Part 1: Intellectual Revolution

The Copernican Revolution: the beginning of the Modern Astronomy

Nicolaus Copernicus – one of the Renaissance men, particularly in the field of science. He
was the son of a successful merchant in central Poland. Copernicus studied to be a
physician, which, at the time included the study of Astronomy because doctors used astrology
to decide on treatments. Copernicus worked as a deacon in the church and spent his time
studying Astronomy.
He is mainly remembered for formally introducing the idea that the Sun is the center of
our solar system. This heliocentric concept (sun-centered concept) was a radical idea for his
time. Nearly all contemporary astronomers had adopted the Greek Earth-centered model. It
was so radical concept, in fact, that Copernicus waited until the year of his death to publish
his famous essay titled, “On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres.”
The Copernican Revolution - the Copernican Revolution was the paradigm shift from the
Ptoalemaic model of the heavens, which described the cosmos as having Earth stationary at
the center of the universe, to the heliocentric model with the Sun at the center of the Solar
System.
Beginning with the publication of Nicolaus Copernicus’s De Revolutionibus Orbium
Coelestium (On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres), contributions to the “revolution”
continued until finally ending with Isaac Newton’s work over a century later.
Taken from the book that started the Scientific Revolution – De Revolutionibus Orbium
Coelestium. Nicolaus Copernicus correctly identified that Terra (the earth) is one of the
planets orbiting Sol (the sun). Only the moon orbits Earth. Copernicus also shows the planets
in the correct order. Compare this with Ptolemy’s system, shown previously, in which Earth is
wrongly shown closer to Mercury than Venus. In Copernicus’s diagram the outer circle
represents the stars. Then moving inward, there’s Saturn, Jupiter, Mars, Earth (with the
moon), Venus, Mercury and Sol.
In the 17th century the work of Kepler, Galileo, and Newton would build on the
heliocentric Universe of Copernicus and produce the revolution that would sweep away
completely the ideas of Aristotle and replace them with the modern view of astronomy and
natural science. This sequence is commonly called the Copernican Revolution.
The Heliocentric Model - In a book called On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Bodies (that
was published as Copernicus lay on his deathbed), Copernicus proposed that the Sun, not
the Earth, was the center of the Solar System. Such a model is called a heliocentric system.
The ordering of the planets known to Copernicus in this new system; in this new ordering the
Earth is just another planet (the third outward from the Sun), and the Moon is in orbit around
the Earth, not the Sun. The stars are distant objects that do not revolve around the Sun.
Instead, the Earth is assumed to rotate once in 24 hours, causing the stars to appear to
revolve around the Earth in the opposite direction.
The Major Features of the Copernican Theory are:
• Heavenly motion are uniform, eternal, and circular or compounds of several
circles (epicycles).
• The center of the universe is near the Sun.
• Around the Sun, in order are : Mercury, Venus, Earth and Moon, Mars, Jupiter,
Saturn, and the fixed stars.
• The Earth has three motions: daily rotation, annual revolution, and annual tilting
of its axis.
• Retrograde motion of the planets is explained by the Earth's motion.
 • The distance from the Earth to the Sun is small compared to the distance to the
stars.

• Tycho Brahe (1546-1601) was a Danish nobleman and astronomer, and he was one
of the individuals whose work helped overturn that belief in favor of a heliocentric
model of the universe, with the sun at the center. He was the one who observed the
planetary motion and the super Nova. He also made careful observation of comets in
1557.
• He made the best measurement of the stellar parallax. Stellar parallax is the
apparent shift of position of any nearby star (or other object) against the
background of distant objects. Once a star's parallax is known, its distance from
Earth can be computed trigonometrically. But the more distant an object is, the
smaller its parallax.
• The Tychonic System - is a model of the Solar System published by Tycho Brahe in
the late 16th century, which combines what he saw as the mathematical benefits of the
Copernican system with the philosophical and "physical" benefits of the Ptolemaic
Johannes Kepler (1571-1630) - a Lutheran mathematics professor in Austria and
astrologer. Kepler could be considered a neo-Platonist as well. Kepler joined Tycho a year
before Tycho’s death (1600). Assuming Tycho’s position, Kepler inherited the records of
Tycho’s observations. From this Kepler knew that planets did not travel on circles and
devised a new way to sought to prove Copernican model correct. He saw Copernican
model as representing God in the center of the universe with His creation surrounding
Him.

Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) - The father of Physics. First person to point a telescope at
the night sky. In 1610 he wrote The Starry Messenger in which he published his
observations and he supported the heliocentric model.
And through his own telescope he saw mountains on moon which has crates
and mountains, sunspots on Sun that later made him blind.
On January 7-15, 1610, he saw the moons of Jupiter which do not revolve
around the Earth or the Sun, they form a miniature solar system of their own; and he also
realized that Venus had phases which meant that it orbited the Sun. All of these data
were used as evidence for the Copernican Model.
Isaac Newton (1642-1727) – he formulated the three (3) laws of motion and the idea of
gravity.
Claudius Ptolemy’s Universe: Earth is placed at the center. The sun is one of the bodies
orbiting Earth. Ptolemy placed Earth in a privileged location, at the center of the universe. He
would also have placed the Mediterranean Sea in a privileged location, at the center of the
world. Mediterranean means middle of the land in Latin. The Greeks called it Mesogeios,
meaning the same.

DARWINIAN INTELLECTUAL THEORY

CHARLES ROBERT DARWIN - was an English naturalist, geologist and biologist, best
known for his contributions to the science of evolution.
• His proposition that all species of life have descended over time from common
ancestors is now widely accepted, and considered a foundational concept in science.
 • Darwin published his theory of evolution with compelling evidence in his 1859 book On
the Origin of Species, overcoming scientific rejection of earlier concepts
of transmutation of species.
• He changed our concept of the world’s creation and its evolution.
• Darwin published his book The Origin of Species in 1589. This book is considered to
be one of the most important work in scientific literature.
• His book presented evidence on how species evolved over time and presented traits
and adaptation that differentiate species.
• The Descent of Man was both an impressive and controversial book for he introduced
the idea of all organic life, including human beings, under the realm of evolutionary
thinking.
• Darwin’s accomplishments were so diverse that it is useful to distinguish two fields to
which he made major contributions: evolutionary biology and philosophy of science.
• His unorthodox way of pursuing science gave more value to evidence-based science.
He provided a different framework for doing scientific activities. It is a science marked
by observation and experiment.
• Darwinians are the people who advocates the theory of Charles Darwin
• Something that relates to the scientist Charles Darwin or his “Survival of the Fittest”
The Theory of Evolution.
• A naturalist who studies evolution and natural selection – scientific theories that were
first develop in the 1800’s by Charles Darwin – might call herself a DARWINIAN.
• The work and writing of Darwin himself are also called Darwinian, particularly
evolution. Likewise, anything that resembles the process of natural selection or
“Survival of the Fittest” itself, like a competition in which only the strongest athletes
make it to the finish line, is commonly describe as Darwinian.
• Darwinism - is a theory of biological evolution developed by the English
naturalist Charles Darwin (1809–1882) and others, stating that all species of organisms
arise and develop through the natural selection of small, inherited variations that
increase the individual's ability to compete, survive, and reproduce.
o It originally included the broad concepts of transmutation of species or of
evolution which gained general scientific acceptance after Darwin published On
the Origin of Species in 1859, including concepts which predated Darwin's
theories.
o Darwinism has remained in use amongst the public when referring to modern
evolutionary theory, it has increasingly been argued by science writers such
as Olivia Judson and Eugenie Scott that it is an inappropriate term for modern
evolutionary theory.
Summary:
Theory of Evolution: Darwinian’s Theory of evolution declared that species survived
through a process called’ “Natural Selection” and later on become known as“Darwinism.”
Origin of Species
• In 1858, after years of scientific investigation. Darwin introduces his evolutionary theory
of evolution in a letter read at a meeting of the “Linnean Society.” And on November
24, 1859, this is where his theory, on the Origin of Species by means of“Natural
Selection” was published.

