ELECTROSTATICS 1

Specific Properties of Charge

(i) Charge is a scalar quantity : It represents excess or deficiency of electrons.
(ii) Charge is transferable : If a charged body is put in contact with an another body, then charge can be transferred
to another body.
(iii) Charge is always associated with mass
Charge cannot exist without mass though mass can exist without charge.
(a) So the presence of charge itself is a convincing proof of existence of mass.
(b) In charging, the mass of a body changes.
(c) When body is given positive charge, its mass decreases.
(d) When body is given negative charge, its mass increases.
(iv) Charge is quantised
The quantization of electric charge is the property by virtue of which all free charges are integral multiple of a
basic unit of charge represented by e. Thus charge q of a body is always given by
q = ne n = positive integer or negative integer
The quantum of charge is the charge that an electron or proton carries.
Note : Charge on a proton = (–) charge on an electron = 1.6 × 10–19 C
(v) Charge is conserved
In an isolated system, total charge does not change with time, though individual charge may change i.e. charge
can neither be created nor destroyed. Conservation of charge is also found to hold good in all types of reactions
either chemical (atomic) or nuclear. No exceptions to the rule have ever been found.
(vi) Charge is invariant
Charge is independent of frame of reference. i.e. charge on a body does not change whatever be its speed.
(vii) Accelerated charge radiates energy

(viii) Attraction – Repulsion

Similar charges repel each other while dissimilar attract
Methods of Charging
(i) Friction
If we rub one body with other body, electrons are transferred from one body to the other.
Transfer of electrons takes places from lower work function body to higher work function body.
Positive charge Negative charge
Glass rod Silk cloth
Woollen cloth Rubber shoes, Amber, Plastic objects
Dry hair Comb
Flannel or cat skin Ebonite rod

Note : Clouds become charged by friction

(ii) Electrostatic Induction

If a charged body is brought near a metallic neutral body, the charged body will attract opposite charge and repel
similar charge present in the neutral body. As a result of this one side of the neutral body becomes negative while the
other positive, this process is called “Electrostatic Induction”.
Charging a body by induction (in four successive steps)
 2 Physics for NEET

charging q'=0 charging q'=-ve charging q'=-ve q'=-ve

body body body

charged body is uncharged body is uncharged body is charging

brought near connected to disconnected body
uncharged body earth from the earth is removed
step-1 step-2 step-3 step-4

Some important facts associated with induction- q

(vii) For a relativistic charged particle decreases as
(i) Inducing body neither gains nor loses charge m
(ii) The nature of induced charge is always v increases, where v is speed of charged body.
opposite to that of inducing charge Ex. When a piece of polythene is rubbed with wool, a
(iii) Induction takes place only in bodies (either charge of – 2 × 10–7 C is developed on polythene.
conducting or non conducting) and not in What is the amount of mass, which is transferred
particles. to polythene.
(iii) Conduction Sol. From Q = ne, So, the number of electrons trans-
The process of transfer of charge by contact of two
bodies is known as conduction. If a charged body Q 2  1 0 7
ferred n  = = 1.25 × 1012
is put in contact with uncharged body, the e 1 .6  1 0 19
uncharged body becomes charged due to transfer Now mass of transferred electrons = n × mass of one
of electrons from one body to the other. electron = 1.25 × 1012 × 9.1 × 10–31 = 11.38 × 10–19
(a) The charged body loses some of its charge kg
(which is equal to the charge gained by the Ex. 1012  – particles (Nuclei of helium) per second falls
uncharged body) on a neutral sphere, calculate time in which sphere
(b) The charge gained by the uncharged body is gets charged by 2C.
always lesser than initial charge present on the Sol. Number of – particles falling in t second = 1012t
charged body. Charge on – particle = +2e ,
(c) Flow of charge depends upon the potential So charge incident in time t = (1012t).(2e)
difference of both bodies. Given charge is 2 C
[No potential difference No conduction].  2 × 10–6 = (1012t).(2e)
Positive charge flows from higher potential to
lower potential, while negative charge flows 10 1 8
from lower to higher potential.  t  6.25 s
1.6  10 19
(iv) Charge differs from mass in the following sense.
(a) In SI units, charge is a derived physical Coulomb's Law
quantity while mass is fundamental quantity. The electrostatic force of interaction between two
(b) Charge is always conserved but mass is not static point electric charges is directly proportional
(Note : Mass can be converted into energy to the product of the charges, inversely proportional
E=mc2 to the square of the distance between them and acts
(c) The quanta of charge is electronic charge while along the straight line joining the two charges.
that of mass it is yet not clear.
If two points charges q1 and q2 separated by a
(d) For a moving charged body mass increases distance r. Let F be the electrostatic force between
while charge remains constant.
these two charges. According to Coulomb's law.
(v) True test of electrification is repulsion and not
attraction as attraction may also take place between 1
F  q1 q2 and F 
a charged and an uncharged body and also between r
2
two similarly charged bodies.
(vi) For a non relativistic (i.e. v << c) charged particle, + +
F2 on1 q 1 q 2 F1 on 2
q
specific charge = constant – +
m F2 on1
q1 F1 on 2 q2
 ELECTROSTATICS 3

