Communication Processes, Principles, and

Ethics
Aristotle’s Communication Model
Aristotle, a great philosopher initiative the earliest mass communication model called
“Aristotle’s Model of Communication”. He proposed a model before 300 B.C who
found the importance of the audience role in the communication chain in his
communication model. This model is more focused on public speaking than
interpersonal communication.

Aristotle Model of Communication is formed with 5 basic elements

(i) Speaker, (ii) Speech, (iii) Occasion, (iv) Audience and (v) Effect.

Aristotle advises speakers to build speech for different audiences at a different time
(occasion) and for different effects.

Note that the speaker variable here is very important. Without the speaker, there will
be no speech to be produced. Depending on the profile of the speaker adjusts his or
her speech. Some considerations for the audience demographics are age, sex,
background, culture, race, religion, gender, social and economic status, and political
orientation or inclination, among others. Even beliefs, views, and attitudes also play
an important role when talking about audience consideration since oftentimes, the
audience brings these with them when they decode the message in any given
situation.
Lasswell’s Communication Model
In 1948, Harold Dwight Lasswell describes communication as being focused on the
following W’s: who says what in which channel to home and with what effect as seen
in the model below:

The whole process of communication begins with the communicator ( who ) sending
out the message ( what ) using a medium( in which channel ) for a receiver ( to
whom) experiencing an effect afterward. The process may be analyzed through the
content sent, the medium used, as well as the effect on the rose plant of the message.

While this model is similar to Aristotle’s in the sense that both are linear and have the
same components, Laswell also differs in that there are five variables involved with
the addition of two: medium and effect.

Shannom-Weaver Communication Model

Claude Elwood Shannon and Warren Weaver’s model of communication was
introduced in 1949, a year after Laswell’s for Bell Laboratories.

This model is specially designed to develop effective communication between the

sender and the receiver. Also, they find factors which affecting the communication
process called “Noise”. At first, the model was developed to improve the Technical
communication. Later it’s widely applied in the field of Communication.
The model deals with various concepts like Information source, transmitter, Noise,
channel, message, receiver, channel, information destination, encode, and decode.

BERLO’S COMMUNICATION MODEL

David Kenneth Berlo (1929 — February 23, 1996) was an American communications
theorist. He taught at Michigan State University and later served as president of
Illinois State University. He proposed the:

Berlo’s SMCR Model of Communication represents the process of communication in

its simplest form. The acronym SMCR stands for Sender, Message, Channel, and
Receiver. Berlo’s SMCR Model of Communication describes the different
components that form the basic process of communication. Because this
communication tool also emphasise the coding and decoding of the message, it can be
used for more efficient communication. (Janse, 2019)

Berlo’s model follows the SMCR model. This model is not specific to any particular
communication. Berlo’s model includes a number of factors under each of the
elements:

SOURCE: The source is situated where the message originates.

Communication skills — It is the skill of the individual to communicate. For
example, the ability to read, write, speak, listen, etc.

Attitudes — This includes attitudes towards the audience, subject, and towards
oneself. For example, for the student, the attitude is to learn more and for teachers, it
is to help teach.

Knowledge– Communicating also means that the person needs to be knowledgeable

about the subject or topic. For e.g. a teacher needs to know about the subject in detail
that he or she teaches so that they can communicate properly such that the students
understand here.

Note: It refers, not to the general knowledge, but to the knowledge of the subject that
the person is communicating and their familiarity with it.

Social system — The social system includes the various aspects of society like
values, beliefs, culture, religion, and a general understanding of society. It is where
the communication takes place.

For example, classrooms differ from country to country just like people’s behaviors
and how they communicate, etc.

Note: We can communicate only to the extent that the social system allows. When we
communicate, we take the social system into account.

Culture– The culture of a particular society also comes under the social system.

According to this model, people can communicate only if the above requirements are
met in the proper or adequate proportion.

Encoder– The sender of the message, from where the message originates, is referred
to as the encoder. So the source encodes the message here.

