William Blake (The Visionary Poet) “What shall I call thee”. This is the mother speaking.
“What shall I call thee”. This is the mother speaking. Having no name is equated with joy “Joy is
Pre-Romantic poet, focusing on the ideas of childhood and innocence. The word “visionary” is
connected with imagination as a source of creation. He firmly believed in his visions, fully
embracing the power of imagination. He relied on his visual imagination, which is why sometimes
his poems intermingle with paintings.
He was a radical in terms of politics and religion. He was very pessimistic about the political
system. He put forward the idea of Satan as a hero (make connections with Paradise Lost).
Nature is subjective, and subjectivity is connected with imagination. Nature is imagination itself
and is to be connected with the emotion we feel when looking at it through aesthetic eyes, in
other words, depending on who you are and your mood in that particular moment, you may
perceive things one way or another.
We can say William Blake painted words. Duality is necessary. There is no such thing as good and
bad, but those are religious labels. Both are necessary to move forward. He connected imagination
with evil and energy. Energy means imagination. He used the word energy instead of imagination
because he wanted to convey a sense of power.
He criticized reason and considered good to be passive, which does not necessarily mean he
defended evil. For him, the concept of good and evil complement each other.
The point of both Songs of Innocence and Songs of Experience is to show two opposing states of
the human soul.
Blake created his own mythology (consider this when reading The Tyger)
Urizen is a mythological being created by Blake. It is portrayed as a god.
(1) INFANT JOY
This poem may be connected with innocence due to the semantic field. The language is very easy
to understand. On the one hand, the attention is drawn to a child, who is happy. There are two
poetic voices, a dialogue between a mother and a baby.
Depending on the depth of your reading, you might associate the mother with the poet himself.
The reason the language is so simple is because it is a dialogue between a mother and a baby,
which is why it would not make sense to use big words. Also, it is written in such a way to convey a
sense of innocence of a baby who is just learning to speak. Besides, it can be read as a lullaby.
“I have no name”. This is the child talking. He has no name because he is a newborn. At that time,
during the 19th century, one would usually get a name during the baptize, a ceremony that was
celebrated very soon because a lot of children would die. It also creates a sense of purity. Besides,
when you get a name, it means that you enter society, which is heavily criticized by Romantics.
my name”. The poet highlights the idea of the baby not belonging to society, which is equated
with corruption.
“Sweet joy befall thee”. This is the perception of the mother towards her son. The mother sees
the baby in connection with sweetness. She sees the baby as a blessing.
Throughout the poem, we can see many repetitions (sweet joy), which is an adequacy between a
baby’s talk and a mother.
In the second stanza, we can see the mother’s reaction connected with happiness (music) “thou
dost smile, I sing the while”. Music is also referred to in the poem Infant Sorrow.
(2) INFANT SORROW
In this poem, there is only one poetic voice, which is important, because it means that the writer is
trying to convey a sense of loneliness, as opposed to the previous poem. In this poem, the child
feels alone. Unlike Infant Joy, it is a monologue. The semantic field is also different to that of
Infant Joy.
“My mother groand”. The poet emphasizes the fact that the mother is sad. The idea of birth is
connected with pain. Besides, the father is weeping because he needs to provide for the baby. The
baby is seen as a burden. The poet is realistically focusing on the fact there is no safety at all, as
opposed to the previous poem.
The world is described by the baby as dangerous, which is connected with the idea that childhood
is easily lost as you begin to notice the dangers of the world.
The language is more complex so as to create an adequacy between the baby and the world seen
as a dangerous and complex place. The language is also more dynamic (groand, weeping, naked,
piping, etc.), connected with helplessness.
“Helpless, naked, piping loud like a fiend hid in a cloud”. Pipe is somehow connected with music,
however, the key word to pay attention to in order to understand the first line is “cloud”, a word
used to describe the future as foreshadowed. Pipe is also used as a synonym for chimney, because
during the Romantic period, very young children were used to clean chimneys, as a result of which
they died. The child is portrayed as something getting darker and darker over time (fiend, covered
in coal, which is also a way of criticizing society as dirty and corrupted). The smoke going up the
chimney is the cloud.
In the second stanza, the language becomes more and more active and dynamic “Struggling in my
fathers hands, striving against my swaddling bands”. This is an alliteration for the letter “S”,
which is to be connected with a snake (corruption as you enter the world). Life is perceived as a
struggle, as opposed to Infant Joy.
“Swaddling bands” is a way of describing the baby as constrained, trying to fight his way out of
society. The baby feels like a prisoner who is defeated “bound and weary”. The baby finally holds
on to life and tries to survive the best way he can “I thought best to sulk upon my mothers
breast”. The baby concludes that he needs to get fed and survive regardless of how corrupted
society is.
(3) THE SICK ROSE
This poem belongs to Songs of Experience. As opposed to The Blossom, here we have a sick rose.
The rose is normally a symbol for beauty, women, youth, etc. At the beginning, there is an
invocation of a rose that is sick because of an invisible worm, which is connected with death and
the loss of youth/beauty. The worm is also sexually connoted because, in this case, love is not
idealized, but described as damaged and polluted.
There is a transition from innocence (The Blossom) to experience (The Sick Rose).
“Has found out thy bed of crimson joy”. The idea of joy is connected with pleasure and is sexually
connoted. “Crimson joy” has to do with virginity and Blake is highlighting this transition from
innocence (virginity) to loss of innocence (loss of virginity). By means of painting a rose full of
thorns, Blake is emphasizing the fact that love can hurt and experience is not easy. However, this
kind of pain is necessary in order to move forward. Just like we could notice in Infant Sorrow, one
needs to confront difficulties to become an adult.
(4) THE LAMB
The semantic field in this poem is similar to that of Infant Joy because it is simple and full of
repetitions. This poem is meant to help readers understand The Tyger. The lamb is equated with
Jesus Christ as a child. At the beginning, there is a question “little lamb who made thee”, whose
answer is God. All throughout the poem, there are many questions to which answers are provided
(always the same answer).
The poem is trying to convey a pastoral setting due to the fact sheep are usually taken care of by a
shepherd (pastor). Christ is the lamb and so are we. When connected with Christ, we have to
remember the image of the Mystic Lamb, a lamb that is tied up and being offered. He sacrifices
himself so our original sin is washed away. Thus, the lamb is connected with purity and innocence.
Also, this idealized pastoral setting resembles Paradise.
“Vales rejoices”. According to Christianity, life is described as a vale of tears and suffering (valle),
however, in this case, vales are not in tears but rejoicing due to the fact the poem tries to convey a
sense of purity, therefore, there is no room for suffering.
There is a child (Christ) that calls himself a lamb and is described as meek and mild. “I a child &
thou a lamb”. “I” is referring to the poetic voice (Blake), who was once a child too. By means of
these lines, Blake wants recover the power of imagination, since according to him, imagination is
at its peak during childhood. “Thou” refers to a child that is in front of him. “We” referrers to
humanity and “his” is a reference to God. We are all called by Christ.
Since God is the creator, the poem closes by directly addressing him “Little Lamb God bless thee”.
The lamb is blessed because Christ offered himself as a willing sacrifice to save us all.
(5) THE TYGER
William Blake came up with a new creator “Los”, and according to him, Los was out of imagination,
and he is portrayed with a hammer. He is more active and more energetic. We can conclude that
Los is being described in the poem, however it does not necessarily mean that Los is the tiger
itself.
The Tyger is a very important poem not only because of the message it conveys but because of the
rhythm, which resembles the hitting of a hammer. It is connected with experience. The Romantics
were emphasizing the ability of the mind to transform. Light and darkness are two elements
capable of fully transforming the space.
In the first lines there is a tiger somehow portrayed as a menace. “The forests of the night” is a
reference to the creative process carried out by energy.
“What immortal hand or eye could frame thy fearful symmetry”. As opposed to The Lamb, there
is no answer to this question. Blake is equating the tiger with energy because a tiger is normally a
threatening and very active creature. Both energy and the tiger cannot be controlled. We can
notice a variation in this poem. There is a circular structure but, as opposed to that of The Lamb, it
is not perfect. “Fearful symmetry” (oxymoron). Symmetry isn’t normally fearful, which is also one
of the reasons Blake picked a tiger due to the symmetrical pattern on its skin, which is beautiful
but also frightening. Also, it is a way for Blake to connect energy with imagination. The tiger
represents energy and imagination.
By means of the questions asked throughout the poem, the poet expresses a sense of despair and
anxiety, because he is desperate for answers. Also, the rhythm makes us feel like a tiger is circling
us. It is important for us to consider that Blake was trying to create the same sense of dynamism
as in Paradise Lost by Jonathan Milton.
“What dread hand & what dread feet”. Blake created this powerful energy and he is unable to
control it. All this imagery of the hammer is trying to convey a forge, where the blacksmith works.
All this explains why Los is holding a hammer, since for Blake, Los is the epitome of imagination.
Blake criticizes reason; however, he is creating reason by means of imagination.
“Did he who make the lamb make thee”. He wonders how it is possible that the same creator
who made such a meek creature as a lamb could also make such as a fearsome creature as a tiger.
This is not necessarily a reference to the God portrayed in the Bible.
One of the morals of the poem is that not everything is black and white. Life and experience is all
about chiaroscuro, living in doubt.
“What immortal hand or eye, Dare frame thy fearful symmetry?” There is no such symmetry.
What defines our lives is asymmetry. There is no answer to this question and the poem remains