FREUDIAN REVOLUTION
 ☞ Sigmund Freud - Freud was born to Galician Jewish parents in the Moravian town
of Freiberg, in the Austrian Empire. He qualified as a doctor of medicine in 1881 at
the University of Vienna.
• father of psychoanalysis, a method for treating mental illness and also a theory
which explains human behavior.
• Freud believed that events in our childhood have a great influence on our adult
lives, shaping our personality. For example, anxiety originating from traumatic
experiences in a person's past is hidden from consciousness, and may cause
problems during adulthood (in the form of neuroses).
• Freud believed that mental illness is a result of nurture, not nature. He
oftentimes asked the question: “Why people do things?”
• Freud (1900, 1905) developed a topographical model of the mind, whereby he
described the features of the mind’s structure and function. Freud used the
analogy of an iceberg to describe the three levels of the mind.

Freud's Three Levels of Mind

1. Preconscious Mind -  consists of anything that could potentially be brought into the
conscious mind.

• the preconscious contains thoughts and feelings that a person is not currently
aware of, but which can easily be brought to consciousness (1924). It exists just
below the level of consciousness, before the unconscious mind. The
preconscious is like a mental waiting room, in which thoughts remain until they
'succeed in attracting the eye of the conscious' (Freud, 1924, p. 306).
• This is what we mean in our everyday usage of the word available memory. For
example, you are presently not thinking about your mobile telephone number,
but now it is mentioned you can recall it with ease.
• Mild emotional experiences may be in the preconscious but sometimes
traumatic and powerful negative emotions are repressed and hence not
available in the preconscious.

2. Conscious mind contains all of the thoughts, memories, feelings, and wishes of which we
are aware at any given moment. This is the aspect of our mental processing that we can think and talk
about rationally. This also includes our memory, which is not always part of consciousness but can be
retrieved easily and brought into awareness.

• Conscious mind, which consists of all the mental processes of which we are aware, and
this is seen as the tip of the iceberg. For example, you may be feeling thirsty at this
moment and decide to get a drink.

3. Unconscious mind is a reservoir of feelings, thoughts, urges, and memories that are
outside of our conscious awareness. The unconscious contains contents that are unacceptable or
unpleasant, such as feelings of pain, anxiety, or conflict.

• the unconscious mind comprises mental processes that are inaccessible to

consciousness but that influence judgements, feelings, or behavior.
• is the primary source of human behavior. Like an iceberg, the most important part of the
mind is the part you cannot see.
• Our feelings, motives and decisions are actually powerfully influenced by our past
experiences, and stored in the unconscious.
• While we are fully aware of what is going on in the conscious mind, we have no idea of
what information is stored in the unconscious mind.
 • The unconscious contains all sorts of significant and disturbing material which we need
to keep out of awareness because they are too threatening to acknowledge fully.
• The unconscious mind acts as a repository, a ‘cauldron’ of primitive wishes and impulse
kept at bay and mediated by the preconscious area. For example, Freud (1915) found
that some events and desires were often too frightening or painful for his patients to
acknowledge, and believed such information was locked away in the unconscious mind.
This can happen through the process of repression.
• The unconscious mind contains our biologically based instincts (eros and thanatos) for
the primitive urges for sex and aggression (Freud, 1915). Freud argued that our
primitive urges often do not reach consciousness because they are unacceptable to our
rational, conscious selves. People has developed a range of defense
mechanisms (such as repression) to avoid knowing what their unconscious motives and
feelings are.
• Freud (1915) emphasized the importance of the unconscious mind, and a primary
assumption of Freudian theory is that the unconscious mind governs behavior to a
greater degree than people suspect. Indeed, the goal of psychoanalysis is to reveal the
use of such defense mechanisms and thus make the unconscious conscious.
• Freud believed that the influences of the unconscious reveal themselves in a variety of
ways, including dreams, and in slips of the tongue, now popularly known as 'Freudian
slips'. Freud (1920) gave an example of such a slip when a British Member of
Parliament referred to a colleague with whom he was irritated as 'the honorable
member from Hell' instead of from Hull.
• Freud's personality theory (1923) saw the psyche structured into three parts (i.e.,
tripartite), the id, ego and superego, all developing at different stages in our lives.
These are systems, not parts of the brain, or in any way physical.