MESSAGE

Content — The body of a message, from the beginning to the end, comprises its
content. For example, whatever the class teacher teaches in the class, from beginning
to end, is the content of the message.
Elements — It includes various things like language, gestures, body language, etc.
They constitute all the elements of a particular message. Any content is accompanied
by some elements.

Treatment — It refers to the packing of the message and the way in which the
message is conveyed or the way in which it is passed on or delivered.

Note: When there is too much treatment, communication will not go smoothly.

Structure– The structure of the message refers to how it is arranged; the way people
structure the message into various parts.

Note: The message is the same, but if the structure is not properly arranged then the
receiver will not understand the message.

Code– The code of the message refers to the means through which it is sent and in
what form. It could be, for example, language, body language, gestures, music, etc.
Even culture is a code. Through this, people give and receive messages and
communication takes place.

Note: Only when the code is clear, the message will be clear. The wrong usage may
lead to misinterpretation.

Channel– It refers to the five sense organs. The following are the five senses:

§ Hearing, Seeing, Touching, Smelling, and Tasting.

COMMUNICATION OCCURS THROUGH ONE OR MORE OF THESE

CHANNELS.

Hearing: The use of ears to receive the message. For example, orally transmitted
messages, interpersonal communication, etc.

Seeing: Visual channels, for example, Watching television so the message is

conveyed through the scene/film.

Touching: The sense of touch can be used as a channel to communicate. For example,
we touch, buy food, hugging our loved ones, etc.
Smelling: Smell also can be a channel to communicate. For example, perfumes, food,
fragrances, etc. Charred smell communicates something is burning. People can
deduct which food is being cooked by its smell etc.

Tasting: The tongue is a muscular organ used in the act of eating and tasting food.
For example, while food is being shared, communication can happen regarding its
taste.

Note: Despite not mentioning a medium, we need to assume that as communication is

taking place, channels can be any of the 5 senses or combination.

Decoder– The person who receives the message and decodes it is referred to a
decoder.

Receiver– The receiver needs to think about all the contents and elements of the
source, so as to communicate/responds to the sender effectively.;

Berlo’s model believes that for effective communication to take place, the source and
the receiver need to be on the same level. Only then communication will happen or
take place properly. Hence, the source and the receiver should be similar.

For example, if the communication skill of the source is good, then the receiver
should have equally good listening skills.

It cannot be said that the receiver does not receive the whole message because even
though he may receive it, but may not be able to interpret its meaning. For effective
communication, the source and the receiver need to be on the same level.

Note: Self-image differs from person to person. For communication, the person
should consider the receiver, speak accordingly, and give them what they need.

CRITICISM OF BERLO’S SMCR MODEL OF COMMUNICATION:

1. There is a lack of feedback. The effects are practically unknown.

2. It does not mention the barriers to communication.

3. There is no room for noise.

4. It is a rather complex model.

5. It is a linear model of communication.

6. It requires people to be on the same level for effective communication to happen.

However, that rarely happens in everyday life.

7. The main drawback of the model is that it omits the usage of sixth sense as a
channel of communication, which is an asset to human beings (thinking,
understanding, analyzing, etc.)

GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

Since communication is a two — way process, it is important that you know the
principles to be observed to make it effective. For both oral and written
communication, you should be able to apply the following principles:

1. Know your purpose in communicating.

2. Know your audience.

3. Know your topic.

4. Adjust your speech or writing to the context of the situation.

5. Work on the feedback given to you.

PRINCIPLES OF EFFECTIVE ORAL COMMUNICATION

1. Be clear about your purpose. You should know by heart your objective in
communicating.

2. Be complete with the message you deliver. Make sure that your claims are
supported by facts and essential information.

3. Be concise. You do not need to be verbose or were they with your statements.
Brevity in speech is a must.

4. Be natural with your delivery. Punctuate important words with appropriate gestures
and movements. Exude a certain degree of confidence if you do not feel confident
enough.
5. Be specific and timely with your feedback. Inputs are most helpful when provided
on time.