ambiguous: chiaroscuro, since ambiguity is what defines the world. Also, the reason he replaced
“could” with “dare”: Could is a modal verb of ability, which can be connected with a traditional
process of creation. However, when using “dare” instead of “could”; the process of creation
becomes more personal. The creature cannot be a traditional God, but an entity or a being
(probably Blake) uncapable of controlling its own creation. Blake is trying to explain that in order
to be a writer, you also need to be brave.
LYRICAL BALLADS
They are called like that because the word “lyrics” conveys the idea of something fluid,
dynamic, spontaneous and popular.
Ballads are texts intended to be sung. They date back to the Middle Ages. The main topic is the
supernatural or murky topics.
We can find several repetitions and rhymes.
These writers were distancing themselves from the trend of that time.
Lyrical ballads sought to represent incidents and situations from common life, using everyday
language employed by men. They do not emphasize reason but imagination. These writers
want people to look at things through new eyes and from a different perspective.
A poet is a man speaking to men (usually superior men). As with Milton, there is an equation of
the poet with a prophet.
(Learn by heart for the exam) Poetry: is the spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings: it
takes its origin from emotion recollected in tranquility: the emotion is contemplated till, by a
species of reaction, the tranquility gradually disappears, and an emotion, kindred to that
which was before the subject of contemplation, is gradually produced, and does itself
actually exist in the mind. In this mood, successful composition generally begins.
(6) I WANDERED LONELY AS A CLOUD BY WILLIAM WORDSWORTH (7) A Few Miles above Tintern Abbey, on Revisiting the Banks of the Wye during a Tour, July
13, 1798 by William Wordsworth
This poem is based on real facts because William actually wandered through a field of
daffodils. It sums up what a poet is.

There are two versions of this poem. This poem is a reference to the past, the present and the future. The word “revisiting” is very
important because it sums up what the poem is about: A revival of past memories about
Nature is perceived as alive.
nature. This is achieved by means of repetitions (once again…).
“I wandered lonely as a cloud”. This line contains a lot of information and we can say most of
The concept of Mutability is highlighted because nature keeps changing and evolving. Similarly
the poem is condensed into it. The word “lonely” conveys positive solitude in this case. The
to The Wanderer and I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud, Mutability can be either negative or
poet is not actually alone because he is surrounded by nature and different natural elements
positive. In this case, it is positively connoted because the poet is not struggling against the
that are personified. This kind of solitude is not imposed but voluntary. The poet is entuned
loss of Nature, because he has come to terms with the fact that nature is supposed to change.
with nature.
The poet is describing a quiet peaceful nature. Nature is again feeding and nurturing the poet.
As for the word “cloud”, the poet is introducing the concept of the prophet (as in Paradise
The concept of cottage is important because it is the center of other works like Frankenstein.
Lost). He is equating himself with a prophet as he is superior (above) and supposed to guide
The cottage is to be perceived as a shelter, a safe place. For Romantics, life in the cottage was
us.
idealized.
The idea of subjectivity is emphasized by words like “I”, whereby the poet sees the world
The Hermit’s cave epitomizes an ideal way of life because, for Romantics, being alone and
through his own eyes, highlighting the importance of what he sees and feels, not relying on
living in isolation was the best way of life: entuned with nature.
reality.

The wanderer motif is clearly introduced in the first line, which dates from the Anglo-Saxon
period (The Wanderer) where the poet is cursed to wander alone, however, the kind of “Through a long absence, have not been to me as is a landscape to a blind’s man’s eye”. In
solitude we see in The Wanderer is negative, as opposed to the kind of solitude described these lines, we have the idea of revisiting. Also, the poet is focusing on the idea of blindness
here, which is positive. and how we perceive things through our inner eye.

The word “crowd” is normally used to refer to people, however, here it refers to the daffodils, In going back, he realizes he has received a gift. He might be absent but he has not forgotten,
which are being personified. The gerund form of the verbs that follow it (fluttering and because he still has that inspiration nature gave him.
dancing) conveys dynamism. Nature is dynamic and active. The poet wants to be surrounded
The next lines are very similar to I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud, because, back in the city, he is
by nature, not people. When surrounded by people, he feels alone.
aware of his inspiration (emotions recollected in tranquility) and felt nurtured once again. He is
Apart from the personification of certain elements from nature, we also need to pay attention making a contrast between solitude in nature (positive solitude) and solitude in the city
to the word “breeze”, conveying movement, which leads to an active nature (Natura (negative solitude).
Naturans), in turn connected with Anima Mundi, where nature is perceived as alive, as it has a
It is no ordinary gift, but sublime, and even though there is no God.
soul. Because nature is giving, the poet is inspired. Nature is inspiring the poet (emotions
recollected in tranquility). Because the poet is in communion with nature, he is enlightened, which is somehow
religiously connoted.
In the second version of the poem, the third stanza becomes reiterative. The poet is describing
the stars and the waves, yet he prefers to highlight the daffodils. “And even the motion of our human blood”. This line is important because there is a change in
pronouns, from “I” to “We”. By means of this change, he claims that he has been enlightened,
The last two lines “I gazed and gazed” are important because he is making a contrast between
as opposed to the man from the Cave in Plato’s writings. At this point, the poet is a prophet.
these lines and the first stanza where he refers to the inward eye (imagination), whereas in
“We” is inclusive, meaning that he is describing a process whereby he went from being
this stanza, he is referring to the physical eye. Likewise, by means of the word “wealth”, he is
ordinary to being enlightened (I was just as you are). He is trying to put forward some sort of
appealing to his inspiration, of which he first was unaware. He becomes fully aware of it when
integration with humanity, talking from man to men. In order to be enlightened, you need to
he is back home (emotions recollected in tranquility).
understand that you are part of a whole, a living soul, which is a reference to anima mundi.
“Bliss of solitude”. Again, solitude is described positively because he is surrounded by nature
“We see into the life of things”. This is the ultimate gift, the “superpower” of seeing into the
and its daffodils, which he continues to allude to throughout the poem. The poet is dancing
soul.
and fusing himself with the daffodils, and as result of that, this poem is born.

As opposed to most Romantic poets, Wordsworth perceives inspiration as something that

comes easily.
“In darkness and amid the many shapes”. It’s a hint at the cave, and he is aware that the
people surrounding him live in the shadows. In order to escape darkness, he feels the need to
go back to Tintern Abbey (mentally).
Ekphrasis: textual description of a visual object. There are two versions to this concept: Real
By means of the river, he describes himself, again, as a wanderer, because the river is moving
ekphrasis, where the poet tries to paint a real object by means of words. On the contrary,
and flowing (mutability), reinforcing the sense of anima mundi. Besides, the river is
Romantics are fond of notional ekphrasis, and the object is such a vivid reconstruction that it
philosophically connoted; panta rei (everything flows, a concept by Plato). Nature is alive, and
comes alive.
therefore, it has the ability to destroy.

“Sad perplexity”. He is revisiting Tintern Abbey with sad perplexity because, after a while, he
realizes that both that place and he himself are now different. Those first eyes are lost forever,
since you cannot feel the same way that you did the first time you saw that place.
(8) OZYMANDIAS by P. B. SHELLEY
“There is life and food for future years”. Since he is revisiting, he knows that he’ll be again
inspired once he is back in the city. Even though he knows he lost the ability of seeing things In this poem, the poet’s attitude and the idea of mutability took a more negative turn.
with innocent eyes, instead, he now has the ability to see into things. Consequently, there is a Shelley was an atheist and fell in some sort of despair that we can’t find in Wordsworth.
transition from innocence to experience.
First of all, we can find 3 poetic voices: the poet, the traveler, and the third one is Ozymandias
“Other gifts have followed”. The poet is referring to the fact that he is intellectually educated, (Ramses II).
however, he is perceiving humanity as sad because, they are still unable to see into the light of
things. He perceives people as shadows, as opposed to himself, who is enlightened. We can find the concept of ekphrasis whereby we find a connection between art (the visual)
and literature. The poet wants to convey a visual idea that these remains are real.
He gives the gift he has received a name: a sense sublime.
The word “traveler” introduces the motif of the wanderer in connection with experience.
“The living air…” is a reference to anima mundi. And since there is a reference to movement, it
is connected with the concept Natura Naturans and mutability because everything changes By “antique land”, the poet is creating an exotic atmosphere that applies to all of us.
and flows (panta rei). Egyptology was very fashionable at the time, which is why some poets would use these figures
to create an exotic setting.
“We behold from this green earth”. Again, there is a change from “I” to “We” because he is
integrating himself with humanity, however, as opposed to humanity, he sees into the light of Afterwards, the description of the ruins begins: “trunkless legs of stone…” There is a reference
things (I was just as you are). to body politics, a fragmentation of a powerful body.

