEN–THE
SPEECH TO SELL
The Procedure
Invent a product and write a 5—7 minute speech to promote
it to your group. This speech must be memorized to be effective.
The Lesson: I’ve Got This Bridge . . .
While this text is not a marketing resource, knowing a little
bit about the strategies that advertising agencies use to promote a
product can help you when you are making a persuasive speech.
The major goal of this speech to sell is to point out how your
wonderful, new product will benefit each member of your group.
Many of the skills that you have mastered in the Informative and
Persuasive Speeches will come in useful for you here.
Creating a Need
The first step towards selling is to get your listeners mentally
attuned to your product, or to focus their attention on your prod-
uct. The most critical step here is to create a need. People will not
purchase things that they want very often, so you must convince
them that they need your product (even if they may not). When
home video recorder machines first came on the market, millions
of dollars were spent first trying to convince people that they actu-
ally needed this product. The tactic worked, as now millions of
homes have VCR’s. Appeal to your listeners’ basic values for needs:
your life quality, your health, your security, and your family.
“Sell” Yourself
Once you have created the need, then you have to sell your-
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self. Make sure that your outfit matches the genre of your prod-
uct. Do not wear a dress if you are trying to sell fishing equipment
or jeans if you trying to sell computers. Never discredit any of
your competitors or use sarcasm. In addition, a little self-disclo-
sure is appropriate, “Why, I found myself using this pencil and
bought the whole company.” Also, make sure that your language
is befitting your product, “Yah, this little computer baby here’ll spit
out more RAM than you can shake a stick at,” would not work very
well.
Sales Objectives
Next, determine your sales objectives by answering these ques-
tions:
What kind of speech is needed?
What should I wear?
What age group am I addressing?
What is my theme?
What visual aids can I use?
How long should I speak and what is my group’s motivation for
even listening to me?
What is my most effective approach to reach my group?
Speech Sales Methods
There are the three basic speech sales methods—in order they
are:
-Balance your product to comparable products. Show how yours is
superior, but never demerit your competition’s products.
-Point out new improvements to an old product—”If you liked
‘Bokoy’ before, you’ll love it now with these new additives.”
-Show how your new product meets the listeners’ basic needs. “We all
have legal problems now and then, that’s why . . . “
Be very careful choosing and ordering words for a speech to
sell. The speech should use words that are positive and upbeat. If
possible, try to include the words ‘sale’ and ‘free’ in your speech as
research has shown these words are very attractive to buyers.
Is the price always right?
Keep in mind for most sales speeches that the price of your
product will not be the most important issue for your listeners. It
is reasonable to assume that your listeners already have a good idea
what your price looks like, so they are interested in the other in-
tangibles you can bring to them. Some of these intangibles in-
clude: the kind of services that you can offer them, what kind of
track record and history your products have, is there anything in it
for them as individuals (e.g., frequent flyer miles, etc.) and how
easy will it be for the listeners to purchase and implement your
product or services?
The Strategy
Control Your Variables
Think of this speech as a one-sided debate. You can give all
the positive information that you want and nobody can argue with
you! So choose your facts and information judicially; only give the
particulars that bolster your product! Offer some rewards, or the
nice little serendipitous advantages of your product, “Along with
making my breath smell better “AQUAYUM” made my romance
fantastic.” And be sure to avoid all esoteric technical or trade terms
that would only be understood by someone in the industry (un-
less you are targeting a very narrow market), “Yes, the q’yatro-hydrcrnet
value really gave me a B-5!”
Be Creative!
Offer advantages of your product over the status quo, think up
some new sales tactics, and be as wildly creative as you can. How-
ever, be sure to include the basics. You must give the “customer”
the methods to purchase your product: how to buy it, where to
buy it, when to buy it, why to buy it, if it is on the Internet, and
how much it costs.
The Group Reaction–The ABC’s of Sales
The assessment is very straightforward here. Ask yourself
after each speech, “Would I buy it from the speaker?” In addi-
tion, did the speaker follow the ABC’s of Sales Effectiveness for
Speeches?
A = Affects—did the speaker’s emotional appeal affect you? Was the
appeal believable? Was the speaker a credible source?
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B = Behavior—did the speaker’s actions influence you? Was the speaker

overly active or boringly passive? Did you understand the speaker?
C = Cognition—did the speaker’s logical approach to thinking about
the product make sense to you? Did you see any red flags?
Sales ABC’s assessment:
A = Affects—did the speaker’s emotional appeal affect you? Was
the appeal believable? Was the speaker a credible source?
B = Behavior—did the speaker’s actions influence you? Was the
speaker overly active or boringly passive? Did you understand
the speaker?
C = Cognition—did the speaker’s logical approach to thinking
about the product make sense to you? Did you see any red
flags?
Sales methods:
-Compare your product to comparable product. Show how
yours is superior, but never demerit your competition’s
products.
-Point out new improvements to an old product
-Show how your new product meets the listeners’ basic needs.
Sales objectives when writing the speech:
-What kind of speech is needed?
-What should I wear?
-What age group am I addressing?
-What is my theme?
-What visual aids can I use?
-How long should I speak and what is my group’s motivation for
even listening to me?
-What is my most effective approach to reach my group?
SPEECH NUMBER
EIGHTEEN–THE CHAIN
SPEECH
The Procedure
This is an extension of the “telephone” exercise that you used
earlier. The objective for the group is to create a reasonable story
containing reasonable characters all behaving within a reasonable
plot in a reasonable setting. The difficulty is that the story needs
to be created quickly and cooperatively!
You will need to have nimble wits to make this speech effec-
tive, and if one person in the group decides to sabotage the efforts,
it is difficult to recoup. One person starts to tell a story establish-
ing the characters and plot. This person leaves off in the middle of
a sentence and the next person picks up on the story, and the cycle
keeps going on and on. There is no preparation needed for this
speech. Keep going in the group until the story becomes worn out
or it turns too bizarre. As a note, it’s fun to tape-record these and
play them back later.
The Lesson: Segues
A segue is an immediate transition from one topic to another,
or from one speaker to another. Segues are what glues talk shows
together, “Yes Jan, donuts are nice, and something else that’s nice is a
health club, where our cameras visited today . . . “ A segue allows a
story or program to “flow” without any abrupt shifts.
There are two conditions of segues: their styles and the key
words they might use.
The styles of a segue are:
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-Full segue—there is no doubt that you are going to a new

