PSAE Region IV – Agricultural Engineering Board Review Materials IV - 1

Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Arnold R. Elepaño
Associate Professor
Agricultural and Bio-Process Division
Institute of Agricultural Engineering
College of Engineering and Agro-Industrial Technology
University of the Philippines Los Baños

I. Introduction

 Refrigeration is the process of cooling.

 Comfort air conditioning is the process of treating air to control simultaneously its
temperature, humidity, cleanliness, and distribution to meet the comfort requirements of
the occupants of the conditioned space. Air conditioning, therefore, includes space
heating e.g. in Baguio City.

II. Refrigeration Systems

 Vapor Compression System
 Multi-pressure System
 Absorption Refrigeration System
 Thermo-Electric System
 Air-Cycle Refrigeration System
 Steam-Jet Refrigeration System

III. Vapor Compression System

 Principal parts of a Simple vapor compression system:

1. Evaporator – provides a heat transfer surface through which heat can pass from
the refrigerated space or product into the vaporizing refrigerant.
2. Suction line – conveys the low-pressure vapor from the evaporator to the suction
inlet of the compressor.
3. Vapor compressor – removes the vapor from the evaporator and raises the
temperature and pressure of the vapor to a point such that the vapor can be
condensed with normally available condensing media.
4. “Hot gas” or discharge line – delivers the high pressure, high-temperature vapor
from the discharge of the compressor to the condenser.
5. Condenser – provides a heat transfer surface through which heat passes from the
hot refrigerant vapor to the condensing medium.
6. Receiver tank – provides storage for the condensed liquid so that a constant supply
of liquid is available to the evaporator as needed.
7. Liquid Line – carries the liquid refrigerant from the receiver tank to the refrigerant
flow control.
8. Refrigerant flow control – meters the proper amount of refrigerant to the evaporator
and reduces the pressure
of the liquid entering the evaporator so that the liquid will vaporize in the
evaporator at the desired low temperature.

 Actual vapor compression system

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 The actual vapor-compression cycle suffers some inefficiencies compared with the
standard cycle. The essential differences between the actual and the standard cycle
appear in the pressure drops in the condenser and evaporator, in the subcooling of the
liquid leaving the evaporator.
 The standard cycle assumed no drop in pressure in the condenser and evaporator.
Because of friction, the pressure of the refrigerant drops in the actual cycle.

IV. Refrigerants

 The substance employed as the heat absorber or cooling agent is called the refrigerant.
 Classification cooling process according to the effect the absorbed heat has upon the
refrigerant:
1. Sensible – the absorbed heat causes an increase in the temperature of the refrigerant.
2. Latent – the absorbed heat causes a change in the physical state of the refrigerant
(either melting or vaporizing).

Note: With either process, if the refrigerating effect is to be continuous, the

temperature of the refrigerant must be maintained continuously below that of the
space or material being refrigerated.

 A refrigerant is a medium of heat transfer which absorbs heat by evaporating at a low

temperature and gives up heat by condensing at a high temperature and pressure.
 Uses of some of the more common refrigerants:
1. Air – the principal use of the air as a refrigerant is in the air-cycle refrigeration unit for
aircraft. Operating with air requires more work, but the light weight more than
compensates for this drawback in air-borne service.
2. Ammonia – the greatest use of ammonia is in large industrial and low-temperature
installations. Although its use in such low-temperature applications as frozen food and
dairy plants has been challenged by Refrigerants 22 and 12, many new ammonia
systems come into operations each year.
3. Carbon dioxide – its high horsepower requirements and high condensing pressures have
now limited its use to the low –temperature cycle in a cascade system. In the cascade
system the carbon dioxide condenses by giving its heat to the evaporator of a higher-
temperature unit using a different refrigerant.
4. Refrigerant 11 – the high value of volume flow per ton with R11 makes it suitable for
service in centrifugal compressors. R11 and R113 are the most-used refrigerants in
centrifugal compressor system.
5. Refrigerant 12 – this is the most widely used refrigerant.It is used primarily with
reciprocating compressors for service in household refrigeration appliances, commercial
and industrial air conditioning, and in a multitude of other types of refrigeration systems.
R12 possesses desirable properties, having convenient operating pressures, low power
requirement per ton, and is nontoxic and noncorrosive.
6. Refrigerant 22 – R22, like R12, is nontoxic and has a low power requirement per ton.
R22 is competitive with Refrigerant 12 in small air-conditioning units. It is competitive
with ammonia in industrial low-temperature systems in cases where toxicity of the
refrigerant is of concern.

 Secondary refrigerants include brines and antifreezes. Two of the most popular brines are
calcium chloride and sodium chloride solutions.