7 C’S PRINCIPLE OF EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

1. Be clear

2. Be concise

3. Be concrete

4. Be correct

5. Be coherent

6. Be complete

7. Be courteous

ETHICS OF COMMUNICATION

Be guided by the following to achieve ethical communication:

1. Establish an effective value system that will pave the way for the development of
your integrity as a person. One’s behavior and decision- making style affect the intern
in the operations of an organization.

2. Provide complete and accurate information. Whether it is needed or not the data
should always be contextualized correctly.

3. Disclose vital information adequately and appropriately. Never conceal or hide

information that is necessary for purposes of transparency.
 Communication & Globalization

Globalization is
likened to the
road. The world
was used to be
thought of as vast,
unchartered,
distant, mysterious,
unfathomable, and
staggering and no
person had the
slightest inkling
how he or she
could fathom it.
Today globalization
has changed the
way
people see the
world. It has
become a road
people can tread to
discover many
possibilities
although for some
this unknown road
can paint terror and
fear.
Globalization is
likened to the
road. The world
was used to be
thought of as vast,
unchartered,
distant, mysterious,
unfathomable, and
staggering and no
person had the
slightest inkling
how he or she
could fathom it.
Today globalization
has changed the
way
people see the
world. It has
become a road
people can tread to
discover many
possibilities
although for some
this unknown road
can paint terror and
fear. Globalization is likened to the road. The world was used to be thought of as
vast, unchartered, distant, mysterious, unfathomable, and staggering and no person
had the slightest inkling how he or she could fathom it. Today globalization has
changed the way people see the world. It has become a road people can tread to
discover many possibilities although for some this unknown road can paint terror and
fear.

As the human spirit in the past struggled to soar higher by probing unknown
territories, climbing these highest peaks, and braving seemingly insurmountable
storms, the warrior in every man and woman championed not only the feet and hands
but also the mind and heart. Yes, globalization has finally been realized.

The term ‘globalization’ is widely used to define a spectrum of scientific,

economic, linguistic, cultural, social, and political changes that have shaped the world
over the past 50- odd years. Since globalization is a complex and multifaceted
phenomenon, it has been credited with a wide range of powers and effects. Its
proponents claim that it is both ‘natural’ and an inevitable outcome of technological
progress, and it can create positive economic and political convergences.

Many perspectives on globalization see it as differentiated in its effects and

reception, culturally driven, either pre-modern or postmodern, best captured by
globalist or skeptical perspectives, and an equalizing phenomenon. However, the
main goal to achieve here is how important globalization and communication can get
in terms of learning and living.

INPUT

As mentioned in the introduction, globalization is a complex phenomenon; it is

the interactive co-evolution of millions of technological, cultural, economic, social,
and environmental trends at all conceivable spatiotemporal scales. Although
economic in its structure, globalization is equally a political phenomenon, shaped by
negotiations and interactions between institutions of transnational capital, nation-
states, and international institutions. Its main driving forces are institutions of global
capitalism – especially transnational corporations – but it also needs the firm hand of
states to create enabling environments for it to take root.

In the highly developed countries like the United States, Japan, the UK, and
Germany, globalization is manifested. Globalization is the reason why there are Ford
motors and cars of the US, Sony technology from Japan, House of Harrods from the
UK, and Mercedes Benz and BMW straight from Germany. Developing countries
such as the Philippines, Malaysia, and Thailand have respective prominent and
quality products in the form of coffee, fruits, handicrafts, and among others which
truly make them globally competitive and seen. We have to remember at all times
that globalization is equated with economic growth and recognition.

Globalization has brought about immense changes in the lives of people

nowadays. The oyster of the world is in everyone's hands because of the pervasive
and potent powers of technology embedded in the growth and impact of the English
language. With the ever-present and existing influences of science, medicine, and
arts, the world has turned into one living village: borderless, robust, connected, and
dynamic. Cultures, traditions, beliefs, religions, and languages find their way into the
current stream of the World Wide Web or the Internet.

