Psych Educ, 2022 Document ID: PEMJ0, doi: 10.5281/zenodo.

6523214
Research Article

Chronotype Differences in Critical Thinking Skills Among Senior High School Students
Moises M. Lopez III*
For affiliations and correspondence, see the last page.

Abstract
The ultimate goal of K-12 program of the Department of Education is to provide every Filipino child
with the education he needs and eventually to compete in the global context; whereas, critical
thinking skills are reiterated as one of the vital solutions to diagnose the lapses in the Philippine
educational system. However, according to many researchers, there are notable factors that can affect
the development of critical thinking skills of students such as chronotype or the time preference of
individuals. Accordingly, differences in sleep patterns are accompanied by the differences in the
timing of peak cognitive performance which is also a manifestation of maximum activation of critical
thinking skills of a learner. The significance of this study therefore lies on its intention to provide an
inquiry-based data in understanding the academic performance of senior high school students through
their perceived critical thinking skills with regards to their school-rhythms or their most favorable
time-of-day for learning. If teachers and program developers are able to assess their student’s
chronotype, then there would be high possibility in achieving the genuine teaching-learning process
in the department. In the light of the findings of the study, the following conclusions are presented:
(1) The grade 11 senior high schools’ students are morning-type. (2) Students who often manifest
inquisitiveness may have a good level of interpretation, analysis, inference, evaluation, explanation,
and self- regulation as dimensions of critical thinking skills. (3) The students have the same
perceptions on the level of different dimensions of their critical thinking skills regardless of their
senior high school track affiliation. Moreover, (4) the chronotype or time preference of Grade 11
senior high school students does not affect the level of their critical thinking skills.

Keywords: Chronotype, Senior High School, Critical Thinking Skills, Time Preference, School-
rhythms

Introduction the 1987 Philippine Constitution that goes along with

To provide every Filipino child with the education he
needs and eventually compete in global context are the
ultimate objectives of K-12 program which are
obviously a great help to improve the different
competencies and skills of students. One of the skills
that is very significant in the educational system and
even at workplace is critical thinking. The said concept
was featured in the 1991-1999 Education for All
Philippine Plan of Action to diagnose the lapses in
Philippine educational system and to solve some major
problems of the Department of Education (DepEd).
As mentioned by Cortez (2016), as early as 2010,
during DepEd discussion on the goals of K+12, it was
already explicitly stated that every graduate of the
Enhanced K+12 Basic Education Program is an
empowered and equipped individual who has learned
through a program that is rooted on sound educational
principles and geared towards excellence. Today it is
called as the Republic Act 10053 or the Enhanced
Basic Education Act of 2013 signed by Ex-President
Benigno Aquino III.
These platforms are basically paralleled to subsection
2 of Section 3 under Article XIV or The Education,
Science and Technology, Arts, Culture and Sports of
Moises M. Lopez III
the strengthening ethical and spiritual values,
developing moral character and personal discipline,
broadening scientific and technological knowledge,
promoting vocational efficiency of every learner in the
country.
These pronouncements by the leaders of the country
reflect the belief in the relevance of critical thinking.
This crucial type of discernment and mental process
really mandates each stakeholder of the department to
understand it well and eventually possess this skill for
the betterment of results in all local and national
examinations implemented by the Department of
Education.
However, despite the demands of the globalized world,
Filipino children and youth should not only be sent to
schools just for them to acquire the necessary skills
that would make them competent laborers for capitalist
markets, but more importantly, they should be trained
to become critical thinkers so as to be open, sensitive,
and understanding of the beliefs and values of others
as well as not to be enslaved by their respective belief
and value systems (Marquez, 2017).
In other words, the current world needs people with
variety of capabilities and potentialities such as
understanding and using different ways of thinking,
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Research Article
values appraisal, research, problem solving, emotional
evaluation, creativity and critical thinking in order to
meet the demand of the fast-changing society.
Critical thinking has been accepted as a way to
overcome the difficulties as well as to facilitate the
access to information life (Demirhan, Besoluk &
Onder, 2011). Students who possess critical thinking
can surely ponder and evaluate things clearly and
rationally about what to do in particular situation, what
to believe and how to solve certain problems.
Recently, the Partnership for 21st Century Skills has
identified critical thinking as one of several learning
and innovation skills necessary to prepare students for
post-secondary education and the workforce. Likewise,
the newly created Common Core State Standards
reflect critical thinking as a cross- disciplinary skill
vital for college and employment (Lai, 2011).
In connection with this, the ability to think critically is
an essential life skill in American society today; as the
world changes at an ever-faster pace and economies
become global, young adults are entering an
expanding, diverse job market. To help young
Americans compete for jobs that did not even exist a
few years ago, it is necessary now more than ever
before to ensure that young adults possess the thinking
power to flexibly and creatively adapt to new job
markets (Hove, 2011).
Due to the importance of critical thinking in students’
academic performance, a large volume of educational
and psychological research has been devoted to these
issues in different countries.
As cited by Liu, Frankel, and Roohr (2014), in a
survey conducted by the Association of American
Colleges and Universities(AAC&U,2011),95% of the
chief academic officers from 433 institutions rated
critical thinking as one of the most important
intellectual skills of their students. The finding reveals
that 81% of the employers surveyed by AAC&U
(2011) wanted colleges to place a strong reemphasis on
critical thinking.
In the point of view of curriculum developers,
implementers, and administrators, Law and Kaufhold
(2009) as cited by Salas (2016) also found out that
students who engage in regular activities that promote
the development of critical thinking skills perform
higher on tasks of higher order thinking.
Indeed, since critical thinking involves a variety of
skills such as the individual identifying the source of
Moises M. Lopez III
information, analyzing its credibility, reflecting on
whether that information is consistent with their prior
knowledge, and drawing conclusions based on their
critical thinking (Linn, 2000), it should already be
clear to every member of the society the significance
of critical thinking to different aspects and domains of
life to realize every vision we create.
However, several studies showed that level of critical
thinking of adolescents is now declining. As cited by
Miri, David & Uri (2007), Halpern (1998) and Kuhn
(1999) consistently showing results that indicated the
need for improving critical thinking skills among
students since many of them fail to utilize sophisticated
reasoning even at the tertiary level.
Unfortunately, the same result also emerged in the
study done by Del Bueno (2005) wherein there were
aggregate results for competency assessment of new
registered nurses in California using the Performance
Based Development System which indicated that most
new graduates do not meet expectations for entry-level
clinical judgment ability. Also, this glooming reality
also strengthened by the study of Yenice (2011) when
the 330 students in Turkey who had divergent learning
style had lower scores in critical thinking in contrast
with students who have accommodator style. The
given results imply that there is a decreasing level of
critical thinking skills across the world.
Though people believe that United States of America
(U.S.A) is the foundation and a model of good and
quality education, they are also experiencing
deterioration in the level of critical thinking skills
among their learners. According to Mendelman (2007)
as cited by Hove (2011), the majority of U.S. schools
fail to teach critical thinking and as a result, the
majority of their populace does not practice it. It is also
confirmed by Hayes and Devitt (2008) who stated that
generally, critical thinking strategies are not
extensively developed or practiced during primary and
secondary education in many schools in U.S.
Though there are extrinsic and intrinsic factors that
affect the waning critical thinking level of adolescents
nowadays, teachers who are the primary source of
good education also emerged as a prime suspect. In the
study of Alazzi (2017), indicated that Jordanian
Secondary School Social Studies Teachers have little
familiarity with the definition and teaching strategies
of critical thinking. The result of his study supports the
finding that students do not acquire critical thinking
skills from their public school education in Jordan.
