Insulating and

Dielectric
Materials
 An electrical insulator is a material that does not allow the flow of electric
current through them.

A dielectric is an electrical insulator that can be polarized on the

application of an electric field.

Insulating The major difference between an insulator and a dielectric is that an

insulator opposes the flow of electrons or charges while the dielectric

and
stores the electric charges.

Dielectric materials can be polarized while insulators cannot be polarized.

Dielectric
Materials Dielectric materials have a high value of dielectric constant while
insulators have a low value of dielectric constant.

The examples of dielectric are vacuum, dry air, distilled water etc. while
the examples of insulators are plastic, mica, cotton etc.
Insulating and Dielectric Materials
Dielectric
▪ Dielectric is the material that can
store electric charges, or they are the
materials in which an electric field
can develop with the minimum loss of
energy.
▪ They can be polarized when an
electric field is applied across them.
Insulator
▪ Insulator is the material that has low
or zero electrical conductivity, and
they can create obstruction in the
flow of electric current.
▪ Insulators can not be polarized like
the dielectrics in the presence of
electric field.
Insulating and Dielectric Materials
Dielectric
▪ They have a high value of dielectric
constant.
▪ The bond that exists in the dielectric
material is weaker than the insulator.
▪ The dielectric materials can store the
charge.
Insulator
▪ The dielectric constant of insulators is
quite low.
▪ A strong covalent bond exists in the
insulators.
▪ Insulators do not have the ability to
store the charge like the dielectrics
instead they act as a barrier for the
flow of charge, or they provide
obstruction to the flow of current.
Classification of Insulating Material
1. According to Substances and Materials
▪ Solid ( Inorganic and Organic): Mica, Wood, Slate, Glass, Porcelain, rubber, cotton, silk,
rayon, terylene, paper, cellulose material etc.
▪ Liquids( Oil and Varnishes): Linseed oil, refined hydrocarbon mineral oils, spirit and
synthetic varnishes etc.
▪ Gases: Dry air, Carbon dioxide, argon, nitrogen etc.
2. According to Temperature
▪ Insulating materials, especially those used in generators, motors, transformers and
switchgear, are often classified based on their temperature limits that will give
acceptable life under usual industrial conditions of service.
Classification of Insulating Material
▪ 2. According to Temperature
• Unimpregnated paper, cotton or silk, vulcanised natural rubber, various
thermoplastics that have softening points that would only permit their use up to
90 0C. Aniline and urea formaldehydes. Class Y ( 90 0C)

• Paper, cotton or silk impregnated with oil or varnish, or laminated with natural
drying oils and resins or phenol formaldehyde. Polyamides. A variety of organic Class A ( 105 0C)
varnishes and enamels used for wire coating and bonding.

• Polyvinyl formal, polyurethane, epoxy resins and varnishes, cellulose triacetate,

polyethylene terephthalate, phenol formaldehyde and melamine formaldehyde Class E(120 0C)
mouldings and laminates with cellulosic materials.

• Mica, glass and asbestos fibres and fabrics bonded and impregnated with suitable
organic resins such as shellac bitumen, alkyd, epoxy, phenol formaldehyde or Class B(130 0C)
melamine formaldehyde.

• As class B but with resins that are approved for class F operation such as alkyd,
Class F(155 0C)
epoxy alkyd and silicone alkyd.
• As class B but with silicone resins or other resins suitable for class H operation.
Class H(180 0C)
Silicone rubber.
• Mica, asbestos, ceramics and glass alone or with inorganic binders or certain
Class 200,220,250:
silicone resins. Polytetrafluoro-ethylene.
Characteristic of Good Insulating Material

Should have low Should have Should have

dielectric high moisture high dielectric
constant resistant strength

Should have
Should have Should have low adequate
high resistance dielectric loss chemical
stability
Effect of Moisture on Insulation
▪ When an insulating material
is placed in a humid
atmosphere it absorbs a
certain moisture then surface
resistance decreases and
causes insulation breakdown.