kq1 q 2  1 Nm 2  (a) Electric force between charged particles is

Fe = where  k  9  10 9  much stronger than gravitational force, i.e.,
r
2
 4  0 C2 
FE >>FG. This is why when both FE and FG are
k = coulomb's constant or electrostatic force
present, we neglect FG.
constant
(b) Electric force can be attractive or repulsive
Coulomb's Law in Vector Form
while gravitational force is always attractive.
 kq 1 q 2
F12 = force on q1 due to q2 = r̂2 1 (c) Electric force depends on the nature of me-
r2 dium between the charges while gravitational
F12 r F21 force does not.
q1 r12 q2 (d) The force is an action–reaction pair, i.e., the
 kq 1 q 2 force which one charge exerts on the other is
F21 = r2
r̂12 equal and opposite to the force which the other
(here r̂12 is unit vector from q1 to q2 ) charge exerts on the first.
(ii) The force is conservative, i.e., work done in mov-
Coulomb's law in terms of position vector
y ing a point charge once round a closed path under
r 21 q2
q1 the action of Coulomb’s force is zero.
r1 (iii) The net Coulomb’s force on two charged particles
r2
in free space and in a medium filled upto infinity
x
O are
 kq1 q 2   1 q1 q 2 1 q1 q 2
F12 =   3 (r1  r2 ) F= 2 and F' = .
r1  r2 4 0 r 4  r 2
Principle of superposition F 
The force is a two body interaction, i.e., electrical So = = K,
F' 0
force between two point charges is independent of
presence or absence of other charges and so the (iv) Dielectric constant (K) of a medium is numerically
principle of superposition is valid, i.e., force on a equal to the ratio of the force on two point charges
charged particle due to number of point charges is in free space to that in the medium filled upto in-
finity.
the resultant of forces due to individual point
   (v) The law expresses the force between two point
charges, i.e., F1 = F12 + F13 +... charges at rest. In applying it to the case of ex-
Note : Nuclear force is many body interaction, so tended bodies of finite size care should be taken in
principle of superposition is not valid in case of assuming the whole charge of a body to be concen-
nuclear force. trated at its ‘centre’ as this is true only for spheri-
When a number of charges are interacting, the total cal charged body, that too for external point.
force on a given charge is vector sum of the forces Although net electric forceon both particleschange
exerted on it by all other charges individually in thepresence of dielectric but force dueto one
chargeparticleon another chargeparticledoesnot
kq 0 q1 kq 0 q 2 ... kq 0 q i kq q depend on themediumbetween them.
F 2
 2
  2  ... 02 n (vi) Electric force between two charges does not depend
r1 r2 ri rn
on neighbouring charges.
 n
qi
in vector form F  kq 0 r
i 1 i
2
ˆri Ex. If the distance between two equal point charges
is doubled and their individual charges are also
Some Important Points Regarding Coulomb’s Law doubled, wha t would happen to the force
and Electric Force between them ?
(i) The law is based on physical observations and is
1 qq
not logically derivable from any other concept. Sol. F= ....(i)
4 0 r 2
Experiments till today reveal its universal nature.
The law is analogous to Newton’s law of gravita- 1 (2q)(2q)
Again, F' = 2
m1m2 4 0 (2r)
tion : F = G with the difference that :
r2
 4 Physics for NEET
1 4 q2 1 q2 Q1
or F' = = =F Therefore x  r
4 0 4 r 2
4 0 r2 Q1  Q 2
So, the force will remain the same. Q 1 Q 2
and q=
Ex. A particle of mass m carrying charge '+q 1' is ( Q 1  Q 2 )2
revolving around a fixed charge '–q 2' in a circular
pa th of r adi us r. Calcul ate t he period of (2) Equilibrium of Symmetric Geometrical
revolution. Point Charged System
1 q1q 2 4 2 mr Value of Q at centre for which system to be in state
Sol. = mr2
= of equilibrium
4 0 r 2 T2 q a
q q
(4 0 )r 2 (4 2 mr)
T2 = a a
q1 q 2 a Q a
Q
 0 mr
or T = 4r q1 q 2 q q q a q
a
where r is the vector drawn from source charge q
is test charge. (i) For equilateral triangle Q =
3
Ex. The force of repulsion between two point charges
is F, when these are at a distance of 1 m. Now the
point charges are replaced by spheres of radii 25  q(2 2  1 )
(ii) For square Q =
cm having the charge same as that of point charges. 4
The distance between their centres is 1 m, then (3) Equilibrium of Suspended Point Charge
compare the force of repulsion in two cases. System
Sol. In 2nd case due to mutual repulsion, the effective For equilibrium position
distance between their centre of charges will be Tcos  = mg and
increased (d' > d) so force of repulsion decreases
kQ 2
1 T sin  = Fe =
as F  x2
2
d
Fe kQ 2
tan  = = 2
mg x mg
d
(a) If  is small then tan
2
d' x x kQ
 ~
~ sin  =  = 2
Equilibrium of Charged Particles 2 2 x mg
1
In equilibrium net electric force on every charged
2 kQ  2 Q2  3
particle is zero. The equilibrium of a charged 3
 x =  x   
mg
particle, under the action of Colombian forces alone  2  0 mg 
can never be stable.
(b) If whole set up is taken into an artificial satellite
(1) Equilibrium of Three Point Charges
(a) Two charges must be of like nature as kq 2
~ 0) then T = Fe=
(geff 
KQ 1 q KQ 2 q 4 2
Fq   0
x2  r  x 2 2
x q q
180°
Q1 q Q2
r Ex. For the system shown in figure find Q for which
(b) Third charge should be of unlike nature as resultant force on q is zero.
KQ 1 Q 2 KQ 1 q Sol. For force on q to be zero, charges q and Q must be
FQ 1   0 of opposite of nature.
r2 x2
 ELECTROSTATICS 5
Net attraction force on q due to charges Ex. Five point charges, each of value +q are placed
Q = Repulsion force on q due to q on five vertices of a regular hexagon of side Lm.
q a Q What is the magnitude of the force on a point
(0,a) (a,a) charge of value –q coulomb placed at the centre
a of the hexagon ?
FA
Sol. If there had been a sixth charge +q at the
(0,0) q remaining vertex of hexagon force due to all the
Q a FA six charges on –q at O will be zero (as the forces
FR
due to individual charges will balance each
2
kQq kq other).
2 FA = FR  2 2 = 
a ( 2a )2
Now if f is the force due to sixth charge and
 q = 2 2 Q Hence q = – 2 2 Q 
F due to remaining five charges.
Ex. Given a cube with point charges q on each of its
vertices. Calculate the force exerted on any of the L
charges due to rest of the 7 charges. E D
q
Sol. The net force on particle A can be given by vector q
sum of force experienced by this particle due to all
the other charges on vertices of the cube. For this q O
we use vector form of coulomb's law F q C
 -q
kq q  
F   1  2 3  r1  r2 
r1  r2 q
From the figure the different forces acting on A are A B
given as
   

FA1 =
 
kq 2  akˆ
,

F 

kq 2  ajˆ  akˆ  ,
FF f f 0 0F F  f fFFf f
 
A2 3
a3 2a     1 qq q2
F  f  0  F   f 
 F  f  

FA 3 
2

kq  a ˆi  aˆj  akˆ  
; FA 4 

kq aˆi  akˆ
2
 4  0 L 2
4  0 L2
3 3
 
3a  
2a Electric Field
Electric field is the region around charged

FA 5 
 
kq 2 aˆi 
, FA 6 

kq 2 a ˆi  aˆj
,
 particle or charged body in which if another
3 3
a 2a   charge is placed, it experiences electrostatic
force.

FA 7 
 
kq 2  aˆj 
Electric Field Intensity E : Electric field intensity at a
3
a point is equal to the electrostatic force experienced
The net force experienced by A can be given as by a unit positive point charge both in magnitude
Z
and direction.
(a,0,a) 1 If a test charge q0 is placed ata point in an electric
4 field and experiences a force F due to some charges
(a,a,a) (0,a,a)
3 2 (called source charges), the electric field intensity
at that point due to source charges is given by

5 A (0,0,0)
 F
X E 
(a,0,0) q0
(0,a,0)
6

(a,a,0) 7 If the E is to be determined practically then the
y
        test charge q0 should be small otherwise it will affect
Fnet  FA1  FA2  FA3  FA4  FA5  FA6  FA7 the charge distribution on the source which is
producing the electric field and hence modify the
 kq 2  1 1  

a 2 

 3 3

2
 1  ˆi  ˆj  kˆ 
 
  quantity which is measured.
 6 Physics for NEET
Ex. A positively charged ball hangs from a long silk (i) Find out electric field intensity at point P
thread. We wish to measure E at a point P in the due to S.
same horizontal plane as that of the hanging charge.
To do so, we put a positive test charge q0 at the (ii) If now, 2C charge is placed and –3 C is
point and measure F/q 0 . Will removed at point P then force experienced
F/q0 be less than, equal to, or greater than E at the by it will be.
point in question?   
Sol. (i) F  qE  (21iˆ  9j)µN
ˆ = -3µC (E)
Sol. When we try to measure the electric field at point
P then after placing the test charge at P, it repels  N
 E = – 7 î – 3 ĵ
the source charge (suspended charge) and the C
measured (ii) Since the source charges are not disturbed
 the electric field intensity at 'P' will remain
Properties of Electric Field Intensity E :
same.
(i) It is a vector quantity. Its direction is the same  
as the force experienced by positive charge. F 2C = +2( E  = 2(–7 î – 3 ĵ ) = (–14 î – 6 ĵ ) 
(ii) Direction of electric field due to positive charge N
is always away from it while due to negative Ex. Calculate the electric field intensity which would
charge, always towards it. be just sufficient to balance the weight of a
particle of charge –10 c and mass 10 mg.
(iii) Its S.. unit is Newton/Coulomb. (take g = 10 ms2)
(iv) Its dimensional formula is [MLT–3A–1] 
Sol. As force on a charge q in an electric field E is
 
(v) Electric force on a charge q placed in a region Fq = qE
of electric field at a point where the electric So, according to given problem :
  
field intensity is E is given by F  qE . Fe
Electric force on point charge is in the same
direction of electric field on positive charge
q E
and in opposite direction on a negative charge. A

(vi) It obeys the superposition principle, that is,

the field intensity at a point due to a system of W
charges is vector sum of the field intensities
[W = weight of particle]
due to individual point charges.  
    | F q |  | W|
i.e. E  E1  E 2  E3 + .....
(vii)It is produced by source charges. The electric i.e., |q|E = mg
field will be a fixed value at a point unless we mg
change the distribution of source charges. i.e., E = = 10 N/C., in downward direction.
|q|
Ex. Electrostatic force experienced by –3C charge
placed at point 'P' due
to a system 'S' of fixed point charges as shown

in figure is F  (21iˆ  9ˆj) µN.
P

Q1
Q2 S
Q3 Q4
 ELECTROSTATICS 7
List of formula for Electric Field Intensity due to various types of charge distribution :
 8 Physics for NEET
Ex. Find out electric field intensity at point A (0,
KQ
1m, 2m) due to a point charge –20C situated Case (i) : If x>>R, E = Hence the ring will act like
x2
at point B( 2 m, 0, 1m).
a point charge
KQ  KQ
Sol. E =  3 r =  2 r̂ KQ x
|r| |r| Case (ii) : if x<<R, E = ,
R3

 r = P.V. of A – P.V. of B (P.V. = Position Ex. Derive the expression of electric field
vector) intensity at a point 'P' which is situated at a
distance x on the axis of uniformly charged
= (- 2 î + ĵ + k̂ )
disc of radius R and surface charge density .
 Also, derive results for
|r| = ( 2) 2  (1)2  (1)2 = 2
(i) x >> R (ii) x << R
9 109  (20 10 6 ) Sol. The disc can be considered to be a collection of
E= (– 2 î + ĵ + k̂ )
8 large number of concentric rings.
Consider an element of the shape of rings of
= – 22.5 × 10 3 (– 2 î + ĵ + k̂ ) N/C. radius r and of width dr. Electric field due to this
Ex. Six equal point charges are placed at the corners ring at P is
of a regular hexagon of side ‘a’. Calculate electric K.2r.dr.x
field intensity at the centre of hexagon ? dE =
(r 2  x 2 )3/2

