EXPERIMENT 1 - OHMS LAW

AIM
Studying the dependence of potential difference (V) across a resistor on the current (/)
passing through it and determine its resistance. Also plot a graph between V and I.

MATERIALS REQUIRED
Nichrome or manganin wire, ammeter, voltmeter, battery eliminator, rheostat, one-way
plug key and connecting wires.

THEORY
Ohm’s Law: If the physical conditions such as temperature, pressure, mechanical
strain, etc., remain the same, the current (I) flowing through a conductor is directly
proportional to the potential difference (V) across the conductor. Mathematically,
I ∝V or V∝ I or V=IR or R=V/I
The proportionality constant R is called the resistance offered by the conductor to the
flow of electric current. If a graph is plotted between the current (I) flows through the
conductor and the applied potential difference (V) between its ends, it will be a straight
line as shown.

The graph shows that the current through conductor increases linearly as the potential
difference across it increases.
Circuit Diagram (To be drawn on unruled side)

PROCEDURE

1. Set up the circuit arrangement as shown in circuit diagram or apparatus

arrangement.
2. Note the least count of the ammeter and voltmeter.
3. Find, if any, zero error of the ammeter and voltmeter and record it in table ‘A’.
4. Plug the key/switch on the battery eliminator and adjust the rheostat by sliding its
variable terminal till the ammeter and the voltmeter show a reading.
5. Note the readings of ammeter and voltmeter in table ‘B\ Take out the plug or
switch off the battery eliminator for a moment.
6. Repeat the step 4 and 5 for the different values of current by varying the sliding
terminal of rheostat.
7. Tabulate all the observations in the observation table ‘B’ and find the ratio of V/I
for each set of observations. Find the mean value of R.
8. Plot a graph by taking / along y-axis and V along v-axis or V along .r-axis and I
along y-axis.

OBSERVATION TABLE (To be drawn on unruled side)

RESULT

1. Straight line nature of the I-V graph or V-I graph shows that potential difference
across the conductor is directly proportional to the current flowing through it, i.e., V
x /. This proves the Ohm’s law graphically.
2. The resistance of the given wire =………..Ω

PRECAUTIONS

1. The ends of connecting wire should be neat and clean.

2. All connections should be kept tight.

EXPERIMENT 2

AIM
Determination of the equivalent resistance of two resistors when connected in
series and parallel.

MATERIALS REQUIRED
Two standard resistance coils, ammeter, voltmeter, one-way plug key, low resistance
rheostat, connecting wires, cell or battery eliminator.

THEORY
Series combination of resistors: The end to end connection of two or more resistors
are said to be in series combination if they provide only one path to the flow of current,
i.e. same current would flow through each resistor.
The equivalent resistance of the series combination of two resistors is given by
Rs = R1 + R2

Parallel combination of resistors: An arrangement in which a number of resistors are

connected between two common points in such a way that the potential difference
across each resistor is equal to the applied voltage is called parallel combination of
resistors.
If Rp is the equivalent resistance of the given parallel combination having the same
potential difference as the applied potential,
then 1/Rp=1/R1+1/R2 or Rp=R1R2/R1+R2
Circuit Diagram (To be drawn on unruled side)

PROCEDURE

1. Connect the circuit in the similar manner as shown in circuit diagram

2. Using Ohm’s law, find the value of each resistance. Let it be R1 and R,2.
3. Connect the two given resistors in series combination across the terminals of
voltmeter as shown in figure above.
4. Put the plug in the key and take the readings of ammeter and voltmeter.
5. Repeat step 4 three times by changing the position of the sliding contact of the
rheostat.
6. Tabulate the readings and find the ratio of V and I for the series combination. It will
give the equivalent resistance of the combination.
7. Repeat the same for parallel combination
OBSERVATION TABLE (To be drawn on unruled side)

OBSERVATIONS (To be included in the unruled side)

1) Range of ammeter=
2) Least count of ammeter = …………. A
3) Range of voltmeter =
4) Least count of voltmeter=………….V

CALCULATIONS (To be included in the unruled side)

1. Mean value of R1 = ……………Ω

2. Mean value of R2 = ……………Ω

Equivalent value of series combination

1. by calculation R’s = R1 + R2 =……………Ω.