“Well pleased to recognize in nature and the language of sense…” this is the moral of the
story, the way he perceives nature, a nurturing nature, inspiring and caring. He is appealing to
humanity, telling us that nature is there for us, we just need to recognize it.
Closing stanza: the poet is referring to a friend (his sister Dorothy), who was very important to
Wordsworth. She is helping him introduce a few things. First off, Dorothy was the first one to
visit Tintern Abbey, so the poet can see the state of innocence on her face (wild eyes). We can
relate to Dorothy, by means of which, we can learn the message. In the next few lines, we
have the idea of nature as religion, which is why the poet uses the word “prayer”. Nature is
perceived as sacred, and if you love nature, it won’t punish you. In order to achieve that, his
sister has to embrace nature (mutability) as it is. The poet is asking her to trust him. He is
telling her that even though she will acquire more experience, she does not have to be sad
because a gift will follow. If she follows Wordsworth’s advice, she will be entuned with nature
as well. His sister acts as a mirror to the poet.
The poet is telling his sister to remember nature when he is gone, and consequently nature will
take care of her. Nevertheless, this message does not only apply to his sister but to all of us.
Wordsworth is a priest of nature.
Another romantic setting is the desert, which is sublime. The horizon poses a challenge to the
mind, making it difficult for you to figure out what lays ahead.
The sand is related to the passing of time, which is connected with the concept of mutability,
however, it is melancholic in the sense that you’re going to turn to ashes when you die.
The concept of Gloria mundi is present throughout the poem (thus passes the glory of the
world), implying that fame fleets.
Ubi sunt (what are they? referring to those powerful emperors who are now buried in sand),
which may be connected with memento mori.
“Sneer of cold command”. When the king was still alive, he was sneering because he would
see himself as superior and proud. Therefore, this can be seen as a mockery, because now the
king has lost all his power. The poet is dismantling the idea of power by cleverly using
adjectives related to power.
“Those passions read” refers to when he was still alive, sneering and commanding.
“The hand that mocked them” Has two meanings: laugh and imitate. You laugh at someone
because you are imitating them. Therefore, the sculpture is imitating what the king was like,
which eventually becomes a mockery, as all those commands are now buried under the sand.
Nature always prevails and wins (one of the morals of the poem).
“My name is Ozymandias, King of kings: look on my works…”. This can also be seen as a
mockery because these words are being deprived of the powerful meaning they originally had.
Besides, those words are carved in the pedestal, making a connection between art and
literature (ekphrasis). The only thing that remains is the written text. Nature transcends and
eventually, even the pedestal will be worn and eaten away by nature. Between the debate of
art and literature, literature wins. Within the concept of art and nature, nature wins “nothing
beside remains”.
The king was once colossal but he is now just a wreck.
“Level sands” because we’re all equal when we die (sand again being connected with death).
The first line of the second stanza is meaningful “Heard melodies are sweet, but those
unheard are sweeter”, which is an oxymoron. The viewer’s perception of the urn is going to
change with each passing generation. The melodies are “unheard” because it has to do with
the viewer’s subjective perception, which changes from individual to individual. In other
words, what makes the urn eternal is that future generations will be reading the poem and add
new meanings to it. The more something is attached to a specific context, the sooner it’ll die.
We can feel the musicality of the poem “ye soft pipes”, since this is an ode. The poet wants us
to connect these pipes with our own imagination, because the pipes are not actually playing,
but we are the ones that bring them to life. “Nor ever can those trees be bare” is a reference
to Spring and eternal youth, emphasizing the motionlessness of the images depicted on the
urn.
“Bold Lover, never, never canst thou kiss”. Even though the lovers will be forever young, they
will never be able to kiss, because they are static.

In the next stanza, the poet is going to argue whether this immortality is worth it or not. The
opening lines’ semantic field is connected with music. “Forever piping, forever new”. This is
connected with the immutability of the urn, however, every time someone reads the poem, a
(9) ODE ON A GRECIAN URN by John Keats new song will be sung, thereby having something immutable throughout time.

In this poem, we can see a contrast between art and literature (ekphrasis). The characters on “Forever warm and still to be enjoyed”. In a way, we can see some fort of cooperation
the urn seem to be enjoying but at the same time, they are frozen in time. between the visual and the textual, as if they were at the same level

In this case, ekphrasis is notional because it is a reconstruction of reality. People even thought
that the urn was real.
The title itself is very significant because of the use of the preposition “on” instead of “to”,
meaning that the main topic is the urn itself, besides, the ode itself is “written” on the urn,
thereby implying that the urn is talking about itself. All this opens the debate between art and
literature.
In the first two lines, we can find two adjectives that can be useful to understand the
implications of the ode. A traditional ode is intended to be sung, however, what is being
described here is something static (quietness, silence…), which is what the urn conveys,
stressing the tension between art and literature.
The word “Grecian” makes a reference to something exotic and old, as in Ozymandias.
Normally, an urn contains ashes, which are connected with death (sand in Ozymandias). The
urn is a vessel to immortality.
In the 4th stanza, there is a change from the idealization and immortality of the urn to silence.
Besides, we’re in a way introduced to the concept of religion (priest) not being able to comfort
the poet. The poem is asking questions which are not being answered, making the poet
desolate. In this stanza, the poet is acknowledging the limitations of the urn.
Finally, in the last stanza, we’re introduced to death by means of the word “marble”. This final
invocation. “Thou, silent form, dost tease us out of thought as doth eternity”. At the end, the
urn offers no answer. Again, there is a paradox (Cold pastoral). “When old age shall this
generation waste, thou shalt remain”. Art will remain when people die.
“Beauty is truth, truth beauty” --- that is all Ye know on earth, and all ye need to know”. This
is a Platonic concept. Here, the poet is voicing the urn, by means of which he solves the debate
between the visual and the textual. Eventually, the urn is placed outside of time and place.

Another topic is being introduced: art versus life. As Keats was dying of tuberculosis, he
wanted to achieve immortality by means of art. We can clearly see the concept of mutability
(life passing vs the immutability of the urn).

In a way, the opening lines remind us of The Tyger. “a flowery tale more sweetly than our
rhyme”. The poet is confronting the urn, he is defending the textual. As opposed to the urn,
which is described as quiet and silent, rhyme conveys dynamism and musicality.

