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Chapter 5 - 0
Chapter 5 - 0
Chapter 5 - 0
007900)
Chapter 5
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
Then d𝑥 = ( ) 𝑑𝑦 +( ) 𝑑𝑧, and
𝜕𝑦 𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝑦
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦
d𝑦 = ( 𝜕𝑥 )𝑧 𝑑𝑥 + ( 𝜕𝑧 )𝑥 𝑑𝑧
We obtain,
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
d𝑥 = ( 𝜕𝑦 )𝑧 ( 𝜕𝑥 )𝑧 𝑑𝑥 + ( 𝜕𝑧 )𝑥 𝑑𝑧 + ( 𝜕𝑧 )𝑦 𝑑𝑧
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A.1 Partial Derivatives
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
d𝑥 = ( 𝜕𝑦 )𝑧 ( 𝜕𝑥 )𝑧 𝑑𝑥 + ( 𝜕𝑧 )𝑥 𝑑𝑧 + ( 𝜕𝑧 )𝑦 𝑑𝑧
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
= ( 𝜕𝑦 )𝑧 ( 𝜕𝑥 )𝑧 𝑑𝑥 + ( 𝜕𝑦 )𝑧 ( 𝜕𝑧 )𝑥 + ( 𝜕𝑧 )𝑦 𝑑𝑧
If d𝑧 = 0 and d𝑥 ≠ 0 ,
𝜕𝑥 1
= 𝜕𝑦 . This expression is known as the reciprocal relation.
𝜕𝑦 𝑧
𝜕𝑥 𝑧
If d𝑥 = 0 and d𝑧 ≠ 0 ,
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
=−
𝜕𝑦 𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝑥 𝜕𝑧 𝑦
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A.1 Partial Derivatives
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
=− (previous slide)
𝜕𝑦 𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝑥 𝜕𝑧 𝑦
𝜕𝑥 1
= 𝜕𝑧 (using reciprocal relation)
𝜕𝑧 𝑦
𝜕𝑥 𝑦
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
= −1. The cyclical rule, or cyclical relation.
𝜕𝑦 𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝑦
4/24
A.1 Partial Derivatives
Alternatively,
𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑢, 𝑦
Then
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
d𝑥 = 𝑑𝑢 + 𝑑𝑦.
𝜕𝑢 𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝑢
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
= . The chain rule of differentiation.
𝜕𝑧 𝑢 𝜕𝑦 𝑢 𝜕𝑧 𝑢
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5.1 The Gay-Lussac-Joule Experiment
In general, 𝑢 = 𝑢 𝑇, 𝑣
𝜕𝑢
𝜕𝑇 ( )
𝜕𝑣 𝑇
( ) =−
𝜕𝑣 𝑢 𝜕𝑢
( 𝜕𝑇 )𝑣
𝜕𝑢
for a reversible process, 𝑐𝑣 = ( )
𝜕𝑇 𝑣
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑇
∴ ( ) = −𝑐𝑣 ( )
𝜕𝑣 𝑇 𝜕𝑣 𝑢
6/24
5.1 The Gay-Lussac-Joule Experiment
𝑑𝑢 = 𝛿𝑞 − 𝛿𝑤 ⇒ free expansion
=0 =0