Put, r 2 + x2 = y2
2rdr = 2ydy
Ans Zero (By symmetry) ydy
K.2y.dy.x
The y-component of electric field due to all the  dE = = 2K.x
y3 y3
elements will be cancelled out to each other. So
net electric field intensity at the point will be Electric field at P due to all rings is along the
only due to X-component of each element. axis :-
 E   dE
E net =  dE x =  dE Cos 
Q Q R 2  x2 R2 x2
K(dq) x kx 1  1
=  2
OR x
2

R 2  X2
=
(R  x 2 ) 3/ 2 O
2
dq  E = 2Kx 
x y2
dy = 2Kx.  
 y x

KQx  1 1 
E net =
[R 2  x 2 ]3/2 = 2Kx   x  2 2
 = 2K
 R x 
E  x 
Emax 1  
r  R 2  x 2 
R
2   x 
= 2 1  2 2
 , along the axis
Graph for variation of E with r. 0  R x 
dE R Cases : (i) If x >> R
E will be max when = 0, that is at x=
dx 2  
1/2
x  R2 
E= [ 1 ]= [1 –  1  2  ]
2KQ 2 0 R2 2 0  x 
and E max = x 1
3 3 R2 x2
 ELECTROSTATICS 9
2 1
 1 R K K
= [1 – 1 + + higher order terms]
2 0 2 x2
=
r  cos .d
2
=
r
[sin1+ sin2] ......(1)

2 2
 R R Q Similarly y-component.
= = =
4 0 x 2 4 0 x 2 4  0 x 2 1
K K
i.e. behaviour of the disc is like a point charge. Ey =
r  sin .d =
2
r
[cos2 - cos1]
(ii) If x << R
  Net electric field at the point:
E= [1 – 0] =
2 0 2 0 E net = E 2x  E 2y
i.e. behaviour of the disc is like infinite sheet.
(ii) We can derive a result for infinitely long line
Electric Field Due to Uniformly Charged Wire charge:
(i) Line Charge of Finite Length : Derivation In above eq. (1) & (2), if we put 1 = 2 = 90º,
of expression for intensity of electric field we can get required result.
at a point due to line charge of finite size of
un ifor m li near ch arge den sity . T he
perpendicular distance of the point from the
line charge is r and lines joining ends of
line charge distribution make angle 1 and
2 with the perpendicular line.

 r 1
2 P

2K
E net = E x =
r

1
E E
r
Consider a small element dx on line charge
distribution at distance x from point A (see
fig.). The charge of this element will be dq r
(iii) For Semi- infinite wire :
= dx. Due to this charge (dq), the intensity
of electric field at the point P is dE.
K(dq) K(dx)
Then dE = 2 2 =
r x r2  x2
There will be two components of this field :
Ex
dE r
Ey
1 = 90º and 2 = 0º,
dEX dEY
K K
So, Ex = , Ey =
Kdx r r
Ex =  dE   dE cos    r
x 2
 x2
.cos 
Ex. A point charge q is placed at a distance r from a
Assuming, x = r tan  dx = r sec . d 2 very long charged thread of uniform linear
charge density . Find out total electric force
1
K r sec 2   cos   d experienced by the line charge due to the point
So Ex = 
 2
r 2  r 2 tan 2  charge. (Neglect gravity).
 10 Physics for NEET
Sol. Force on charge q due to the thread,
 2K 
F=   .q
 r 

By Newton's  law, every action has equal and

opposite reaction. Assume a thin strip of width dx at distance x
2K fr om l in e AB (see fi gure), which ca n be
So, force on the thread = .q considered as a infinite line charge of charge
r density  = dx
(away from point charge)
Ex. Find electric field at point A, B, C, D due to Due to this line charge the electric field
intensity at point P will be
infinitely long uniformly ch arged wi r e wi t h
linear charge density  and kept along z-axis K(dx)
dE =
(a s sh own in figure).Assume tha t a ll t he r2  x2
parameters are in S.I. units. Take another element similar to the first element
on the other side of AB. Due to symmetry, Y-
component of all such elements will be cancelled
out.

So net electric field will be given by :

2K(dx)
E net =  dE x =  dE cos  =  r2  x 2
× cos

Assume, x = r tan  dx = r sec2. d

2K ˆ 2K ˆ
Sol. EA = (i)  E = ( j)
3 B
4

2K  2 K   3iˆ  4ˆj 

EC = OC = 5  5 
5  
  /2
r sec2  .d .cos  
2 K   3iˆ  4ˆj   E net = 2K  
E D = 5  5  E D = E C   /2
2 2
r  r tan  2 2 o , away
  from sheet
Electric field due to uniformly charged infinite
Note: (1) The direction of electric field is always
sheet perpendicular to the sheet.
 (2) T h e m a gn it ude of el ect r i c fi el d i s
Enet = 2 towards normal direction independent of distance from sheet.
o

Electric field due to An infinitely large, uniformly
charged sheet
Derivation of expression for intensity of elec-
tric field at a point which is at a perpendicular
distance r from the thin sheet of large size hav-
ing uniform surface charge density .
Ex. A block having mass m and charge Q is resting
on a frictionless plane at a distance d from fixed
large non-conducting infinite sheet of uniform
charge density  as shown in Figure. Assuming
that collision of the block with the sheet is
perfect ly elasti c, fi nd th e tim e period of
oscillatory motion of the block. Is it SHM ?
 ELECTROSTATICS 11
Sol. The situation is shown in Figure. Electric force depends only on the total charge of the sheet and
produced by sheet will accelerate the block not on the distribution of charge on individual sur-
towards the sheet producing an acceleration. faces].
Acceleration will be uniform because electric
field E due to the sheet is uniform. Ex. Three large conducting parallel sheets are placed
at a finite distance from each other as shown in
F QE figure. Find out electric field intensity at points
a= = , where E = /20 A, B, C & D.
m m
y

E (– )
x

QE

As initially the block is at rest and acceleration Sol. For point A

is constant, from second equation of motion,
time taken by the block to reach the wall
   
1 2 2L 2md 4md0 E net = E Q + E 3Q + E –2Q
d= at i.e., t = = =
2 a QE Q Q 3Q 2Q Q
=– î – î + î =  î
As collision with the wall is perfectly elastic, 2A 0 2A 0 2A 0 A0
the block will rebound with same speed and as
now its motion is opposite to the acceleration,
it will come to rest after travelling same distance For point B:
d in same time t. After stopping, it will again be
accelerated towards the wall and so the block
   
will execute oscillatory motion with 'span' d and E net = E 3Q + E –2Q + E Q
time period. 3Q 2Q Q
=– î + î + =0
2md 4md0 2A 0 2A 0 2A 0 î
T = 2t = 2 =2
QE Q
However, as the restoring force F = QE is
constant and not proportional to displacement For point C :
x, the motion is not simple harmonic.