By means of the questions, Keats is describing the urn, questions to which he intends to give
an answer. Again, there is a discrepancy between this sort of dynamic life described by the
poet and the frozen images on the urn. The poet seems to be transferring life into the urn,
since the words used in these questions (pursuit, escape, wild ecstasy) convey movement.
FRANKENSTEIN by Mary Shelley
The book is relevant because of its structure. The idea of transgression we find in The Ancient
Mariner can be applied here.
Mary Shelley’s mother (Mary Wollstonecraft) was a pioneer in the feminist movement and also
a quite important political writer. She died when giving birth to Mary Shelley.
She was brought up in a liberal atmosphere. At one point she met Percy Bysshe Shelley
(Ozymandias’ writer) who was already married, but still they fell in love and got into a
relationship. Shelley wanted to live with Percy and asked his father for his blessing, which was
not given to her. After that, she felt betrayed and disappointed, since she had been brought up
in a liberal atmosphere where the idea of free love was constantly present. Even though they
eventually got married, Percy kept cheating on her.
She felt guilty because of her mother’s death, plus she herself had many miscarriages, which
would give her nightmares. She had many different problems and anxieties stemming from his
miscarriages, mother’s death and relationship.
The origin of Frankenstein is to be connected with Genova. Polidori, who was Lord Byron’s
doctor, wrote “The Vampyre”, which was criticism towards Lord Byron.
The importance of Frankenstein’s introduction is the state of mind in which she created
Frankenstein. Her anxiety and suffocation is reflected in the book.
On the one hand, Frankenstein is the epitome of the Gothic and also the origin of Science-
Fiction. At that time, people felt what was being described in the book was possible, which was
terrifying for a lot of people.
She included a quotation from Paradise Lost, which in a way is a reflection of what is going to
happen to the creature, as he did not ask to be created and still was expelled from “Paradise”.
The book is dedicated to William Godwin (her father), implying that she did not ask to be
created and still he disowned her. Although it was originally published anonymously because
of the style and the topic, being labeled as masculine, which would make the book harder to
sell if people knew it was written by a woman. The book was a success.
There were two different versions of Frankenstein (Prometheus Pyrphoros (the fire bringer)
and Prometheus Plasticator (the recreator of man).
Prometheus stole fire from Zeus, as a result of which, he was punished.
Structure:
First frame: Walton
Second frame: Victor
Third frame: the monster
Fourth frame: the cottage (at the core of the narration)
Mary Shelly offers different points of view, which is why the book is a frame narrative, that is,
depending on who’s reading, a different moral can be drawn. By using this type of structure,
Shelly provides the reader with different perspectives. Frankenstein is to be read as a
cautionary tale for us (exemplum), right from the first frame. We might relate to these
ambitions (just like in the Ancient Mariner).
We need to bear in mind The Rime, as Shelley had heard Coleridge recite the poem. In the
second letter, there is a quotation from the Ancient Mariner “To the land of mist and snow”
the point being that there are explicit references, and we, as readers, are supposed to grasp
them and project what we know about The Rime.
The first reason these letters are used at the beginning is because there is a dialogue, a device
used in Dracula. The content from the letters helps build verisimilitude in the story. Since this
is a fiction book, the letters are supposed to bring us closer to reality, like the manuscript
found in Robinson Crusoe.
The second reason to use letters is because Mary Shelley wanted to make use of the Epistolary
Format/Genre, as it was originally a female form of writing. Historically, letters were the only
mean of communication for women. Mary Shelley wanted to emphasize the importance of the
female role from the very beginning. Since Mary Shelley lost her mother, this loss contributed
to the fact that her education was biased. The role of education is important throughout the
narration.
In these letters, Walton is thankful and relies on his sister. Together with Victor’s narration,
these letters help Walton find balance. There are many references to Margaret as the
encouraging voice. Once Walton leaves behind this fosterage, he falls into this kind of
ambition/madness, but still, he has the letters.
We must remember Shelley defended the idea of family, since it was something that she did
not have.
In the first frame of the story, Nature is introduced in a classic way (northern breeze),
described as beautiful, and then, there is a paralysis (represented by the engulfing ice, like in
The Ancient Mariner) when Walton needs to choose between going on, risking the life of the
crew, or going back. We need to associate paralysis with isolation. Likewise, Throughout the
book, Victor emphasizes his (negative) solitude, as opposed to the kind of solitude we find in I
Wandered Lonely as a Cloud. As for the creature, he is also lonely and wants a companion. The
creature is an outcast unable to be a part of society. As for Victor, because of his transgression
(creating the monster), he needs to be isolated.
Education is one of the first topics introduced in the first letter. Walton’s education was biased
(neglected). He would only read books connected with exploration and voyages. Likewise, both
Victor’s and the creature’s education is also biased, which is something dangerous. We, as
readers, are expected to get the moral of the book: being able to grasp how important it is to
reject any type of biased education.
As Walton is obsessed with the idea of becoming a conqueror (because of his biased education
and the books he read), he is unable to see the dangers this might pose.
In letter 4, there is a quotation that paves the ground for the moral of the story: “One man’s
life or death were but a small price to pay for the acquire- 20 Frankenstein ment of the
knowledge which I sought… ‘Unhappy man! Do you share my madness? Have you drunk also of
the intoxicating draught? Hear me; let me reveal my tale, and you will dash the cup from your
lips!”. Like in the Ancient Mariner, knowledge equals sorrow.
Letter 4. “Even broken in spirit as he is, no one can feel more deeply than he does the beauties
of nature…” Walton’s perception of Victor (celestial spirit, divine wanderer…) is blinded.
Judging from Victor’s narration, we can tell he is nowhere near the divine wanderer Walton
thinks he is, but rather cursed. He is far from being entuned with nature. He has lost everyone
he loved and keeps wandering to kill the creature (his own creation and transgression). He
himself introduces himself as mad and asks Walton if he shares his madness. The fact that
Walton idealizes everything (including Victor) is another sign of his naiveness. Mary Shelley
wants us to question everything (Walton’s and Victor’s motivation and even the creature’s
behavior).
In the First Chapter, we are introduced to Victor in connection with Elizabeth and his attitude
towards her, which gives us a clue as to the way Victor is going to behave towards the female
nature.
First Chapter. “Everyone loved Elizabeth.” Connected with plot, there is an emphasis on Victor
seeing Elizabeth as his possession. By means of these lines, we can begin to perceive Victor’s
attitude towards the female. Nature is to be perceived as a female, therefore, there is a
transgression on Victor’s part towards Nature, in other words, Victor’s attitude towards
Elizabeth is the same as his attitude towards nature. All the deaths are a punishment to Victor
as a result of his transgression.
On the other hand, education is again introduced in connection with Victor who, just as
Walton did, got a biased education. He is obsessed with Alchemists, Natural philosophy and
the quest for immortality. Therefore, Frankenstein is not only a cautionary tale but also a
criticism towards biased education.
When Victor goes to university, he finds a way to achieve his ambition: quest for immortality.
Chapter TWO: “When I was about fifteen years old…” This is a very important foreshadowing
passage. In the first version of the book, there was no tree but a kite. This passage is significant
because there are 2 main symbols:
1. The tree
2. Fire (to be connected with Prometheus). (exam)
Also, in connection with the creature, there is the idea of duality: the same fire that creates
can also destroy. E.g.: the spark bringing the creature into life and, as opposed to that, the fire
destroying the cottage and the tree. Fire is also to be connected with lightning, which in turn is
connected with nature (a female symbol). Victor wants to be a benefactor to humanity,
seeking to help humanity escape death, and in order to achieve that, he metaphorically steals
the fire from the heavens, God, Nature, etc.
When Victor goes to university, we need to pay attention to the setting (Ingolstadt), a city that
was connected with the illuminati (like in The Da-Vinci Code), which may be one of the reasons
Shelley picked this setting.
There is an emphasis on parental duties (Shelley felt that her father had forsaken her thereby
neglecting his parental duties), projected on Victor’s behavior towards the creature when he
abandons him.
Chapter FOUR. “These thoughts supported my spirits…” This passage has been read in two
different ways, both of them being very significant.
1. First reading: There is the Moon (female symbol and a witness of the transgression)
and midnight labors, breathless eagerness, hiding-places. In connection with the idea
of transgression, there is the idea of rape, that is, this passage can be read as a rape of
the female body, as Victor “forces” the female body to have a creature.
2. Second reading: in connection with the first reading, there is the metaphorical idea of
Victor giving birth to the creature, which also emphasizes the transgression being
carried out behind closed doors, as it is not morally good.
Chapter 5 was originally the beginning of the tale, which focuses on the spark (Prometheus).
Since there is not a detailed account of the process of creation, we can apply these symbols to
many different levels in the tale.
This book is also an example of the extent to which we make ethic judgments on aesthetic
grounds (beauty= good, ugly=bad/evil, according to Platonic tradition). Victor judges and
forsakes his creation because the creature is ugly, thereby neglecting his parental duties
(heavily criticized by Mary Shelley).
Victor was originally convinced that by selecting beautiful limbs and body parts (aesthetic