Language and society always go hand-in-hand, for one cannot exist without the
other. It has never been known to people that cultures will invariably linger and
survive because of the core foundation lent by languages and people. The road to
globalization is paved by all these composite elements reflected in the working
qualities, dynamics, and significances of languages and cultures of diversified people
all over the world.

Given the advantages and disadvantages of using social media like Twitter,
Instagram, Pinterest, Facebook, Reddit, and among others, learning other cultures,
appreciating languages, communicating with many people, utilizing e-mails,
engaging in teleconferencing, indulging in chatting, and uploading information via
videos can be staggering, addicting, and empowering. This is the time and age
wherein academic papers, and linguistic awareness may make definitive differences
in the lives of educators, students, professionals, netizens, leaders, and researchers.

THE ORIGINS OF GLOBALIZATION

Globalization has taken a long stride after its first potent spark in the heart of
the once mighty Great Britain. It was Great Britain that started placing value on
English. Who would have thought that Latin, Italian, Spanish, Greek, and French
languages could be outshone and outweighed by the English language? Not even
those famous linguists, semanticists, and theorists had predicted the emergence and
popularity of English. All throughout these hundreds of years, the spread of English
proved to be phenomenal and overwhelming.

The Old World in the shape, form, and power of Great Britain seized and
established territories and empires. It was through communication, transportation,
and trade that globalization took its speed and presence. The great empires of Great
Britain stretched from Europe to Africa. With the regal royalties among the kings and
queens alongside their massive military strengths, English was indeed the force to
reckon with. The reversal of power, influence, and reign occurred in the late 18th
century and early 19th century when the New World, America, set sight of the golden
opportunities. It was the undeniable display of grit, ambition, faith, innovation, and
tenacity on the part of the Americans that paved the shift of supremacy and
domination. America took pride in science, technology, medicine, and commerce. It
was the vision and mission values of the Americans that also augmented the
robustness and pervasiveness of English. Today, English is known to be the ‘lingua
franca’ or a universal language which is evident in the areas of education,
governance, communication, entertainment, and business.

GLOBALIZATION AND COMMUNICATION

 Globalization is also evidenced as a structural phenomenon of growing and
interfacing interdependence among different countries of the world, for which the
effects of a motion sensed at a distance has resulted in a stunning spectrum of social,
economic, and cultural changes that have shaped the world more than half a decade.
Consequently, this evolution was galvanized by the emergence of digital
breakthroughs and scientific development. The details are well-pronounced in the
continuing landscape of swift communications and more accessible and shareable
information.

EFFECTS OF GLOBALIZATION

According to Nikolay Daney (2017), easy access to information is a major

effect of the process of globalization. The World Health Organization, in its works
focused on the cultural dimensions of globalization, has expressed the view that with
the spread of commerce, trade, and businesses delivering Internet, satellite TV, and
mobile services, the costs of such information technologies drop. He expressed that
the decreased price makes it easier for people across the world to make use of the
World Wide Web and the resources available.

In connection with education, there is now (what everybody takes delight in)
edutainment. The Internet has been used to bring in edutainment – an integration of
education and entertainment which is a fun way of teaching and learning.

ENTREPRENEURIAL MARVELS

Daney (2017) asserted that globalization had influenced global communication

by implementing new techniques for business conduct among workers at international
corporations. Long-distance travels are no longer necessary for business people
should they require a meeting with a partner overseas. Internet technology makes it
possible to exchange business information and conduct video conferences.
Additionally, enhanced communication allows businesses to promote their products
more efficiently on the international market. This significantly changed the business
world. In his works on the matter, U.S. economist John Thompson concludes that the
advanced means of communication have enabled international organizations to take
faster and more adequate decisions in accordance with the change in economic,
political or social climates in a particular region. For example, as described by
Boonlert Supadhiloke, a professor of communication in Bangkok University, Thai-
based international technology corporations use advanced communications to respond
to the growing demand for Thai-made products.
 On the other hand, Metro Iloilo is one of the premier hubs in terms of Business
Process Outsourcing (BPO) industry or offshore outsourcing these days. In fact, there
are American companies expanding their horizons by putting up branches all over the
city. Moreover, some Hagwon or Korean English Academies in Iloilo have gone
online in place of tutorials, learning sessions, and classes. How illuminating the
concept that Ilonggos are at par with the world in e-commerce, e-business, and BPOs!