topic, “Our next topic is the farm and its impact on rural
economies.”
-Half segue—a gentler shift, “Meanwhile, back at the farm.”
-Key word segue—jump into a new topic, but pull down a key
word from the previous topic, “Today, the prices are up all
across the board, just like on the farm . . .“
Key Words:
If you are employing a key word segue there are several ele-
ments and conditions to consider, the most important of which is
the key words that you repeat from the previous sentence into
your new topic:
-If you want to show time shifts, try these words:
“next”
“meanwhile”
“later”
-If you want to show that you are going on to another thought,
try:
“also”
“besides”
“moreover”
-If you want to show contrast, try:
“on the other hand”
“otherwise”
“similarly”
-If you want to indicate location changes, try:
“nearby”
“across the river”
“adjacent to”
-If you want to point out results, try:
“thus”
“therefore”
“as a result”
-If you want to show that a conclusion has been reached, try:
“as we have seen”
“looking overall”
Note: Do not say “In conclusion,” when you have actually
reached your conclusion; this gives listeners permission to tune
you out.
The Strategy
Plot vs. Character
Be sure to attend to the developing plot, so when it is your
turn, you are ready to add to its growth. Remember how a story
develops (Speech for A Personal Memory) and try to develop a
good character for the story. If you can create a personable charac-
ter, you can put him or her through several exploits and your lis-
teners will develop sympathy for the character. Remember in a
good story the plot is not the most important consideration, the
human drama of the character is. The plot is only a vehicle to
spotlight your characters
Cooperation
This is an excellent group exercise because each person must
not only carry out his/her own burden of storytelling, but also
facilitate the next person’s entry by ending with a good segue and
leaving in a place that logically would permit someone jumping
in. For example, if you have your character jump out of an airplane
and die on impact with the frozen tundra below, there would not
be too much for the next person in line to say.
The Group Reaction
The group should discuss how well each person created a segue,
how the characters were developed, and how each member helped
to construct the plot. Remember all of the elements of LARS;
sometimes as the speeches wear on people forget to be as attentive
as they need to be.
Plot vs. Character—If you can create a personable character,
you can put him or her through several exploits and your listeners
will develop sympathy for the character. Remember in a good story
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the plot is not the most important consideration, the human drama
of the character is. The plot is only a vehicle to spotlight your
characters.
Segues—A segue is an immediate transition from one topic to
another, or from one speaker to another.
SPEECH NUMBER
NINETEEN–THE SPEECH TO
SPEAK EXTEMPORANEOUSLY
The Procedure
The group leader will give you a topic for the speech, which
will be based on current event issues. You will have only 30 min-
utes to look through your magazines and other sources of informa-
tion you might have to prepare a 4—7 minute speech. You may
only use one 3x5 index card with a maximum of 50 words or
symbols on it to serve as notes. To save time, three or four people
should receive their topics at the same time.
The Lesson: Processing Information
Because you only have 30 minutes to prepare this speech, you
will have to use all of the speed techniques for processing informa-
tion presented in the Speech to Inform, and you will have to use
them more quickly!
The essential difference between an extemporaneous speech
and a speech to inform (aside from the preparation time) is that
you must strive to involve the group in your speech. You must
speak to them, not at them.
Here are some hints on delivery and organization for an
extemporaneous speech:
-Begin with an engaging story, germane to the topic, which will
be of interest your listeners.
-Be sure to list an exact Speech Focusing Statement, and follow
its order in your speech!
-Make “I” statements (“I believe that,” “I want you to understand
that,”).
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-Pose hypothetical questions.

-Use metaphors that relate to the listeners’ backgrounds.
- “Sell” yourself.
-Don’t be afraid to smile.
-Be relaxed and natural.
-Strive to develop eye contact!
-Develop a rapport with the listeners.
-Give a “smooth” delivery. Do not try to rattle off data, or
shotgun facts.
The Strategy
Group Relations
In an extemporaneous speech, your information is vital, but
your relationship with the listeners is even more critical. Be sure
constantly to monitor your listeners’ eyes. If they start to drift off
during a section, assume that they are not interested in this section
and move along until they are paying attention again.
Exercise: A Nonsense Extemporaneous
This exercise should come directly after you have completed
the real extemporaneous speeches. This time, the speaker is given a
nonsense word (such as “clothesways”) and is allowed only five
minutes to prepare a 3—5 minute nonsense speech where the
speech has to address the nonsense word topic. The more sincere
you sound as a speaker, the more validity and credibility it gives to
your speech.
While the actual extemporaneous speech is a real test of thinking
skills, this exercise is designed to be amusing. See how many of
you can deliver a gobbledygook speech, with good and proper
inflections, and not break into laughter. Remember, the more
seriously you approach this silly speech, the more fun it will
be!
Valuable Lessons
The ability to extemp, or to stand on your own two feet, process
information quickly, and to make a delivery “on the spot,” is a
valuable life skill and a survival-based commodity for existence in
school and business. Every professional must extemp in one form

or another each day.
The Group Reaction
The group should offer a standard written assessment, the
simple evaluation, or a newly developed rubric, and pay special
attention to the speaker’s relationship with the listeners. After the
speech, review the requirements and comments on how well the
speaker was able to develop his/her rapport with the audience.
Group Processing Exercise—Speech Showdown
To support your depth of learning some of the more detailed
issues you have encountered so far in this book, here is a group
activity that can help you find ways to help yourself and your
group. First, decide upon a block of information you need help in
committing to memory. An obvious choice might be the Survival
Grammar section or the section on poetry or Process Speech Writing.
Once you decide upon your group’s area of greatest need, ev-
eryone in the group will identify one aspect, or chunk of the sub-
ject that he or she will be responsible for teaching thoroughly.
Each person will then develop a memorable lesson plan for his or
her aspect and present a brief speech designed to “teach” the group
(see the Speech to Inform). You should be prepared to include
visuals in your presentation.
The assessment of these speeches is designed to be pleasant.
Once the speeches have concluded, each member of the group will
submit five questions on a sheet of paper to the group leader. Each
person should label the sheet with the aspect he or she chose for
the speeches. The questions should be based only on the details
from the lessons that were presented in the speeches. The ques-
tions should be developed so that they increase in difficulty with
each sequential question being more difficult than the preceding
question, with the point values attached to the questions ranging
from one to five points. Each question should be labeled in order
as being worth from one to five points. The questions should have
the correct answers written below them. Make sure that you keep
these questions and answers secret for now.
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The group should divide itself into three equally sized teams
for the rest of this exercise. Each team will select a “champion”
who will take part in the Speech Showdown. You should try to
choose someone from your team who performed well in the previous
extemporaneous speeches as this involves a good deal of thinking
on your feet. Each team will have practice time, where team
members should share their answers and questions with their
champion and with each other.
To play the Speech Showdown, the group leader will read ques-
tions from random papers according to the point value the contes-
tant requests until that point value is gone from all of the papers,
or until time runs out. The contestant only chooses the point value,
not the category or speech aspect. Categories will change randomly
as the group leader cycles through different sheets of paper. Con-
testants will win or lose points if they present the correct answer to
the group leader’s question. The group leader is the final judge of
an answer’s correctness.
The order of play is decided first by a flip of a coin, or whatever
random method you prefer. This person continues to choose point
values until a correct answer is given. After that point, the last
contestant to give a correct answer will choose the next point values
until someone else correctly answers a question. Team members
cannot help their champion during the Showdown, but certainly
should encourage his or her efforts.
One member from each team will keep score for the team’s
champion. All contestants with a positive score after twenty min-
utes can compete in the Final Showdown. If your team has nega-
tive points, you are out of the competition. Each team will an-
nounce its standing at this point, unless the team chooses not to
play any further and exits the competition.
The group leader will then chose one paper at random. Based
on their confidence, the contestants must write down their “wagers”
before the final question is given. The final wagers cannot exceed
their team’s total points. The group leader will then read one final
question of his or her choice from the remaining questions on the
sheet, to which each remaining contestant will write down one

final answer. If a contestant correctly answers the question, the
team will gain the points wagered; if not, the team loses the points.
The contestant who has the most points after the Final Showdown
will win for the team. Once again, this team is then taken out for
lunch.
Extemporaneous skills and tactics:
-Begin with a meritorious story, germane to the topic, which
will be of interest your listeners
-Make “I” statements.
-Use metaphors that relate to the listeners’ background.
-Don’t be afraid to smile.
shotgun facts.
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SPEECH NUMBER
TWENTY–THE SPEECH
TO DEBATE VALUES
The Procedure
Break the group into even sides, or “panels.” Agree upon a
values-laden resolution with the operant verb being “should.” Ex-
amples are offered in the Comments section following. Each per-
son on each side should be prepared to speak for 2—3 minutes on
the resolution. Each person will speak only once, with teams alter-
nating speakers. The team in favor of the resolution (affirmative)
should have a three-minute speech read by the very first affirma-
tive speaker. This speech establishes the affirmative stance on the
issue, and this is the only speech that is written verbatim before
the beginning of the debate.
The affirmative team tries to show why a “reasonably prudent
person” would accept the logic of the resolution.
The negative team tries to prove that a “reasonably prudent
person” would not accept the logic of the resolution.
Usually, teams assume a negative or affirmative posture based
on the interests of the team members from the start; however, if
both teams want one particular stance or side, you will need to flip
a coin!
The Lesson: Values
Values are what you use to make decisions. They are based on
your background and appreciation of certain topics and beliefs.
Because the affirmative must prove why the resolution “should” be
adopted (note: not “will be adopted,” but “should”) they must
establish a value structure for those listening to and “judging” the