Figure: Electric strength of insulating liquids versus

relative humidity.
Effect of Moisture on Insulation
▪ The effect of moisture of insulating
materials brings about the following
changes:
▪ Changes in electrical properties
▪ Chemical changes
▪ Physical and Mechanical Changes
▪ Changes in Electrical Properties
1. The moisture absorbs by insulating
material causes:
a. decrease dielectric constant
b. decrease dielectric strength
c. decrease insulation resistance
d. increase dielectric loss
2. Conducting bridges may appear across
surface of the insulating materials under
high humidity and current
▪ Chemical Changes
1. High humidity often causes hydrolysis
2. High humidity favours the growth of fungi
in some insulating materials, which in turn
degrade the organic insulating materials.
Effect of Moisture on Insulation
▪ Physical and Mechanical Changes
1. Some materials like plastics, polymers and materials filled with cellulose filters swell in the
presence of high humidity
2. Mechanical strength of the insulating materials is reduced in the presence of moisture.

Protection against moisture

▪ Insulation can be protected against ▪ Impregnation treatment
moisture by following methods: 1. Solidifies the windings,

1. Impregnation of winding: 2. Increase thermal conductivity,

▪ The winding of all low voltage equipment 3. Improves electrical and mechanical
are impregnated with baking varnishes strength
which helps to raise the moisture resistance 4. Improves heat resistance.
of windings.
Protection against moisture
▪ Insulation can be protected against moisture by following methods:
2. Making insulation hydrophobic(waterproof)
▪ Suitable for polymers containing hydroxyls and for cellulose base insulating materials
▪ More favorable than employing asphalts, bitumens, waxes etc.
▪ Paper, cotton fabric are made hydrophobic by dipping them in the solution of methyl
butoxidiamine silane in carbon tetrachloride or methyl triethoxysilane in absolute alcohol.
3. Hermetic Sealing
▪ Hermetic sealing is sealing by means of compound.
▪ Compounds used in sealing low voltage equipment are polyester styrene, butyl methacrylate,
styrene, polyurethane, silicon base compound
▪ Sealing Methods: Dipping, Moulding, Injection, Encapsulation etc.
▪ Sealing parts should be thoroughly dried out.
Dielectrics
▪ A dielectric material is one that is electrically insulating (nonmetallic)
▪ May exhibit or made to exhibit and electric dipole structure; that is there is separation
of positive and negative electrically charged entities on a molecular or atomic level.
▪ Due to dipole interactions with electric fields, dielectric materials are utilized in
capacitors
▪ The ability to store charge by capacitors is called its capacitance. It is defined to be
charge, Q, per unit applied voltage, V and given by
𝑄
𝐶=
𝑉
▪ Unit of 𝐶 is Farad or Coulombs / Volt.
Dielectrics
▪ When Voltage is applied across a
capacitor one plate becomes
positively charged, other negatively
charged, with the corresponding
electric field.
▪ Direction of electric field is from
positive to negative charge
▪ Consider a vacuum in the region
between the plates. Then
𝐴 Figure : A parallel-plate capacitor when a vacuum is
𝐶 = 𝜖𝑜 present
𝑙
Dielectrics
▪ 𝐴 is area of plate and 𝑙 is distance between them.
▪ 𝜖0 is called the permittivity of a vacuum = 8.85 × 10−12 𝐹/𝑚.
▪ Let's insert the dielectric material into the region within the plates then
𝐴
𝐶=𝜖
𝑙
▪ Where 𝜖 is the permittivity of this dielectric medium. 𝜖 > 𝜖0 .
▪ The relative permittivity 𝜖𝑟 is often called dielectric constant and given by
𝜖
𝜖𝑟 =
𝜖𝑜
▪ 𝜖𝑟 > 1 and represents the charge storing capacity by insertion of dielectric medium
between the plates. 𝜖𝑟 one of the properties should be considered for capacitor design.
Capacitance

Figure: A parallel-plate
capacitor when a dielectric
material is present.
Dielectrics
▪ The best approach to explain the phenomenon of capacitance is to use field vectors.
▪ For every dipole the is a separation between positive and negative charge as shown in
figure.
▪ An electric dipole moment 𝑝 is given by
𝑝 = 𝑞𝑑
▪ Where 𝑞 is the magnitude of each dipole charge and 𝑑 is the distance of separation
between them .
▪ In reality 𝑝 is vector and is directed from negative to the positive charge.
▪ In the presence of electric field, E ( Vector quantity), a force (torque) will come to bear on
an electric dipole to orient it with the applied field; this process of dipole alignment called
polarization.
Dielectrics

Schematic representation of an electric

dipole generated by two electric charges
(of magnitude 𝑞) separated by the distance Figure: (a) Imposed forces (and torque) acting on
𝑑; the associated polarization vector 𝑝 is a dipole by an electric field. (b) Final dipole
also shown. alignment with the field.
Dielectrics
▪ The surface charge density 𝐷, or quantity of charge per unit area of capacitor plate
(C/m2), is proportional to the electric field.
▪ In vacuum

▪ In presence of dielectric medium,

▪ 𝐷 is also called the dielectric displacement.