Ex. If an isolated infinite sheet contains charge Q1 on    

its one surface and charge Q2 on its other surface E net = E Q + E 3Q + E –2Q
then prove that electric field intensity at a point in Q 3Q 2Q 2Q
Q =+ î – î – î =– î
2A 0 2A 0 2A A
front of sheet will be , where Q = Q1 + Q2 0 0
2A O
Sol. Electric field at point P :
   For point D :
E = E Q1  E Q 2

   
E net = E Q + E 3Q + E –2Q
Q 3Q 2Q Q
=+ î + î – î =
Q1 Q2 Q  Q2 Q 2A 0 2A 0 2A 0 A 0 î
= n̂ + n̂ = 1 n̂ = n̂
2A 0 2A0 2A 0 2A 0 Ex. Determine and draw the graph of electric field
[This shows that the resultant field due to a sheet due to infinitely large non-conducting sheet of
thickness t and uniform volume charge density
 12 Physics for NEET
 as a function of distance x from its symmetry Electric field due to spherical shell outside it is
plane. always along the radial direction.
t t
(a) x  (b) x  Finding electric field due to a uniformly charged
2 2
spherical shell
Sol. We can consider two sheets of thickness
Suppose we have a spherical shell of radius R
t  t  and charge +Q uniformly distributed on its
  x  and   x  .
 2  2  surface.
Where the point P lies inside the sheet. +Q, R
Now, net electric field at point P :

r P

We have to find electric field at a point P, which

is at a distance 'r' from the centre of the sphere.
For this, we can divide the shell into thin rings.
E = E1 – E2 Let’s consider a ring making an angle  with
the axis and subtending a small angle d. Its
Q1 Q2
= – [Q1 : charge of left sheet; width will be Rd.( arc = radius × angle = Rd).
2A 0 2A 0
Q2 : charge of right sheet.] For the points outside the sphere :

t  t 
A   x   A   x 
2  2  x
= =
2A 0 0
For point which lies outside the sheet we can
consider a complete sheet of thickness t

t Q
2A 0

tA t
E= =
2A 0 20
Electric field due to uniformly charged spherical
shell
Electric field due to this small ring element :
KQ
E= 2 rR K dq x
r dE = .....(1)
 For the outside points & point on the surface [(ring radius) 2  x 2 ]3/ 2
the uniformly
So, total electric field
Q K dq x
r E net =  [(ring radius) 2
 x 2 ]3/ 2
R
Here, radius of the ring element = R sin
& x = axial distance of point P from the ring
E=0 r<R = r – R cos 
charged spherical shell behaves as a point charge Area of the ring element = (length) (width) =
placed at the centre (2(radius of the ring) ) Rd = (2R sin Rd
 ELECTROSTATICS 13
dq = charge of the small ring element. We can On solving above, we will get :
find dq by unitary method.
KQ
In 4R2 Area, charge is Q E out = if r > R
r2
Q For The Points Inside The Sphere :
In unit Area, charge is .
4R 2 Now lets deri ve t he el ectr ic fi el d due to
In (2R sin RdArea, charge uniformly charged solid sphere at a point 'P'
inside it.
Q
= × (2R sin Rd = dq
4R 2
Putting values of r and dq in equation .(1) Right
Left
We get
P
 Q 
 K 2
 2 (R sin ) Rd  (r  R cos )
 4R 
E out =  (R sin ) 2  (r  R cos ) 2 
3/ 2
 0

(The first ring will make angle  = 0 and the The sphere is divided into two parts, the rings
last ring will make  = 180º.So, limit will be on the left part of point 'P' will produce electric
from  = 0 to  = 180o) field towards right and the rings on right part
Steps of integration : From above integral : will produce electric field towards left and E net
= E right – E left . For this, limit of integration is
divided into two parts.
 Electric   Electric 
 r
 cos1  
   
R  field due    field due 
E net   to rings    to rings 

 0   r  
 of right   cos 1  
R  of left 
 part   part 
   

KQ (r  R cos ) sin d
E out = 
2 0 (R 2  r 2  2Rr cos ) 3/ 2
As z 2 = R2 + r 2 – 2rR cos

Now, let z 2 = R2 + r 2 – 2Rrcos 

r 
 2 zdz = 0 + 0 – 2Rr (– sin) d When  = cos–1    z = R2  r2
R
 zdz = Rr sin d
R 2  r2  z2 When =0  z=R–r
& cos  =
2Rr When =  z=R+r
Now, when  = 0  z = (r – R)
From the result of previous case and just by
=  z=r+R
changing limits we can write
 (R 2  r 2  z 2 )  zdz
r R  r  R  Rr R2 r2 Rr
KQ  2Rr   Rr 2 R 3   Rr 2 R 3 
 E out =
2 r R – 
3 E in =     Rz    Rz 
z
 z z Rr  z z  R2 r2
rR
KQ (2Rr 2  R 3  Rr 2  Rz 2 ) dz
2 r R
= On solving this expression, we will get E and E
2R 2 r 2 z 2
= 0 if r < R.
r R rR r R
KQ  Rr 2 dz R 3 dz 
= 4R 2 r 2 
 2
  2
  Rdz  Finding electric field due to shell by integration
r R z rR z r R  is very lengthy, so we will not use this method.
rR The given hand-out was just for knowledge. The
KQ  Rr 2 R 3 
best method to find E due to shell is by Gauss
= 4R 2 r 2   z  z  Rz 
 r  R theorem which we will study later.
 14 Physics for NEET
Ex. Figure shows a uniformly charged sphere of Note : Here, we can also assume that the total charge
radius R and total charge Q. of sphere is concentrated at the centre, for
Q calculation of electric field at B.
Ex. Two concentric uniformly charged spherical shells
of radius R1 and R2 (R2 > R1) have total charges Q1
q and Q2 respectively. Derive an expression of elec-
tric field as a function of r for following positions.
(i) r < R1 (ii) R1  r < R2
A point charge q is situated outside the sphere (iii) r  R2
at a distance r from centre of sphere. Find out Q2
the following : Q1

(i) Force acting on the point charge q due to R1

the sphere. R2
(ii) Force acting on the sphere due to the point
charge. Sol. (i) For r < R1,
Sol. (i) Electric field at the position of point charge therefore, point lies inside both the spheres
 KQ Enet = EInner + Eouter =0+0
E  2 rˆ (ii) For R1  r < R2,
r
point lies outside inner sphere but inside outer
 KqQ  KqQ sphere:
So, F  2 rˆ  | F|  2
r r  Enet = Einner + Eouter
(ii) Since we know that every action has equal KQ1 KQ1
and opposite reaction so = r̂ + 0 =r̂
r 2
r2
KqQ (iii) For r  R2
  KqQ
F sphere =  r 2 r̂ | F sphere | =
r2
. point lies outside inner as well as outer sphere.
Therefore, ENet = Einner + Eouter
Ex. Figure shows a uniformly charged thin sphere KQ1 KQ K(Q1  Q 2 )
of total charge Q and radius R. A point charge q = r̂  2 2 r̂ = r̂
r 2
r r2
is also situated at the centre of the sphere.
Find out the following : Ex. A spherical shell having charge +Q (uniformly
distributed) and a point charge + q0 are placed as
shown.
A
+Q , R
B
q
C
r +q0
(i) Force on charge q O P
(ii) Electric field intensity at A.
(iii) Electric field intensity at B.
Find the force between shell and the point
Sol. (i) Electric field at the centre of the uniformly charge(r>>R).
charged hollow sphere = 0 (i) Force on the point charge + q0 due to the
So force on charge q = 0   KQ  KQq 0
(ii) Electric field at A shell = q0 E shell = (q0)  2  r̂ = r̂
 r  r2
   Kq where r̂ , is unit vector along OP..
E A = E Sph ere  E q = 0 + 2 ; r = CA From action - reaction principle, force on the shell
r
due to the point charge will also be : F shell =
E due to sphere = 0 , because point lies inside
the charged hollow sphere. KQq 0 ˆ
(r)
   r2
(iii) Electric field EB at point B = E Sphere  E q
Conclusion :- To find the force on a hollow sphere
KQ Kq K(Q  q) due to outside charges , we can replace the sphere
= .rˆ  2 .rˆ = .rˆ ; r = CB by a point charge kept at centre.
r2 r r2
 ELECTROSTATICS 15
Ex. Find force acting between two shells of radius R1
and R2 which have uniformly distributed charges KQ´ KQr
 E´net =  3 ; away from the centre.
Q1 and Q2 respectively and distance between their r2 R
centres is r.
+ Q1, R1 + Q2, R2
NOTE : The electric field inside and outside the sphere
is always in radial direction.
r Ex. A solid non conducting sphere of radius R and
uniform volume charge density  has its centre
Sol. The shells can be replaced by point charges kept at at origin. Find out electric field intensity in
vector form at following positions :
KQ1Q2
centre, so force between them F = ;
r2  R R 
+ Q1, R1 + Q2, R2 (i) (R/2, 0, 0) (ii)  , , 0  (iii) (R, R, 0)
 2 2 
r
Sol. (i) At (R/2, 0, 0) : Distance of point from centre =
(R / 2)2  0 2  0 2 = R/2 < R, so point lies

 pr  R
inside the sphere, So E = = 3 [ î ]
r 30 0 2
F +Q1 +Q2 F
 R R 
Electric field due to uniformly charged solid sphere (ii) At  , , 0  ; distance of point from
 2 2 
Derive an expression for electric field due to
solid sphere of radius R and total charge Q which centre = (R / 2)2  (R / 2) 2  0 2 = R =
is uniformly distributed in the volume, at a point R, so point lies at the surface of sphere,
which is at a distance r from centre for given therefore
two cases. 4
K R 3
 KQ  3  R ˆ R ˆ
dq E= 3 r =  i j
R R3  2 2 