Three Fundamental Structures of the Human Mind/ The Three Parts of Personality

1. Id - the id, the most primitive of the three structures, is concerned with instant
gratification of basic physical needs and urges. It operates entirely unconsciously
(outside of conscious thought). For example, if your id walked past a stranger eating
ice cream, it would most likely take the ice cream for itself. It doesn’t know, or care, that
it is rude to take something belonging to someone else; it would care only that you
wanted the ice cream.

2. Superego - the superego is concerned with social rules and morals—similar to what

many people call their ” conscience ” or their “moral compass.” It develops as a child
learns what their culture considers right and wrong. If your superego walked past the
same stranger, it would not take their ice cream because it would know that that would
be rude. However, if both your id and your superego were involved, and your id was
strong enough to override your superego’s concern, you would still take the ice cream,
but afterward you would most likely feel guilt and shame over your actions.

3. Ego - in contrast to the instinctual id and the moral superego, the ego is the rational,
pragmatic part of our personality. It is less primitive than the id and is partly conscious
and partly unconscious. It’s what Freud considered to be the “self,” and its job is to
balance the demands of the id and superego in the practical context of reality. So, if
you walked past the stranger with ice cream one more time, your ego would mediate
the conflict between your id (“I want that ice cream right now”) and superego (“It’s
wrong to take someone else’s ice cream”) and decide to go buy your own ice cream.
While this may mean you have to wait 10 more minutes, which would frustrate your id,
 your ego decides to make that sacrifice as part of the compromise– satisfying your
desire for ice cream while also avoiding an unpleasant social situation and potential
feelings of shame.

Psychosexual Stages of Development

Freud believed that the nature of the conflicts among the id, ego, and superego change over
time as a person grows from child to adult. Specifically, he maintained that these conflicts progress
through a series of five basic stages, each with a different focus: oral, anal, phallic, latency, and
genital. He called his idea the psychosexual theory of development, with each psychosexual stage
directly related to a different physical center of pleasure.

Across these five stages, the child is presented with different conflicts between their biological
drives (id) and their social and moral conscience (supereg0) because their biological pleasure-seeking
urges focus on different areas of the body (what Freud called “erogenous zones”). The child’s ability to
resolve these internal conflicts determines their future ability to cope and function as an adult. Failure
to resolve a stage can lead one to become fixated in that stage, leading to unhealthy personality traits;
successful resolution of the stages leads to a healthy adult.

● Oral (0 – 1.5 years of age): Fixation on all things oral. If not satisfactorily met there is the
likelihood of developing negative oral habits or behaviors. Erogenous Zone: Mouth
 This stage occurs from birth to around the age of one year. In this stage, a child tries
to gratify his libidinal energy through his/her mouth by sucking, biting, chewing, etc.

Oral fixation has two possible outcomes. According to Freud, if a person is

dissatisfied at this stage, he/she is characterized by pessimism, suspicion, and sarcasm
and grows into an adult who reduces tension or anxiety through chewing gum or the ends
of pens and pencil.
The primary conflict at this stage is the weaning process--the child must become less
dependent upon caretakers. If fixation occurs at this stage, Freud believed the individual
would have issues with dependency or aggression. Oral fixation can result in problems with
drinking, eating, smoking, or nail biting.