INCREASE IN SOCIAL AWARENESS

It has been discussed in the relevant article, entitled “The Effects of

Globalization on Global Communication ”, that the availability of information, which
is a direct effect of the development of global communication systems, has led to an
increased social awareness of people across the world. Information technology and
networks enable them to share opinions, views, work on projects and research
different areas. These are among the main reasons why the process of globalization is
creating a sense of a global society. For example, through the use of communication,
many students from the developing countries enroll in university degrees in the
developed world. Education is only a single sector of the social awareness. Other
effects, like social determination, have also occurred -- the political unrest in Tunisia
at the beginning of 2011 had been inspired by opinions and political considerations
shared over the social networks available on the web.

Furthermore, Central Philippine University (CPU) ensures the remarkable

powerbase and expands the definitive scope of its International Programs Office that
fosters different linkages with other universities. Engendering better ties and
pedagogical affinities with international and goal-directed academic institutions is
one of the noblest and commendable achievements CPU continues to aspire for.
Making use of all mass media in keeping the Centralian spirit alive has proven once
and for all that one’s declarative knowledge is power. In fact, there are many
Chinese, Vietnamese, Korean, and Japanese students who come to study under
intensive and extensive programs. The concerted effort is made possible because of
linkages and collaborations. This simply shows how influential the use and usage of
social media with the aid of the Internet is.

LOVE IN TWO WORLDS AND INSPIRATION VIA CYBER SPACE

Modern and sophisticated transportation by land, sea, and sky is no longer a

farfetched dream to many. The truth is there are a number of ferry terminals for fast
crafts that appear like first-rate terminals found at the airport. Such is a clear
manifestation that globalization is at work. The same scenario goes for education
programs that enable teachers and educators become part of the cultural immersion
and professional growth. Central Philippine University annually sends teachers as
exchange faculty to several Korean universities. One good narrative about love in two
worlds is that there was once a particular member of the exchange program team
from the Department of Languages, Mass Communication, and Humanities who had
this unforgettable romance with the loving and caring female Korean. That is indeed
a unique by-product of globalization, too, right?

On the contrary, using Cyber Space as part of more intriguing human

relationships is very much ubiquitous in this modern age. In fact, students and
teachers alike find their amazing inspiration on the Internet. To illustrate, working on
poems, writing essays, and conducting researches or studies can take colors, hues,
and textures out of the magically mind-bending streaming of data, details, and
information uploaded and downloaded through the net. Communication has never
been better in this highly competitive, purpose-driven, and globalized world!

THE CHALLENGE

Despite the wide range and ongoing progress, global communication fails to
reach many people in all corners of the world. One research conducted by the World
Health Organization (WHO) indicated that at least 70 percent of the majority of
people in Africa have never made a single phone call or accessed the Internet. It
stressed out the urgency for a much deeper or more thorough use of communication
technologies as part and parcel of the globalization process.

In fact, the same narrative holds true for the provinces of Iloilo. Far-flung areas
or remote barrios in many towns do not have even commercial electric power for
television and radio sets. The lack of social awareness and disconnectedness can be
disheartening and unsettling because at the height of millennium there are people who
are depraved and deprived of the benefits and essentials shared by globalization and
communication.