V. Load Calculations

 Product load
The product load is made up of the heat that must be removed from the refrigerated
product in order to reduce the temperature of the product to the desired level. The term
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product means any material whose temperature is reduced by the refrigerating equipment
and includes not only perishable commodities but also items such as welding electrodes,
masses of concrete, plastic, rubber, and liquids of all kinds.

 Infiltration
This is defined as the uncontrolled entry of unconditioned outside air directly into the
building, results from natural forces, e.g., wind and buoyancy due to the temperature
difference between inside and outside. Infiltration is limited by sealing the building envelope
where possible, using vestibules or revolving doors, or maintaining a pressure within the
building slightly in excess of that outside.

 Heat transmission through storage structure

Heat loss or heat gain due to a temperature difference across a building element.

 Internal load
Heat gain due to the release of energy within a space (lights, people, equipment, etc.).
The amount of heat gain in the space due to lighting depends on the wattage of the lamps
and the type of fixture.

 Ventilation
Ventilation is defined as air intentionally brought into the building by mechanical means.

VI. Psychrometry
A. Properties of moist air
Air is a mechanical mixture of gases and water vapor. Dry air is composed
mainly of nitrogen (78%) and oxygen (21%), the remaining 1% being made up of carbon
dioxide and minute quantities of other gases such as hydrogen, helium, neon and argon.

 Dew Point Temperature – is the temperature at which the water vapor in the air is
saturated.
 Humidity – is the water vapor in the air.
 Absolute humidity or vapor density – is the mass of water vapor per unit volume of air.
 Relative humidity – ratio of the actual partial pressure exerted by the water vapor in any
volume of air to the partial pressure that would be exerted by the water vapor if the
water vapor in the air is saturated at the temperature of the air.

 Humidity ratio – also called as specific humidity, is an expression of the mass of water
vapor per unit mass of dry air.

where:
ps = water-vapor pressure of air
pt = atmospheric pressure

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 Saturation ratio – also called as percentage humidity, is the ratio of the mass of water
vapor in the air per unit mass of dry air to the mass of water vapor required for
saturation of the same air sample.

Where:
W = actual humidity ratio
W1 = humidity ratio at saturation for same air
temperature

 Dry bulb temperature of the air – temperature as measured by an ordinary dry bulb
thermometer.

 Wet bulb temperature of the air – temperature as measured by a wet bulb thermometer.
A wet bulb thermometer is an ordinary thermometer whose bulb is enclosed in a wetted
cloth sac or wick.

 Enthalpy of the mixture of dry air and water vapor is the sum of the enthalpy of the dry
air and the enthalpy of the water vapor. The zero value of the water vapor is saturated
liquid water at 0°C. An equation for the enthalpy is:

where
cp = Specific heat of dry air at constant pressure
= 1.0 kJ/kg.K
T = temperature of air-vapor mixture, °C
hg = enthalpy of saturated steam at temperature of air-vapor mixture,
kJ/kg
W = humidity ratio, kg of water vapor/ kg of dry air

 Degrees of superheat – difference between the dew point and dry bulb temperature of air.

B. Psychrometric chart

 Psychrometry - the study of the properties of the mixtures of air and water vapor.

 Saturation line - if the condition of the mixture lies on the saturation line, the air is said to be
saturated, meaning that any decrease in temperature will result in condensation of the water
vapor into liquid.

Processes in psychrometric chart

1. Sensible heating or cooling - refers to a rate of heat transfer attributable only to a
change in dry-bulb temperature of the air.
2. Humidification - may be adiabatic or with addition of heat
3. Cooling and dehumidification - results in a reduction of both the dry-bulb temperature
and the humidity ratio.
4. Chemical dehumidification process - the water vapor from the air is absorbed or
adsorbed by a hygroscopic material.

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VII. Fans and Ducts

A. Piping and accessories

1. Valves – the most commonly used valves are shutoff, backpressure, solenoid and back-
seating.
 The shutoff valve is installed in the line to block flow completely when it is closed. This
is installed wherever any component of the system should at certain times be isolated
from the remainder of the system.
 A back-pressure valve or evaporator-pressure regulator is installed in the suction line to
maintain a sufficiently high pressure in an evaporator to prevent freezing or excessive
dehumidification of air in an air cooling coil.

 Solenoid valves are electrically powered magnetic valves which serve as automatic
shutoff valves. These are often installed in the liquid line and close when the compressor
is not operating.