transgression), the outcome would be positive and beautiful. However, the creature was
deformed. The word monster comes from the Latin monstrare, as a marker of evil).
Victor gets ill and Henry Clerval takes care of him (as opposed to the movie where Elizabeth
does instead). Henry is to be read in feminine terms because of his behavior. Mary Shelley
associates Clerval with beauty, which was usually associated with the female.
Throughout the story, we can find the motif of doppelganger (double) whereby a character
serves as a mirror to the other. Walton and Victor are a good example of this because of their
ambitions and biased education. Also, Clerval is a mirror to Victor before his transgression: “In
Clerval I saw the image of my former self”. The novel is paving the ground for the exploration
of duality that took place during the Victorian Period. “My own vampire, my own spirit let
loose from the grave…”. At one point, Victor feels like he is the one who killed all his loved
ones, as he is the one that triggered everything, therefore, he referred to himself as
“vampire”, as if his dark side came alive and took the shape of a vampire. Likewise, the
creature is the dark side of Victor.
The reason Victor feels comfortable surrounded by ice and cold in Montblanc is because, as he
feels guilty for his transgression, he feels like he needs to be isolated from mankind. Likewise,
the creature is presented as a superhuman, high as a mountain, a projection of the sublime, at
which point, Victor meets the creature, who has no name (like the book itself, which was
published anonymously to be accepted by society). In other words, because the creature has
no name, he is a representation of the role of women in society at that time. The creature is
like an empty slate filled with negative adjectives (fiend, evil, monster, wreck, etc.)
When the creature sees Victor’s reaction, he says: “I expected this reception, all men hate the
wretched”. He expected to be judged that way since he learned that people make judgments
on aesthetic grounds.
By reading the story, we can come to the conclusion that the creature is evil by nurture, which
is connected with the idea of Homo Homini Lupus. There are references to Paradise Lost
whereby the creature feels like a fallen angel.
Chapter 12. “I had admired the perfect form of my cottagers…” There is a contrast in these
lines where the creature still does not know what he looked like. Morally speaking, he sees
himself as beautiful (on the inside), which he possibly projects on his physical appearance. For
the first time, he sees himself reflected, leading him to make an aesthetic judgement based on
his looks. That’s when he realizes he is a monster, but still, he wants to believe there is good in
him. This process of forging his personality may be connected with Lacan, who was the one
elaborating a theory about how personality is shaped by a reflection and feedback we receive
from others.
The cottage is relevant and is employed to highlight the idea of an ideal family (the cottagers).
The cottage is at the core of the story. We must remember that Shelley longed for a family, so
she modeled every cottager following a specific pattern: Felix (happiness), Safie (knowledge),
Agatha (goodness). Therefore, these names themselves are tale-telling.
Chapter 15. “The old man paused and then continued…” The Blind man is the only one who
made a proper and sincere judgement. As opposed to him, the other cottagers, regardless of
their goodness, they’re still a part of society and rejected the creature. The fact that the
creature read Paradise Lost is important because he read it as if it were a true story, which led
him to identify himself with Satan (biased education), as he did not have anyone to tell him it
was a fictitious story. He feels like his situation is even worse than that of Satan in Paradise
Lost: “Satan had his companions, fellow devils, to admire and encourage him, but I am solitary
and abhorred.”
After that, the creature tries to approach the child (as he is still innocent), who gets terrified by
the creature’s presence, at which point he gives up hope, kills the child and becomes vengeful:
“If I cannot inspire love, I will cause fear”, which is the motto he decides to live by.
The creature asks Victor to make a female companion for him, which he refuses to do because
he is afraid of propagation: “a race of devils would be propagating upon the earth.”
When Victor scatters the remains of the half-made creature, this can be interpreted as the
destruction of the female figure.
At the end of the narration, we go back to isolation and paralysis (ice). When Victor is about to
die, he subtly seems to embrace his creation (even when the moral has already been
conveyed): “That he should live to be an instrument of mischief disturbs me, Farewell, Walton!
seek happiness in tranquility and avoid ambition, even if it be only the apparently innocent one
of distinguishing yourself in science and discoveries. Yet why do I say this? I have myself been
blasted in these hopes, yet another may succeed”. These lines leave the door open for a sequel,
a very frequent motif in contemporary horror movies. On the one hand, Victors regrets how
he’s lost everything, but on the other hand, he is too proud (hubris), as if he had a dark side
that makes him embrace his achievement: “yet why do I say this?” implying that someone else
may find a way to perfect his technique and what he’s done.
As for the creature, at the end, he uses the kind of language Satan uses in Paradise Lost in
order to create an unsettling feeling.
The Rime of the Ancient Mariner by Samuel Taylor Coleridge (connect with Frankenstein).
“Laws of Hospitality”. Transgression, the laws of Nature (anima mundi). Nature is alive and
has its own laws and rules.
Nature is introduced from the very beginning.
In his Latin quotation, Coleridge insists on the idea of going beyond nature, according to him,
there are supernatural things invisible to the human eye. Interest narrows our perception of
the world. Coleridge appeals to the reader and wants us to open our minds.
Regarding the genre, it is a ballad because of its supernatural topic. Regarding the form, it is a
subtle dialogue that conveys a vivid description, which was typical of ballads.
From the beginning, the mariner is described from the wedding guest’s eyes. There is frequent
reference to the “glittering eye”. Repetition is one of the main features of ballads. The mariner
is described as odd, which creates a supernatural atmosphere.
“Long grey beard”. Conveys experience and wisdom. The mariner seems to have strange
powers because of his glittering eye and the way he talks. He is vampire-like in the sense that
he has the wedding guest’s will. In other words, he has no choice but to listen.
As Coleridge wanted to convey a sense of traditionalism (traditional ballad), he used archaic
words all throughout the poem.
There are two main settings in the ballad: the wedding and the ship. There is an adequacy in
the sense that the wedding is described as a feast (happiness).
“And now the storm-blast came”. There is a change. Nature is now changing, turning into
something menacing and terrifying. By means of repeating the word “and”, the poet wants us
to understand the mariner’s desperate reaction, as nature is not friendly anymore. He also
emphasizes solitude, which in this case, is negatively connoted.
There is ice, used in an alliteration and also paralysis (immutability). The ice is trying to engulf
the ship.
“At length did cross an Albatross…”. The albatross is perceived as a good omen. It promotes
movement and seems to be helping the crew. The albatross is a manifestation of nature being
alive (natura naturans). As opposed to Wordsworth’s works, there is a reference to religion. A
blend of religious references and platonic ones (Neoplatonic tradition). The Albatross is to be
equated with Christ on the cross/carrying the cross. That’s why the action of killing it
(transgression) is so serious.
Even though the bird was seen as a good omen by the rest of the crew, eventually, they
associate the bird with punishment and retribution as a result of such transgression (a bad
omen). “Nor breath nor motion, as idle as a painted ship, upon a painted ocean”. This is an
alliteration of paralysis. There is now a complete paralysis as opposed to the dynamic nature
introduced at the beginning. There is no hope anymore.
“Water, water, everywhere, nor any drop to drink”. The bird is tantalizing (as Tantalous was
punished without being able to drink water from the river).
From now on, nature is transformed, hinting at the supernatural, as there are slimy crawling
creatures. Fire was sparkling in red and greenish colors, which we now know is a chemical
reaction, but mariners did not, so they perceived it as a bad omen and unnatural (St. Elmo’s There are references to instruments and angels singing, which is connected with the
fire). This reference is to be connected with folklore. Neoplatonic tradition. The Skylark (Alondra) is a sign of inspiration and rebirth for the
romantics.
“The witch’s oils”. It is an explicit reference to Shakespeare’s Macbeth (the three witches
burning oils), and is also another reference to the supernatural. “How long in that same fit I lay…”. There is a dialogue here, resulting in the mariner remaining
cursed because of his transgression.
“The Albatross about my neck was hung”. Carrying the cross (reference to Christ). According
to Catholic religion, the cross is a symbol of sacrifice. The mariner is now the one carrying the “For she guides him smooth or grim”. “She” is both the Moon, looking down on the Mariner
cross (the Albatross) as he has to atone for his crimes, his sin, his transgression. and a reference to the Virgin Mary. The role of the Moon is very important, dating back to
antiquity when femininity was typically represented by a horned Moon.
By means of the repetition of the word “weary”, the poet conveys a sense of paralysis.
Paralysis is perceived as a curse. “Swiftly, swiftly flew the ship”. There is a reference to the stony eyes connected with the eyes
of the mariner, who was unable to see into the light of things. There is an emphasis on sight
“A speck, a mist, a shape…”. The strange object is about to be revealed in these lines. A ship is
and how the curse is broken as he is now able to see into the light of things (as in the poem
approaching. The poet is trying to create an atmosphere of suspense by not revealing the true
Regeneration). There is a reference to the wind moving (natura naturans), positively connoted,
nature of the ship immediately. (Motif: the ghost ship)
inspiring the Mariner. There is a transition from metaphorical Winter to Spring.
The ship is finally revealed, it is not a normal ship (the ghost ship) but referred to as ‘skeleton
“O dream of joy! Is this indeed the lighthouse top I see?”. The lighthouse becomes his symbol