Local and Global Communication in

Multicultural Setting
 Communication is often defined as the sharing of information, ideas, and
messages between two or more people. The primary goal, of course, of
communication, is to understand the information being conveyed or shared and at the
same time, also to be understood. One of the ways successful communication can be
achieved is to have the involved parties share a mutual knowledge of how the signs
and symbols used in communication come together to create meaning. However,
communication is not as simple as sending and receiving messages as it may involve
interaction between people that come from different backgrounds and cultures. More
often than not, how people impart and understand a message would depend on how
they derive or inject meaning into what is being said (or not said). People read into
information based on their knowledge of it, and their knowledge is ultimately shaped
by the culture and environment they are in. It is important to understand that what is
defined as appropriate in terms of communication can differ from person to person or
from culture to culture. Communicating in a culturally appropriate way would require
finding ways to impart and receive messages with respect to the cultural differences
between individuals involved in the communication process. Therefore, to be able to
communicate effectively in the local and global setting, one must be able to
understand that there are internal and external differences one must take into
consideration before diving into the process of communication.

INPUT

Effective communication is important in any interaction one gets involved in. In

theory, effective communication is as simple as sending a message to a receiver, the
receiver decoding the message and understanding it and ideally, getting a response
from that said receiver. However, effective communication is not as simple as it
theoretically sounds. In fact, effective communication involves a complex
understanding of how symbols and signs are presented based on the cultures and
environment of the communicators. Look at how one communicates within the
boundaries of his/her home. Despite speaking the same language and coming from
the same background and culture, members of a family still experience
miscommunication due, most likely, to differences in age, gender, and personality or
the context with which the message is interpreted.

Now, take that same situation and place it in a global context. Imagine one’s
self - interacting with people from different backgrounds, cultures, and languages.
The opportunity for miscommunication becomes more apparent the bigger the
difference is between the communicators’ language and culture.

WHAT IS CULTURE?
 Culture is often defined as the learned patterns and attitudes shared by a group
of people (Martin & Nakayama, 2010). According to Geert Hofstede (1984), a noted
social psychologist, culture is "the programming of the mind." He said: Every person
carries within him or herself patterns of thinking, feeling, and potential acting which
were learned throughout [his or her] lifetime. Much of [these patterns are] acquired in
early childhood, because at that time a person is most susceptible to learning and
assimilating.

Hofstede (1984) described how patterns are learned and developed through
one’s day to day interactions with his surroundings - with his family, community,
school, work, and so on (Martin & Nakayama, 2010). Culture shapes one’s
perceptions and ideas, which in turn, would also shape how one interacts, gives
meaning to and draws meanings from the signs, symbols, and messages he or she
may encounter every day.

WHAT IS INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION?

The differences of cultures and backgrounds affect communication. In fact,

culture becomes a significant determiner of how people approach any form of
communication. One’s environment can significantly change his or her perception
about certain issues in the society which in turn would also determine how he or she
would communicate the ideas he or she may want to tackle.

In addition, people from different backgrounds often encounter difficulties in

processing meanings and understanding messages due to the difficulties in
understanding certain factors of communication such as language, context, and
meaning. Communication problems often occur when there is a lack of understanding
about how certain cultures "work."

Ultimately, the only way to lessen miscommunication in an intercultural context

is to understand that no two individuals are alike and that every person comes from a
background that may be different from one another. It is only by observing and
learning the cultures of other people that one can possibly lessen the gap created by
cultural differences.

HIGH-CONTEXT CULTURES AND LOW-CONTEXT CULTURES

One framework for understanding intercultural communication is the concept

of high and low context cultures. This concept refers to the values cultures place upon
direct and indirect communication (Neese, 2016).

According to scholars, high-context and low- context cultures rely on the verbal
and nonverbal cues present in the interaction to draw meaning from the message.
High-context cultures take into account the background information of the sender and
receiver when comprehending messages.

Asian, African, Arab, central European and Latin American cultures are
generally considered to be high-context cultures. For these cultures, they tend to put a
premium on the relationships they have with the people they interact with.
Productivity would depend on how these relationships work within and among the
members of the group. Nonverbal cues are very important and more often control
how the message is understood more than the verbal cues, which may be more
indirect than direct (Halverson & Tirmizi, 2008).