(adiabatic) (no work)
gas diaphragm
sample
𝒗𝟎 , 𝑻𝟎 𝒗𝟏 − 𝒗𝟎
vacuum
thermal insulation
𝑣 𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇
𝑇1 = 𝑇0 + 𝑣1( )𝑢 𝑑𝑣, 𝜂≡( ) : Joule’s coefficient
𝜕𝑣
0 𝜕𝑣 𝑢
𝜕𝑇
𝜂 = < 0.001 K kilomole m−3
𝜕𝑣 𝑢
7/24
5.1 The Gay-Lussac-Joule Experiment
𝑎
𝜂=−
𝑣 2 𝑐𝑣
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑠 𝜕𝑃 𝜕 𝑅𝑇
=𝑇 −𝑃 =𝑇 −𝑃 =𝑇[ ]𝑣 − 𝑃
𝜕𝑣 𝑇 𝜕𝑣 𝑇 𝜕𝑇 𝑣 𝜕𝑇 𝑣
𝑅𝑇
= −𝑃 =0
𝑣
Then 𝑢 = 𝑢(𝑇)
8/24
5.1 The Gay-Lussac-Joule Experiment
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢
by using the equation 𝑑𝑞 = 𝑑𝑇 + + 𝑃 𝑑𝑣 divide by the
𝜕𝑇 𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝑇
temperature T,
𝑑𝑞 1 𝜕𝑢 1 𝜕𝑢
= 𝑑𝑇 + + 𝑃 𝑑𝑣
𝑇 𝑇 𝜕𝑇 𝑣 𝑇 𝜕𝑣 𝑇
𝜕 1 𝜕𝑢 𝜕 1 𝜕𝑢
= +𝑃
𝜕𝑣 𝑇 𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇 𝑇 𝜕𝑣
1 𝜕2 𝑢 1 𝜕𝑢 1 𝜕2 𝑢 1 𝜕𝑃
= − 2 +𝑃 + +
𝑇 𝜕𝑣𝜕𝑇 𝑇 𝜕𝑣 𝑇 𝜕𝑣𝜕𝑇 𝑇 𝜕𝑇
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑃
=𝑇 −𝑃
𝜕𝑣 𝑇 𝜕𝑇 𝑣
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5.2 The Joule-Thomson Experiment
𝑷𝟐 , 𝒗𝟐 , 𝑻𝟐
𝑷𝟏 , 𝒗𝟏 , 𝑻𝟏
Porous plug
δ𝑞 = 0
0
specific work done in forcing the gas through the plug, 𝑤1 = 𝑃 𝑣1 𝑑𝑣 = −𝑃1 𝑣1
1
𝑣
specific work done by the gas in the expansion, 𝑤2 = 0 2 𝑃2 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑃2 𝑣2
10/24
5.2 The Joule-Thomson experiment
11/24
5.2 The Joule-Thomson experiment
Joule-Thomson coefficient
𝜕𝑇
𝜇𝐽𝑇 ≡ ( )
𝜕𝑃 ℎ
from ℎ = ℎ 𝑇, 𝑃 ,
𝜕ℎ 𝜕ℎ
𝑑ℎ = ( 𝜕𝑇 )𝑃 𝑑𝑇 + ( 𝜕𝑃 ) 𝑇 𝑑𝑃
𝜕𝑇 𝑇2 −𝑇1
𝜇𝐽𝑇 ≡ ( 𝜕𝑃 )ℎ = 𝑃2 −𝑃1 ℎ
𝑇2 = 𝑇1 − 𝜇 𝑃2 − 𝑃1
The gas is cooling when the 𝜇 is positive
and heating when the 𝜇 is negative
12/24
5.2 The Joule-Thomson experiment
Joule-Thomson coefficient
𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇 𝜕ℎ 1 𝜕𝑣
𝜇𝐽𝑇 = =− = 𝑇 −𝑣
𝜕𝑃 ℎ 𝜕ℎ 𝑃 𝜕𝑃 𝑇 𝐶𝑃 𝜕𝑇 𝑃
𝑅𝑇 𝑎
for a Van der Waals gas, 𝑃 = 𝑣−𝑏 − 𝑣 2
2𝑎 𝑏 2
1 𝑅𝑇 1 − 𝑣 − 𝑏
𝜇𝐽𝑇 =
𝑐𝑃 2𝑎 𝑏 2
1− 1−
𝑣𝑅𝑇 𝑣
2𝑎 𝑏 2
If 𝜇𝐽𝑇 = 0, 𝑇𝑖 = 1−
𝑏𝑅 𝑣
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5.3 Heat engines and the Carnot cycle
Carnot cycle
𝑇 𝑇
𝑸 𝑸
𝑾 𝑴 𝑴 𝑾
(a) (b)
14/24
5.3 Heat engines and the Carnot cycle
Carnot cycle
𝑇 𝑇𝑏
𝑸 𝑸𝑯
𝑴 𝑾 𝑴 𝑾
𝑸𝑳
𝑇𝑎
(b) (c)
Can the work done by the system be equal to the heat in?
