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Production Problem
Production Problem
B. PRODUCTION PROBLEMS
Invaded
Virgin Zone
Zone
oil
oil
water
water
OIL
Matrix
(01/97) B-1
Introduction to Production Logging
B.2 CEMENTING
Cementing of the casing in place is one of the
P3 most vital operations in the drilling phase. It
is necessary to have a perfect seal between
zones to avoid unwanted fluid production or
reservoir contamination. Cement slurry is
Fig. B3: Crossflow from a lower zone to a higher one.
This phenomena happens in any direction. pumped behind the casing to the required
height. It is left to set for some time before
any other operations.
In the case of a production well the thief
zones are generally most noticeable when the The cement quality has to be evaluated before
well is in a shut-in surface condition. In this the completion and any repairs made at that
condition the higher pressure zones will tend time. It is also essential to properly evaluate
to feed fluid into the lower pressure zones. any measurement in cased hole.
(01/97) B-2
Schlumberger
One of the major difficulties in cementing is Channeling in producers can lead to the pro-
the presence of gas zones. These will cause duction of unwanted fluids; i.e., water from
problems if precautions are not taken during wet zones or gas from the gas cap or gas
the cement job. zone. In some cases this unwanted production
can render a well totally nonproductive.
B.2.1 Channeling
Channeling is generally defined as the ability Channeling may occur in three conditions.
of fluids to move in the region of the produc-
tion casing annulus because of a lack of hy- These conditions are:
draulic isolation between the casing and the • Oil or gas well with water channeling up
cement or the cement and the formation. from a lower zone
• Oil or gas well with water channeling
down from a higher zone
• Oil well with gas channeling down from a
higher zone
B.3 CORROSION
Corrosion encountered in the Oil Industry
involves several mechanisms, generally clas-
sified into three main categories:
(01/97) B-3
Introduction to Production Logging
Conductor
_
e
Anode Cathode
Tubing
Leak
Packer
Metal ions (M+) Electrolyte Leak
(01/97) B-4
Schlumberger
Saline/
DOWNHOLE Poor Single Collars
Cement Joint oxyg. Form. Solid
TYPE Condt. Move.
OF Metal Casing Casing Fluid B.H.
CORROSION Prop. Anom. Stress Corrosive
Fluids
Galvanic
Electro- Crevice
Pitting
chemical
Intergranular
Chemical
H2 S
Chemical C O2
Bacteria
Hydrogen
Stress
Mech.
Erosion
(01/97) B-5
Introduction to Production Logging
B.4.1 Conditions sive than CO2 and about 400 times more cor-
• Poor quality cementation: In a poor ce- rosive than H2S.
ment job, casing is exposed to saline forma- • Borehole corrosive fluids: Spent acids,
tion water, acting as an electrolyte. Some brines, or H2S and CO2 in the production
shallow formation waters contain dissolved stream can promote chemical corrosion.
oxygen which accelerates corrosion rates.
Non-sulfate resistant cement (construction • Fluid and solid flow: Erosion corrosion is
cement) breaks down rapidly and exposes the caused by high velocity fluids, turbulence,
casing to corrosive aquifer water. sand production.
• Metal properties: Most casings show varia- • Bacterial growth: Anaerobic Sulfate Re-
tion in metallic properties, from joint to joint, ducing Bacteria synthesize H2S and promote
across the same joint, and from joint to collar. chemical and pitting corrosion.
This produces galvanic cells, and is seen on
electromagnetic logs as a variation in joint
conductivity and magnetic permeability. B.4.2 Measures to prevent or remedy
corrosion
• Casing anomalies: localized casing anoma-
Several measures are available to prevent or
lies can promote galvanic and pitting corro-
remedy corrosion in completion strings. They
sion.
are listed here for information and not dis-
• Corrosion at collars: collars are normally cussed in any details as each one is the do-
stressed and distorted, and present gaps. They main of specialists:
often are starting points for galvanic, pitting,
and crevice corrosion. • Engineering design
• Casing stress: Stressed sections of casing • Selection of materials and alloys
can accelerate corrosion because of their dis- • Coatings
torted lattice structure. Hydrogen cracking • Good cementing
occurs when hydrogen ions diffuse into the • Choice of completion fluids
stressed metal.
• Inhibitors and biocides
• Saline formation fluids: they act as an • Cathodic protection
electrolyte and promote electrochemical and
chemical corrosion. Notice that overall corro- • Run tubing and casing patches
sivity of saline solutions increases with salin- • Workover to replace tubulars
ity to about 5% NaCl, and then decreases be- • Tie-back liners
cause of reduced oxygen solubility. Above • Changes in completion
15% NaCl, the saline solution is less corro-
sive than fresh water.
Useful elements to design prevention and re-
• Oxygenated fluids: either meteoric forma- medial programs can be obtained from corro-
tion waters or injection water not treated can sion evaluation and monitoring using wireline
cause electrochemical and chemical attack. logging tools.
Notice that, for carbon steel, oxygen dis-
solved in water is about 80 times more corro-
(01/97) B-6
Schlumberger
STRESS
ACID
OXYGENATED/
SALINE FLUIDS POOR
CEMENT
CORROSIVE
ANNULUS FLUID
BIMETALLISM
H2S CORROSIVE
CO2
FORMATION
+ FLUID
STAGNANT H2O
FLUIDS
(01/97) B-7