ship’. (As the ship in Dracula which transforms into a ghost ship on his arrival to England).
of safety, guidance and enlightenment. From this moment on, the mariner becomes a prophet
There is a clear reference to the Flying Dutchman (whose origin lies in the Catholic tradition of whose main mission is to provide his listeners with a moral.
the Wandering Jew) in connection with the mariner. The crew consists of 2 mariners, one is
“O let me be awake, my God! Or let me sleep always”. The mariner realizes he has awoken
Death and the other Life-In-Death (Sin and Death as in Paradise Lost). The crew from the ghost
from his curse and asks God for redemption, or else he wants to die and be put at the mercy of
ship is playing with the mariners` lives. Life in Death wins as a result of which, a curse is
God.
unleashed. The mariner has to stay alive and wandering, a negative portrayal of the wanderer
(as opposed to the wanderer in I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud). Towards the end of part VI, the Hermit is introduced in connection with nature and an ideal
way of living. The Hermit is introduced as a priest that washes away his sins: “he’ll wash away
Frequent references to drops and dropping, which serve as an image of nature in decadence
the albatross’s blood”
(as the Mariner is a sinner). The souls of the dead crew going through the mariner is the
beginning of his punishment. His soul needs to be regenerated. In part VII, the Hermit is described as a person who lives in the woods, entuned with nature.
On the one hand, he is religiously connoted (he kneels and prays).
“Fear not, this body dropt not down”. To inform the reader the Mariner did not die. He
remained zombie-like but still alive. When the mariner is back in society, he encounters the Hermit, who sees the mariner as a
fiend (an outcast).
“Alone, alone, all, all alone” Is a reference to Christ’s desolation when he felt forsaken by his
father. The sinking ship is a frequent motif in literature which conveys the sense of things going back
to normal. If the “ship” sinks, it goes back to where it belongs, the world of the supernatural.
“My heart as dry as dust”. Because he is a sinner, still there is an effort to pray.
The mariner’s transgression is so severe that he remains cursed to wander, feeling the urge to
Finally, the Mariner is blessing nature as it is with every single creature. For the first time, he
tell his tale to someone as an exemplum (like Robinson Crusoe did when he returned to
can pray, which is the beginning of regeneration, as a result of which, the Albatross falls off his
society), a cautionary tale intending to teach a moral or warn about something.
neck.
At the end, as our perception of the mariner has changed, he is exploiting the fact that we
“’O sleep! It is a gentle thing…”. The mariner was stuck in a phase of paralysis. The idea of
know he is an outcast, so as opposed to the beginning, there is no adequacy anymore. The
sleep is frequent in literature. There is a blessing religiously connoted referring to Mary Queen,
mariner is alone and wandering forever, and now we understand the reason why.
an intermediary between Christ and the sinner. The mariner was very thirsty, however, it
finally started to rain (in connection with purification). All this is to be connected with The moral of the story is to respect every single element in nature (anima mundi), as we’re all
regeneration. The wind is to be connected with the Holy Ghost, as Coleridge is mixing Platonic part of the same whole. The wedding guest is now sadder and wiser after listening to the
elements with Catholic tradition. Mariner’s story. He is sad because he lost his innocence, but wiser because his knowledge has
increased.
A few lines below: “The helmsman steer’d, the ship moved on”. At this point, there is a breeze
and the corpses are like puppets whose symbolic strings are pulled by angels. In the process of
being reborn, your senses awaken to a new reality. The mariner died metaphorically and now
he is reborn. From here on out, there is an emphasis on senses, sweet music and sounds.
JANE EYRE by Charlotte Bronte
The novel was published under the nickname of Currer Bell so it was more likely to sell.
There is a very important concept in the novel Bildungsroman (mention in the exam, in
connection with Jane’s education and different female role models throughout the book) (a
novel dealing with one person’s formative years or spiritual education) which, in Jane Eyre is
closely connected with the different settings. These different settings may be connected with
the journey motif (pilgrimage).
1. Gateshead Hall (childhood)
2. Lowood School (starvation and coldness)
3. Thornfield Hall (sexual temptation)
4. Moor House (transgression).
5. Ferndean (closing setting, connected with balance).
All throughout these settings, Jane is going to find obstacles and struggles to find balance
(independence).
Jane Eyre is to be connected with the tradition of Cinderella. She sees herself as plain, not
beautiful. The fact that she is described as not beautiful is important because it’s a way to
emphasize the strength of the character and how things are not easy for her. She feels like
everything is against her. Personality is very important in the novel, which is highlighted all
throughout the novel.
According to a few critics (although difficult to assess), the word Eyre may be connected with
the idea of invisibility, which pretty much summed up the role of women in society. Also, this
word may be connected with the old French for “travel”.
In the first two settings (Gateshead and Lowood) she is supposed to learn manners because
she would not behave according to the Victorian standards. She needs to learn self-control and
self-assertion.: “I know no medium….”. She needs to find balance.
Chapter 1: “There was no possibility of talking a walk that day….”. The first setting is to be
connected with cold, which does not accommodate with the way she feels. In other words, she
is far from being metaphorically cold, which is to be connected with submission. She is
rebellious.
Regarding education, Jane Eyre liked to read a book about birds (she wants out). The bird was
traditionally connected with the idea of the cage: “A breakfast-room adjoined the drawing
room…”. These books are her only way out.
“You have no business to take our books, you are a dependent”. She feels the need to leave
behind her dependence. As a result of the quarrel, she is sent to the red room, which is a very
powerful symbol of oppression.
“I can never get away from Gateshead till I am a woman”. The word “woman” here is
important because she was aware she was going to remain trapped until she managed to find
that medium, balance and self-assertion. Only then could she get away from Gateshead,
where she is metaphorically trapped.
Chapter 2. “I resisted all the way…”. This passage is relevant because she is being punished by
the servants, which is a frequent motif in Gothic literature, where women usually get punished
by other women. Jane Eyre is being told that she is less than a servant, which is significant
because it says a lot about the role of women in society. She is described as a mad cat.
(Likewise, Bertha Mason is also described in these terms). This is what Jane Eyre has to
overcome. The idea of madness was rather present during the Victorian period, as a result of
which, women would get locked up.
In breaking away from her metaphorical chains, she runs the risk of being locked in an asylum.
At that time, becoming a governess was a way women had of being able to have access to a
better education. Still, their role in the house was similar to that of a servant. That is, they
were, in a way, outsiders.
“Besides, school would be a complete change”. When Jane is sent to Lowood, the idea of
journey is emphasized. “Starvation” is a key word here because it is connected with
Charlotte’s own reality, as she herself suffered from this sort of starvation, as she was sent to a
boarding school when she was a child.
“That forest-dell, where Lowood lay, was the cradle of fog and fog-bred pestilence…”. Even
though this chapter opens in the Spring, the environment is somber and resembles death. The
idea of cold and starvation are emphasized to describe Lowood.
On the other hand, Thornfield is also significant, as the name of the place itself makes a
reference to a journey full of thorns. There is also emphasis on Jane being locked up by means
of the main gate closing behind her, as if there was no turning back once she crossed that
threshold.
“After breakfast, Adele and I withdrew to the library”. This passage is important because the
books are locked up. She could see the books but could not read them. There is only one book
open because she is supposed to teach Adelle. There is a selection of books made by the lord
of the house. He is the one telling her what she can and cannot read.
Most of the female characters are going to act as surrogate mothers, some being a positive
role model and some being a negative one. Going back to the first setting, Ms. Reed is
complying with the Petrarchan system, just like the other servants.
On the other hand, Helen Burns, represents endurance against adversity. Similarly, also in the
first setting, Ms. Temple (a telling-name), who is going to act as a positive role model to Jane.
As a woman, Ms. Temple has a set of virtues that can also be noticed not only on the outside
but also on the inside (personality).
Role models in Thornfield (third setting). Blanche Ingram is a negative role model, as she
wants to get married to gain a position, whereas Jane wants to marry because she is in love.
Blanche epitomizes the female conventions and is introduced as beautiful (ideal) and Jane
compares herself to her, as a result of which, she comes to the conclusion that she is plain.
“Listen, then, Jane Eyre, to your sentence…” This whole quotation speaks for itself. There is a
contrast between Jane Eyre and Blanche, who is expected to be painted as the ideal
Petrarchan lady. There is an emphasis on class, which is one of the most challenging steps Jane
Eyre herself has to overcome.
Grace Poole helps silence the other (Bertha Mason). When the book was written, Bertha
Mason was perceived as an obstacle to Jane Eyre’s marriage. However, as centuries went by,
Bertha Mason became a symbol of the Victorian Woman, which was not the point at that time.
Yet, because of the role of women in Victorian society, Bertha Mason came to represent the get married in a traditional way (out of convenience), meaning that she married because she
classic idea of feminism (the mad woman in the attic). Within the Victorian context, we can say was in love, which was not very frequent at that time.
that Mr. Rochester’s attitude towards Bertha was considered normal. The Victorian reader was
expected to understand Mr. Rochester’s behavior.