On the other hand, western cultures with European roots, such as the United
States and Australia, are generally considered to be low-context cultures (Neese,
2016). Contrary to highcontext cultures, low-context cultures prefer direct over
indirect communication. They may not put too much value on the non-verbal cues
present in the communication. Relationships do not seem to play a significant role in
the communication process. Ideas and information are sent and received explicitly
(Halverson & Tirmizi, 2008).

Cultural differences shape how people interact and communicate with one
other. According to Carol Kinsey Goman (2011), people in Japan, a high-context
culture, would rather communicate face-to-face than over electronic devices, which
are often preferred by people in highly-industrialized countries such as the US, UK,
Germany, etc., which are considered lowcontext cultures. This is because the
Japanese place more value on the relationships they create and establish through
communication.

The United States can be considered as an individualistic culture (low-context)

which emphasizes individual goals, whereas, Japan can be seen as a collectivist
culture (highcontext) wherein a person defines himself based on his relationship with
others (Spring, 2000).

Read some examples of Intercultural Communication below.

1. In Japan, for a period, the sale of Pampers diapers was not particularly promising.
After a thorough study, it was discovered that the reason for the low sale of the
Pampers diapers was based on the importance the Japanese put on gender differences.
The result was the introduction of pink diapers for girls and blue diapers for boys.

2. The American cowboy used in the ads of cigarette brand Marlboro is often seen as
an effective symbol in most countries, except in Argentina where their concept of a
cowboy is often seen as a lower-class worker.
 There are often misinterpretations of messages that are sent between cultures.
Most times, these misinterpretations are a result of differences in cultural values
(Spring, 2000).

POTENTIAL AREAS FOR MISINTERPRETATION IN INTERCULTURAL

COMMUNICATION

According to AJ Schuler (2003), miscommunication in a cross-cultural setting

can be minimized if one is aware of the different areas wherein misinterpretation can
occur. He came up with a list of potential hot spots in intercultural communication
which more often than not, have become areas for miscommunication. Looking into
these areas and studying them before interacting with people from other cultures can
greatly help lessen the obstacles one would need to navigate in the communication
process.

1. Opening and closing conversations

Different cultures have different ways of going about addressing someone in

terms of whom should be addressed first, how they should be addressed and when
they can be addressed. Who speaks first or who closes the conversation can also
differ from one culture to another. In some situations, addressing someone in a
manner that is not common in a particular culture can often be seen as rude and
disrespectful.

2. Taking turns during conversations

There are appropriate ways of interacting with other people in all cultures. In
some, turn taking is often welcomed whereas, in other cultures, listening and
reserving comment after the conversation is preferred. Other cultures believe that
giving an immediate response can be seen as a challenge or humiliation.

3. Interrupting

In some culture, interruption during a conversation can be acceptable especially

when it is within the context of the interaction. However, in other cultures
interrupting in the middle of a conversation, regardless of the point being made, can
be viewed as impolite.

4. Using silence
 The use of silence and the amount of silence in communication can be
interpreted in many ways depending on the culture in which one is interacting. In
some cases, silence before a response to a conversation would give the impression of
thoughtfulness and consideration to the first speaker. On the other hand, silence can
also come off as a sign of hostility or indifference to others.

5. Using appropriate topics of conversation

Appropriateness of topics could largely depend on the situation one is in, and
the culture one belongs to. In some cultures, talking about money can be seen as
unethical and embarrassing. In other cultures, however, one can easily talk and ask
about how much a person earns. In Asian cultures, talking about family issues with
those who are not part of the family can be construed as inappropriate. Many Asian
cultures protect family issues fiercely. Appropriateness of topics to discuss is not only
determined by where one is from but also by their religion, educational background,
etc.

6. Using humor

In Western culture, humor is often used as an icebreaker in communication to

help establish rapport with others. In some ways, humor is used to make an
atmosphere less stifling and more relaxed. In other cultures and situations, however,
using humor in a conversation may seem disrespectful.