Miri, David and Uri’s (2007) study also revealed that
teacher factor has something to do with these awful
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results. Their study exposed that only a marginal part
of the teachers (2 out of 10 science and non-science
alike) proclaimed to apply teaching strategies that
promote higher order thinking skills among their
students. Even those who do (i.e., the experimental
teachers, M and L, in this study) found it difficult to
conceptualize CT per se, and what it is comprised of.
As a result, as cited by Magno (2013), studies of
Neuschmidt, Barth, & Hastedt (2008) and Ramirez
(2006) revealed that most students do not score well on
the tests that measure ability to recognize assumptions,
evaluate arguments and appraise inferences.
Findings suggest that if teachers purposely and
persistently practice higher order thinking strategies
for example, dealing in class with real-world problems,
encouraging open-ended class discussions, and
fostering inquiry-oriented experiments, there is a good
chance for a consequent development of critical
thinking capabilities (Miri, David and Uri, 2007).
Critical thinking is a concept that is given much
discussion, but unfortunately without much action.
According to Breslin (2016), because students are
usually taught only one viewpoint about everything,
they simply accept the theory they learn on their
teacher’s authority with perhaps little understanding of
the reasons provided. However, when they taught a
second and third theory, along with their respective
pro and con arguments, students would be drawn into a
more nuanced understanding of the problem, try to
determine which theory was right, and discover their
minds at a deeper level as they grappled with the
question and experience the excitement of intellectual
inquiry.
Unfortunately, even the educational system of some
Western countries possesses inadequacy and scantiness
of quality and good education---the system where
Philippines patterned its educational scheme and
programs.
This general lack of critical thinking in the whole
educational system is best exemplified by the
pedagogy of schools leaning towards rote
memorization that usually leads to poor metacognition
and problem-solving ability. According to Dela Cruz
(2012) this is also exhibited by Filipino students
preferring memory work over problems that demand
the use of reasoning. Moreover, Paul & Elder (2008)
strongly stated the following statement encouraging
educators to teach critical thinking:
“Instead of teaching students to merely memorize facts
Moises M. Lopez III
easily found on the internet, we should instead teach
them how to think: clearly, accurately, precisely,
relevantly, deeply, broadly, logically, significantly,
fairly.” (p. 88).
Filipino researcher, Magno (2013) also fortified these
results and confirmed that studies in psychology,
education, business, and other fields call for more and
better thinking skills instruction in schools and
especially in the Philippine setting. Students also do
not exhibit an impressive level of skills in critical or
creative thinking.
On another vein, higher order thinking skills enhance
students’ critical thinking (Miri, David & Uri, 2007).
Critical thinking has also been referred to as
metacognition (Tempelaar, 2006) or the process of
“thinking about thinking” as defined and originally
purposed by Flavell (1979); and so, the study of
Ramos, Dolipas and Villamor (2013) who tested the
relationship of higher order thinking skills (HOTS) and
the academic performance in physics of students
affiliated in Benguet State University during the school
year 2010‐2011 revealed that 49.5% of female students
have average HOTS level on analysis while 54.4% of
male students have below average level. On
comparison, almost 50% of both male and female
students have below average level while more than
half of male and female students have average level on
inference. Almost half of male students and female
students have average level of HOTS on evaluation.
Male and female students have similar level of HOTS
on all four areas.
The same result were gathered by Calub (2011) when
he studied the reading comprehension and ability in
solving word problems in basic Mathematics as sub-
skills of metacognition and critical thinking. 142 HRM
freshmen students of the Urdaneta City University in
the first semester of 2010-2011 were the respondents
of the research. He found out that the respondents have
poor reading comprehension and they lack English
communication skills which in turn indicates that they
have poor foundation and knowledge of the English
language. Moreover, he described the majority of the
respondents as poor in the level of word problem
solving ability in basic mathematics.
On this study, the researcher recommended to teachers
to teach context clues and proper discernment of words
in a sentence to familiarize students with the key words
associated with addition, subtraction, multiplication
and division to facilitate translation of word problems
into the required mathematical phrases or equations.
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Generally, Philippines is performing low in the
national and international assessments such as Trends
in International Mathematics and Science Study
(IMSS) and National Achievement Test (NAT) in
elementary and secondary science courses. Dacumos
(2015) wanted to look at the contributory factors that
might have led to this low academic achievement of
students in Science Education. The respondents in the
study were 279 Grade 9 students being the pioneer
batch of the K to 12 Curriculum from all the ten (10)
2013 newly legislated schools in the Baguio City and
who are currently taking the science education
program under the said curriculum. Unfortunately, he
found out that the respondents are not proficient in
Science education and personality has a weak
correlation with their academic performance.
Ramota (2005) fearlessly stated that science and
mathematics competencies of Filipino students during
Arroyo’s term were also one of the worst in the world.
Areola (2010) was urged from this article to determine
the extent of influence of the mathematics achievement
to the academic performance of the sophomore
students of the University of the Cordilleras High
School Department. The bases of this study were the
results of the students’ National Achievement Test and
their final grades of school year 2008-2009.
She saw an average mastery level in subtopics System
Linear Equations and Inequalities and Quadratic
Equations; low mastery level in subtopics Rational
Algebraic Expressions, Variation, Integral Exponents,
Radical Equations and Searching for Patterns in
Sequence. It was found out that students have a low
mastery when it comes to problem solving.
These data prove that the declining and crucial level of
critical thinking and its spheres among our learners are
just around the corner. Therefore, students have to be
challenged to question, examine and evaluate ideas
and information, make a tested inferences and quality
evaluation rather than to be merely absorb data and
acquire knowledge in the four-walled classroom.
Though these numbers already quantifying the
importance of critical thinking in the educational
domain of a particular institution, it seems that the
underlying factor is just a morsel problem in the eyes
of appointed officers in the department. This
assumption by the researcher is strongly paralleled to
Bernasconi (2008) who stated that:
“The problem and sad reality is that few secondary
schools and secondary educators are adapting curricula
to help high school students develop and exercise
Moises M. Lopez III
critical thinking skills. Too many high school
institutions are letting the students to receive their
certificate of completion without really testing and
evaluating the standard they have gained to meet the
demand of tertiary education. It is too tangible that
whether students will attend college immediately after
high school or enter the work world without college,
they are not prepared.” (p. 17).
On this dark era of Filipinos in magnetizing themselves
in authentic critical thinking skill, fact still remains that
it is still a long shot to achieve this ideal concept of
education per se. There are statistics, research results
and data that prove the depressing status of low-leveled
critical thinking skills of adolescent Filipino learners.
However, through the continuous search for the
development of the educational system, the researcher
believes that sooner or later, the river of success flows
just behind few mountains.
School systems need to amend curriculum to ensure
that high school graduates will have developed a solid
foundation of critical thinking skills, enabling young
adults to be more successful in their pursuits after high
school (Hove, 2011).
In another vein, there are already researchers and
theorists of critical thinking that developed
components and/or dimensions under the said concept.
Examples of these are the five components of critical
thinking skills adopted from Watson and Glaser
(1991). The five components of critical thinking skills
are as follows: Making inference, Recognition of
assumptions, Deduction, Interpretation of data, and
Evaluation of arguments.