debate. Usual value structures for an affirmative stance might look
sound this:
-Life and basic survival needs.
-Liberty and freedom.
-Personal growth.
-Creature comforts.
-For country—”Save the nation, vote for the affirmative!”
-Social gain—”This resolution will improve the respect for our
country.”
-Survival—”Ban the bomb before we’re all dead.”
-Speaker’s personal power and the “moral imperative”—”And I
know that you will do what’s right and vote for the affirmative.”
Of course, these arguments work just as well in reverse for the
negative! If you are the affirmative, these values are in jeopardy
unless the resolution is adopted. On the reverse, the negative points
out how these values will be in danger if the resolution is adopted.
Debater Affective Skills
Here are some of the skills a good values debater will possess:
-Being sincere.
-Being tactful.
-Believing in what you are saying.
-Exercising good taste in your statements
The Strategy
Try to appeal always to the listeners’ primary (biological and
psychological) and secondary (social) needs. The best way to do
this is to ask yourself what are the listeners’ needs based on the
audience assessments you completed before you begin to speak.
Below these five suggestions for capturing the empathy and minds
of your listeners:
-Catch the listeners’ attention through a needs assessment.
-Hold the listeners’ attention via the dynamics of your presentation.
-Convince the listeners with your logic.
-Persuade the listeners through your motivating material.
-Elicit action from the listeners to opt for your position.
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Decision-Making
Decisions you make are based on what you think is important
and what you value. Unfortunately in this world, there is no abso-
lute judge that can decree whether something is truly good or
bad, or right or wrong. Therefore, you rely upon your own back-
ground and sense of what is appropriate to help you along the
path of decision-making.
It is estimated that the average person in one day makes around
200 action decisions. These are decisions that effect something or
affect someone.
You make decisions every day. Some are simple, some are very
difficult. In general, the greater the impact of the decision the
more difficult it becomes to make. You can begin to see this as you
start with an examination of what you value.
Exercise: Your Values Are . . .
Have everyone is the class line up along a wall or in one of two
corners to physically represent where they “stand” in relation to
the following value statements. In other words, if you completely
agree with a statement, go to this corner. If you completely disagree,
stand in this corner. If you are in the middle, stand next to the
wall between the two corners. Line up responding in order of
agreement or disagreement to these ascending value-based
questions:
-It is okay to be angry.
-Okay to yell at a person.
-Okay to lie.
-Okay to be cowardly.
-Okay to kill a person.
How many of these questions did you find yourself saying
things like, “Well, I agree, except when . . . “ Are values absolute?
When you start to chip away at a value, does it really become a
“slippery slope?” Can you support peace and be willing to kill in
war? Discuss among yourselves your “stand” on the issues.
Decision-Making Models
Utilitarianism
Jeremy Bentham, a writer back in the late 1600’s, talks about

Utilitarianism. He writes that it is a moral principle that whatever
does the most good for the most people justifies harms, lies, or intimida-
tion. Do you agree? For example, your group could have a discus-
sion to decide if a government “should” lie to its people about
policies for the sake of security.
Occam’s Razor
William of Occam, an English monk who lived from 1285-
1349, is credited with founding “The Law of Parsimony,” also
known as Occam’s Razor. This states that it is vain to do with more
what can be done with less. This means that given two or more
conflicting ideas you should choose the one that is the most simple.
On the other hand, if something happens that you cannot ac-
count for, you should always try to explain it first in terms of what
is known.
Approach/Avoidance Decision-Making
For the sake of discussion, you can say “Approach” means you
want to do something good or fun, like seeing a movie. “Avoid-
ance” means you do not want to do something you do not like,
such as making your bed. There are three possible combinations:
Approach–Approach
Approach—Avoid
Avoid–Avoid
Approach–Avoid is an easy decision, skip the bed making and
hit the Cineplex.
Avoid–Avoid is more difficult; most people say it is like “choosing
between two tribulations.”
Approach–Approach is actually the most difficult choice you
have to make.
Consensus
The best of all decisions is the consensus, or the “win-win”
approach. Here everyone who has a “stake” in an issue joins to-
gether to examine the goods and bads of an issue, and then reaches
a decision that every person can live with and support. It is the
best decision supported by all, but consensus decisions usually
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take a long time to happen! The essential phrase you hear in con-
sensus building is, “While this may not be everything you wanted,
can you live with and actively support what we have here?”
The Comments and Goals: Persuasive Rhetoric
Effective speaking, or rhetoric is used in a debate as a funda-
mental tool. To the Sophist Greeks, rhetoric was the essential step
to argumentation. Socrates developed a formal set of procedures
for rhetoric, which is now considered the fundamental elements of
persuasive argumentation. For your purposes in this debate, try to
consider these rhetorical elements as you are speaking:
-Don ‘t take this argument or yourself too seriously.
-Remember, this is an academic discussion so everyone should remain
calm.
-Be earnest—stick to your guns.
-Be questioning—since you don’t have a direct cross examination
time, pose questions to the other team in your speech that will
destabilize and attack their position.
-Listen!—Usually, the other team will contradict themselves at least
once-listen for it and attack!
Topics
Some possible topics for your debate are:
-Resolved: that the government should establish universal gun control
laws.
-Resolved: that schools should force students to wear uniforms.
-Resolved: that Internet integrity laws should be established and
enforced even if they deny freedom of speech.
The Example
The following speech, created by a 10th grader, is a fictional
example of a typical first affirmative speech from the late 1980’s:
“Adolescence is a time to evaluate our values. We evaluate the
concerns of our life, and conclude that some are more important
than others are. As a society, we must constantly re-evaluate our
value systems. However, society consists of unique individuals, each
with his or her own set of values. As such, a general value resolu-
tion such as the one that we are considering here today must be
evaluated in relation to its accordance with the value system of the

majority of the society.
Today’s resolution states that, Resolved: Economic concerns should
be more important than the ecological concerns about acid rain in the
1900’s. Acid rain is a term describing precipitation carrying acidic
sulfur-dioxide dust from the upper atmosphere. Sulfur dioxide is a
gas, 85% of which is produced by the burning of sulfur-organic
fuel and 15% by certain industrial processes.
Ecologists propose to regulate acid rain by modifying the emis-
sion of sulfur dioxide. Such regulation is unwarranted and impos-
sible. As of today in 1989, no study has conclusively proven that
acid rain is a direct threat to human life.
In addition, industrial regulation is not possible because regu-
lation is exceedingly difficult to enforce and industry is too lax to
comply.
Even if industry were to comply, the elimination of acid rain is
a case of diminishing returns. Emissions control is a case where
more and more programs and monies are needed to remove smaller
and smaller amounts of the pollutant.
The only sure way to prevent acid rain is to shut down all
producers of sulfur dioxide. As 85% of these producers are plants
burning fossil fuel to produce electricity, such a shutdown would
result in a nationwide blackout. Imagine the horrible results—
thousands of hospital patients would die as the life-saving equip-
ment became useless. Commerce and government would fall into
chaos, as communications would become impossible. Society would
revert hundreds of years.
As any adolescent can tell, the ecological solution of regulat-
ing acid rain by regulating sulfur-dioxide emissions is uncalled for
and would force industries to close down, a horror worse than the
proposed effects of acid rain. Clearly, the resolution that states
that, Resolved: Economic concerns should be more important than the
ecological concerns about acid rain in the 1900’s, must stand.”
The Group Reaction
After all of the shouting is over, get back together and try to
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use the consensus model to evaluate each speaker. Did any