Such a person is said have an oral receptive personality. On the other hand, an
overindulged person is known to have an oral aggressive personality, which is
characterized by optimism, gullibility, hostility, etc. A normal person, with an oral passive
personality is characterized by indulging in smoking, kissing, eating, oral sexual pleasures,
etc.

● Anal (1.5 to 3 years of age): As indicated this stage is primarily related to developing

healthy toilet training habits. Erogenous Zone: Bowel and Bladder Control

During the anal stage, Freud believed that the primary focus of the libido was on
controlling bladder and bowel movements. The major conflict at this stage is toilet
training--the child has to learn to control his or her bodily needs. Developing this control
leads to a sense of accomplishment and independence.

According to Freud, inappropriate parental responses can result in negative

outcomes. If parents take an approach that is too lenient, Freud suggested that an
anal-expulsive personality could develop in which the individual has a messy, wasteful, or
destructive personality. If parents are too strict or begin toilet training too early, Freud
believed that an anal-retentive personality develops in which the individual is stringent,
orderly, rigid, and obsessive.

The first can be a person with an oral retentive personality, which is characterized
by stinginess, excessive tidiness, perfectionism, and stubbornness. The other possible
outcome is an anal expulsive personality, which is defined by a lack of self control,
carelessness, and messy behavior.
However, not all parents provide the support and encouragement that children need
during this stage. Some parents instead punish, ridicule or shame a child for accidents.

● Phallic (3 – 5 year of age): The development of healthy substitutes for the sexual
attraction boys and girls have toward a parent of the opposite gender. Erogenous Zone:
Genitals

Freud suggested that during the phallic stage, the primary focus of the libido is on
the genitals. At this age, children also begin to discover the differences between males and
females.​
 Freud also believed that boys begin to view their fathers as a rival for the mother’s
affections. The Oedipus complex describes these feelings of wanting to possess the
mother and the desire to replace the father. However, the child also fears that he will be
punished by the father for these feelings, a fear Freud termed castration anxiety.
The term Electra complex has been used to described a similar set of feelings
experienced by young girls. Freud, however, believed that girls instead experience penis
envy.

Eventually, the child begins to identify with the same-sex parent as a means of
vicariously possessing the other parent. For girls, however, Freud believed that penis envy
was never fully resolved and that all women remain somewhat fixated on this stage.
Psychologists such as Karen Horney disputed this theory, calling it both inaccurate and
demeaning to women. Instead, Horney proposed that men experience feelings of inferiority
because they cannot give birth to children, a concept she referred to as womb envy.

● Latency (5 – 12 years of age): The development of healthy dormant sexual feelings for the
opposite sex. Erogenous Zone: Sexual Feelings

During this stage, the superego continues to develop while the id's energies are
suppressed. Children develop social skills, values and relationships with peers and adults
outside of the family.
The development of the ego and superego contribute to this period of calm. The
stage begins around the time that children enter into school and become more concerned
with peer relationships, hobbies, and other interests.
The latent period is a time of exploration in which the sexual energy repressed or
dormant. This energy is still present, but it is sublimated into other areas such as
intellectual pursuits and social interactions. This stage is important in the development of
social and communication skills and self-confidence.

As with the other psychosexual stages, Freud believed that it was possible for
children to become fixated or "stuck" in this phase. Fixation at this stage can result in
immaturity and an inability to form fulfilling relationships as an adult.

Much of the child's energy is channeled into developing new skills and acquiring
new knowledge, and play becomes largely confined to other children of the same gender.