Mr. Rochester, instead of sending Bertha to an asylum or forsaking her, keeps her in the
house. Because of this, the contemporary reader can interpret Bertha’s situation as an
example of feminism and resistance, as she remained locked up. We can conclude that Bertha
was not mad at all, but living in freedom, entuned with nature, and once she marries Mr.
Rochester and is constrained by the English civilization, she starts losing her personality and
goes mad.

Bertha Mason acts an exemplum to be avoided. Also, Thornfield is described as a place of

sexual temptation, and she needs to leave Mr. Rochester behind so she can find her medium
and self-assertion. By means of her decision, she matures and leaves behind those romantic
naive ideas.

“Fearful and ghastly to me…”. In this passage, there is a reference to the Vampyre. Bertha is
described as a supernatural being, which creates a Victorian-Gothic atmosphere.

In the fourth setting, St. John Rivers is a clergy man taking care of a Jane. For the female
reader of that time, Rivers was a good catch. Jane had known passion when she met Mr.
Rochester. However, she does not see any of those things in Rivers, which is why she does not
marry him. For the Victorian reader, this was an act of bravery on Jane’s part, because at the
time, the only good future women could amount to was getting married.

Mr. Rochester is briefly introduced as a hero. All of a sudden, he falls off his horse, by means of
which that imagine of a hero is dismantled. Even at the end, Jane is the one who rescues him.

Once Jane meets Rochester, she needs to overcome different boundaries, such as a gender.
Jane struggles to achieve equality and overcome oppression. Jane claims that women need the
same education others have (men and women had different education). Ladies were expected
to be accomplished, meaning that they needed to have a set of virtues to bring comfort into
the home. They were expected to be angels in the house, which Jane criticizes (Charlotte was
lucky enough to get a proper education and wanted the rest of women to be educated as she
did). “I am not an angel, I will not be one till I die, I will be myself”.

“I thought his smile was such as a sultan might”. Jane does not like Rochester’s behavior. She
metaphorically feels like a slave or a possession, emphasized by the word “sultan”. This is also
one of the reasons she decides not to marry him at first.

“Do you think I can stay to become nothing to you? Do you think I am an automaton?”. This
quotation is important because Jane is defending her own identity as a human being. Also, she
is distancing herself from any aesthetic judgement by means of the adjectives she employs,
adjectives that also refer to her class. This is a rebellious statement, as Mr. Rochester is an
aristocrat and she is just a servant (a mistress). (Read this is connection with marriage, which
as of now, is not guaranteed).

When Jane inherits money, this is her only way of achieving equality because she is no longer
dependent on anyone: “I am an independent woman now”. Towards the end, she has gained
self-esteem and economic independence. Even as far as marriage is concerned, she does not
HEART OF DARKNESS by Joseph Conrad
Heart of Darkness is a Novella because of its length (not long enough to be a novel and not
short enough to be a short story). (Underline the title in the exam).
It has an unnamed narrator. Marlow is not the narrator. We are expected to have the same
opinion as the unnamed narrator. Our attitude towards colonialism is expected to change
(e.g.: Frankenstein). There is a moral for us to get out of the narration. By the end of the tale,
the narrator’s attitude changes and so is ours expected to change.
“The Nellie, a cruising yawl…”. It is dusk, which is significant because the author is trying to
convey a sense of darkness and decline. However, in this passage, there is also a reference to
light (chiaroscuro atmosphere). Chiaroscuro is relevant in the narration because of the
ambiguity that we can find in the whole narration (such as the attitude towards colonialism
and civilization). Things are not black or white. The narration also conveys a sense of hypocrisy.
The river Thames acts as a mirror of the Congo River. The Thames is in a civilized place and the
Congo is in an uncivilized place. In the next few lines, Marlow is introduced a Buddha (cross-
legged), someone enlightened. Consequently, Marlow is going to act a prophet, as someone
who is going to guide us. The unnamed narrator is emphasizing brilliance and purity associated
with the Empire, which is eventually going to be darkened once we learn about the basis of
colonialism. Marlow is intimately connected with the idea of the quest.
“Forthwith a change came over the waters”. The unnamed narrator is speaking here. The river
Thames is connected with a brilliant past. However, the atmosphere is becoming darker, and
serenity is becoming less brilliant and more profound, which sums up the truth of colonialism.
“The great spirit of the past…Hunters of gold or pursuers of fame”. London, the heart of the
empire, is one of the darkest places in Europe. From this moment, we’re starting to realize
there’s something wrong, since there is a pirate commissioned by the empire to steal from
others, which might lead us to question if this is what civilization should be like. The Empire is
confronting others as something inferior. The purpose of the Empire was to carry light and
civilization to other nations that were considered inferior (messengers). Marlow describes
London as a monstruous town, one of the darkest places in Europe, which makes us question
the reality behind the Empire and colonialism. So far, we are just as puzzled as the unknown
narrator because of the idea we’ve just gotten of our country. All this is connected with the
idea of feeling dislocated and unbalanced in modernism.
“He was the only man of us who still followed the sea”. In this passage, Marlow is introduced
as a wanderer. The wanderer motif is connected with mutability (movement), the idea of being
entuned with the surroundings. The unknown narrator is surprisingly introducing the
traditional seaman in connection with immutability, which is contradictory because what
keeps changing is the outside whereas the mariner remains unaltered, that is, the traditional
seaman remains unaltered.
“We were cut off from the comprehension of our surroundings”. At one point in the narration,
Marlow is heading into the heart of the Congo, at which point he still has not been
transformed. At this point, he begins to question things and describes people there as
inhuman (there are black). However, as he begins to interact with them, he has the suspicion
that those people might be as human as he is (connect with Gulliver’s Travels), which is a very
unsettling feeling for him. Going back to the beginning, there is an emphasis on Marlow as a
wanderer, because he does not remain fixed, but begins to interact with his surroundings, as
opposed to the traditional colonizer, who remains fixed and unaltered because he does not
sympathize with others and sees himself as superior. (Marlow’s attitude is connected with
mutability). For the traditional seaman, the shore is mutable, but remains immutable because
he is not affected by it. Marlow begins as a tourist and ends up as a traveler.
“Secret not worth knowing”. This can refer to the traditional seaman or colonizer, in the “I
don’t care” sense. This is what is being questioned. To what extent civilization is fragile and
shady (is the secret worth knowing?). Kurtz is the embodiment of the Empire, a lie.
“The devotion of efficiency”. This is what sums up the colonizer (Kurtz, who stablished himself
as a god). Someone positive who must not be questioned. This can be connected with the Nazi
Holocaust. Marlow begins to question and criticize the very basis of what we call civilization.
He is described as a Buddha and offers two contrasting examples: the conquerors and the
colonizers. He introduces the conqueror as “brute force”, and then, he introduces the
colonizer, whom he describes as having a “different complexion”. At this point, we realize the
colonizer is more dangerous than the conqueror, because the colonizer also intends to force
his ideology on others, claiming himself superior. The colonizer uses arguments based on false
promises, as opposed to the conqueror, who only uses brute force to expand his territory. In
other words, both are dangerous, but the attitude of the colonizer is even worse: “I had a
heavenly mission to civilize you” (this is to be connected with the White Man’s Burden).
“Marlow’s inconclusive experience”. This is important because modernism is defined by its lack
of closure. There is no conclusive answer to anything, everything is subjective. This can be
connected with The Tyger, because a lot of questions were raised but there was no answer to
any of them. Marlow keeps changing throughout the story, which destabilizes us, and that’s
the whole point of the narration. There is emphasis on the fact that there is no absolute truth,
that is, things can’t be closed, but everything depends on our own point of view, as a result of
which, our mind keeps flowing. Things are not very clear and we keep moving in a chiaroscuro
setting.
“As I looked at the map, it fascinated me as a snake would a bird”. This line is introduced with
a hyphen, comparing himself to the bird (the steamer) that is being squeezed by the snake
(The Congo River).
The reason Marlow lies at the end is because he wanted to “keep civilization going”.
We need to consider the Journey Motif in connection with the mystic quest. Marlow is
tantalized by the idea of having a mission, he goes to Brussels, which he describes as a “white
sepulcher” (reference to the Bible) and the Pharisees. There is hypocrisy here because, on the
one hand, they have beautiful and white things (ivory) in there, but on the other hand, there is
a massacre going on in The Congo.
The women knitting wool represent two women metaphorically guarding the entrance
(threshold), at which point, the journey and descent into Hell starts. “The river was there –
fascinating – deadly like a snake” (fascination of the abomination). This is what Marlow feels.
“Something like an emissary of light, something like a lower apostle… an impostor”. Marlow
felt like an impostor once he learned the truth about colonization and its atrocities, he goes
through a process of spiritual and moral transformation. At the end, he ceases to be an
impostor and becomes a Buddha, an emissary of light. The contradiction lies on the fact that
he has seen the light at the heart of darkness.
“You forget, dear Charlie, that the labourer is worthy of his hire”. While Marlow is talking about At the end, Marlow tells Kurtz’s wife a lie so civilization runs its course. In the closing lines,
women, nowadays this line can be extrapolated to men, women and everyone. (Do we want to Marlow intends to criticize the very basis of civilization, which was the whole point of the
know about the origin of certain things or turn a blind eye to it so our beautiful idea of story.
civilization does not come crashing down?).
Another approach to The Heart of Darkness by Chinua Achebe: he labelled Conrad as a racist
“The idleness of a passenger, my isolation amongst all these men with whom I had no point of because of the way he described the colonies. From then on, this novel has been labeled as
contact”. Here we need to remember the wanderer, someone who lives in isolation in his racist by some critics. However, this is precisely what Conrad was criticizing: what was going on
bubble. Then he had a momentary contact with reality (slavery), which he describes in in Congo at that time.
grotesque terms. Nonetheless, he still pays attention to it.
Settings: London, Brussels and Congo.
“Then I noticed a small sketch in oils”. The blindfolded woman carrying the torch is the
Role of main characters: Marlow and Kurtz
traditional image of justice. From the point of view of the colonizer, there is light brought by
him, however, from our point of view, there is no light but darkness (chiaroscuro image of the Role of female characters: society prefers to turn a blind eye to what was going on. The
colonizer). mistress has no name, epitomizing the role of society at that time.
“Kurtz, he was just a word for me”. This is modernism at its peak. Marlow is trying to describe
Kurtz in a more detailed way. For him, Kurtz was just a word (for modernists, words were
artificial and arbitrary). To him, everything is fragmented and distorted. The meaning and
essence of things can’t be explained by words,

“We live, as we dream – alone”. This idea of solitude and the inability to communicate is
referred to as solipsism. This utter subjectivity whereby you cannot communicate with the
other because you remain secluded. This seclusion taken to the extreme is solipsism
(negatively connoted) – Chiaroscuro, because there is nothing clear throughout the narration.