The second law of thermodynamics states unequivocally that it is impossible to
construct a perfect heat engine.
Thus case (b) must be modified as case (c)
15/24
5.3 Heat engines and the Carnot cycle
Clausius statement
It is impossible to construct a device that operates in a cycle and whose sole
effect is to transfer heat from a cooler body to a hotter body.
Kelvin-Planck statement
It is impossible to construct a device that operates in a cycle and produces no
other effect than the performance of work and the exchange of heat with a
single reservoir.
16/24
5.3 Heat engines and the Carnot cycle
Carnot cycle
𝑇𝑏
𝑸𝑯
𝑸𝑳
𝑇𝑎
Fig. P-V and T-S diagrams of Carnot cycle.
1 – 2 : isothermal expansion
2 – 3 : adiabatic expansion
3 – 4 : isothermal compression
4 – 1 : adiabatic compression
17/24
5.3 Heat engines and the Carnot cycle
𝑊 𝑊 output
𝜂= = =
𝑄𝐻 𝑄𝐻 input
18/24
5.3 Heat engines and the Carnot cycle
𝑉
𝑄𝐿 = 𝑊34 = 𝑛𝑅ത 𝑇𝑎 ln 𝑉4
3
𝑄𝐻 𝑇 𝑇2 𝑣2
⇒ = − 𝑇𝑏 𝑠2 − 𝑠1 = 𝑐𝑣 ln + 𝑅ln
𝑄𝐿 𝑎
𝑇1 𝑣1
for adiabatic process, 𝑃𝑉 𝛾 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 , 𝑇2 𝑃2
= 𝑐𝑝 ln − 𝑅ln =0
𝑇𝑏 𝑉2 𝛾−1 = 𝑇𝑎 𝑉3 𝛾−1 𝑇1 𝑃1
1 𝜅
𝑇𝑏 𝑉1 𝛾−1 = 𝑇𝑎 𝑉4 𝛾−1 𝑐𝑣 = 𝑅, 𝑐𝑝 = 𝑅
𝜅−1 𝜅−1
𝜅
𝑉2 𝑉3 𝑃2 𝑣2
⇒ = =
𝑉1 𝑉4 𝑃1 𝑣1
𝑄 𝑇
The efficiency of the Carnot cycle, 𝜂 = 1 + 𝑄 𝐿 = 1 − 𝑇𝑎
𝐻 𝑏
19/24
5.3 Heat engines and the Carnot cycle
Carnot engine has the maximum efficiency for any engine that one might design.
2. If a working substance other than an ideal gas is used, the shape of curves in
the P-V diagram will be difference.
3. The efficiency would be 100 percent if we were able to obtain a low temperature
reservoir at absolute zero. →However this is forbidden by the third law.
20/24
5.3 Heat engines and the Carnot cycle
Carnot refrigerator
Reverse process of Carnot engine
𝑇𝑏
Coefficient of performance(COP)
𝑸𝑯
𝑾 𝑄𝐿 𝑄𝐿 𝑄𝐿 𝑇1
COP ≡ − = = =
𝑸𝑳 𝑊 𝑊 𝑄2 − 𝑄𝐿 𝑇2 − 𝑇1
𝑇𝑎
21/24
5.3 Heat engines and the Carnot cycle
Compressor
Expansion
valve 𝑾
low
pressure low
liquid/ Evaporator pressure
vapor vapor
long capillary tube 𝑸𝑳
(heat in from refrigerator space)
Fig. Schematic diagram of a typical refrigerator
22/24
5.3 Heat engines and the Carnot cycle
Compressor
Expansion
valve 𝑾
low
pressure low
liquid/ Evaporator pressure
vapor vapor
long capillary tube 𝑸𝑳
(heat in from refrigerator space)
Fig. Schematic diagram of a typical refrigerator
23/24
5.3 Heat engines and the Carnot cycle
Typical refrigerator
Refrigerator are designed to extract as much heat as possible from a cold reservoir
24/24