● Genital (12 – adulthood): All tasks from the previous four stages are integrated into the
mind allowing for the onset of healthy sexual feelings and behaviors. Erogenous Zone:
Maturing Sexual Interest

The onset of puberty causes the libido to become active once again. During the final
stage of psychosexual development, the individual develops a strong sexual interest in the
opposite sex. This stage begins during puberty but last throughout the rest of a person's
life.
Where in earlier stages the focus was solely on individual needs, interest in the welfare of
others grows during this stage. If the other stages have been completed successfully, the
individual should now be well-balanced, warm, and caring. The goal of this stage is to
establish a balance between the various life areas.

Unlike the many of the earlier stages of development, Freud believed that the ego
and superego were fully formed and functioning at this point. Younger children are ruled by
the id, which demands immediate satisfaction of the most basic needs and wants. Teens in
the genital stage of development are able to balance their most basic urges against the
need to conform to the demands of reality and social norms.
Children with more resolved psychosexual development have greater capacity to
develop normal relationships with opposite sex, whereas a fixation at this stage results into
the child being frigid and impotent in later life, while also having unsatisfactory
interpersonal relationships.

INFORMATION REVOLUTION
• Science and Technology is the pivot of any nation’s development.
• A nation without S&T is definitely a backward nation. Such nation will be considered
undeveloped.
• S&T is associated with modernity and it is an essential tool for rapid development.
Modern gadgets in all aspects of human comfort are inventions of S&T. Such as
electricity, aircraft, telephone, television, computers and other forms of machinery and
production of medicine and treatment of diseases.
• Has played an important and vital role, in the development of this great nation and the
wide-world.
• Computer was one of the greatest invention that makes the world interconnected.
• The exploration/ adaptation in computer technology makes the era as computer
revolution.
● This age began around 1820’s and is still going on today. It is also known as the
COMPUTER AGE, DIGITAL AGE or NEW MEDIA AGE. This era brought about a time
period in which people could access information and knowledge easily.
INFLUENCES OF THE PAST ON THE INFORMATION REVOLUTION
• The Renaissance influenced the Information Age by creating the idea inventions,
while too advanced for the time, the idea was used to develop modern inventions. The
Scientific Revolution changed the modern era by introducing important scientists as
Galileo, Copernicus and Isaac Newton. Their discoveries paved the way for modern
tools, inventions, and innovations. The Industrial Revolution brought about major
changes in agriculture, manufacturing, mining, transportation and technology. This era
had a profound effect on the social, economic, and cultural conditions of the world.
CLAUDE E. SHANNON - “ FATHER OF INFORMATION REVOLUTION”
• BORN: April 30, 1916 at Petoskey, Michigan
• DIED: February 24, 2001, aged 84 at Medford Massachusetts
• NOTABLE WORK:
• INFORMATION THEORY, is a branch of applied mathematics, electrical
engineering, bioinformatics, and computer science involving the quantification of
information. The theory was developed to find fundamental limits on signal
processing operations such as compressing data and on reliably storing and
communicating data. Also it is a way to measure ‘the amount of information’ in
 a message without defining the word ‘information’ itself, nor even addressing the
question of the meaning of the message.
DISCOVERIES & INVENTIONS
1. Charles Babbage – the father of Computer. He was a mathematician, a philosopher,
inventor and a mechanical engineer.

2. World Wide Web - The WORL WIDE WEB (WWW) is a combination of all resources
and users on the internet that are using the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP, was
developed specifically for the World Wide Web and favored for its simplicity and
speed).

Tim Berners-Lee is the inventor of the Web. The World Wide Web has been
widely available since 1991.

According to Web Consortium (W3C): “The World Wide Web is the universe of
network-accessible information, an embodiment of human knowledge.”

3. William Henry “Bill” Gates III – the Father of Microsoft; was born on October 28,
1955. He is an American business magnate, philanthropist, investor and a computer
programmer. He is the former chief executive and chairperson of Microsoft.
Microsoft is a U.S.-based technology company. It was founded by Bill Gates
and Paul Allen in 1975 and quickly grew to become the largest software company in
the world. Today, Microsoft is still widely known for its software, but the company also
develops hardware and provides number of cloud services.