Dielectrics
▪ Suppose a capacitor in vacuum situation,
▪ +𝑄𝑜 charge stored on the top plate
▪ −𝑄𝑜 charge stored on the bottom plate

Figure: Schematic representations of (a) the

(b) the dipole arrangement in an unpolarized charge stored on capacitor plates for a vacuum
dielectric
Dielectrics
▪ When dielectric is introduced and electric
field is applied, the entire solid within the
plates becomes polarized.
▪ Due to polarization, there is accumulation:
▪ −Δ𝑄 at surface near positively charged plate
▪ +Δ𝑄 at surface near negatively charged plate
▪ The induced charge from the dielectric (+Δ𝑄
or −Δ𝑄 ) nullify some of the charge that
originally existed on the plate for a vacuum
(c) the increased charge-storing capacity resulting from
(−Q0 or +Q0). the polarization of a dielectric material.
Dielectrics
▪ The voltage imposed across the plates is maintained at the vacuum value by
increasing the charge at the negative (or bottom) plate by an amount −ΔQ and that at
the top plate by +ΔQ.
▪ Electrons are caused to flow from the positive to the negative plate by the external
voltage source such that the proper voltage is re-established.
▪ Thus, the charge on each plate is now Q0 + ΔQ, having been increased by an amount
ΔQ.
▪ In the presence of a dielectric, the charge density between the plates, which is equal
to the surface charge density on the plates of a capacitor, may also be represented by
Dielectrics
Δ𝑄 𝐶
▪ Where 𝑃 = is polarization and its unit is same as for 𝐷
𝐴 𝑚2

▪ For many dielectric materials, 𝑃 is proportional to E through the relationship

▪ Here, 𝜖𝑟 is independent of the magnitude of electric field.

Polarization
▪ A dielectric comprises of molecules having fixed atomic nuclei relative to each other.
▪ The electrons are distributed symmetrically around the nucleus at any instant when
there is no external field.
▪ An electric field when applied, causes a movement of electrons which are displaced in
a direction opposite to that field.
▪ This movement is opposed by the attractive forces between nuclei and electrons.
▪ The resultant effect will separate the positive and negative charges in each molecule
so that they behave like electric dipoles.
▪ The strength of the dipole is given by the dipole moment and the dipole moment is
given by 𝑝 = 𝑞𝑑.
Polarization

Electric Dipole moment, 𝑝 = 𝑞𝑑

Polarization
▪ Polarization is the alignment of permanent or induced atomic or molecular dipole
moments with an externally applied electric field.
▪ There are three types or sources of polarization: electronic, ionic, and orientation.
▪ Dielectric materials typically exhibit at least one of these polarization types,
depending on the material and the manner of external field applications.
▪ Electronic polarization may be induced in all atoms.
▪ It results from a displacement of the centre of the negatively charged electron cloud
relative to the positive nucleus of an atom by the electric field.
▪ This polarization type is found in all dielectric materials and exists only while an
electric field is present.
Polarization

Figure (a): Electronic polarization that results from the

distortion of an atomic electron cloud by an electric field.
Polarization
▪ Ionic polarization occurs only in materials that are ionic.
▪ An applied field acts to displace cations in one direction and anions in the opposite
direction, which gives rise to a net dipole moment as shown in figure (b).
▪ The magnitude of the dipole moment for each ion pair 𝑝𝑖 is equal to the product of the
relative displacement 𝑑𝑖 and the charge on each ion, or

Figure (b): Ionic polarization that results from the relative displacements of
electrically charged ions in response to an electric field.
Polarization
▪ Permanent Dipole Moment
▪ The existence of a permanent moment is purely a matter of molecular geometry.
▪ Two hypothetical cases are shown in the figure below.
▪ The molecules are of the form ABA.
▪ B atom is negatively charged, whereas A’s are positively charged.
▪ The arrangements of the figure give a net-zero dipole moment in the absence of the
field, whereas the molecular geometry of the figure gives a resultant dipole moment
in the absence of the field.
▪ CO2 is an example of the first case and NO2, and H2O are examples of the second case.
Polarization

a) CO2 give a net-zero dipole moment

in the absence of the field

b) H2O gives a resultant dipole

moment in the absence of the field.
Polarization
▪ Orientation polarization, is found only in substances that possess permanent dipole
moments.
▪ Polarization results from a rotation of the permanent moments into the direction of
the applied field figure (c).
▪ This alignment tendency is counteracted by the thermal vibrations of the atoms, such
that polarization decreases with increasing temperature.