  R ˆ R ˆ
= i j
3 0  2 2 
(iii) The point is outside the sphere
4
(i) r  R (ii) r  R  K R 3 
KQ  3
So, E = r =  Riˆ  Rjˆ 
r3 ( 2R )3  
Assume an elementary concentric shell of charge
dq. Due to this shell, the electric field at the 
=  ˆ
Ri  Rj ˆ
point (r > R) will be: 6 2 0  
Kdq Ex. A Uniformly charged solid non-conducting sphere
dE = [from above result of hollow sphere]
r2 of uniform volume charge density and radius R
KQ is having a concentric spherical cavity of radius r.
E net =  dE r2
= Find out electric field intensity at following points,
as shown in the figure :
For r < R, there will be no electric field due to
shell of radius greater than r, so electric field at
the point will be present only due to shells
R
having radius less than r. r

KQ ' O A B C
E´net =
r2
Q 4 Qr 3
Here, Q' =  r 3 = 3
4 3 3 R (i) Point A (ii) Point B
R
3 (iii) Point C (iv) Centre of the sphere
 16 Physics for NEET
Sol. Method I :
joule
(i) For point A : (ii) S.. Unit of potential is volt = and its
coulmb
We can consider the solid part of sphere to be made
dimensional formula is [M1L2T –3–1].
of large number of spherical shells which have uni-
formly distributed charge on its surface. Now, since (iii) Electric potential at a point is also equal to the
point A lies inside all spherical shells so electric negative of the work done by the electric field
field intensity due to all shells will be zero. in taking
 the point charge from reference point (i.e.
EA = 0
infinity) to that point.
(ii) For point B : (iv) Electric potential due to a positive charge is
All the spherical shells for which point B lies in- always positive and due to negative charge it is
side will make electric field zero at point B. So always negative except at infinity. (taking V  =
electric field will be due to charge present from 0).
radius r to OB.
(v) Potential decreases in the direction of electric
4 3 3 field.
 K 3 (OB  r ) 
So, EB = 3 OB (vi) V = V1 + V2 + V3 + .......
OB
 [OB3  r 3 ]  USE OF POTENTIAL
= OB
30 OB3 If we know the potential at some point ( in terms
(iii) For point C, similarly we can say that for of numerical value or in terms of formula) then
all the shell points C lies outside the shell we can find out the work done by electric force
 K[ 43 (R 3  r 3 )]  when charge moves from point 'P' to  by the
So, EC = 3 OC formula Wep )p   = qVp
[OC]
 R  r 3 
3 Ex. A charge 2C is taken from infinity to a point
= OC in an electric field, without changing its velocity.
30 [OC]3
If work done against electrostatic forces is –
Electric Potential 40J, then find the potential at that point.
In electrostatic field, the electric potential (due
to some source charges) at a point P is defined W ext 40J
Sol. V= q = = –20 V
as the work done by external agent in taking a 2C
unit point positive charge from a reference point Ex. When charge 10 C is shifted from infinity to a
(generally taken at infinity) to that point P point in an electric field, it is found that work
without changing its kinetic energy..
done by electrostatic forces is –10 J. If the
Mathematical representation charge is doubled and taken again from infinity
If (W  P )ext is the work required in moving a to the same point without accelerating it, then
point charge q from infinity to a point P, the find the amount of work done by electric field
electric potential of the point P is and against electric field.
W p )ext  ( Welc ) p Sol. Wext ) = –wel) p = wel)p   = 10 J
Vp    p
q  K  0 q because KE = 0
ETOOS KEY POINTS (Wext ) p 10J
(i) (W P)ext can also be called as the work done  Vp = = = 1V
20C 10C
by external agent against the electric force on
a unit positive charge due to the source charge. So, if now the charge is doubled and taken from
(ii) Write both W and q with proper sign. infinity then

Properties w ext ) p

1=  Wext ) P = 20 J
(i) Potential is a scalar quantity, its value may be 20C
positive, negative or zero.  Wel ) = –20 J
 P
 ELECTROSTATICS 17
ELECTRIC POTENTIAL DUE TO VARIOUS CHARGE DISTRIBUTIONS

Name / Type Formula Note Graph

Point charge * q is source charge.

Kq * r is the distance of the point
r from the point charge.

* Q is source chage.
Ring (uniform/nonuniform at centre: KQ * x is the distance of the point on
charge distribution) R the axis from centre f ring
at the axis: KQ

R2  x2

Uniformly charged hollow kQ

V
con ducting/nonconducting r
/solid conducting sphere
kQ
V
R

Unif or ml y ch arged soli d kQ

V
nonconducting sphere . r
3
KQ(3R 2  r 2 ) 2
2R 3 4

3
6 0

Infinite line charge Not defined

Infinite nonconducting thin Not defined

sheet


VB  VA   rB  rA 
0

Infinite charged conducting Not defined

thin sheet


VB  VA   rB  rA 
0
 18 Physics for NEET
(1) Potential due to a point charge
Derivation of expression for potential due to point charge Q, at a point which is at a distance r from the
point charge.

Q r P
From definition of potential
r
 
  (q 0 E)  dr r
Wext(  p) 
r
  KQ KQ
V=  =   E  dr  V = –  2
(  dr) cos180º =
qo qo 
r r


Ex. Four point charges are placed at the corners of a square of side  Calculate potential at the centre of square.
+Q –3Q

–2Q +4Q
Kq
Sol. V = 0 at 'C'. [Use V =
]
r
Ex. Two point charges 2C and – 4C are situated at points (–2m, 0m) and
(2 m, 0 m) respectively. Find out potential at point C (4 m, 0 m) and D
(0 m, 5 m).
Sol. Potential at point C
K(2C) K(4C) 9 109  2 106 9  109  4  10 6
VC = Vq1  Vq 2 = + = – = –15000 V.
6 2 6 2
K(2C) K(4C) K(2C) K(4C)
Similarly, VD = Vq1  Vq 2 = 2 2 + = + = – 6000 V.
( 5)  2 ( 5) 2  22 3 3

Finding potential due to continuous charges

If formula of E is tough, then we take If formula of E is easy then, we use

r=r
 
a small element and integrate V= -  E.dr
r 

V =  dv (i.e. for sphere, plate, infinite wire etc.)

Ex. A rod of length  is uniformly charged with charge q Calculate potential at point P.

Sol. Take a small element of length dx, at a distance x from left end. Potential due to this small element
 ELECTROSTATICS 19
K(dq) Consider an element of charge dq on the ring.
dV = Potential at point P due to charge dq will be
x
Total potential
x 
k dq
 V= 
x0 x
q
Where dq = dx

q 
x r  K  dx  Kq r K(dq)
 V=   = log e  
   r 
dV =
R 2  x2
xr x
 Net potential at point P due to all such
(2) Potential due to a ring element will be :
(i) Potential at the centre of uniformly charged ring :
KQ
Potential due to the small element dq V=  dv  R 2  x2
Kdq
dV = V
R

r
Ex. Figure shows two rings having charges Q and –
5 Q. Find Potential difference between A and B
i.e. (VA - VB).
K dq
 Net potential: V=  - 5 Q, 2R
R +Q, R
K Kq
 V=  dq =
R R
(ii) For non-uniformly charged ring potential at the A R B
center is
+++
+ (AB = R)

+
+ KQ 
K  5Q 
Sol. VA = + ;
R  2R 
2
 R 
2
+ +
+

VB =

K  5Q + K  Q
Kq total
V= 2R 2
R   R
2
R
(iii) Potential due to half ring at center is : From above, we can easily find VA – VB.
Kq Ex. A point charge q 0 is placed at the centre of
V uniformly charged ring of total charge Q and
R
radius R. If the point charge is slightly displaced
R R with negligible force along axis of the ring then
R find out its speed when it reaches a large
distance.
+q Sol. Only electric force is acting on q 0
(iv) Potential at the axis of a ring: 1
Calculation of potential at a point on the axis  Wel = K = mv2 – 0
2
which is a distance x from centre of uniformly
KQ
charged (total charge Q) ring of radius R.  Now Wel)c= q0 Vc = q0 .
R
 20 Physics for NEET
Kq 0 Q 1 2Kq 0 Q If a test charge q 0 is placed at point P, then
 = mv2  v= potential energy of this charge q 0 due to the disc
R 2 mR
= U = q0V
(3) Potential due to uniformly charged disc
  