conclusion spring from this debate? Did one side clearly win? Who
listened the best? Was your topic appropriate?
Affirmative team—Tries to show why a “reasonably prudent
person” would accept the logic of the resolution.
Approach/Avoidance Decision-Making:
Approach–Approach
Approach–Avoid
Avoid–Avoid
Consensus—”Win-win” approach.
Decisions—Are based on what you think is important and
what you value.
Negative team—Tries to prove that a “reasonably prudent
Occam’s Razor—Given two or more conflicting ideas you
should choose the one that is the most simple.
Persuasive Rhetoric:
-Don’t take this argument or yourself too seriously
-Remember, this is an academic discussion so everyone should
remain calm
-Be questioning
-Listen!—Usually, the other team will contradict themselves at
least once-listen for it and attack!
Utilitarianism—A moral principle that whatever does the most
good for the most people justifies harms, lies, or intimidation.
Values—What you use to make decisions based on your
background and appreciation of:
-Personal growth.
-Creature comforts.
-For country
-Social gain
-Survival
-Speaker s personal power and the “moral imperative”
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SPEECH NUMBER TWENTY-
ONE–ROLE-PLAYING: THE
FICTIONAL MOCK TRIAL
The Procedure
This speech exercise will work very well in a classroom setting
if there are over fifteen members in your group. The concept be-
hind the mock trial is to give you a chance to role-play a position
either as an attorney or as a witness in a criminal or civil court. The
trial round will be presided over by a judge, who should be either
an actual attorney or a teacher.
The Strategy
You should first take a piece of fiction and decide to put a
character on trial for something done in the book, movie, or
play. You might decide to put Salieri on trial for the murder of
Mozart, or you might want to see if Brutus is guilty of sedition, or
maybe even sue Odysseus for wrecking his boats in the
Mediterranean.
As part of the activity, develop the characters beyond the work
of fiction and write speeches for each that are representative of the
characters’ personas. Just be sure that the characters do not go
beyond the actual plot of your story.
Team Composition Template
While you are free to make up your own court rules and pro-
cedures, here is a generic template for a seventeen-student class
during a murder trial.
-Team arrangement: A classroom team can be composed of 17
members which could be divided as follows: 3 prosecution
witnesses and 3 defense witnesses, 4 prosecution attorneys

and 4 defense attorneys, 1 classroom judge who will vote for
the winning side based on the performance of the teams
(note: not the outcome of the trial!), and one bailiff and one
time-keeper. Each team will be required to present either a
prosecution case or a defense case.
If you have a larger class or a smaller class, you can manipulate
the numbers as you see fit. You might even decide to pit one class
against another with each class taking one side.
For a 17-member class, these are the roles:
Prosecution Attorneys:
1. Opening Statement, Cross of Witness 3
2. Closing Statement, Direct of Witness 3
3. Direct of Witness 2, Cross of Witness 1
Defense Attorneys:
Bailiff:
The bailiff inducts all witnesses this way–the Bailiff walks over
to the person in the witness box and says, “Please raise your right
hand. Do you promise that the statement you are about to give
will conform to the rules of the fictional mock trial speech?”
Witnesses:
-3 prosecution witnesses and 3 defense witnesses that are
characters from the fiction.
-Witnesses note: If a character in a book has never met the
accused or any other character in question, you can not ask
this person questions relating to him or her. In other words,
the witness cannot make up a new plot to the story just to
answer a question or promote one side’s position!
Timekeeper:
The timekeeper keeps time for each side. Any speaker can take
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as much time as needed, as long as each side does not use up the
maximum amount of time:
Opening statements
4 minutes total each side
Direct examinations
Cross-examinations
Closing arguments
4 minutes each side
Trial Questions
The only trial procedure you should follow as closely as pos-
sible is the questioning of the witnesses with direct and leading
questions. An example of the difference between the two types of
questions follows:
Direct Question: Tell the court what you saw on this day. (Open-
ended—use with your direct examination of your witness).
Leading Question: Isn’t it true that the person in question ran
when he saw the dog? (Yes or no response—use when you cross-
examine their witness).
Direct and Indirect Questions:
Direct Question: Tell the court what you saw on this day. (Open-
Leading Question: Isn’t it true that the person in question ran
when he saw the dog? (Yes or no response—use when you cross-
examine their witness).
Mock Trial Attorney Roles:
Defense Attorneys:

Mock Trial arrangement—A classroom team can be composed
of 17 members which could be divided as follows: 3 prosecution
witnesses and 3 defense witnesses, 4 prosecution attorneys and 4
defense attorneys, 1 classroom judge who will vote for the winning
side based on the performance of the teams, and one bailiff and
one time-keeper.
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POST-SPEECH LESSON
The Order of Contents and Cross-referenced
speech-by-speech list of the criteria for your
developing your own school or district’s Language
Arts benchmarks and standards.
Content standards are usually considered the statements that

address the questions, “What should our students know,” and
“What should our students be able to do.” For the schools and
districts using this book that are interested in applying and aligning
the skills and contents from this text, the following master cross-
reference of skills and topics and the order of contents should be
valuable as you articulate your local curriculum.
When using this text as the primary or secondary resource for
a school program, writers of curriculum are encouraged to develop
a new standard for inclusion in their school or district’s Language
Arts curriculum that takes this format:
Students use a variety of speaking techniques to build an
understanding of Public Speaking and to improve their
confidence.
The following list displays the skills or the content; the criteria
for use in developing either benchmarks or rubrics for assessment
purposes and the speech in which the information is found. Since
Public Speaking itself is a skill that applies to so many other
standards and benchmarks, there has been no determination made
here that a piece could be declarative or procedural knowledge;

however, you are free to do so in your own design.
Cross—Referenced Master Review List of Skills
A review of what you should know or be able to do, and the
Speech in which the criteria are found in this text.
Active Listening (S9)—Try to get the “big message” or Speech
Focusing Statement as quickly as possible:
that you don’t like.
-Observe the body language and the paralinguistics.
speech or story.
Adrenaline (Epinephrine) and Noradrenaline (Norepinephrine)
(S1)—Natural powerful heart stimulants.
Affirmative team (S20)—Tries to show why a “reasonably
prudent person” would accept the logic of the resolution.
Approach / Avoidance Decision-Making (S20):
-Avoid/Avoid
-Approach/Approach
-Avoid/Approach
Aristotelian argumentation (S15)—Establish your argument
and attack the opponent’s position, promote your strong argu-
ments and minimize your weak claims, remind your audience what
you are trying to prove several times during a speech, and put
emotion into your presentation.
Aristotelian areas of persuasion (S15):
-Logos—logos means logical, philosophical reasoning.
-Pathos—pathos is the audience’s feeling towards your topic.
-Ethos—ethos is the speaker’s conviction, or belief, in the topic.
Audience essential factors (S15)-Note their special interests.
-What is the size of your audience?
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-Education
-Profession
-Gender
-Age
-Financial status
-Religion
-Is your group is heterogeneous or homogeneous?
Audience participation (S4)—A strategy for getting listeners
on your side
Backstep (PS2)—Lowering one’s maturity level to respond to
a negative critique.
Body Language and Mimed Movements (S11):
-Move backward to display shock or surprise.
idea.
-Hands folded in front of your body shows that you are not
say, “Keep away.”
Brainstorming (PS4)—Finding a quiet room somewhere, turn-
ing on a tape recorder, and saying everything that pops into your
mind when reflecting on the topic. If no tape recorder is available,
writing each idea as quickly as possible. Just getting out as much
information as you can without discarding any ideas at this stage.
Clichés (S4)—Substitutes for meaningful descriptive language.
Conflicting with listener’s reason (S15):