2. Fittings – the fittings used in a refrigeration system are the elbows, tees, crosses, flanges,
and others. In small copper tubing, flare fittings are popular, while the larger tubing lines
are soldered. Steel pipe is joined by screw fittings, special refrigerant flanges, or the joints
are welded.
3. Oil separator – Some oil escapes from all compressors into the discharge line. To recover
as much of this oil as possible before it goes through the condenser and collects in the
evaporator, an oil separator may be installed.
4. Vibration eliminators – these are installed in the suction and discharge lines to reduce the
transmission of vibration from the compressor. Vibrations cause irritating noise and weaken
the solder connections in the piping.
5. Driers – contain desiccants such as silica gel or activated alumina which adsorb moisture.
6. Filters – prevents foreign particles from flowing through the refrigerating system.
7. Liquid indicators – short transparent fitting that allows the flow of refrigerant to be viewed.
8. Heat exchanger – its purpose is to heat the vapor coming from the evaporator while it
subcools liquid flowing between the condenser and the expansion valve.
9. Liquid receiver – a vessel which stores liquid refrigerant.
10. Liquid accumulator – prevents suction vapor from carrying slugs of liquid to the
compressor from the evaporator.
11. Temperature, pressure and humidity controls.
12. Purger – removes air from the system. This is found mainly on large ammonia systems and
on low-pressure centrifugal-compressor systems.
13. Defrosting – whenever a cooling coil operates with surface temperature below 32°F, frost is
likely to form on the coil. Three common methods of defrosting coils are to use warm air,
water and hot gas.

B. Types of fans

1. Radial flow or centrifugal fan – consists of a wheel or rotor within a scroll spiral type
housing. The air enters parallel to the shaft, makes a 90° turn in the fan wheel, and is
discharged from the wheel (and housing) in a radial manner.

a. Forward-curved-blade – it has a large number of blades, i.e. up to 60, narrow in the

radial dimension but wide parallel to the shaft and facing forward in the direction of
rotation like a scoop. It is a low-speed fan and is limited to handling clean air.
Characteristics: have lower noise level, have overloading
characteristics, normally operate in low pressure range (0 - 15 cm water),
have one unstable operating region, and are usually of light construction.

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b. Backward-curved-blade – it has about 12 blades, essentially flat and tilted backward from
the direction of wheel rotation. It is a high-speed type of fan with a self-limiting
horsepower characteristic. It is the most efficient and more expensive. It cannot be
recommended for dirty air. Characteristics: have non overloading characteristics, operate
against high pressure (0-30 cm water), have no unstable region of operation and are of
sturdy construction and easily installed.

c. Straight or double-curved fan - it has a smaller number of blades – from 6 to 20 – and

the blades are essentially in a plane radiating from the shaft. The blades are normally
about 2 to 3 times as long radially as they are wide. It usually has a larger housing than
the other types. It has the ability to handle dirty air and to convey materials that go
through the fan.

2. Axial-flow or Propeller fan – airflow is parallel to the shaft or axis.

a. Propeller – may have two or more blades which may be of sheet steel or airfoil shape.
The blades may be narrow or wide. They may have uniform or varied pitch. This is used
to handle large volumes of air against free delivery or low heads. This is suited for
ventilation of rooms and air ducts of low resistance. This is characterized by excessive
noises at high speeds.

b. Vane-axial – is distinguished by large hubs and short blades, in addition to stationary

straight vanes on the discharge sides of the fan to prevent rotation or swirling of the air.
It is normally used for delivery of air for pressures to 2.24 kPa (9 in. water) and for
ventilation systems where space is valuable or head room is limited.
c. Tube-axial – this is similar to a vane-axial fan except that it does not contain guide
vanes. It is simpler and somewhat less efficient than the vane-axial.

VIII. Glossary

 Absorption Refrigeration - a heat-operated unit, which uses a refrigerant that, is

alternately absorbed and liberated by the absorbent.
 Accumulator - a cylindrical vessel designed to trap any refrigerant liquid, which may not
have changed to gas in the evaporator, from entering the suction line to the compressor.
 Carnot Refrigeration Cycle - which transfers energy from a low-level temperature to a
high level temperature, requiring an additional external work for its operation.
 Centrifugal Compressor - its operation is that the incoming gas enters the eye of the
spinning impeller and is thrown by centrifugal force to the periphery of the impeller importing
a high velocity to the gas, thus builds up the pressure.
 Coefficient of Performance - the ratio of useful refrigeration (or refrigerating effect) to
the net work (or work of compression).

 Condenser - in the refrigeration system this unit condenses the high pressure vapor
(refrigerant) back into a liquid state so that it can be reused in the refrigeration cycle.
 Cooling Load - contributing sources of load; transmission through walls, ceiling, floors,
doors, ducts, and pipes; radiation and conduction; occupants, electrical equipment;
infiltration; ventilation; latent load and other essential to a careful design of the refrigeration
system.
 Cooling Tower - is a cooling equipment for refrigeration or an air conditioning system
where water is cooled by contacting it with air and evaporating some of the water.
 Dehumidification - the removal of moisture in air being circulated in a given space.