7. Knowing how much to say

Knowing how much to say and when to say it can also determine the success of
communication. Many people from Western cultures prefer communicating in a
straight-to -the - point manner; whereas, those from Asian cultures are less
confrontational, thereby utilizing a more indirect approach in discussing certain
matters.

8. Sequencing elements during a conversation

When to say things is as important as what one says and how one says things. A
speaker should always consider the timing in which he or she should introduce a
topic, negotiate, or ask for directions. Often, people struggle about when they should
change direction in terms of the conversation or how far into the conversation would
it be appropriate to ask questions.

It is important to note, however, that culture being mentioned here is not merely
limited to geographics. Cultural differences may also be determined by gender, age,
religion, education, position, political affiliations, and so on. For example, some
religions would strongly define the roles of men and women within the society which
would, in turn, dictate how they interact with people of the opposite sex.

Intercultural communication is an ever-evolving process. As cultures continue

to grow, morph, adapt and interact with each other, how people communicate will
continue to change over time. As technology and travel continue to make access to
the rest of the world easier and more convenient, it is important to understand that
differences in culture should be studied to allow for better communication and
interaction among the members of the global community. No culture is better than the
other, and no culture is perfect. It is only when people understand this that they can
learn to adapt and interact with one another in a harmonious level.

Varieties and Registers of Spoken and Written

Language
LANGUAGES

The principal method of human communication, either written or spoken words.

SPOKEN LANGUAGES

Is a language produced by articulate sounds, as opposed to a written languages.

WRITTEN LANGUAGES

Is an invention in that it must be taught to children, who will pick up spoken language
or sign language by exposure even if they are not formally instructed.

LANGUAGES VARIETIES

Variety is a generic term for an articular coherent form of language, language

varieties is referring it the various forms of language triggered by social factors.
Variety is a specific set of ‘linguistic items’ and ‘human speech pattern’

 linguistic items – any basic unit of languages

 human speech pattern – human voice and accent
Different Languages Varieties

 Pidgin - a simplified speech used for communication between people with

different languages. A language which develops in situation where the
speaker needs to communicate but do not share a common or in the same
language.
 Creole – same as pidgin that become the first language of the children and
mother tongue of the community but language is a stable natural language
developed from a mixture of different languages.
 Regional Dialect - not a distinct language but a variety of a language
spoken in a particular area of a country. Being a given traditional name,
which mark them out as being significantly different from standard
varieties spoken in the same place.
 Minority Dialect - a particular minority ethnic group have their own
variety which they use as a marker of identity that mark of identity,
usually alongside a standard variety.
 Indigenized Varieties - are spoken mainly as second languages in
excolonies with multilingual populations. The differences from the
standard variety may be linked to English proficiency, or may be part of a
range of varieties used to express identity.

REGISTER

Defined as the way a speaker uses language differently in different circumstances.

Also describes the various styles of language available for writing and speaking.

LANGUAGES REGISTER

A register voices that describes that various styles of language available for writing
or speaking that show an impression that left of your voice on others

NORDQUIST (2018)

 Dr. Richard Nordquist is professor emeritus of rhetoric and English at Georgia

Southern University.

 the register is defined as the way a speaker uses language differently in different
circumstances.

 Determine that vocabulary, structure, and some grammar

5 DISTINCT REGISTER
 Frozen – languages that rarely change that refer to historical languages and
communication.

 Formal – one-way communication that show respectful, uninterrupted and

restrained.

 Consultative – used by expert that can offer advance.

 Casual - used by speaking to a friend or family member.

 Intimate – used by speaking to a lover or private conversation.

LANGUAGE REGISTER CLASSIFIED

 Formal Languages Register – appropriate for professional writing or letter that will
be given to a superior.

 Formal Languages Register – appropriate writing to a friend and family relative.

 Neutral Languages Register – not a writing of formal or informal but a writing that
used to deliver facts or news.