Figure (c): Response of permanent electric

dipoles (arrows) to an applied electric field,
producing orientation polarization.
Frequency Dependence of Polarization
▪ In many practical applications, a dielectric is subject to an a.c. fields which change its
direction with time.
▪ With each reversal, polarization component are supposed to follow the field reversal
in order to contribute to the total polarization of dielectric.
▪ It means that the total polarization depends on the ability of dipoles to orient
themselves in the field direction during each alternation of field.
▪ Relaxation time: Reorientation of dipole in response to the electric field is
characterized by relaxation time (𝜏).
▪ A relaxation frequency is taken as the reciprocal of 𝜏
▪ A dipole cannot keep shifting orientation direction when the frequency of the applied
electric field exceeds its relaxation frequency.
Frequency Dependence of Polarization
▪ It is observed that relative permittivity 𝜖𝑟 which is the measure of polarization shows
different frequencies.
▪ Dependence of 𝜖𝑟 on different frequencies of electric field is shown in the figure.
▪ In audio frequency all type of polarization is possible, and the dielectric is
characterized by 𝑃 = 𝑃𝑒 + 𝑃𝑖 + 𝑃𝑜 .
𝑇
▪ If the 𝜏 is half of the time period applied to the filed ( 𝜏 = ) dipoles can easily follow
2
the field reversal and so will contribute to the orientational polarization. 𝑃𝑜 become
ineffective at higher frequencies.
▪ In radio and microwave frequency band regions permanent dipoles fail to follow the
field reversal so 𝑃 = 𝑃𝑒 + 𝑃𝑖 . Here 𝜖𝑟 decreases appreciably.
▪ In infrared region, ionic polarization fail to follow the field reversal due to inertia of
the system and so contribution of ionic polarization stops. So 𝑃 = 𝑃𝑒 .

Dipole orientations for (a) one polarity

of an alternating electric field and (b)
the reversed polarity.

Variation of dielectric constant with frequency of an alternating electric field.

Electronic, ionic, and orientation polarization contributions to the dielectric
constant are indicated.
Frequency Dependence of Polarization
Active and Passive Dielectrics
Polar and Non-polar Molecules
▪ All positive charges are concentrated at a single point : c.g of positive charge
▪ All negative charges are concentrated a single point : c.g of negative charge
Non-polar Molecules
▪ If the c.g of positive and negative charge concentrated at a point, the atoms or
molecules do not have any permanent dipole moment : Non-polar Molecules
▪ Non – polar Molecules : H2, O2, N2, CO2, CH4, etc.
Polar Molecules
▪ If the c.g of positive and negative charge do not coincide at a point, the atoms or
molecules have permanent dipole moment : Polar Molecules
▪ Polar Molecules :NH2, NaCl, H20, NO2, FeCl3, NaOH etc.
Polar and Non-polar Molecules
Non-polar Molecules in External 𝐸0
▪ When a non-polar molecule is placed in an external electric field 𝐸0 , then c.g of
positive and negative charges are affected.
▪ The positive charged nucleus will experience force in the direction of 𝐸0 and negative
charged electrons will experience a force in opposite direction of the applied field 𝐸0 .
▪ Therefore, separation of charges takes place in the molecule.
▪ Thus, the molecule can give some finite value of dipole moment, which is known an
induced dipole moment 𝑃 .
▪ 𝑃 ∝ 𝐸0 and direction is always parallel to the direction of the E0 .
∴ 𝑃 ∝ 𝐸0 ⇒ 𝑃 = 𝛼𝐸0 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝛼 is constant and called molecular polarizability of the
dielectric.
Polarization