4. Steve Jobs (1955-2011) – the inventor of Apple computer. Steve Jobs co-founded
Apple Computers with Steve Wozniak. Under Job’s guidance, the company pioneered
a series of revolutionary technologies, including the iPhone and iPad.
The iPhone is a smartphone made by Apple Company that combines a
computer, iPod, digital camera and cellular phone into one devices with a touchscreen
interface. Former apple CEO Steven Jobs introduced the iPhone to the public on
January 9 2007 at the macworld 2007 conference in San Francisco. It went on sale
June 29 of that year.

5. Michael Dell – founded the Dell, Inc. the most profitable company in the computer
industry.
• Computers: 1950s – 1970s; mainframe computer (business and colleges)
1980s and 1990s; home computer
2000s to present – wireless computer

6. Alexander Graham Bell – in 1876 Bell invented the telephone. The telegraph had
been a highly successful communication system for about 30 years before Bell began
experimenting. The main problem with the telegraph was that it used Morse code, and
was limited to sending and receiving one message at a time. Bell had a good
understanding about the nature of sound and music. This enabled him to perceive the
possibility of transmitting more than one message along the same wire at one time.
Bell's idea was not new, others before him had envisaged a multiple telegraph. Bell
offered his own solution, the "Harmonic Telegraph or the Telephone". This was based
 on the principal that musical notes could be sent simultaneously down the same wire, if
those notes differed in pitch.

1980's, 1990's, to present - Huge advances in micro electronic technology over

the last two decades have enabled the development of cellular (mobile) phones to
advance at a truly astonishing rate. A cellular (mobile) phone has its own central
transmitter allowing it to receive seamless transmissions as it enters and exits a cell.

According to Bell's notebook entry for that date, he describes his most
successful experiment using his new piece of equipment, the telephone.

7. Typewriter - typewriter is a mechanical or electro mechanical machine for writing

characters similar to those produced by printer’s movable type. Typically, a typewriter
has an array of keys, and pressing one causes a different single character to e
produced on the paper, by causing a ribbon with died ink to be struck against the paper
by a type element similar to the sorts used in movable type letterpress printing.

8. Telegraphy - developed in the 1830s and 1840s by Samuel Morse (1791-1872) and
other inventors, the telegraph revolutionized long-distance communication. It worked
by transmitting electrical signals over a wire laid between stations. In addition to
helping invent the telegraph, Samuel Morse developed a code (bearing his name) that
assigned a set of dots and dashes to each letter of the English alphabet and allowed
for the simple transmission of complex messages across telegraph lines. In 1844,
Morse sent his first telegraph message, from Washington, D.C., to Baltimore,
Maryland; by 1866, a telegraph line had been laid across the Atlantic Ocean from the
U.S. to Europe.
One of the most important code systems invented is the internationally-recognized
Morse code, which matches dots and dashes to letters of the alphabet.
Although Samuel F. B. Morse had patented the telegraph in 1837, it was not until 1844
that the government allocated the money to develop this revolutionary form of communication.
After the telegraph system was set up, messages that had taken days or even weeks to deliver
were now completed in a matter of minutes! Messages were sent through wires by tapping on
keys, but people will find it easier to distinguish dots and dashes by using flashlight signals.
9. Transatlantic Cable - the original transatlantic cable was a relatively simple telegraph
cable, but laying it across the ocean floor was an immense undertaking. In 1854,
entrepreneur Cyrus Field secured a charter for the earliest transatlantic cable. Laying it
took four attempts and the help of the U.S. and British navies; efforts lasted between
1857 and 1858, but the cable failed in just a few months. This was a setback, but the
seed of the idea changed the course of history.