V

 
R 2  x 2  x , where  is the charge
 U = q 0  2
 0

R 2  x2  x 


2 0
Graph of V v/s x :
density and x is the distance of the point on the
axis from the center of the disc & R is the radius  R
of disc. V=
2 0
 R2  x2  x  at x = 0 V = 2
0
Finding potential due to a uniformly charged disc
to check whether V will increase with x or
A disc of radius 'R' has surface charge density decrease, lets multiply and divide by conjugate.
(charge/area) = . We have to find potential at
its axis, at point 'P' which is at a distance x

 x ×
 R 2  x2  x 
from the centre.
For this, we can divide the disc into thin rings
V=
2 0
 R x 2 2

 R 2  x2  x
and let’s consider a thin ring of radius r and
thickness dr. Suppose charge on the small ring  
R 2  1 
element = dq. Potential due to this ring at point  V=  
'P' is:
 
2 0  R  x 2  x
2
 

dr Now, we can say that as x 
r  V so curve will be
= V

Vmax=
Kdq
dV =
r2  x2
Kdq x
So, net potential : Vnet =  x=0
2 2
r  x (4) Potential Due To Uniformly Charged
dq Spherical shell
Here,  = charge/area =
d (area) Derivation of expression for potential due to
uniformly charged hollow sphere of radius R and
So, dq =  × d (area) =   2r dr 
total charge Q, at a point which is at a distance
(Here, d (area) = area of the small ring element r from centre for the following situation
=(length of ring) × (width of the ring) = (2r) . (i) r > R (ii) r < R
(dr)
Assume a ring of width Rd at angle  from X
r R
K  2 r dr  axis (as shown in figure).
So, Vnet =
r 0
 r2  x2 Potential due to the ring at the point P will be

To integrate it, let r 2 + x2 = y2

2r dr = 2y dy. Substituting we will get :
r R
1 (2) y dy
Vnet  
r 0
4  0 y
 r R
 Vnet  2  y  r  0
0

r R
K(dq)
 dV =
Vnet 
2 0
 2
r x 2
 r 0
(r  R cos ) 2  (R sin ) 2

 Where dq = 2R sin (Rd) where Q, = 4R2

 Vnet 
2 0
 R 2  x2  x  then, net potential
 ELECTROSTATICS 21
 (5) Potential Due To Uniformly Charged Solid
KQ sin .d
V =  dV   Sphere
2 0 (r  R cos ) 2  (R sin ) 2 Derivation of expression for potential due to uni-
Solving this eq.we find formly charged solid sphere of radius R and to-
tal charge Q (distributed in volume), at a point
KQ KQ which is at a distance r from centre for the fol-
V= (for r > R) & V = for (r < R) lowing situations.
r R
Alternate Method : (i) r  R (ii) r  R
Consider an elementary shell of radius x and
rr
  width dx
As the formula of E is easy , we use V = –  E·dr
(i) For r  R
r 
R
K  4x 2 dx KQ
rr V =
K Q r r
(i) At outside point (r > R) : Vout = –   2  dr
r 
0
r   (ii) for r  R
r R
KQ KQ K  4x 2 dx K4 x 2 dx
V 
 Vout = r   Dis tan ce from centre  0 r r x
For outside point, the hollow sphere acts like a point dx
charge
x
(ii) Potential at the centre of the sphere (r=0) :
As all the charges are at a distance R from the
centre ,

 
 Q 
KQ 2 2   
= (3R – r )  4
2R 3  R 3 
 3 
From definition of potential
r
KQ KQ
(i) For r  R : V =  2
r̂  dr 
r r
KQ KQ 
So, Vcentre = 
R  Radius of the sphere  KQ
R
KQr
r

(iii) Potential at inside point ( r < R ) : (ii) For r  R : V = –  2 .dr –  3 dr


r R
R
Suppose we want to find potential at point P ,
inside the sphere. KQ KQ 2
V= – [r – R2]
R 2R 3
KQ 2 2 2
KQ
= 3 [2R – r + R ] = (3R2 – r2)
2R 2R 3

Ex. Two concentric spherical shells of radius R1 and

R2 (R2 > R1) are having uniformly distributed
charges Q1 and Q2 respectively. Find out potential
 Potential difference between Point P and O : (i) at point A
P
 (ii) at surface of smaller shell (i.e. at point B)
VP - VO = –  E in ·dr Where, E in = 0 (iii) at surface of larger shell (i.e. at point C)
O

So VP - VO = 0 C
KQ R2 B
 VP = VO =
R A R1
KQ KQ Q1 Q2
 Vin = 
R  Radius of the sphere 
 22 Physics for NEET
(iv) at r  R1 (v) at R1  r  R2 (a) Mathematical Representation
(vi) at r  R2 If (WA  B) ext = Work done by external agent
Sol. Using the results of hollow sphere as given in the against electric field in taking the unit charge
table 7.4. from A to B
KQ1 KQ 2  (WA  B )ext 
(i) VA = + Then, VB – VA =  
R1 R2 q
  K  0
KQ1 KQ 2
(ii) VB =
R1
+
R2
B
 
  Fe .dr
(WA  B )electric UB  UA A
B

KQ1 KQ 2 = = = =   E.dr
(iii) VC = + q q q
R2 R2 A

Note : Take W and q both with sign

KQ1 KQ 2
(iv) for r  R1 , V = + (b) Properties
R1 R2 (i) The difference of potential between two
KQ1 KQ 2 points is called potential difference. It
(v) for R1  r  R2 , V = + is also called voltage.
r R2
(ii) Potential difference is a scalar quantity.
KQ1 KQ 2 Its S.I. unit is also volt.
(vi) for r  R2 , V = + (iii) If VA and VB be the potential of two
r r
Ex. Two hollow concentric non-conducting spheres points A and B, then work done by an
of radius the a and b (a > b) contain charges Q a external agent in taking the charge q
and Q b r especti vely. Prove tha t poten ti al from A to B is
di ffer ence bet ween t h e two sph er es i s (Wext)AB= q (VB – VA)
independent of charge on outer sphere. If outer or (Wel) AB = q (VA – VB) .
sphere is given an extra charge, is there any (iv) Potential difference between two points
change in potential difference ? is independent of reference point.
KQb KQa (1) Potential difference in a uniform electric
Sol. Vinner sphere = +
b a field
KQb KQa  
Vouter sphere = + VB – VA = – E  AB
a a
Qa  VB – VA = – |E| |AB| cos 
Qb

b a B
E

A
KQb KQb d
Vinner sphere – Vouter sphere = –
b a = – |E| d= – Ed
1 1
 V = KQb    where d = effective distance between A and B
 b a  along electric field.
Which is independent of charge on outer sphere. V
If outer sphere in given any extra charge, then or we can also say that E =
d
there will be no change in potential difference. Special Cases :
Potential Difference Case 1. Line AB is parallel to electric field.
The potential difference between two points A
d
and B is work done by external agent against
A B
electric field in taking a unit positive charge
E
from A to B with no change in kinetic energy
between initial and final points ie. K = 0 or
Ki = Kf  VA – VB = Ed
 ELECTROSTATICS 23
Case 2. Line AB is perpendicular to electric Po tential difference due to infinitely lo ng
field. thin sheet
A Derivation of expression for potential difference
d E between two points, having separation d in the
B di rection per pen dicula rly to a very large
uniformly charged thin sheet of uniform surface
 VA – VB = 0  VA = VB charge density .
Note : In the direction of electric field potential
always decreases.
Ex. 1C charge is shifted from A to B and it is found
that work done by an external force is 40J in
doing so against electrostatic forces, then find
potential difference VA – VB
Sol. (WAB)ext = q(VB – VA)  40 J = 1C (VB – VA)
 VA – VB = – 40 V
Ex. A uniform electric field is present in the positive
x-direction. f the intensity of the field is 5N/C then
find the potential difference (VB –VA) between two
points A (0m, 2 m) and B (5 m ,3 m)
 