“The reality – fades”. is how we need to perceive reality, as something that fades. Something
that can’t be grasped because it fades. This is also a modernist trait.

“The mind of man is capable of anything”. This has to do with the idea of fascination of the
abomination and how the man is capable of both good things and bad things. The importance
of this narration lies on the fact that it was supposed to be read as a cautionary tale.

This narration is to be read in terms of a quest. At one point, there is a revelation: “a veil had
been removed from my eyes”. This revelation is a frequent motif in these kinds of narrations
(connected with Plato).

“My ivory, my station, my river, my—–’ everything belonged to him”. This line emphasizes the
idea of possession connected with the concept of colonialism. Utter control and mastery by
Kurtz, which is why it was so easy for him to disrespect life.

“All Europe contributed to the making of Kurtz”. This is important because of the implications it
has. It is a reference to education and to what extent Kurtz is guilty, since he’s been supported
not only by the Empire but also other territories in Europe that took part in that massacre.
(Hypocrisy: what kind of civilization do we live in when we endorse this?).

Finally, when Kurtz is dying: “Anything approaching the change that came over his features I
have never seen before, and hope never to see again. Oh, I wasn’t touched. I was fascinated. It
was as though a veil had been rent”. Kurtz’ last words: “The horror! The horror!”. There is
another reference to the veil as an ultimate step to enlightenment. At this moment, Kurtz is
fully alienated and has a moment of clarity whereby he realizes all the atrocities he has
committed.
 THE DEAD by James Joyce
The keyword in this narration is epiphany.
Public life is connected with The Dead, because that’s how people communicate.
The first reaction is to dislike Gabriel. He is first introduced at a party with Lily. In connection
with the concept of truth, Joyce is going to question symbols and language. Gabriel is a telling-
name, an angel associated with the idea of being a messenger. Therefore, we need to
associate Gabriel with the idea of carrying a message.
All throughout the narration, he is focused on his speech trying to convey a message. He is
introduced by himself, as having a good command of language (he is all about speeches,
quotations, etc.) He is isolating himself from everyone because he is only thinking about the
speech he has to deliver. Joyce is playing with symbols as a way of destabilizing the reader. At
one point, Joyce is forcing us to come to the conclusion that Gabriel is failing to deliver his
message (not to trust language as an adequate tool, which is a trait of modernism). That is,
Gabriel is not complying with his symbolic meaning.
Lily is a symbol of purity. The encounter between the both of them is awkward because
Gabriel is confronting Lily as she is a little girl, naive and innocent. He has a patronizing attitude
towards her. The first encounter with a woman makes Gabriel totally uncomfortable and fails
in this simple opening dialogue: “O, then," said Gabriel gaily, "I suppose we'll be going to your
wedding one of these fine days with your young man, eh?" The girl glanced back at him over
her shoulder and said with great bitterness”. He lacks emotional intelligence and he is not even
worried.
“He was undecided about the lines from Robert Browning, for he feared they would be above
the heads of his hearers.” This line explains what Gabriel is like, a person who regards others as
inferior. We need to consider that it was Christmas, still he is not very worried about his aunts
(who will probably die soon) or his other relatives. We also need to consider the contrast
between the inside of the character and the outside (the party). Likewise, the inside of the
house vs the outside (where it’s snowing).
Gabriel boasts about his superior education. He is focusing on the idea of being superior from
an intellectual perspective, not sympathizing with others.
“Gabriel could not listen while Mary Jane was playing her Academy piece”. This scene needs to
be associated with the concept of solipsism, because he is totally isolated from the party.
Mary Jane was out of tune but he could not listen.
Regarding the dialogue with Molly Ivors, Gabriel claims he is sick of his own country, which is
probably one of the only times he said something truthful and showed his unhappiness. Even
Joyce himself realized he would have ended like Gabriel had he remained in Ireland.
“Gabriel hardly heard what she said.”. There is a contrast in this passage: Gabriel is more
entuned with the cold outside, which gives us a lot of information about what he is like. Snow
is used as a symbol connected with paralysis: Gabriel is stuck.
“"I was just telling my mother,". Gabriel keeps thinking about his speech and mentions things
that will eventually appear in his speech; however, he does not really believe in those things
having to do with hospitality. He hears his aunt Julia sing and lies about how well she sings. He
regards Julia as a poor woman (Joyce is questioning the idea of truth as something
questionable).
“I know all about the honour of God, Mary Jane… O, I don't question the pope's being right. I'm
only a stupid old woman and I wouldn't presume to do such a thing. But there's such a thing as
common everyday politeness and gratitude, ”. It does not matter if you are a Catholic or
Anglican. Again, he is not showing any affection.
During his speech, Gabriel refers to his aunts as the Three Graces, which is associated with
gracious social intercourse. However, he is not thankful to the aunts, as he had previously
labeled them as ignorant women. There is a paradox here, because even though he does not
believe in his own words, everyone knows that the content of his speech is true.
As for the wife, Gretta, so far, she remains as an absent figure. “Gabriel had not gone to the
door with the others. He was in a dark part of the hall gazing up the staircase.”. From this
passage, we may conclude that he fails to recognize his own wife (he does not really know his
own wife as we learn later). He first refers to her as “a woman”.
The song Gretta is listening to is a ballad connected with love. There is a change of atmosphere
and there is some sort of pilgrimage until they get to the hotel. The snow was falling and it was
cold. The song triggers memories of melancholy in her. “She was walking on before him so
lightly and so erect…”. Gabriel is again failing to grasp the meaning of Gretta’s behavior.
“He was trembling now with annoyance”. This is part of a very significant scene where there
are two different levels or reading. On the one hand, there is the idea of possession. He wants
to have sexual intercourse with her, yet, she is in a totally different mood. He is totally
misreading his wife, which unsettles and destabilizes him.
A few lines further down: "Why, Gretta?" he asked. "I am thinking about a person long ago
who used to sing that song.". He did not even contemplate the possibility that she was thinking
about another man because he thought he was in control and she belonged to him.
Michael (Gretta’s deceased lover). He was a warrior archangel. This time Joyce accommodates
the character to the meaning of the symbol. In a way, Michael died of love, so he is introduced
in a completely different manner than Gabriel.
"I think he died for me," she answered. The world begins to disintegrate. So far, the perception
of the world was monolithic (fixed), and now, it is becoming fragmentary.
Gabriel is starting to realize that he is not the center of the universe or the center of his wife’s
life, as he finds out that she has a life of her own. This is also a modernist feature.
At the moment of epiphany, he thinks back to the moment of the party trying to figure out
what he did wrong.
“He would cast about in his mind for some words that might console her, and would find only
lame and useless ones”. His attitude towards language has changed. So far, language had been
a perfect tool for him, however, from a modernist point of view, language is always
questioned, which is why Gabriel uses words like “useless”, implying that many times language
itself is useless. This is the moment of epiphany, a moment of revelation when he realizes that
he was wrong. His reality is dismantled, similarly to The Heart of Darkness.
“The air of the room chilled his shoulders”. These are the final lines of the book. This is a
beautifully written passage. This passage is very modernist, because reality is totally dissolving,
everything is breaking apart. The world is dissolving, which is a metaphor for the way he sees
things now. He comes to terms with the idea of being unable to grasp reality or have
everything under control. He now feels loved.

There is an image that we also found in Heart of Darkness (a journey westward), which is
connected with the sunset (death). He reflects on mortality and values life in a different way.

Moreover, the snow is not only a symbol of paralysis and a metaphor for separation between
the living and the dead, but most importantly, a metaphor for separation between the living
(another modernist feature): unknownability of the other. Finally, when he revisits the
moment of the party and his speech, he realizes that’s the only truth he’s ever uttered (a truth
that he did not believe in at that time). This is another modernist trait whereby authors play
with different points of view even within the same character.