-At the very beginning of your speech, ask the audience to keep
an open mind and to postpone judgment until the end of
your speech.
-Divorce yourself from your topic, in other words, do not
become the authority figure—let your logic and evidence
speak for themselves; you are merely their spokesperson.
-Try to remain as empirical as possible-choose your evidence
judiciously. Remind your audience that facts don’t lie.
Connections (Connectedness) (PS4)—How topics and issues
are related that may only make sense to you.
Consensus (S20)—”Win-win” approach.
Decisions (S20)—Are based on what you think is important
and what you value.
Demosthenes (PS1)—Athenian orator
Direct and Indirect Questions (S21):
-Direct Question: Tell the court what you saw on this day. (Open-
-Leading Question: Isn’t it true that the person in question ran
when he saw the dog? (Yes or no response—use when you
cross-examine their witness).
Discussion (S10)—Implies that there is an issue that needs to
be addressed and a change that needs to accompany that decision.
There are six primary steps to a discussion:
What caused the problem? Who is to blame, etc?
have a secretary record them.
4) Eliminate inadequate solutions—get rid of obviously faulty so-
lutions. A simple majority decision is good enough to reject
weak ideas.
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5) Discuss—This is the heart of your discussion. Take each solution

or idea left on the blackboard and discuss its relative strengths
and weaknesses. Rank order each successive solution or idea.
6) Action plan—once you have decided upon best solution, create
a hypothetical “action plan” to implement your solution. Be
as specific as possible within realistic boundaries.
Discussion leader skills (S10):
-Keeping the discussion moving along
time.
-Keep control!
-Make final summations
-Make sure everyone agrees with the outcomes
Discussion participant skills (S10):
-Do your homework!
-Keep an open mind.
words, do not hog the discussion.
-Avoid “blanket statements”
-Be consistent on your views.
-Be willing to go along with the group’s decision.
Dressing (S4)—Ask the person who is acting as your contact
what the dress and nature of the event will be to make strategic
decisions.
End-Game Planning (S3)—To leave the listeners thinking
about your speech, or to leave the listener with one last thought.
Here are some suggestions:
-Finish the story you started in the introduction.

-Answer your rhetorical question.
-End with a rhetorical quotation.
-Pose a final question to challenge your listeners’ intellect.
Escape (PS2)—To simply deny reality after a poor effort.
Evaluator (PS1)
-A member of the group that: Shares feelings and thoughts with
the speaker.
-Makes “I” statements (e.g., “I think your speech was . . .“ or “I
feel you need to . . . “).
-Is specific.
-Is constructive, not destructive.
-Remembers that each speaker is unique.
-Comments only on the speech—not on the speaker.
-Does not project own biases onto the speech.
Evidence (PS4)—The proof in the speech that it will meet the
objectives.
Extemporaneous skills and tactics (S19)
-Begin with a meritorious story, germane to the topic, which
will be of interest your listeners
-Make “I” statements.
-Use metaphors that relate to the listener’s background.
-Do not be afraid to smile.
shotgun facts.
Extemporaneous Speaking (PS1)—Style of delivery—mostly
“off the cuff ” with notes.
Fight vs. Flight (S1)—A complex brain reaction to speech mak-
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ing or any perceived stressor, or danger allowing you to run or

fight.
Figurative language (S8)
-Understatement–understatement is stating less than necessary
and is used to underscore an important idea with an ironic
twist.
-Allusion—allusion hints at a topic, but never comes right out
and says what it really is.
-Hyperbole—hyperbole is the opposite of understatement.
-Juxtaposition—juxtaposition places opposite ideas side by side
to create a new truth, much like a paradox or oxymoron.
-Metaphor and simile—A metaphor is an implied comparison
not using “like” or “as.” A simile is an implied comparison
using “like” or “as.”
-Personification—when you give human characteristics to non-
human things.
-Irony—when something happens that you do not expect.
-Sound devices (S8)—sound devices are the musical variations
you can make in your speech. The basic four are:
-Alliteration—the repetition of initial sounds in words next to each
other
-Onomatopoeia—making words from sounds.
-Assonance—the repetition of vowel sounds in words next to each
other.
-Consonance–the repetition of consonant sounds in words next to
each other.
Group (PS1)—A caring and knowledgeable collection of
colleagues or classmates listening and responding to you.
Group’s Goals (PS1)—A form of assessment to improve speaker’s
confidence:
-Describe the speaker’s mistakes–do not get personal.
-Offer specific comments.
-Comment on things that the speaker has control.
-To lower the speaker’s anxiety.
-To evaluate the speaker and to present standards.

-To prescribe the steps to take for the speaker to improve
confidence.
Group Leader (PS1)—A teacher, natural leader, or other person
who takes responsibility for the development of the Group.
Hands-On Webbing Techniques to Help You Write Your
Speech (PS4)—All of the sub-skills associated with the hands-on
speech organizing process.
Hidden Agendas (PS1)—Message or a purpose beneath the
message
Important Ideas (PS4)—The central focus of your speech,
which becomes the topic of your “Hub” and the subject of your
Speech Focusing Statement.
Impromptu (S2)—Speaking at once on a topic with no time
to prepare or to generate notes.
Interpersonal Communication (S4)—”Inter” means between
and “personal” comes from the Latin word for a mask used by
actors, the “persona.”—the mask you all wear for each other.
Kinesthesis, or Kinesics (S2)—Describes your total physical
makeup—your gestures, facial expressions, posture, hands, etc.
KISS (S13)—Keep It Simple, or Straightforward so everyone
gets it!
LARS (S1)—An acronym for active listening meaning:
A-be Attentive
R-be Relaxed
Laughter policy (S8):
next line.
not with you.
Leaks recognition (S16):
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-When the speaker ‘s body language is incongruous to the

speech.
-Always complimenting the audience
-A fast delivery.
Listener (PS1)—A member of the Group that: judges the per-
son by his or her speech. Is genuine and sincere. Does not practice
or think about the comments while the person is speaking. While
the person is speaking, has a positive regard for the speaker. Tries
to understand the speaker from his or her point of view.
Logic errors (S16):
-Non sequitur—non sequitur is Latin for “it does not follow.”
-False analogy—a false analogy is an under or over simplification of
a complicated issue which debases the reality of the situation.
small of sample group.
or end. Each term defines itself.
becomes more difficult to spot as a fallacy.
lower the impact of a message.
-Big words and to speak as fast as you can through the logically
critical areas.
-For speed:
-Check the dictionary for words that you have never heard of and
throw them in your speech somewhere.
-Practice your speech often to get your speed up to around 200 words
per minute.

truths.
Logical Design of Speech (S3):
about.
-Define and differ—first, place your topic into its class. Next,
show how your topic differs from all other members of its
class.
mood for your listeners.
Malapropisms, also known as Spoonerisms (S2)—A verbal slip,
or an accidentally incorrect word or words.
Mastery activity (S14)—An activity that you do until you do
it properly
Materials in hand (PS1)—Style of delivery—speech in front
of you
Memorized (PS1)—Style of delivery—verbatim memory of
whole speech
Memory devices (S16):
-Mnemonics—try to think up acronyms or silly sayings to help
you memorize a difficult passage.
outline it into a signature outline, and so on.
speech in one figure form. This holistic tactic of memoriza-
tion is very popular among professionals.
-When in Doubt, Punt—one last word on memorization. If you
forget something, never admit to it! Keep right on going,
never go back!
Methods to ordering a speech (S3):
place.
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events.
the most important.
-Anti-climax order—work from the most to least important.
Mock Trial attorney roles (S21):
Defense Attorneys:
Mock Trial arrangement (S21)—A classroom team can be
composed of 17 members which could be divided as follows: 3
prosecution witnesses and 3 defense witnesses, 4 prosecution
attorneys and 4 defense attorneys, 1 classroom judge who will vote
for the winning side based on the performance of the teams, and
one bailiff and one time-keeper.
Multiple Intelligences (S14)—People can be “intelligent” in
ways other than what has been traditionally accepted. In fact, there
have been several intelligences documented recently; some of them
are: kinesthetic, verbal, musical, logical and mathematical, visual,
natural, interpersonal, and intrapersonal.
Myths about communications (S12):
-The message sent is the message received.
-You can stop communicating any time you want.
-Facts are facts.
-Only the words are important.
-Reality is reality.
Negative team (S20)—Tries to prove that a “reasonably prudent
Nervous problems (S9):