However, in 1987, the American Philosophy
Association created a multidisciplinary committee of
forty-six published critical thinking theorists from
philosophy, education, and psychology. This
committee conducted a Delphi research project that led
to the development of a consensus definition and
conceptualization of critical thinking and its core
cognitive skills and affective dispositions (Colucciello,
1997; N. C. Facione, 1995). As to the core cognitive
skills, here is what the experts include as being at the
very core of critical thinking (Facione, 1998):
interpretation, analysis, evaluation, inference,
explanation and self-regulation.
According to Watson and Glaser (1980), Facione
(1990) and Simpson and Courtney (2002), as experts
and theorists of critical thinking, critical thinking
includes analysis, evaluation, and inference.
Furthermore, Bitner and Tobin (1998) used
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interpretation, explanation, and self-regulation as
central to critical thinking.
Quoting from the consensus statement of the panel of
experts (Facione, 2015), interpretation is to
comprehend and express the meaning or significance
of a wide variety of experiences, situations, data
events, judgements rules or criteria. While analysis is
to identify the intended and actual inferential
relationships among statements, questions, concepts,
descriptions, or other forms of representations
intended to express belief, judgements, experiences,
reasons, information, or opinions. Inference is to query
evidence, conjuncture of alternatives, and draw logical
valid or justified conclusions while evaluation is to
assess credibility claims, quality of arguments that
were made using inductive and deductive reasoning.
Explanation is to state results and to justify procedures;
and self-regulation refers to self- consciously
monitoring one’s cognitive activities, the elements
used in those activities, and the results educed,
particularly by applying skills in analysis, and
evaluation to one’s own inferential judgments with a
view toward questioning, confirming, validating, or
correcting either one’s reasoning or one’s results.
Despite the fact that the theorists have proposed
greatly different definitions for critical thinking, still,
they have views in common.
These six core skills that should be taught to encourage
critical thinking in students are the springboard and
foundation of the researcher to come up with a self-
made questionnaire measuring the self- perceived level
of critical thinking level of the respondents.
On the other hand, according to many researchers,
there are notable factors that can affect the
development of critical thinking skills of students.
These are: self-leadership (Semerci, 2010), motivation
(Lai, 2011), language mastery (Samanhudi and
Sampurna 2010), inquiry teaching (Kitot et al., 2010),
influence of culture (Lun, 2010) and metacognition
(Magno, 2013).
Interestingly, in recent years, researchers were
progressively discovering the relevance of chronotype
in critical thinking. This variable that is associated to
sleeping preference is a thought-provoking when
compared to critical thinking of a particular learner.
Aside from new sustenance to researchers’ palate and
literature, it will surely shed light to other façade of
learners to fully understand their learning and coping
styles.
Moises M. Lopez III
Chronotype in other words is the behavioral propensity
of an individual to sleep at a certain time within a 24
hour cycle; relative to both the individual’s own
circadian cycle and myriad of other biophysical
process anchored to this cycle (Roenneberg, 2012). In
fact, in the study of Adan et al. (2012), they affirmed
that there are individual differences in the timing of
sleep-wake cycles such that some people prefer to
wake up early in the morning and go to sleep early in
the evening while others prefer the opposite pattern.
In addition to this, as defined by Morales, Escribano,
and Jankowski (2015), Morningness–Eveningness (M-
E), also termed chronotype is considered an individual
characteristic describing preferences for functioning at
different times of day. People are typically categorized
as morning types (M-types), neither types (N-types),
or evening types (E-types).
There are also several studies and findings in the
relationship between chronotype and cognitive ability
which prove that the time of a day has effects on basic
and more complex cognitive functions that are
contingent upon an individuals' chronotype (Schmidt
et al., 2007). This vivid result is essential and
necessary to pay attention to the way in which
different chronotype learn and adopt in a particular
learning activity.
Also, current studies revealed that cognitive
performance (which is related to critical thinking) of
morning type students (larks) differs from that evening
type of students (owls). Moreover, Loureiro and
Marques (2015) posited that it is not surprising that
chronotypes also differ in their cognitive performances
in a time of the day that matches or mismatches their
chronotype.
In the study of Preckel et al. (2011), they affirmed that
differences in sleep patterns are accompanied by
differences in the timing of peak cognitive
performance, with some people reaching their peak in
the morning and other functioning most effectively in
the evening or at night.
Daily fluctuations of attention indicated a progressive
increase throughout the school day, when boys reached
higher attention than girls and evening-type boys
reached higher attention than evening-type girls
(Escribano & Dı ´az-Morales, 2014). Daily fluctuations
in cognitive and non-cognitive performance (i.e.
mood), the so-called ‘‘school- rhythms’’, lie in
exploring the most favourable time- of-day for
learning, taking into account individual differences
(Vollmer et al., 2013).
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It is also emphasized by Escribano and Diaz-Morales
(2016) when they found out on their research the
differences among chronotypes in academic
performance wherein they tested a sample two age
groups: 12-14 and 15-16, controlling for sleep length
due to previous results. In the youngest group, morning
and neither types reported both higher grades and
academic satisfaction than evening types. In the oldest
group, statistically significant differences were only
found between neither and evening types, without any
differences between extreme groups; that is to say,
neither types reported higher grades and academic
satisfaction than did evening types but there were no
differences between morning and evening types.
As cited by Preckel et. al. (2011) on their meta-
analytic investigation, Roberts and Kyllonen (1999),
reported that individuals high in eveningness were
more likely to do well on measures of memory,
processing speed, and cognitive ability, even when
those cognitive tasks were performed early in the
morning. Furthermore, Kyllonen & Christal (1990)
found that working memory capacity (which is often
regarded as the best proxy for general intelligence, or
psychometric) showed the highest correlation with
individuals' morningness and eveningness scores.
In particular, high scores on the eveningness scale
were correlated with higher scores on the working
memory task. Kanazawa and Perina (2009) and
Wagner and Roberts (2003) present similar findings
showing significant correlations between individuals'
chronotype and intelligence, favoring (albeit slightly)
persons with a proclivity towards eveningness.
However, other studies suggest that relations between
chronotype and cognitive ability are more variegated.
For instance, Killgore and Killgore (2007) reveal
correlations between verbal cognitive ability and
eveningness (but not between math ability and
eveningness). The latter finding was only true for
female participants. Similarly, Song and Stough (2000)
found a significant eveningness advantage on the
Spatial subtest of the Multidimensional Aptitude
Battery IQ (MAB-IQ), but not on any other subtest.
Overall, research on relationships between chronotype
and cognitive ability remains relatively scant and
somewhat inconsistent (Killgore & Killgore, 2007;
Song & Stough, 2000).
However, as cited by Zamzow (2014), Preckel,
Lipnevich, Schneider, & Roberts (2011) conducted a
meta-analysis that revealed a small effect of
eveningness on “cognitive ability”, as measured by
intelligence testing and vocational aptitude, and
morningness on academic achievement, as measured
Moises M. Lopez III
by GPA and college entrance examination.
But along the challenging researchers of chronotype,
interventions and output should emerge to help the
existing problem of a certain institution. Owens,
Belon, and Moss (2010) supported many research
results and suggested that a modest delay (30 minutes)
in school start time was associated with significant
improvements in measures of adolescent alertness,
mood, and health. The results of this study support the
potential benefits of adjusting school schedules to
adolescents’ sleep needs, circadian rhythm, and
developmental stage.
The bottom line here is that several studies on
cognitive abilities and performance showed evidence
for a synchrony effect, that is, evening types should
prefer and perform better in later lessons and morning
types should prefer and perform better in earlier
lessons (Goldstein, Hahn, Hasher, Wiprzycka, &
Zelazo, 2007).