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 Dewpoint Temperature - the dewpoint temperature is the temperature at which the
moisture (water vapor) in the air will begin to condense out of the air when the air is cooled.
The dewpoint temperature is expressed in °F or °C.
 Dry-bulb Temperature - the dry-bulb temperature is the temperature of air measured with
a standard thermometer with a minimum relative motion between the dry thermometer bulb
and the surrounding air. The dry-bulb temperature is usually expressed in °F or °C.
 Dry Evaporator - a type of evaporator when a portion of its area is used for superheating
the refrigerant.
 Dry Ice - a solid carbon dioxide which when heated at atmospheric pressure, the solid
transforms directly into vapor.
 Evaporative Condenser - is a companion device for conserving water with the cooling
tower. The combined heat-transfer process occurring in the evaporative condenser are:(1)
condensation of refrigerant vapor on the inside of the tubes, (2) conduction through the tube
wall and fin, (3) conduction and convection from the tube surface to the outside surface
of the film of water which covers the tube, and (4) simultaneous transfer of sensible and
latent heat from the wetted surface to the air stream.
 Evaporator - is a heat exchanger, which transfers heat from the substance being cooled to
a boiling refrigerant.
 Freon - is a primary refrigerant such as Freon 12 or Freon 22, under the trademark of Freon
Products.
 Heat of Respiration - quantity of heat that will pass, in unit time through a unit area of a
specified thickness of material under a unit temperature difference.
 Humidity - is a measure of the proportion of vapor present.
 Humidity Ratio - is the weight of vapor interspersed per pound of dry air.
 Humid Volume - volume of 1 kg dry gas plus its contained vapor.
 Infiltration Load - load added to the cooling equipment when cooled air is displaced by
outdoor air entering through the cracks around doors and windows when door opens.
 Latent Load - heat loads principally coming from people, infiltration air, ventilation air and
moisture-releasing appliances.
 Moisture Condensation - occurs when the temperature drops below the dew-point
temperature of the air.
 Product Load - amount of heat that must be removed from the

product to lower its temperature to the room in which it is to be stored.

 Psychrometrics - measurement of physical properties of gas mixture.
 Psychrometric Chart - chart of gas mixture properties.
 Psychrometry - is the study of properties of mixtures of air and water vapor.
 Purging - is the removing of air from the refrigeration system. The operation is by drawing
a mixture of refrigerant vapor and air from the condenser or receiver, condense the
refrigerant by cooling or by compression and cooling, vent off the non-condensables, and
return the liquid refrigerant to the system.
 Reciprocating Compressor - is a type of compressor consisting of a piston moving back
and forth in a cylinder with suction and discharge valves arranged to allow pumping to take
place.
 Relative Humidity - the ratio of the partial pressure of the water vapor in saturated air at
the same temperature. The relative humidity is the relative capacity of air, at a particular
temperature, to hold. Relative humidity is expressed as a percent, with values ranging from
0 to 100%. At 100% RH, the air is considered “saturated” and cannot hold more moisture.
 Rotary Compressor - is a positive-displacement machine with shaft, blade, and roller as its
moving parts in the compression. Compression could be obtained by means of eccentrically
driven roller moving in a gyrating manner in a closed cylinder.
 Steam Jet Refrigeration - is a refrigerating system using steam as a refrigerant, which
expands through a converging-diverging nozzle and rushes out a supersonic speed.
 Steam Pressure - is vapor pressure at temperature above the boiling point when the
volume is confined under pressure.

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 Sublimation - is a change of phase from solid into a vapor, which may provide refrigeration.
 Thermal Resistance - the insulating ability of a material or the resistance of the material to
the flow of heat through it.
 Ton of Refrigeration - is the unit of refrigeration capacity requiring to freeze one (1) ton of
water at 32°F into ice at 32°F in one (1) day equivalent to 200 Btu/min or 12,000 Btu/hr.
 Total Heat Content - the heat content of the air is the total heat energy in the air, which
includes the heat due to the temperature of the air, the heat required to change whatever
water vapor was in the air from water into water vapor, and the heat energy in the water
vapor itself.
 Vapor Pressure - when the water molecules in the air exert a particular pressure.
 Wet-bulb Temperature - the wet-bulb temperature is determined with a standard
thermometer having the bulb surrounded with a gauge on sock and means for continuously
wetting the sock and passing air over the wetted sock to cause evaporation of water from
the sock. The wet bulb temperature is also expressed in °F or °C.

XII. References

Dossat, R.J. 1998. Principles of Refrigeration. Prentice Hall.

Stoecker, W.F. & J.W. Jones. 1982. Refrigeration and Air Conditioning. McGraw-Hill Book Co.

Refrigeration and Air Conditioning