Sol. VB – VA = – E . AB = – î (5) . (5 î + ĵ ) = –25V..
The electric field intensity in uniform electric field, Let the points A and B have perpendicular dis-
tance r A and r B respectively then from defini-
V
E= tion of potential difference.
d
Where rB
 
rB
 
V = potential difference between two points.  
d = effective distance between the two points.
VAB = VB – VA =   E  dr  20 r̂  dr
rA r A
(projection of the displacement along the direction
of electric field.)  d
 VAB = – (r B – r A) = –
Potential difference due to infinitely long wire 2 o 2 o
Derivation of expression for potential difference Equipotential Surface
between two points, which have perpendicular
distance r A and r B from infinitely long line Definition : If potential of a surface (imaginary or
charge of uniform linear charge density  : physically existing) is same throughout, then such
From definition of potential difference : surface is known as an equipotential surface.
Properties of equipotential surfaces
(i) When a charge is shifted from one point to
another point on an equipotential surface, then
rA
work done against electrostatic forces is zero.
A
B (ii) Electric field is always perpendicular to equi-
rB potential surfaces.
(iii) Two equipotential surfaces do not cross each
other.
Examples of equipotential surfaces
(i) Point charge :
2 K 
rB
 
rB

VAB = VB – VA =   E  dr   r̂  dr Equipotential surfaces are concentric and spheri-

r
rA rA
cal as shown in figure. In figure, we can see that
r  sphere of radius R1 has potential V1 throughout its
 VAB = –2K n  B  surface and similarly for other concentric sphere
 rA 
potential is same.
 24 Physics for NEET
V2 Direction 2
V1
q
R1
R2

(ii) Line charge : Direction 1

V2 Ex. Figure shows some equipotential surfaces produce

V1 by some charges. At which point, the value of elec-
tric field is greatest ?

(50 V)
(40 V)
(30 V)
(20 V)
Equipotential surfaces have curved surfaces as that B
of coaxial cylinders of different radii.
(iii) Uniformly charged large conducting / non C
conducting sheets : A
Equipotential surfaces are parallel planes.
V1 V2 V3
+
+ Sol. E is larger where equipotential surfaces are closer.
+
+
ELOF are  to equipotential surfaces. In the fig-
+ ure, we can see that for point B, they are closer so
+
+ E at point B is maximum.
+
+ ELECTROSTATIC POTENTIAL ENERGY
Note : In uniform electric field equipotential surfaces are
Electrostatic potential energy of a point charge due
always parallel planes.
to many charges
Ex. Some equipotential surfaces are shown in figure.
What can you say about the magnitude and the di- The electrostatic potential energy of a point
rection of the electric field ? charge at a point in electric field is the work
y(cm) V
done in taking the charge from reference point
0 V 60 V 20 0
V
(generally at infinity) to that point without
10 1 2 28
0 37º 37º 37º 37º change in kinetic energy
10 20 30 40 x(cm)
Source charges
Test charges

Sol. Here, we can say that the electric will be perpen-

dicular to equipotential surfaces.
 V
Also, |E| =
d Its Mathematical formula is
Where, V = potential difference between two U = WP)ext |K = 0 = qV = – WP)ele
equipotential surfaces. Here, q is the charge whose potential energy is
d = perpendicular distance between two being calculated and V is the potential at its
equipotential surfaces. position due to the source charges.
 60 Note : Always put q and V with sign.
So |E| = = 1000 V/m
(10 sin 37º ) 10 2 Properties
Now there are two perpendicular directions: either (i) Electric potential energy is a scalar quantity
direction 1 or direction 2 as shown in figure, but but may be positive, negative or zero.
since we know that in the direction of electric field,
(ii) Its unit is same as unit of work or energy i.e
electric potential decreases, so the correct direc-
joule (in S.. system). Some times energy is
tion is direction 2.
also given in electron-volts.
Hence E = 1000 V/m, making an angle 127° with
the x-axis Where, 1eV = 1.6 × 10 –19 J
 ELECTROSTATICS 25
(iii) Electric potential energy depends on reference Let
point. (Generally Potential Energy at r=  is W1 = Work done in bringing first charge.
taken zero)
W2 = Work done in bringing second charge
Ex. A particle of mass 40 mg and carrying a charge against force due to 1 st charge.
5 × 10–9 C is moving directly towards a fixed W3 = Work done in bringing third charge against
positive point charge of magnitude 10 –8 C. When force due to 1 st and 2nd charge.
it is at a distance of 10 cm from the fixed point
charge it has speed of 50 cm/s. At what distance PE = W1 + W2 + W3 + ...... .
from the fixed point charge will the particle n(n  1) n
come momentarily to rest? Is the acceleration (This will contain = C2 terms)
constant during the motion? 2
(ii) Method of calculation (to be used in problems)
Sol. If the particle comes to rest momentarily at a
:
distance r from the fixed charge, then from
conservation of energy, we have U = sum of the interaction energies of the
charges.
1 1 Qq 1 Qq
mu 2 + = = (U12 + U13 + ........ + U1n) + (U23 + U24 + ........
2 40 a 40 r + U2n) + (U34 + U35 + ........ + U3n) .... .
Substituting the given data, we get: (iii) Method of calculation useful for symmetrical
point charge systems.
1 1 1
× 40 × 10–6 × × Find PE of each charge due to rest of the charges.
2 2 2
If U1 = PE of first charge due to all other
1  charges.
= 9 × 109 × 5 × 10–8 ×10–9   10
r  = (U12 + U13 + ........ + U1n)
1 5 106 100 1 190 U2 = PE of second charge due to all other
or, –10 = 8
  = charges.
r 9  5  10 9 r 9
= (U21 + U23 + ........ + U2n)
9
 r= m U1  U2  ....Un
190 then U = PE of the system =
i.e., r = 4.7 × 10–2 m 2
Ex. Two point charges, each of mass m and charge
1 Qq
As here, F = q are released when they are at a distance r from
40 r 2 each other. What is the speed of each charged
particle when they are at a distance 2r ?
F 1
So, acc. =  2 Sol. According to momentum conservation, both the
m r
charge particles will
i.e., Acceleration is not constant during the
motion. move with same speed. Now applying energy
conservation :
Electrostatic potential energy of a system of charges
V V
(This concept is useful when more than one charges
move) 2r
It is the work done by an external agent against 2
the internal electric field required to make a Kq 1 Kq 2 Kq 2
0+0+ = 2 mv2 +  v=
system of charges in a particular configuration r 2 2r 2rm
from infinite separation without change in their Ex. Three equal charges q each are placed at the cor-
kinetic energies. ners of an equilateral triangle of side a.
Types of system of charges (i) Find out potential energy of charge system.
(i) Point charge system Aq
(ii) Continuous charge system.
Derivation for a system of point charges
B
(i) Keep all the charges at infinity. Now bring the q qC
charges one by one to its corresponding position a
and find work required. PE of the system is (ii) Calculate work required to decrease the side
algebraic sum of all the works. of triangle to a/2.
 26 Physics for NEET
(iii) If the charges are released from the shown po- For this, lets use method 1 : Take an uncharged
sition and each of them has same mass m then shell. Now bring charges one by one from infinity
find the speed of each particle when they lie to the surface fo the shell. The work required
on triangle of side 2a. in this process will be stored as potential Energy.
Sol. (i) Method I (Derivation)
A R

Charges

B C
a

Assume all the charges are at infinity initially. uncharged

shell
Work done in putting charge q at corner A
 W1 = q (vf – vi) = q (0 – 0) Suppose, we have given charge q to the sphere and
Since potential at A is zero in absence of charges, now we are giving extra charge dq to it. Work
work done in putting q at corner B in presence of required to bring dq charge from infinity to the
charge at A : shell is
q
+ +
 Kq  Kq 2
 W2 =   0 q = + +
R
 a  a
Similarly work done in putting charge q at corner + dq
+
C in presence of charge at A and B.
+ +
 Kq Kq   + +
 W3 = q(vf – vi) = q   0 dW = (dq) (Vf - Vi)
 a a  
2 Kq 2 Kq Kq
=  dW = (dq) ( - 0) = dq
a R R
So, net potential energy PE = W1 + W2 + W3  Total work required to give charge Q is
qQ
Kq 2 2Kq 2 3Kq 2 Kq KQ 2
=0+ + = W=
R
dq = 2R
a a a q o