Since there are numbers of senior high school students
of President Elpidio Quirino National High School that
possess and exhibit ‘laziness’ as described by the
teachers who cannot decipher the underlying factor
why some students behave uninterested to different
activities and performance tasks in a given time
schedule, the researcher’s thrust now is to explain the
individual differences in terms of sleep-patterns and
their learning strategies and skills that might be
affected with time and schedule of activities.
Research Questions
This research investigates the significant difference
between the critical thinking skills of senior high
school students according to their chronotype.
Specifically, it sought to find answers to the following
questions:
1. What is the difference in the level of the skills of the
students when compared according to the dimensions
of critical thinking?
2. What is the difference in the level of critical
thinking when compared to chronotype?
Methodology
Research Design and Methodology
This study utilized descriptive-comparative design
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since the researcher compared the level of critical
thinking skills along the dimensions: interpretation,
analysis, inference, evaluation, explanation, and self-
regulation according to their preferred chronotype.
According to Cristobal & Cristobal (2013) descriptive-
comparative involves the comparison of representative
samples from groups of subjects in relation to certain
designated variables that occur in normal conditions.
Population and Locale of the Study
The respondents of the study were Grade 11 students
of President Elpidio Quirino National High School
(PEQNHS) enrolled in the academic school year
2018-2019. The Grade 11 curriculum was chosen
because it is more established than Grade 12
curriculum because the latter group is still
experiencing a shortage of teachers, modules and even
classrooms that may affect the overall result of the
study. There were a total of 243 students who
participated in the research.
Data Gathering Tools
The main tools that were used to gather the data in this
study are Reduced Morningness-Eveningness
Questionnaire (rMEQ) and Lopez-Malagotnot Critical
Thinking Scale.
Reduced Morningness-Eveningness Questionnaire
(rMEQ. This instrument constructed by Adan and
Almirall (1991) includes five-item statements. The
questions 1 to 3 in rMEQ ask subjects to indicate the
time of the day when they feel at their best, the time
they prefer to get up, and the time they prefer to go to
bed. Question 4 is related to the degree of tiredness
perceived in the first half hour after waking. In
question 5, subjects are asked to indicate their
morningness or eveningness preferences. The rMEQ
has proven to be a quick and reliable measure with
high correlation of .898 that significant at 1% margin
of error with adequate inter-item correlation and
validity (Adan & Almirall, 1991). This questionnaire
has order of choices from Morningness to Eveningness
within each answer that is balanced over the whole
questionnaire, in order to avoid any fixed response
pattern.
Lopez-Malagotnot Critical Thinking Scale. This is a
self-structured questionnaire that was used to gather
the self-perceived level of critical thinking skills of
senior high school students. The tool consists of six
dimensions of critical thinking skills based on the
study of Facione (1999). The researcher came up with
statements based on the descriptors of critical thinking
skills provided by Facione (1999).
Moises M. Lopez III
In the conducted data analysis, this test has a very high
Chronbach’s alpha reliability with a value of .959
based from the pilot testing that had been done by the
researcher. The scale has also undergone content
validation through the help of group of experts who
have theoretical and practical knowledge about the
subject to make sure that the procedures that have been
followed are relevant and necessary. The experts
assessed the items of the questionnaire and determine
if the items measure the variables being studied.
Moreover, it has also a Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO)
value of .960 indicating that the sample is adequate
and marvelous. KMO test is a measure of how suited
the data is for factor analysis. And so, to identify latent
variables or constructs and to identify individual items
into a fewer number of dimensions, the researcher
used factor analysis (see Appendix E: Rotated
Component Matrix, Coding and Factor Loading per
item).
The respondents of the said pilot test were the 431
senior high school students enrolled during the
academic school year 2017-2018. This measure was
used to conduct data analysis to assess the reliability,
or internal consistency, of a set of scale or test items of
the self-structured questionnaire.
Data Gathering Procedure
The researcher secured permission from the school
principal of President Elpidio Quirino National High
School to pilot-test and administer the tools to gather
pertinent data for the study. Upon approval, the
questionnaires were administered to the respondents on
February 5-28, 2018. Permission from their adviser
was sought before proceeding on floating the research
questionnaire to the respondents on each section from
the Grade 11 curriculum. The researcher also provided
brief orientation to all the respondents regarding the
objective of the study and instructions on how to
answer the questionnaires.
The researcher, together with the adviser and/or
subject teacher in charged on each classroom answered
all the queries from the students regarding the context
of each item from both questionnaires. The research
procedure was then carefully observed by the
researcher to guarantee all the guidelines under
research ethics, to possess objectivity, credibility and
completeness in securing the data needed in answering
the research questions.
Treatment of Data
This section presents and enumerates the statistical
measures and tools that were used on the gathered data
to meet the objectives of the study. The data gathered
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were then tabulated, analyzed, and interpreted using
the mean counting and ANOVA through SPSS.
Result
Dimensions and Critical Thinking Skill
In another vein, it has also been discussed from the
previous chapters that critical thinking skill, like any
other skill, is the ability to engage in an activity,
process or procedure. It was also emphasized that there
are six dimensions that comprises the said variable.
Table 1
The comparison between the skills of the students and
the dimensions of critical thinking
To determine whether there is a significant difference
between the skills of students and their dimensions of
thinking, One-way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)
for independent sample was used. It can be gleaned
from table 1 that the mean of each dimension of
critical thinking and the skills of students indicate no
significant difference, with a p-value of .210. This
result gives the decision to accept the null hypothesis
or there is no significant difference between the level
of the skills of the students when compared according
to the dimensions of critical thinking. It also means
that students are good in interpretation, analysis,
inference, evaluation, explanation, and self-regulation.
Furthermore, students in general have the same
perception on the level of different dimensions of their
critical thinking. The result suggests that students must
be exposed to critical thinking instructions for them to
further develop their critical thinking skills.
One of the reasons of possessing high level of critical
thinking level of the respondents is that PEQNHS
offers a high standard of teaching-learning process to
learners for more than 25 years. Different awards and
recognitions were also received by the school which
signify the possession of the said level of critical
thinking skills among its learners. As per Municipal
Resolution NO. 87-2012, PEQNHS received the 2012
Moises M. Lopez III
Model Public Secondary School in Agoo, La Union in
line with the Search for Model Public Secondary
School. On the other hand, model public secondary
school must have a) academic curriculum which is
designed based from the need of every learner. This
curriculum is also patterned after the standard set by
the Department of Education. Through the different
subject areas, teachers from different intervention
program that will address the needs of the students in
dealing with their everyday learning experiences; b)
competent teachers who do not get tired to elevate their
professional growth. Most of the teachers in PEQNHS
are enrolled in Masteral and Doctoral degree both from
junior and senior high school department. Through the
professional commitment of the teachers, education
itself in the school gets abreast of the trends and
innovations which are vital and beneficial to the
students; c) Transparent, ethical and accountable
school leaders who take full responsibility of all the
necessary projects that promote physical development
in the school. Through transparent leadership, school
head reports financial updates specifically the
Maintenance and Other Operational Expenses
(MOOE); d) Innovative faculty members who are
willing to go beyond their comfort zones. Through
their effort, teachers get involved in different projects
and programs which involve students to further
improve their behavioral and academic standing: e)
Winning students in different competitions who,
through the years, the school has produced numerous
winnings both in academic and extracurricular
competitions. With the collaborative effort of the
teachers and students, the performance of the school in
different competitions make way to make the school
noticeable even in the national arena.