-Tongue-tied—The remedy to this problem is very simple—just
slow down!
-Sweating—The remedy is to look over the group’s heads or pick
out a few friendly faces to focus on.
-Muscle cramps Remedy: they are not really frozen; they are just
lacking blood pressure. Gesture and take a few steps and the
cramps will disappear!
-World War III in stomach—the classic “Butterfly Syndrome.”
Remedy: just remember why it is happening and then
suppress thinking about it. Once you get into your speech, you
will forget about your stomach as your physiology changes.
-Shaking—Remedy: you cannot stop them from shaking at that
moment, so either grab the sides of the podium or put your
hands behind your back!
Non-Verbal Communication (S11)—Communicating without
using voice
Objective for Speech (PS4)—What the speech is intended to
accomplish. For example, the speech will (encourage, motivate,
inform, etc.) my audience to (learn more, buy something, do
something, etc.).
Objectives (PS4)—What teachers and you want the group to
learn, how they will learn it and in what order, what materials are
needed, and how you and the teacher will assess if the group learns
the material content.
Occam’s Razor (S20)—Given two or more conflicting ideas
you should choose the one that is the most simple.
Outlining speeches (S6):
-The phrase outline—the phrase outline uses full sentences or
major phrases from the paragraphs of the text.
-The signature outline—the signature outline uses only key
words from the paragraph of the text. Some speakers can
even develop symbols to replace words.
Overshining (S4)—Doing a better job speaking than the person
who is being honored or acknowledged at a gathering.
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Paralinguistics (S5)—The term given to describe the total of

how you inflect your words and the emotional tone behind them.
Also, your basic word speed, pitch, tone, volume, etc., and of even
greater importance, the emotions behind the words
Persuasion Active Techniques (S7):
-Body—make sure that you have a proper posture.
-Articulation—articulation means how your total vocal process
works.
-Pronunciation—pronounce each word.
–Pitch—pitch is the highs and lows of your voice.
-Speed—your speed, or pace, is an important variable to control.
-Pauses—the pause, or caesura, is a critical persuasive tool.
-Volume–the intensity of your voice
-Quality—quality of voice is gauged by the overall impact that
caliber of your voice, its character and attributes.
-Variance—variance of vocal elements is your most important
consideration of all; try to vary the elements of your voice.
Persuasive Rhetoric (S20):
-Do not take this argument or yourself too seriously
-Remember, this is an academic discussion so everyone should
remain calm
-Be questioning
-Listen!—Usually, the other team will contradict themselves at
least once-listen for it and attack!
Physiological reactions decline (S1)—90 seconds into speech
the body stops generating “fight or flight” stimulants.
Plot vs. Character (S18)—If you can create a personable char-
acter you can put him or her through several exploits and your
listeners will develop sympathy for the character. Remember in a
good story the plot is not the most important consideration, the
human drama of the character is. The plot is only a vehicle to
spotlight your characters
Poetry elements (S8):

narrator is not the author, and the speaker is not the poet.
You as the presenter do not have to be the speaker in this
case!
-Narrative or Epic Poem. (e.g., the Odyssey or Paradise Lost.) Tells
a poetic story of great people doing great things. This is
always a popular choice.
-Lyrical Poetry. A poem that can be sung. Can be and maybe
should be a song.
-Tone of Voice. Speaker’s (not yours) attitude to subject of
poem.
Rhymes.
-Imagery. Triggers memories through listeners’ senses and
emotions.
-Allusions. References in a poem to something or someone great
or famous.
-Syntax. The order of the words you choose to put in your
poem.
-Theme. Human ideas that contribute to the meaning (love,
hate, jealousy, other emotions).
Positive Mental Attitudes (S12)—Confidence—to increase your
level of confidence in yourself and your speech. It is a simple
equation: experience and preparation = Confidence = PMA.
Positive Speech Conditioning (PS1)—Speaking skills
development using small steps or sequences.
Presentational styles (PS3):
1) Argumentative, Persuasive, or Sales—trying to change or
strengthen an audience’s position on an issue.
2) Narrative, or Entertaining—illustrating issues by showing the
3)Descriptive, Interpretive, or Inflecting–painting verbal pictures
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attempting to appeal to the audience’s five senses to make them

grasp issues.
4) Informative, Training, or Reporting–the telling of facts.
5) Discussion–positively using audience participation.
6) Lecturing, or How To–giving information with a specific
behavioral or conceptual goal in mind for the audience.
Process Speech Writing (PS4)—A series of progressively better-
written speeches involving sharing your work with your buddies
and editing.
Projection (PS2)—Put the ‘blame’ elsewhere for a poor effort.
Proxemics (S11)—The use of physical space between your body
and the things around it:
Your head can tilt, rotate, and make facial expressions.
They control the focus of attention and can act indepen-
dently of the rest of the head.
-The mouth—It can show pleasure or displeasure, and it can
taste, and it can form an “0” to show surprise!
sound.
-The torso—you can’t do too much with your trunk, there’s not
a lot to be expressive with; however, a certain posture can
depict an emotion (a slump is unhappy, etc.)
hands reflects the role of your character.
action and motion.
Public Speaking vs. Acting (S16)—Acting assumes a suspen-
sion of belief and not recognizing an audience; public speaking
needs an audience, and to make eye contact and link with the
listeners.
Questions (S13)—Answering most questions will be very easy.
For dealing with troublesome questions, try these skills:
-Say, “I don’t know “

-Paraphrase—repeat the question in your own words.
-Mirror the question—answer a question with a question.
-Higher Source–say the questions should be referred to a higher
source.
Rationalization (PS2)—Trying to explain away a poor speech.
Reflecting (S1)—To summarize your understanding of the
speech. Try saying things like, “What I think I heard you say is
. . .”
Repression (PS2)—The brain accidentally “forgets” a negative
critique.
Rhetorical question (S3)—A question that begs an answer.
Rubric (PS4)—A chart that lists and rates the criteria that you
use for assessing your speech and speech writing efforts—used to
improve your confidence.
Rubric Performance Assessments (S13)—To improve the
speaker’s confidence by diagnosing the performance and provid-
ing feedback regarding how well the speaker is achieving using
specific criteria you develop for the rubric. Learn how to design an
appropriate rubric.
Sales ABC’s assessment (S17):
A = Affects—did the speaker’s emotional appeal affect you? Was
the appeal believable? Was the speaker a credible source?
B = Behavior—did the speaker’s actions influence you? Was the
speaker overly active or boringly passive? Did you understand
the speaker?
C = Cognition—did the speaker’s logical approach to thinking
about the product make sense to you? Did you see any red
flags?
Sales methods (S17):
-Compare your product to comparable product. Show how
yours is superior, but never demerit your competition’s
products.
-Point out new improvements to an old product.
-Show how your new product meets the listeners’ basic needs.
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Sales objectives when writing the speech (S17):