10. Wireless Telegraphy - wireless telegraphy came to means by Morse Code transmitted
by radio waves. Initially called “Hertzian waves” discovered by Heinrich Hertz in 1886.
The first practical wireless telegraphy transmitters and receivers were develop by
Guglielmo Marconi beginning in 1895. Wireless telegraphy was first used by British
army and navy in the bar war. Wireless telegraphy continued to be used point to point
business, governmental and military communication such as telegrams and diplomatic
communications and envolved into radioteletype networks.
11. The Computer - the ENIAC was invented by J. Presper Eckert and John Mauchly at
the University of Pennsylvania and began construction in 1943 and was not completed
until 1946. It occupied about 1,800 square feet and used about 18,000 vacuum tubes,
weighing almost 50 tons. A computer is an electronic device that manipulates
information, or data. It has the ability to store, retrieve, and process data. You may
already know that you can use a computer to type documents, send email, play
games, and browse the Web.

12. The Personal Computer - PC is short-term for personal computer or IBM PC. The
first personal computer produced by IBM was called the PC, and increasingly the term
PC came to mean IBM or IBM-compatible personal computers. In 1975, Ed Roberts
coined the term "personal computer" when he introduced the Altair 8800. Although the
first personal computer is considered by many to be the KENBAK-1, which was first
introduced for $750 in 1971.

13. Magnetic Tape Recording - magnetic tape is a medium for magnetic recording, made
of a thin, magnetizable coating on a long, narrow strip of plastic film. It was developed
in Germany in 1928, based on magnetic wire recording. Devices that record and play
back audio and video using magnetic tape are tape recorders and video tape recorders
respectively. A device that stores computer data on magnetic tape is known as a tape
drive.

14. The First Photography Camera Obscura - the First Photograph, or more specifically,
the earliest known surviving photograph made in a camera, was taken by Joseph
Nicéphore Niépce in 1826 or 1827. The image depicts the view from an upstairs
window at Niépce's estate, Le Gras, in the Burgundy region of France. He snapped the
shot with a camera obscura by focusing it onto a pewter plate, with the whole process
taking him about eight hours.

15. The Internet - the Internet (contraction of interconnected network) is the global system

of interconnected computer networks that use the Internet protocol suite (TCP/IP) to
link devices worldwide. It is a network of networks that consists of private, public,
academic, business, and government networks of local to global scope, linked by a
broad array of electronic, wireless, and optical networking technologies. The Internet
carries a vast range of information resources and services, such as the
inter-linked hypertext documents and applications of the World Wide
Web(WWW), electronic mail, telephony, and file sharing. The origins of the Internet
date back to research commissioned by the federal government of the United States in
the 1960s to build robust, fault-tolerant communication with computer networks.

16. Mobile Phones - a mobile phone, cell phone, cellphone, or hand phone, sometimes

shortened to simply mobile, cell or just phone, is a portable telephone that can make
and receive calls over a radio frequency link while the user is moving within a
telephone service area. The radio frequency link establishes a connection to the
switching systems of a mobile phone operator, which provides access to the public
switched telephone network (PSTN). Modern mobile telephone services use a cellular
network architecture, and, therefore, mobile telephones are called cellular
telephones or cell phones, in North America. In addition to telephony, mobile phones
support a variety of other services, such as text messaging, MMS, email, Internet
access, short-range wireless communications (infrared, Bluetooth), business
applications, video games, and digital photography. Mobile phones offering only those
capabilities are known as feature phones; mobile phones which offer greatly advanced
computing capabilities are referred to as smartphones.

The first handheld mobile phone was demonstrated by John F.

Mitchell and Martin Cooper of Motorola in 1973, using a handset weighing c.
2 kilograms (4.4 lbs.). In 1979, Nippon Telegraph and Telephone (NTT) launched the
world's first cellular network in Japan. In 1983, the DYnaTAC was the first commercially
available handheld mobile phone. From 1983 to 2014, worldwide mobile phone
subscriptions grew to over seven billion—enough to provide one for every person on
Earth.