The mentioned criteria help the students possess and
develop high level of critical thinking skills through
the following: a) Students can already assess their
performance in their respective subjects based from
their outputs and results of written evaluation. Since
they are aware on how their grades are computed,
students can easily draw conclusions on their
performance; b) Since students are research-oriented
learners, they got involved in giving solutions to the
problems be it in school or in community; and c) The
winning of the students in different competitions help
them to also assess their performance. Since not all the
time for them is the winning one, they are also the
ones conducting performance review, specifically what
went wrong during failures.
On another vein, because of the Grade 11 curriculum
has almost the same set of teachers with the same core
subjects offered on the particular semester, it is a good
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point to convey that they also received the same
treatment. Treatment such as teaching styles, teaching
methodologies and pedagogies and array of activities
that will at least activate and enhance the critical
thinking skills of the respondents. Moreover, as
already gleaned from the interviews with some
teachers, students and administrators, it is already clear
that most of them were came from the same
governmental or public school during their junior high
school years and some of the students graduated from
the Special Science Curriculum which has an stiff
entrance examination paralleled from the parameters
of the regional office. Besides, in the said curriculum,
there are elective subjects from Grade 7-10 that
perhaps helped them to come up with a high level of
critical thinking skills. Definitely, it is a very good
observation to come up with implications such as the
enumerated rationales above to explain the computed
ANOVA which signifies that there is no significant
difference between the level of the skills of the
students when compared according to the dimensions
of critical thinking.
Therefore, to achieve genuine activation of critical
thinking skills among learners, Husband (2006) urge
instructors to rethink how students learn by knowing
how they think because he believes that once this
thinking process is understood, instructors will
understand when and why they may need to revamp
old methods of teaching in favor of methods that
require students to reason, resolve conflicts, examine
alternatives, break down arguments, assess credibility,
form opinions, and make conclusions. Students will
experience more learning when they take charge of
their learning and intellectually activate their thinking
processes with these new methods; the ability for
students to thinking critically will just naturally follow.
Truly, the results suggest that students must be
exposed more to genuine critical thinking instructions
for them to further develop their critical thinking skills
through vigorous training and enhancement of each
core or dimension of the said skill; continuous
involvement of these dimensions to different teaching
pedagogies and creative development of educational
programs that can mold students’ critical thinking
skills technologically advanced by teachers, program
developers and administrators.
Dimensions of Critical Thinking and Chronotype
Interpretation and Chronotype. To determine whether
there is a significant difference between the level of
critical thinking skills of students as to interpretation
Moises M. Lopez III
and their chronotype, one-way ANNOVA for
independent sample was used. Table 2 shows a
summary of the test.
It is presented on the said table that students’ level of
interpretation skill has no significant difference when
compared to their chronotype with a p-value of .311.
This result gives the decision to accept the null
hypothesis or there is no significant difference in the
comparison between the skills of the students and their
dimensions of critical thinking. This means that
regardless of the students’ chronotype, these students
are good in expressing and comprehending meaning of
a wide variety of resources, experiences, situations,
events, and judgments.
Table 2
The comparison between the level of critical thinking
(as to interpretation) and chronotype
However, Rosenberg (2015) and his colleagues proved
that chronotype-specificity relates to performance on
cognitive tasks particularly comprehension as a
subskill of interpretative skill where participants
perform more efficiently when tested in the
chronotype-specific optimal time of day than when
tested in their non-optimal time; and for their surprise,
imaging studies focusing on the underlying neural
mechanisms of potential chronotype-specificities are
sparse and chronotype-specific alterations of language-
related semantic processing have been also neglected
so far.
Rosenberg’s (2015) team found out that chronotype-
specificity is associated with task-performance and
brain activation. First, evening type exhibited slower
reaction times than morning type. Second, morning
type showed attenuated bold responses in several
language-related brain areas, e.g. in the left postcentral
gyrus, left and right precentral gyrus and in the right
superior frontal gyrus. Additionally, increased bold
responses were revealed for evening type as compared
to intermediate type in task-related areas, e.g. in the
right inferior parietal lobule and in the right postcentral
gyrus. On this study that utilized modern and advanced
technology, they came up with conclusions that even
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basic language processes are associated with
chronotype-specific neuronal mechanisms.
Consequently, results might change the way they
schedule patient evaluations and/or healthy subjects in
e.g. experimental research and adding “chronotype” as
a statistical covariate (Rosenberg et. al.,2015).
On the other hand, the level of comprehension as a
subskill of interpretation and their word processing
ability could really affect their final interpretation to
certain words that a particular chronotype has either a
thick or thin wall that separates the other chronotypes.
On another vein, this local research only signifies that
the self-perception test about critical thinking level
will give a slippery drift from the cited literature since
there is a big gap on the measurements used,
participants and to over-all methodology. However,
though they gave different results, respondents from
this study only shows that whether they are morning
type, intermediate type or evening type, they tend to
easily comprehend significance of things, events or
situations.
Perhaps, since the Grade 11 students are exposed to
these subjects that develop their interpretative skill, it
could be a great explanation and a springboard why
majority of the respondents assessed themselves as
high level in the said dimension regardless of their
chronotype. As enumerated by the division
memorandum no. 465, s. 2017 or the Senior High
School Lists of Subjects of Division of Pangasinan II,
some of the languages and social sciences subjects that
obviously and typically have learning competencies
that need to use their interpretative skill on printed and
broadcast materials are 21st Century Literature from
the Philippines and the World, Media and Information
Literacy, Creative Nonfiction, Creative Writing,
Malikhaaing Paagsulat, Komunikasyon at Pananaliksik
sa Wika at Kulturang Pilipino Pagbasa at Pagsusuri ng
Iba’t Ibang teksto Tungo sa Pananaliksik and
Introduction to the Philosophy of the Human Person.
Analysis and Chronotype. To determine whether there
is a significant difference between the level of critical
thinking skills of students as to analysis and their
chronotype, one-way ANNOVA for independent
samples were used.
Moises M. Lopez III
Table 3
The comparison between the level of critical thinking
(as to analysis) and chronotype
Table 3 shows that the null hypothesis which tells that
there is no significant difference between the students’
chronotype and their critical thinking skills as to
analysis is accepted as evidenced by p-value .117. This
implies that students are good in breaking information
down into parts, and identifying actual inferential
relationships among statements, questions, concepts
and/or other forms of representations regardless of
their chronotype. Aside from the fact that Grade 11
respondents have received almost the same set of
subjects since day one, they also got the same set of
teachers who are probably using the same teaching
pedagogies that could expose their students in analysis-
based projects and instructional activities that
eventually lead students to develop analytical skills.
This was proven by Adrian Lopez, Grade 11 HUMSS
student and an evening type. In an interview with him,
he said that he is good in making analysis of a certain
text because of mandatory usage of some graphic
organizers that were taught in subjects Media and
Information Literacy and Oral Communication. Some
of these are chronological, sequence writing, story
summary, and venn diagram graphic organizers which
really help him to identify the conceptual relationships
of those parts to each other and to the whole story he
read (Personal Communication, November 15, 2018).
On this connection, he can determine and see the
whole story and knows how it might be broken up into
smaller morsels for better understanding of the article.
Since the practice of using graphic organizers of grade
11 curriculum to examine closely related proposals
regarding a given problem and to determine their
points of similarity and divergence of a particular
article, this leads them to assess themselves high in the
self-perception critical thinking skills test.