What kind of speech is needed?
What should I wear?
What age group am I addressing?
What is my theme?
What visual aids can I use?
How long should I speak and what is my group’s motivation
for even listening to me?
What is my most effective approach to reach my group?
Segues (S18)—A segue is an immediate transition from one
topic to another, or from one speaker to another.
Self-fulfilling Prophesy (S1)—After delivering a less than stel-
lar performance on the early speeches, some people take that as a
permanent indication of their ability as a speaker. A poor perfor-
mance on the early speeches should not convince you that you are
a total failure, but rather that you are quite normal!
Simple Skills Assessments (S13)—Write down these code letters
in order as shown here:
A
R
E
O
D
Dl
D2
D3
D4
will award a written number from a 1 to 5 scale. “1” is very poor.
“2” is okay. “3” is average. “4” is very good. “5” excellent. “D/A”
means does not apply to the speech.
Speech Focusing Statement (PS4)—The main idea of a speech
that tells the listener the purpose behind the piece. It needs to be
a clearly written and interesting road map for the listener to be

able to comprehend where the speech is heading.
Storytelling elements (S4):
-Use vivid language
-Be sincere
-Keep in order
-Have a memorable message
-Shift your plot
-Use Abstract and Concrete language
Tone and Figurative Language (S8)—Tone is the sound property
of your speech, which includes the lyrics, rhythm and rhyme,
musical considerations, and the oral figurative language used.
Figurative language is the use of words that represent other
meanings.
Utilitarianism (S20)—A moral principle that whatever does
the most good for the most people justifies harms, lies, or
intimidation.
Values (S20)—What you use to make decisions based on your
background and appreciation of:
-Personal growth.
-Creature comforts.
-For country
-Social gain
-Survival
-Speaker’s personal power and “moral imperative”
Visual aids (S13)—Learn the various visual aids available for
you
Vocal Range Elements (S9):
speaking at different volumes, and try to feel the vibrations.
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-The quality—Try to keep your voice rich and avoid slips in

Vocal warm up (S9)—Take a good, deep breath and then slur
through your vowels one at a time, stretching your lips and mouth
to exaggerate the sounds. Keep running through the vowels, making
the kinds of sounds that you would when the doctor is checking
your tonsils, until you run out of air.
Webbing (PS4)—Using visuals to help organize your thoughts.
Order of Contents:
Introduction
It All Began with Demosthenes
Seven Arts
Positive Speech Conditioning
Delivery Styles
Written vs. Spoken Language
Speech Assignments
Pre-Speech Lesson No. 1: The Group
The Group’s Importance
Critiques
Roles as a Listener
Roles as an Evaluator
Experiential Learning and Processing
Exercise–The Telephone Game
The Group’s Goals
Hidden Agendas
Five Ways to Discourage a Speaker
Open Day Behavioral Terms—Respecting Each Other Using
Self-Created Ground Rules
Pre-Speech Lesson No. 2: The Speaker
Ego-Defense Mechanisms
Exercise–Terror at Ten Thousand Feet
Role-Playing
Problem-Solving
Pre-Speech Lesson No. 3: Types of Speeches
The Six Basic Speech Types
School District Information on Aligning Learning Standards

Pre-Speech Lesson No. 4–Writing Your Speech Using Hands-
On Webbing Techniques
Creating Your Objective for the Speech
Writing Your Speech
Arriving at a Speech Focusing Statement
Process Speech Writing Model
Buddy-Editing
Writing Standards
Developing a Rubric for Assessing Written Speeches
Beginning Speeches
Speech No. 1–The Speech to Introduce
Fight vs. Flight
Psychosomatic Stress
Speech Anxiety
Physical Reactions to Speaking
Survival Tactics
Self-Fulfilling Prophecy
Example Speech—”I’m Chris”
Listening Skills: LARS
Reflecting Messages
Speech No. 2–The Impromptu
Kinesthesis, or Kinesics
Speaking Checklist
Familiar Ground
Example Speech—”Skiing, What Fun!”
Clues
Malapropisms
Speech No. 3–The Speech to Inform (No. 1)
Introduction
Speech Body Styles and Construction
Conclusions and End-Game
Finding and Preparing Data
Final Preparations
Recursive Words and Amphiboles
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Example Speech—”The Jury.”

Speech No. 4—The Speech for a Personal Memory
Communication Skills
Interpersonal Communication
Dressing for the Part
Storytelling Elements (Shifts, Denouements, Abstract and
Concrete Language)
Clichés
Making Your Speech Interesting: Variances and Humor
Audience Participation
Dealing With Distractions
Example Speech—”What History Test?”
Speech No. 5—The Speech to Inflect
Paralinguistics
Dropping Voices and Words
Word Meanings
Speech No. 6–The Speech to Relate Issues
Outlining Skills
Phrase Outline
Signature Outline
The Group’s Needs
Increasing Your Awareness
Example Outline
Speech No. 7—The Speech to Persuade (No. 1)
Elementary Persuasion Techniques
Key Areas of Presentation
Appearing Rational
Self-Control
Speech No. 8–The Speech to Entertain
Tone and Figurative Language
Entertainment Rules of Thumb
Topic Ideas
Dealing With Laughter
Example: Graduation Speech
Intermediate Speeches
Speech No. 9—The Speech to Interpret Literature Orally

The Nervous Voice
Vocal Warm Ups
Vocal Ranges
Making Nervousness Work for You
Last Minute Nerves and Solutions
Active Listening: Hidden Messages
Active Listening Requirements
Example–Waiting On Love
Speech No. 10—The Speech to Discuss
Primary Discussion Steps
Roles of the Discussion Leader
Requirements of the Participants
Group Interaction
Example—How to Adopt a Hallway
Speech No. 11—The Speech Not to Speak
Non-Verbal Communication
Proxemics
Mimed Speech Factors
Classic Mimed Movements
Classic Body Language Movements
Emoting a Story
A Body Language Drill
Speech No. 12—The Speech to Present a Playwright’s
Newscast
Positive Mental Attitudes
Newscasters’ Formats
The “Abominable Words”
Five Communication Myths
Speech No. 13—The Speech to Inform (No. 2) The Lecture/
Demonstration
Various Visual Aids
Answering Questions
Addressing Troublesome Questions
Audio-Visual Impact
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Performance Assessments–Speech Rubric and Simple Paper/

Pen
Rules of Critiquing
Speech No. 14–The “How-To” Speech
Multiple Intelligences and How You Can Use Current Research
to Your Advantage
Survival Grammar for Speeches
Advanced Speeches
Speech No. 15—The Speech to Persuade (No. 2)
How to Size Up an Audience
How to Deal With Conflict
Aristotelian Persuasion Techniques
Fair Warnings
Example Speech—”The Earth Is Flat!”
Assessment Tools
Speech No. 16–The Speech to Confuse
Logic Errors
Confusing Tactics
Acting vs. Public Speaking
Memorization Advice
Exercise: Show and Tell
Example–”Going to the Dogs.”
Subconscious “Leaks”
Speech No. 17–The Speech to Sell
Creating a Need
Selling Yourself
Sales Objectives
Perks
The A-B-C’s of Sales
Speech No. 18–The Chain Speech
Segues
Developing a Character through Plot
Group Cooperation
Speech No. 19–The Speech to Speak Extemporaneously
Extemporaneous Procedures and Tactics
Hints on Delivery
Exercise: The Nonsense Extemporaneous Speech
Nonsense Words
Keeping a Straight Face
Value of Extemporaneous Speaking
Exercise: The Speech Showdown
Speech No. 20–The Speech to Debate Values
Debate Procedures
Value Structures
Affirmative Motives
Debaters’ Qualities
Value Structures and Decision-Making
Persuasive Rhetoric
Example Speech–”Acid Rain vs. the Economy.”
Speech Number 21–Role-Playing: The Fictional Mock Trial
Advanced Role Playing
Rules and Responsibilities of a Generic Fictional Mock Trial
Trial Questions
Post-Speech Lesson
Cross-referenced speech-by-speech listing of the criteria for
developing your own school or district’s Language Arts bench-
marks and standards, along with the Order of Contents.
Appendix
Audience Evaluation Form
Definitions of Terms
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APPENDIX
Evaluation Form for Speaker and Program.
Please complete this form and return it to the speaker–thanks! Please
feel free to add any additional comments on the back of this sheet.
Please circle the word that best describes your reaction:
1) Speaker Preparation. I felt that the speaker was prepared for today’s
presentation.
strongly agree———agree———strongly disagree
comments:
2) Quality of audio/visuals. I felt that the speaker presented a good mix
of quality audio/visuals including handouts, overhead images, and
computer displays.
comments:
3) Usefulness of Information. I feel that this is information that I can
put to use in my life and will help me grow as a professional. I feel
that I had enough background information to appreciate what
was presented here today.
comments:
4) Continuing Information. I would be interested in more speeches
such as this in the future to learn more about topics such as these.
comments:
Definition of Terms Used in the Text
-Adrenal glands—a body located near kidneys, which release
natural chemicals to stimulate the heart and body.
-Adrenaline—a powerful natural heart stimulant.
-Adrenocorticotrophic Hormone (ACTH)–a natural hormone
which stimulates the cortex of your adrenal glands via the
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endocrine system, which in turn produces natural