2. by experiment, R . =……………Ω
Equivalent value of parallel combination:

1. by calculation, Rp’ = R1R2/R1+R2 = ………… Ω

2. by experiment, Rp =R1R2/R1+R2 = ………… Ω

RESULT

1. The equivalent resistance in series Rs = ……………Ω

2. The equivalent resistance in parallel Rp = ……………Ω

PRECAUTION

1. Remove the dust and other insulating particles from the ends of connecting wires by
rubbing it with a sand paper.

2 .All the connections should be kept tight and properly connected as per circuit
diagram.

3. Take out the plug from the plug key in between the two observations.

SOURCE OF ERROR

1. Reading error may be possible while observing the pointer of ammeter and
voltmeter.
2. Thick connecting wires may not be available at the time of performing the
experiment.

EXPERIMENT 3

AIM
Determination of the focal length of: i) Concave mirror ii) Convex lens by
obtaining the image of a distant object.

MATERIALS REQUIRED
A concave mirror, a metre scale, convex lens, a mirror holder, a lens holder,screen
holder

THEORY (CONCAVE MIRROR)

 1. The nature of the image formed by a concave mirror, depends upon the position of
the object in front of it.
2. When a parallel beam of light coming from a distant object, such as tree or pole is
incident on the reflecting surface of a mirror, then after reflection, the rays
converge at a point and this point is called principal focus of the concave mirror as
shown in the figure.
3. If a screen is placed at the point of focus, a sharp, real and inverted image of the
distant object is obtained.
4. The distance between the pole and principal focus of a spherical mirror is called
focal length of the mirror. It is equal to half the radius of curvature of the mirror.

THEORY (CONVEX LENS)

PROCEDURE

1. Select a distant object such as a tree or pole or the sun.

2. Mount the concave mirror in a mirror holder.
3. Adjust the concave mirror in such a way that the rays of light coming from the tree
fall on its reflecting surface.
4. Obtain a well defined and sharp image on a white screen by moving the mirror
backward or forward.
5. Measure the distance between the screen and the concave mirror with the help of
a meter scale as shown in figure (a) or figure (b).
6. This will give you approximate focal length of the mirror.
 7. Repeat the experiment by selecting the different distant objects at different
distances.
8. Repeat the same procedure for a convex lens

RAY DIAGRAMS (To be drawn on unruled side)

Determining the focal length for a convex lens

RESULT
1) The approximate focal length of the given concave mirror is………. cm, as
determined.
According to the sign conventions, the focal length of a concave mirror is
negative. Therefore,
f = -………cm

2) The approximate focal length of the given convex lens is………. cm, as determined.

PRECAUTIONS

1. The distant object should be clearly visible.

2. The image on the screen should be well defined and sharp.

EXPERIMENT 4

AIM
To trace the path of a ray of light passing through a rectangular glass slab for different angles of
incidence. Measure the angle of incidence, angle of refraction, angle of emergence and interpret
the result.

MATERIALS REQUIRED
Drawing board, drawing pins, three plane sheets of white paper, a rectangular glass slab,
geometry instruments, and sharp pointed pins.

THEORY
The refraction takes place at both air-glass interface and glass-air interface of a rectangular glass
slab.

 When the light ray incident on air-glass interface (DC) obliquely, it bends towards the
normal.
 The refracted ray is incident obliquely on the second parallel surface inside the rectangular
glass slab, i. e. glass-air interface (AB) and after refraction, it moves away from the
normal. These refractions at both the surfaces obey the laws of refraction