However, Diaz-Morales (2007) neglected the result of
this research wherein it determined that, on average,
Owls and Larks possess very different thinking styles.
Specifically, Larks preferred direct, tangible, concrete
sources, with observable data, and use logic and
analysis to learn. Whereas Owls preferred imaginative,
intuitive thinking styles, based on symbolism and
unknown data. This suggests that Owls may struggle
to learn information when presented in a typical
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lecture based format, or reproduce this information on
typical fact-based assessments (eg: multiple choice
exams) due to conflicting thinking or learning
characteristics (Davidson, 2016). On this study, it only
shows that morning and evening types have already
been shown and emerged to possess very different
learning preferences, which could have a considerable
impact on their abilities to process and repeat lecture
material (Diaz-Morales 2007) which obviously and
definitely a reinforcement to reject the decision of the
research to accept the null hypothesis that tells there is
no significant difference between the level of
analytical skill as a dimension critical thinking and the
chronotype of the respondents.
Though there are contradictions, the result still implies
that students are good in identifying the actual
inferential relationships among statements, concepts,
information, judgments and other representations.
Inference and Chronotype. To determine whether there
is a significant difference between the level of critical
thinking skills of students as to inference and their
chronotype, one-way ANNOVA for independent
samples were used.
Data from table 4 shows that the p-value of .445 is
greater than .05 level of significance when compared.
Thus, the decision is to accept the null hypothesis
which states that there is no significant difference
between the level of level of critical thinking as to
inference when compared to the students’ chronotype.
This signifies that regardless of students’ chronotype,
students have high level of inference skills. The result
explains that students are good in figuring something
out through reasoning based on assumptions and ideas.
Moreover, these students can easily identify and secure
elements needed to draw reasonable conclusions.
Students are probably exposed to pedagogical
instructions from previous and current teachers that
encourage the use of inference in class activities, such
as making an anchor chart, making multiple inferences
on the presented short films and pictures, and the like.
As already mentioned above, most of the students in
senior high school curriculum particularly in the
academic stands came from Special Science High
School wherein there are elective subjects from Grade
7-10 curriculum that perhaps helped them to come up
with a high level of critical thinking skills. Besides,
students of PEQNHS are exposed in research and
journalistic activities and screening every year that
definitely push them to determine which of several
possible conclusions is most strongly warranted or
supported by the evidence at hand, or which should be
Moises M. Lopez III
rejected or regarded as less plausible by the
information given.
Table 4
The comparison between the level of critical thinking
(as to inference) and chronotype
But in the study of Díaz-Morales and Escribano (2013)
they predicted school achievement of both morning
and evening chronotypes, sleep length and grade point
average of the respondents that there is a big gap or
difference between the two chronotypes along the role
of inductive reasoning (a subcategory of inference)
which recognizably rejects the result of this research.
In this study, the relative contribution of
Morningness–Eveningness (M–E) in the prediction of
school achievement, after controlling for age,
sex/gender, inductive reasoning and sleep length was
analyzed. Participants were 887 adolescents (aged
12–16). To measure school achievement, Grade Point
Average (GPA) was used, inductive reasoning was
evaluated by reasoning subtest of Primary Mental
Abilities (PMA-R), sleep length was calculated from
rise time and bedtime questions, and M–E was
evaluated by Morningness–Eveningness Scale for
Children (MESC). From these different ingredients of
methodology, they came up with different findings and
conclusions. In this study, they enlightened the
chronobiology world with results such as evening
adolescents scored higher on PMA-R and obtained
lower GPA. Inductive reasoning, age, sex/gender,
sleep length and M–E accounted for 19% variance
percentage on GPA. M–E was a significant predictor
of school achievement even after controlling for
traditional predictors, albeit slightly.
Furthermore, since lack of sleep is always mirrored
with evening chronotype, München (2010) concluded
that sleepiness and fatigue have been associated with
distortions in perceptual skills, reasoning abilities,
judgment and decision-making capabilities, dichotic
temporal order judgment, impairments in memory and
learning, increased errors, poor vigilance and attention,
and reduced reaction times. Because of this study,
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again, it rejects the decision of the researcher of this
local study to accept the decision that there is no
significant difference between the inference skills and
chronotype of students as evidenced by the computed
ANOVA value as shown in the table 4.
Evaluation and Chronotype. To determine whether
there is a significant difference between the level of
critical thinking skills of students as to evaluation and
their chronotype, one-way ANNOVA for independent
samples were used.
Table 5
The comparison between the level of critical thinking
(as to evaluation) and chronotype
Table 5 shows that the p-value of .514 is greater than
.05 level of significance when compared. Thus, the
decision is to accept the null hypothesis which states
that there is no significant difference between the level
of critical thinking as to evaluation when compared to
the students’ chronotype. This means that regardless of
students’ chronotype, students have high level of
evaluation skills. This shows that students are good in
judging the value, credibility, or strength of something.
Furthermore, students can assess the credibility of
statements or other representations which are accounts
or descriptions of others’ perception, experience,
situation, judgment, belief, or opinion. The possible
reason why students have good evaluative skill is that,
students are exposed in questioning, reflective-
teaching, and inquiry-based learning, that probably
motivated by an attitude of inquisitiveness and a belief
in the value of evidence as they learnt from their
teachers.
This result again tells a different story in research
about chronobiology when Goldstein et. al., (2006)
administered measures of fluid and crystallized
intelligence to Morning- and Evening-type adolescents
who were tested either during a morning session or an
afternoon session and at times chosen to reflect the
limits of the average school day schedule. The said
methodology gave a result in the aspect of fluid
intelligence measures where there was a synchrony
effect or the parallelism with the time schedule of
Moises M. Lopez III
giving a particular task and the time preference of the
subject. With this, it gave a better performance at times
that matched individuals’ preferences.
One of the observations of the researcher that gives
him an answer why the respondents assessed
themselves as high level in the domain of evaluation
and other cores of critical thinking skills is the
exposure from formative, summative and external
academic programs and assessments given by different
teachers which urge each student to perform well.
Whereas, this set of activities are paralleled with the
official definition of evaluation according to the
consensus made which is to assess the credibility of
statements or other representations which are accounts
or descriptions of a person's perception, experience,
situation, judgment, belief, or opinion; and to assess
the logical strength of the actual or intend inferential
relationships among statements, descriptions,
questions or other forms of representation.
One of the said activities are the regular quiz bees,
essay writing contests, debates and brainstorming
activities of each department in the school which are
implemented all-year round. The said academic
programs and activities are spearheaded by different
department heads during their scheduled celebration of
their domains. For example, Nutrition Month of the
Technology and Livelihood Education (TLE)
curriculum, Buwan ng Wika (Month of the National
Language) of the Filipino Department, Intramurals
Month of the Music, Arts, Physical Education and
Health (MAPEH), English Month of the English
department, Celebration of the National Statistics
Month of the Mathematics Department and History
and Culture Month of both Values Education and
Social Sciences department.
This could be one of the reasons why the respondents
got a good and proactive evaluation since these
activities are mandatory which started from the earliest
grade of seven. Moreover, they were exposed since
then with these different learning competencies and as
a result, regardless with the time preference or
chronotype of the participants of this research, they got
a high level of self-assessment of critical thinking
because again with the same treatment and exposure
with the same curriculum, historically and generally
speaking.
Explanation and Chronotype. To determine whether
there is a significant difference between the level of
critical thinking skills of students as to explanation and
their chronotype, one-way ANNOVA for independent
samples were used.