corticosteroids.
-Alliteration—repetition of initial sounds in words that follow
each other.
-Allusion—to allude to a topic, or to insert a well-known person
or place in your speech.
-Articulation—the physical make up of the voice, or a clear
statement of educational intent.
-Assonance—repetition of vowels, change of consonants in a
sentence.
-Backstep—lowering one’s maturity level in response to a
negative comment.
-Caesura—a strategic pause in a speech.
-Clues—non-verbal messages telling the speaker how well the
speech is progressing.
-Circular language—see “recursive.”
-Conception/Reaction—how you consciously react to a pressure
situation.
-Consonance—repetition of consonants, change of vowels in a
sentence.
-Corticosteroids–natural chemicals in your body that induce a
“fight or flight” reaction during a speech.
-Critique—a formal or informal assessment of a speech.
-Demosthenes—an outstanding Greek orator in 351 BC who
among other things learned proper public speaking
techniques by first speaking with stones in his mouth.
-Denouement—tying up any loose ends at conclusion of
story.
-Escape–to deny reality and ignore valuable comments about
your speech.
-Ethos–the speaker’s belief in the speech, and the culture of your
group.
-Extemporaneous—a brief speech about a given topic with only
30 minutes to prepare.
-Fight vs. flight—The body’s urge to run or fight, rather than
speak.
-Group—the knowledgeable audience.

-Hidden agendas—secret messages under the surface meaning of
a speech or critique.
-Hub–the webbed center of your Speech Focusing Statement.
-Hyperbole—overstatement.
-Hypostructure—making the substructure of speech through a
detailed outline, very popular with policy debaters. This is
also known as a hyperstructure.
-Hypothalamus—the part of the brain that triggers the defense
reaction.
-Idea cards—index cards used to sort topics and information.
-Impromptu-an “off-the-cuff ” speech.
-Interpersonal communication–the term used for human
communications.
-Irony—something that happens that you do not expect in a
speech.
-Kinesthesis—total physical make up of the body.
-LARS—acronym for Lean forward, be Attentive, be Relaxed, Sit
Square.
-Leaks—subconscious slips when under pressure.
-Logos—logical, philosophical reasoning.
-Malapropisms—verbal slips.
-Metaphors—comparisons not using “like” or “as.”
-Mnemonics–mental tricks or devices to aid memory.
-Non sequitur–a logic fallacy meaning that it does not follow.
-Noradrenaline—a powerful natural heart stimulant.
-Onomatopoeia—making words from sounds, such as “boom,”
or “crash.”
-Paralinguistic—the way humans inflect words to produce
certain meanings.
-Parody—exaggerated imitations designed to make a point.
-Pathos–the group’s feelings, or culture towards a topic.
-Personification—giving human characteristics to non-human
characters.
-Phrase outline–an outline that uses full sentences from the text.
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-Projection—placing the blame for a poor speech elsewhere; also

speaking so everyone in the room can hear you.
-Proxemics–the strategic use of physical space.
-Psychosomatic stress–the bodily reaction to speechmaking.
-Punt—to get rid of a part of the speech that through your
observations of the audience is not working well, or to panic.
-Rationalization—explaining away a poor speech.
-Recursive—see “circular language.”
-Reflection—restating the speaker’s message to avoid
misunderstandings.
-Repression—”forgetting” negative comments.
-Rhetoric—the proper use of language.
-Rubric–a written assessment that uses specific criteria to
improve a speaker’s confidence.
-Salutation—an opening greeting to audience.
-Satire–an original sarcastic speech usually based on human
vices.
-Scan—looking over an audience for five seconds before and after
speaking.
-Segue—an immediate transition using various techniques.
-Shifts—transitions in storytelling.
-Signature outline—an outline using only keywords from the text.
-Simile—comparison using “like” or “as.”
-Speech Focusing Statement. The heart of your introduction,
which details the topics you will be covering in order during
your speech.
-Spoonerism—see “Malapropism.”
-Tone—the quality of your vocal sounds in a speech and the
verbal figurative language you use to create an effect.
-Understatement—stating less than reality.
“Wise counsels may accelerate, or mistakes delay it; but

sooner or later, the victory is sure to come.”
-Abraham Lincoln, 1858

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BASIC PUBLIC

This book was printed in the United States of America.

To order additional copies of this book, contact:

Speech No. 9—The Speech to

Reflections on the Author and Basic Public Speaking

Basic Public Speaking is recommended for all readers.

Mr. Parker’s publication, Basic Public Speaking, was a highly

My school, along with countless others uses Basic Public Speak-

There is no better book on the market for everyone who

In addition to coaching world famous speakers, astute de-

Positive Speech ConditioningTM

“I shall speak forth my sentiments freely and without

in the composition of the basic ideas there are many similarities, as

in7-the-blank questions, prescribed writing activities, or multiple

-To lower the speaker’s anxiety by focusing and not providing

Opening Day Behavioral Rules

Group’s Goals A form of assessment to improve speaker’s

hear. These are some of the classic speakers’ ego-defense mecha-

be as expressive as you wish without revealing any of your own

-An airline attendant

why you should get one of the parachutes. There should be

everyone listens to your speech. What are the variables that

content standards within the Language Arts curriculum by most

an audience). Next, you need to be able to decide what you want

The order and logical development of your speech is critical to

Step Two: “Making Sense” Is In the Eye and Mind of the

—A one-way arrow indicates that “A” is either a subset of “B,”

Step Number 4: List which remaining Ideas are directly

The Hub and the three Items.

Step Five: No-Fuss Speech Focusing Statements.

A)Item One _____________________________________

Applications for Other Speech Types.

make speeches, there are precious few professional opportunities

group or a class, be sure to use some of your colleagues as buddy-

issues such as: logical organization, focus of the Speech Focusing

and develop a “1-4” analytic scoring rubric with 4 points being

Speech Evidence: The objective will be evident when the speech

Not at all creative, hard to follow

have an overall numerical performance assessment that you can

-Resultant—a nervous start to your presentation. “I, ah, well,

L-Lean forward in your seat

performance on the first speech, some people take that as a

verbal slip, or an accidentally incorrect word or words. Think of

the Speech Focusing Statement. Whatever you do, do not start

Once you have decided on the logical development of your

meanings, such as defining “oculist” by saying ophthalmologist,

organizational skills, not on delivery! Watch for all of the elements

A word about overshining. There will be times when you are

proper order of events. Nothing sounds worse than someone

- “Easier said than done”

Successful humor is much more than simple slams, insults,

Time Out Skills Review

hypostructure the information. For example, a typical essay outline

8) Quality—quality of voice is gauged by the overall impact that

Be aware of how the whole process works!

persuasive speech work and how the intangibles effect a positive

to create a new truth, much like a paradox or oxymoron. Some

9) Poetry. If you decide to write a poem, you might want to know

-A stand-up comedy routine