a) CO2 give a net-zero dipole moment

in the absence of the field

b) H2O gives a resultant dipole

moment in the absence of the field.
Polar Molecules in External 𝐸0

(a) Polar molecules in a dielectric. (b) An electric field is applied to the dielectric.
(c) Details of the electric field inside the dielectric.
Polar Molecules in External 𝐸0
▪ The resultant Electric field is 𝐸 = 𝐸0 − 𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑑
▪ Its shows, that on placing a dielectric inside and electric field, the strength of the
electric field reduces.
Dielectric Constant (Relative permittivity)
▪ The relative permittivity (or dielectric constant) may be defined as the ratio of the
electric field in free space to that in dielectric and is represented by 𝜖𝑟 .
𝐸0 𝜖 1 𝑞 1 𝑞
𝜖𝑟 = ⇒ 𝜖𝑟 = ∵ 𝐸𝑜 = 𝑟Ƹ & 𝐸 = 𝑟Ƹ
𝐸 𝜖0 4𝜋𝜖𝑜 𝑟 2 4𝜋𝜖 𝑟 2
▪ ∴ Dielectric constant ( 𝜖𝑟 )also defined as ratio of the absolute permittivity of the
dielectric to that of free space.
Dielectric Losses
▪ When a potential difference is applied between two electrodes containing dielectric,
the dielectric is stressed because of molecular rearrangement produced within the
dielectric.
▪ If the potential is reversed, stress is also reversed and cause energy loss.
▪ This happens because the molecules have to overcome internal friction in the process
of alignment and certain amount of heat is released in the process.
▪ Therefore, dielectric loss can be defined as- the energy produced in the form of heat
owing to reversal of electric stress.
▪ The dielectric loss increase with increase in frequency. It is low at 50Hz but at higher
frequencies ( in MHz), the heat release is so high which increase temperature of
dielectric.
Dielectric Breakdown
▪ When a dielectric is subjected to potential difference, it does not conduct electricity
but when the applied potential difference is increased to certain maximum value, it
suddenly start to conduct electricity.
▪ This phenomenon in which a dielectric material conducts electricity under a certain
high potential difference is called dielectric breakdown and the corresponding high
potential difference is called breakdown voltage.
▪ The minimum electric field at which a dielectric conducts electricity is called dielectric
strength and is measured in volt/meter.
▪ The following types of mechanism play a role in the dielectric breakdown
phenomenon: 1. Avalanche breakdown/intrinsic breakdown 2. Thermal breakdown 3.
Electrochemical breakdown 4. Defect breakdown
Dielectric Breakdown
▪ What do you mean by dielectric strength of air 30 kV/cm?
It means that maximum p.d. which 1 cm thickness of air can withstand across it
without breaking down is 30kV. If p.d. exceeds this value, the breakdown of air insulation
will occur; allowing a large current to flow through it.
Dielectric Breakdown
• The value of dielectric strength of an insulator (or dielectric) depends upon
temperature, moisture content, shape etc
• Usually, a spark or arc occurs which burns up the material above breakdown voltage
• The breakdown of solid insulating material (dielectric) usually renders it unfit for
further use by puncturing, burning, cracking or otherwise damaging it. Gaseous and
liquid dielectrics are self-healing and may be used repeatedly following breakdown.
• For reasons of safety, electric field applied to a dielectric is only 10% of the dielectric
strength of the dielectric material.
▪ Note. To avoid electric breakdown of dielectric, capacitors are rated according to their
working voltage, meaning the maximum safe voltage that can be applied to the
capacitor
Applications of Dielectric Materials
▪ As earlier stated, that the function of dielectric is to store energy. Capacitor is the
most common example in which use of dielectrics is made. Depending upon the type
of dielectric used, the capacitors may be grouped into the following categories :

1. Capacitors that use vacuum, air or other gases as dielectrics

These capacitors are used in the applications where the energy loss (in the capacitors) must be
small and where the value of capacitances needed is not very large. Dielectric losses in these
capacitors are very small. They are used in radio frequency circuit and low frequency measuring
circuits where precision is highly desirable.
2. Capacitors that use mineral oil as dielectric
These are used in applications where a large value of capacitance is required and where a small
amount of dielectric loss can be tolerated.
Applications of Dielectric
3. Capacitors which use a combination of solid and liquid dielectrics
Oil impregnated paper dielectric is used for making capacitors of large values of small size.
Such capacitors are required in the applications where precision is not so important, but a high
value capacitance is required, e.g., for power factor correction in electric power distribution
systems.

4. Capacitors which use solid dielectric (such as glass, mica, titanium oxide, etc.)
These are employed in laboratories as standard capacitors. Mica is commonly used as solid
dielectric in making standard capacitors. Dielectric loss of mica is very small. It has high value
of electric constant and high insulation resistance. Also, its dielectric constant does not change
much with temperature variation and time.