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Table 6 shows the analysis of the respondents’ answers
and gives us the p-value of .615 which is greater than
.05 level of significance. Thus it is evident in the
above-shown table that there is no significant
difference between the students’ chronotype and their
critical thinking skills as to explanation; therefore, null
hypothesis is accepted. This signifies that regardless of
students’ chronotype, students have high level of
explanation skills. This implies that students are
capable and competent to present in a cogent and
coherent way the results of their reasoning. These
students can form a logical opinion or evidence about
something based on the information or evidence that is
available. This proves that teachers in PEQNHS are
also using explanation as a teaching methodology that
is why students have improved explanation skills.
Table 6
The comparison between the level of critical thinking
(as to explanation) and chronotype
In a research study done by Vincenzo et.al (2002),
they exposed the level of cognitive efficiency and
circadian typologies of adolescents and proved that
along the big differences between and among the
chronotypes, there is also no difference at some points.
The aim was to investigate differences between
morning and evening types in the performance
variations during the day of four different tasks: visual
search, logic reasoning, spatial reasoning,
mathematical reasoning. Significantly different
circadian trends between morning and evening types
emerged only in the visual search task. Surprisingly, in
the reasoning tasks no significant differences were
observed in the whole day, as if tasks requiring a high
operational load involved a cognitive and motivational
engagement which can compensate, in normal
day–night conditions, the efficiency decrease due to
alertness changes. This disconfirmed the many
researchers particularly those who promote arousal
theory among chronotypes. The results obtained on
self-evaluation efficiency suggest an efficacy
intervention of metacognitive processes of
performance monitoring for complex tasks only.
Moises M. Lopez III
Different diurnal activation of the left-hemisphere
between morning and evening types was posited.
From this research of Vincenzo et.al (2002), it can be
understood that at some point or particular aspect,
chronotype could be somehow not a factor particularly
in critical thinking and intelligence of adolescents as
posited by many researchers. And finally, amidst of
the many researches that rebut the results of this local
research, there are also studies from the dark corners
of chronobiology which emerged as outliers from an
avalanche of homogeneous studies with almost the
same results.
In another vein, since PEQNHS has a science high
school and most of the grade 11 respondents are well
trained to make research and exposed to research since
their junior high school years, it could be a great
password to unlock the screen question why the
respondents rate themselves high in the core of
explanation and as a dimension of critical thinking.
(1990, 1998) also gave the definition of explanation as
to present the evidential, conceptual, methodological,
criteriological and contextual considerations which one
used in forming one's interpretations, analyses,
evaluation or inferences, so that one might accurately
record, evaluate, describe or justify those processes to
one's self or to others, or so as to remedy perceived
deficiencies in the general way one executes those
processes.
From this point of view of this expert, a research or
thesis activity per se could sum up the enumerated
definitions of the said core of critical thinking skills.
Which is again, a great possible factor why the
respondents, regardless of their chronotype or time
preference, they got high in explanation.
Moreoever, explanation is a basic skill to be practiced
and mastered by a senior high schooler nowadays
because there is a great need to do so. Most of the
curriculum subjects in the senior high school
department mandate basic skills of research and
capability in the quest for knowledge and eventually,
this pool of facts will be arranged evidentially,
conceptually, methodologically, criteriologically and
contextually and presented to class and/or teachers in a
manner paralleled to a certain rubric. And because of
these learning and academic thrusts, students possess a
high value for themselves in terms of explanation and
rate themselves high on this core of critical thinking.
To determine whether there is a significant difference
between the level of critical thinking skills of students
as to self-regulation and their chronotype, one-way
ANNOVA for independent samples were used.
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Table 7
The comparison between the level of critical thinking
(as to self-regulation) and chronotype
Table 7 shows the analysis of the respondents’ answers
and gives us the p-value of .514 which is greater than
.05 level of significance. Thus it is evident in the
above-shown table that there is no significant
difference between the students’ chronotype and their
critical thinking skills as to self-regulation; therefore,
null hypothesis is accepted. This signifies that
regardless of students’ chronotype, students have high
level of self-regulation skills. This also suggests that
students are proficient in monitoring their own
cognitive activities, the elements used in those
activities, and the results educed, particularly by
applying skills in analysis, and evaluation to their own
inferential judgments with a view of questioning,
confirming, validating, or correcting either their
reasoning or results.
Self-regulation or the activity to reflect on one's own
reasoning and verify both the results produced and the
correct application and execution of the cognitive
skills involved is the last core or dimension of critical
thinking skill on this chapter. On this regard, still the
respondents’ chronotype has nothing to do with their
level of critical thinking as a whole and as per
dimension because, again, regardless of their
chronotype, respondents are still high in the level of
self-regulation.
Due to the important effect of learning strategies on
academic achievement, most researchers also
concentrated on the relationships between students’
achievement and self-regulated learning strategies
(Sadi & Uyar, 2013).
Owens JA et. al., (2016) got a research thrust which is
to determine whether shorter school-night sleep
duration, greater daytime sleepiness, and greater
eveningness chronotype were associated with lower
self-regulation. Accordingly, among adolescents,
greater daytime sleepiness and greater eveningness
chronotype were independently associated with lower
Moises M. Lopez III
self-regulation, but shorter sleep duration was not.
Aspects of sleep other that school-night sleep duration
appear to be more strongly associated with self-
regulation.
However, respondents of this research and their
academic environment may be exposed with different
activities that promote self-examination such as to
examine one's views on a controversial issue with
sensitivity to the possible influences of one's personal
bias or self-interest; to review one's methodology or
calculations with a view to detecting mistaken
applications or inadvertent errors; to reread sources to
assure that one has not overlooked important
information; to identify and review the acceptability of
the facts, opinions or assumptions one relied on in
coming to a given point of view; to identify and review
one's reasons and reasoning processes in coming to a
given conclusion.
Moreover, Owens JA et. al. (2016) posited on their
study that poor self-regulation or an inability to alter
thinking, emotions, and behaviors to meet varying
social demands is thought to be a key link between
inadequate sleep in teens and poor health and school-
related outcomes. Because in deed, children and
adolescents with better self-regulation have better
physical health, mental health and financial security as
adults.
Indeed, these negative manifestations presented on this
collection of research only tell us that the local
respondents from Grade 11 of PEQNHS do not
affected at all because the result shows that they have
high level of self-regulation skills regardless of their
chronotype.
Critical Thinking Skills and Chronotype
To determine whether there is a significant difference
between the critical thinking skills of students and their
chronotype, one-way ANOVA for independent
samples were used. Table 15 shows a summary of the
test.
Table 8
The comparison between the level of critical thinking
according to chronotype
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It is evident on the presented table 8 that the p-value of
.329 is greater than .05 level of significance. The
decision to accept the null hypothesis is then
considered which states that there is no significant
difference between the overall critical thinking skills
of students and their chronotype. This explains that
regardless of the students’ chronotype, Grade 11
students of PEQNHS have high level of critical
thinking skills. In addition, students are good in
controlling their thinking processes through various
strategies, such as organizing, monitoring, and
adapting. These students are also capable to reflect
upon the tasks or processes they undertake and to
select and utilize the appropriate strategies necessary
in their interactions. The researcher also seen and
observed the teacher factor as well since this research
is a reciprocal relationship between learners and
teachers in developing students’ critical thinking skill.
In almost the same research done by Preckel et al.