PROCEDURE

1. Fix a white paper on a drawing board with the help of drawing pins and divide the sheet in
two parts by a vertical line.
2. Place a rectangular glass slab in the first part. Draw its boundary. Remove the glass slab
and label the boundary as A1, B1, C1, D1 as shown below.
 3. Draw a normal (perpendicular) MN on the side A1B1 at a point O1, slightly away from the
centre towards A1
4. Draw an oblique line P1Q1 (incident ray) such that ∠P1O1M = 30° (Angle of incidence). Fix
two sharp pointed pin P1 and Q1 vertically erected on the line P1O1 at a distance of 4 to 6
cm apart.
5. Place the glass slab again within its boundary. Look at the feet of pins (not their heads)
P1 and Q1from the other parallel opposite face of the slab, i.e. from C1D1 along the plane of
paper. Fix other two pins R1 and S1 in such a way that R1 , S1 and the image of P1 and Q1 lie
on a same straight line.
6. Remove the glass slab and all the four pins. Encircle all the prick of the four pins. Join the
points R1and S1 within the encircle and produce upto the edge C1D1. Let R1S1 meet C1D1 at
O1. This will act as an emergent ray.
7. Draw a normal M1N1 at O2. Join O1 and O2. It will represent the path of ray inside the glass
slab, i.e. refracted ray.
8. Measure the angle of emergence, i.e. ∠e = ∠N1O1S1 and angle of refraction, i.e. ∠r =
∠NO1O2
9. Repeat the experiment by taking the different angles of incidence such as 45° and 60° on
the other part of paper and measure the angle of refraction and emergence accordingly and
tabulate them.

RAY DIAGRAM (To be drawn on unruled side)

OBSERVATION TABLE (To be drawn on unruled side)

RESULT

1. At the point of incidence the incident ray, refracted ray and the normal to
the air-glass interface, all lie in the plane of paper.
2. Within experimental limits, the angle of emergence and angle of incidence
are equal.

PRECAUTIONS:-

1. Drawing board should be made of soft wood.

2. Glass slab must be clean and should be free from air bubble.
3. The pins should be fixed in vertical position.

EXPERIMENT-5

Aim
To trace the path of the rays of light through a glass prism.

Theory

What is prism?
Prism is defined as a polyhedron with a triangular base and three triangular lateral surfaces. It is
used as an optical object to study the behaviour of white light when it is passed through it. The light
bends at various angles like an angle of incidence, angle of reflection, angle of refraction, and angle
of deviation.

What is angle of deviation?

The angle of deviation is defined as the angle between the incident ray and the emerging ray. It is
defined for the triangular prism.

Materials Required
Following are the list of materials required for this experiment:

 A white sheet
 Soft board
 Thumb pins
 4-6 all pins
 Prism
 Pencil
 Scale
 Protractor
 Drawing board
RAY DIAGRAM (To be drawn on left hand side)

Procedure
1. Fix a white sheet on a drawing board using drawing pins.
2. Place the triangular prism resting on its triangular base. Using a pencil, draw the outline of
the prism.
3. Draw NEN normal to the face of the prism AB. make an angle between 30° and 60°.
 4. On the line PE, fix two pins at a distance of 5cm from each other and mark these as P and Q.
5. Look for the images of the pins at P and Q through the other face of the prism AC.
6. Fix two pins at R and S such that they appear as a straight line as that of the P and Q when it
is viewed from AC face of the prism.
7. Remove the pins and the prism.
8. At point F, make the points R and S meet by extending them.
9. PQE is the incident ray which is extended till it meets face AC. SRF is the emergent ray which
is extended backward to meet at point G.
10. Now mark the angle of incidence ∠i, angle of refraction ∠r and the angle of emergence ∠e
and ∠D as shown in the experimental setup.

Observations
1. At surface AB, the light ray enters and bends towards the normal on refraction.
2. At surface AC, the light ray bends away from the normal as it travels from one medium
(glass) to the other (air).
3. The angle of deviation is observed. Here, the emergent ray bends at an angle towards the
direction of the incident ray.

Conclusion
1. The incident ray bends towards the normal when it enters the prism and while leaving the
prism it bends away from the normal.
2. With the increase in the angle of incidence, the angle of deviation decreases. After attaining
the minimum value, it increases with an increase in the angle of incidence.

Precautions
 For drawing the boundary of the prism, a sharp pencil should be used.
 Soft board and pointed pins should be used.
 The distance between the pins should be 5cm or more.