(2013), it shows that among the high school students,
eveningness is a significant negative predictor of
Grade Point Average; Diaz-Morales (2007) enumerate
various explanations for this relationship whereas,
conflicting learning preferences between morning and
evening types impacted their ability to process and
repeat lecture material.
According to Davidson (2016), traditional instructional
practice in education may favour the success of
morning type individuals and novel strategies should
be at least initiated or utilized by teachers to expand
creative practices in the educational system which
could be beneficial in order to better address both
dispositions. On this regard, teacher-factor is
magnetized and emphasized by Davidson (2016) in an
academic performance which obviously related to
critical thinking skill of a particular set of learners.
According to Dr. Emelyn C. Hobayan, Principal II of
PEQNHS in an interview last August 15, 2018,
teachers of the said school are product of strict
screening spearheaded by the La Union Schools
Division Office (LUSDO) wherein most of the
teachers have their three year-minimum teaching
experience in other schools like private high schools
and colleges, exposed to different seminars and
workshops related to teaching pedagogy and
methodology and at least enrolled to a particular
master’s program to hone their chosen specialization.
She added that these domains are well explained in the
Division Memorandum No. 451, s. 2017 or Hiring of
Teachers for School Year (SY) 2018-2019.
Moises M. Lopez III
Moreover, public school teachers from elementary to
secondary are mandated to prepare their Results Based
Performance Management System (RPMS) portfolio
wherein different objectives should be met---from
teaching, supervising, managing to coaching and other
extra-curricular activities of teachers. Specifically,
teachers’ performance will be assessed through the use
of tool called COT-RPMS developed by the Philippine
National Research Center for Teacher Quality (RCTQ)
with support from the Australian Government through
the Basic Education Sector Transformation (BEST)
Program.
According to Smyth (2000), in order to help the
students to develop critical thinking skills and to take
critical action, teachers need to: have a sound
knowledge base from which to support students as they
delve more deeply into content; remain open to
challenge by students, not representing themselves as
the sole source of knowledge; encourage students to
look at the big picture by engaging them in critical-
thinking processes that have relevance beyond the
classroom; be prepared to listen to voices that originate
in the classroom and to use students' personal
experiences as starting points for gathering
information; encourage students to question and
challenge existing beliefs, structures, and practices;
avoid offering 'how to do it' approaches; encourage
students to be sensitive to the feelings of others;
provide opportunities for inquiry by giving students
time for planning, processing, and debriefing; structure
lessons so that students can work safely and co-
operatively and develop creative forms of shared
responsibility; and encourage students to take critical
action. When students learn to use democratic
processes inside the classroom, they can transfer these
to situations outside the classroom.
From this point-of-view of Smyth (2000) which offers
a standard activities and actions to be taken by
educators in implementing and developing critical
thinking to learners, it is for sure that perhaps, one of
the reasons why the respondents got high level in
critical thinking excluding the factor of their
chronotype is because it was honed and developed by
their teachers who undergone strict screening,
seminars and workshops and abiding the strict
implementations of regulations from the national to
division offices. Moreover, based from the explored
researchers and observations of the author, it could
give us an idea that the factors learning styles of the
students (student factor) and teaching styles of the
teachers (teacher factor) are both beneficial in
developing critical thinking skills of the Grade 11
respondents which could already been developed along
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Research Article
with their chronotype.
The result from table 8 shows that critical thinking
level of the respondents is independent to their
chronotype. This consistent result also appeared in all
previous discussions of the students’ chronotype and
each dimension of critical thinking. However, Pincher
and Walters (2007) posited that there is a significant
difference between the two variables and confirmed
that sleep difficulties affect the way their (students)
learnings.
The said authors studied the performance of 44
students who had to complete the Watson-Glaser-
Critical Thinking Appraisal after either 24 hours of
sleep deprivation or approximately 8 hours of sleep. In
this study, after completing the cognitive task,
participants with sleep deprivation performed
significantly worse than the non-deprived participants.
Other studies have found very similar results even
using different tests such as the study of Curcio,
Ferrara, De Gennaro, (2006).
It is also strengthened by the meta-analysis done by
Lorenzo Vincenzo, Natale & Randler (2015) where
they retrieved and analyzed systematically the
different researches concerning the association
between circadian preference or chronotype and
academic achievement of adolescents across the world.
The literature searches retrieved 1647 studies; 31
studies, with a total sample size of 27 309
participants, fulfilled the inclusion criteria and were
included in the meta-analysis done by the said authors.
Based from the systematic review and meta-analysis,
results suggest that evening orientation is associated
with a worse academic performance, both in school
pupils and university students. And for the funneled
result, accordingly, the relationship changes over time,
being weaker in university students which is obviously
vivid and more manifested by the pupils and young
learners and it is the first time to emerge such result in
the chronobiology literature.
Indeed, considering all these factors, education sector
in our country should always consider the most
important stakeholder and element which is the
learner. There should be an intimate magnetization of
different underlying factors that can affect the learning
process; and there should be a genuine research about
all aspects of a learner since each aspect of a human
person can contribute to its holistic persona. Lastly, in
the blog of AlmaDzibGoodin, a neuroscience
professional, late schedules to older students based on
their chronotype should be given and respected.
Moises M. Lopez III
Conclusion
In the light of the findings of the study, the following
conclusions are presented:
1. The grade 11 senior high school students of
President Elpidio Quirino National High School
(PEQNHS-SHS) are morning-type and they learn well
during the daytime. Morning-type has also earlier
bedtimes and rise times compared to other types.
2. Students of PEQNHS-SHS who often manifest
i nqui si t iveness may have a good level of
interpretation, analysis, inference, evaluation,
explanation, and self-regulation as dimensions of
critical thinking skills.
3. The students of PEQNHS-SHS have the same
perception of the level of different dimensions of their
critical thinking skills.
4. The critical thinking level of grade 11 senior high
school students of PEQNHS is not affected by their
chronotype.
Recommendation
On the basis of the conclusions emerged, the following
recommendations are suggested:
1. The teachers and administrators of President Elpidio
Quirino National High School-Senior High School
may administer academic activities such as lectures,
quizzes, tests and other performance tasks in a
morning basis since majority of the respondents are
morning-type to secure quality teaching-learning
experience.
2. Senior high school teachers should contextualize
and localize the curriculum through the use of critical
thinking as a main teaching pedagogy or technique to
promote higher level of the said skill among Grade 11
senior high school students. Moreover, they may
structure well-designed teaching strategies and
activities that teach symbol decoding, relationship
building, critical thinking and applying all theories
into reality. Furthermore, the respondents may develop
and prioritize tasks, activities and the like to enhance
their level on critical thinking skill.
3. The Department of Education and other agencies of
the government may develop programs, seminars,
workshops and trainings among teachers and
administrators that could help them possess a stronger
and effective reservoir of teaching styles to use and to
implement during academic sessions with their classes.
4. The PEQNHS’ teaching and non-teaching staff are
recommended to create and develop programs and/or
activities that boost the critical thinking level of the
senior high school students. Furthermore, these
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Research Article
programs and/or activities should focus on dimensions
of the said skill such as interpretation, analysis,
evaluation, inference, explanation and self-regulation
which will benefit every learner regardless of their
chronotype.
5. Another study to be replicated by future researchers
that includes intervening variables such as age, sex,
economic status and gender using other set of
respondents (college students, teachers and other
professionals) is also recommended.
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f2203ef906.pdf Corresponding: Moises M. Lopez III
Email: moises.lopez59@deped.gov.ph
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16ECC15386. University of the Cordilleras
College of Arts and Sciences

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