Ex. Four identical point charges q each are placed at This work will be stored in the form of P.E. (self
four corners of a square of side a. energy).
So, P.E. of a charged spherical shell:
q q
4 3 KQ 2
U=
2R
(ii) Self energy of uniformly charged solid sphere
1q 2 In this case we have to assemble a solid charged
q
sphere. So we bring the charges one-by-one from
Find out potential energy of the charge system infinity to the sphere so that the size of the sphere
increases.
Sol. Method 1 (using direct formula) :
U = U12 + U13 + U14 + U23 + U24 + U34
Kq 2 Kq 2 Kq 2 Kq 2 Kq 2 Kq 2
= + + + + +
a a 2 a a a 2 a
 4Kq 2 2Kq 2  2Kq 2  1 
=  a   = 2   Suppose we have given charge q to the sphere, and
 a 2  a  2 its radius becomes ‘x’ .Now we are giving extra
Derivation of electric potential energy for charge dq to it, which will increase its radius by
continuous charge system ‘dx’
This energy is also known as self energy.  Work required to bring charge dq from infinity to
the sphere
(i) Finding P.E., (Self Energy) of a uniformly
Charged spherical shell
 ELECTROSTATICS 27
Energy density
 Kq  Kqdq
= dq (Vf - Vi) = (dq)  o = Def : Energy density is defined as energy stored in
 x  x
unit volume in any electric field. Its mathematical
 Total work required to give charge Q to the sphere formula is given as following :
Kqdq 4 3 1 2
, where q =   x  Energy density = E
W=  x 3  2
& dq =  (4 x2 dx) where E = electric field intensity at that point
.  = 0r electric permittivity of medium
4 
x R   x 3   (4x 2 dx) Ex. Find out energy stored in an imaginary cubical vol-
 W =0 K  3 
 x
ume of side a in front of a infinitely large non-
x o conducting sheet of uniform charge density .
Solving, well get: Sol. Energy stored :
2
3 KQ 1 2
W=
5 R
= Uself (for a solid sphere) U=  2 0 E dV ; where dV is small volume

1
Ex. A spherical shell of radius R with uniform  U= 0 E 2  dV
2
charge q is expanded to a radius 2R. Find the  E is constant .
work performed by the electric forces and
1 2 2 a 3
external agent against electric forces in this  U = 2 0 2 . a3 .=
4 0 80
process.
q2 q2 q2 Ex. Find out energy stored in the electric field of
Sol. Wext = Uf – Ui = – =– uniformly charged thin spherical shell of total
16  0 R 8 0 R 16  0 R charge Q and radius R.
q2 q2 q2 Sol. We know that electric field inside the shell is zero,
Welec = Ui – Uf = – = so the energy is stored only outside the shell, which
8 0 R 16  0 R 16  0 R
can be calculated by using energy density formula.
Ex. Two non-conducting hollow uniformly charged x  1
Uself =  0E 2dV
 x R
spheres of radii R1 and R2 with charge Q1 and 2
Q2 respectively are placed at a distance r. Consider an elementary shell of thickness dx and
Q1 Q2 radius x (x > R).
R1
R2
x dx
r
Find out total energy of the system.
Sol. Utotal = Uself + UInteraction Volume of the shell = (4x2dx) = dV
Q12 Q 22 Q1Q 2 2
= + + 4  r  1  KQ 
8 0 R 1 8 0 R 2 U= R 0 . 4x2 dx
0 2  x 2 
Ex. Two concentric spherical shells of radius R1 and 1  1
=  0 K 2 Q 2 4 R dx
R2 (R2 > R1) are having uniformly distributed 2 x2
charges Q1 and Q2 respectively. Find out total 40 Q2 1 Q2 KQ 2
energy of the system. = 2 .   = = .
2 (4 0 ) R 80R 2R

R2
Relation between Electric Field Intensity and
electric Potential
R1
Q1 Q2 (i) For uniform electric field
Potential difference between two points A and B
Sol. Utotal = Uself 1 + Uself 2 + UInteraction B

Q12 Q 22 Q1Q2
= + +
8 0R1 80 R 2 40 R 2 A
 28 Physics for NEET
  Electric Dipole
VB – VA = – E . AB
If two point charges, equal in magnitude ‘q’ and
(ii) Non uniform electric field opposite in sign separated by a distance ‘a’ such
V V V that the distance of field point r>>a, the system
Ex = – , Ey = – , Ez = – is called a dipole. The electric dipole moment is
x y z
 defined as a vector quantity having magnitude
 E = Ex î + Ey ĵ + Ez k̂
p = (q × a) and direction from negative charge
ˆ  ˆ  ˆ   to positive charge.
= –  i x V  j y V  k z V 
  ETOOS KEY POINTS
ˆ  ˆ  ˆ   [In chemistry, the direction of dipole moment
=  i  j  k  V = – V = –grad V is assumed to be from positive to negative
 x y z 
charge.] The C.G.S unit of electric dipole
V moment is debye which is defined as the dipole
Where, = derivative of V with respect to x
x moment of two equal and opposite point
(keeping y and z constant) charges each having charge 10 –10 Franklin and
V separation of 1 Å, i.e.,
= derivative of V with respect to y (keeping z 1 debye (D) = 10 –10 × 10–8 = 10–18 Fr × cm
y
and x constant) C
or 1 D = 10–18 × × 10–2 m
V 3  109
= derivative of V with respect to z (keeping x = 3.3 × 10–30 C × m.
z S.I. Unit is coulomb × metre = C . m
and y constant)
Ex. A system has two charges q A = 2.5 × 10–7 C and
If electric potential and electric field depends only on q B = – 2. 5 × 10 –7 C loca t ed a t poi n t s
one coordinate, say r A : (0, 0, – 0.15 m) and B ; (0, 0, + 0.15 m)
 V respectively. What is the net charge and electric
(i) E = – r̂
r dipole moment of the system ?
where, r̂ is a unit vector along increasing r.. Sol. Net charge = 2.5 × 10 –7 – 2.5 × 10–7 = 0
rB
    Electric dipole moment,
(ii)  dV = –  E  dr  VB – VA = –  E. dr
P = (Magnitude of charge) × (Separation
rA
 between charges)
dr is along the increasing direction of r..
r
= 2.5 × 10–7 [0.15 + 0.15] C m = 7.5 × 10 –8 C m
 
The direction of dipole moment is from B to A.
(iii) The potential of a point V = –  E. dr

 ELECTRIC FIELD INTENSITY DUE TO
Ex. 2
V = x + y , Find E . DIPOLE
V V V
Sol. = 2x, 1 and 0 (i) At the axial point :-
x y z a
-q +q
  ˆ V ˆ V ˆ V 
E = –  i x  j y  k z  = –(2x î + ĵ ) r
 
P
 Electric field is non-uniform.
 Kq Kq 
 E  (along the P)
Ex. For given E = 2xiˆ  3yjˆ , find the potential at (x, 2 2
 a  a
y) if V at origin is 5 volts. r   r  
 2  2
v  x y
Kq (2ra)
Sol.  dV    E  dr = –  E x dx –  E ydy =
2
P̂
5 0 0  2 a2 
r  
 4 
2x 2 3y2 2x 2 3y2 
V – 5 = –  V = –  + 5.
2 2 2 2
 ELECTROSTATICS 29

 Kq 2ra 2KP
If r >> a then, E = P̂ = ,
r4 r3
As the direction of electric field at axial position is

along the dipole moment ( P )

 2K P
So, E axial =
r3
(ii) Electric field at perpendicular Bisector
(Equatorial Position)
One component is along radial line (=P cos) and
other component is r to the radial line (=Psin)
From the given figure
2 2
 2KP cos    KP sin  
Enet = Er2  Et2     
 r3   r3 
KP
= 3
1  3cos 2 
r
KPsin 
Enet = 2 E cos  (along – P̂ ) Et tan 
tan  =  r3 =
  Er 2KP cos  2
  r3
  a
  Kq  2 ˆ KP 2 tan 
Enet = 2  2
(P) Enet = 3 1  3cos  ; tan  =
 2 a
2 r 2
 2 a  r2   
  r      
 2
Ex. The electric field due to a short dipole at a
  2   distance r, on the axial line, from its mid point
  
is the same as that of electric field at a distance
Kqa ˆ r', on the equatorial line, from its mid-point.
= 3/2
( P)
 2  a 2  r
Determine the ratio .
r    r´
  2  

1 2p 1 p 2 1
 KP ˆ Sol. = or = 3
If r >> a then Enet = 3 (P) 40 r3 40 r '3 r3 r´
r

r3 r
or =2 or, = 21/3
As the direction of E at equatorial position is r´3 r´
 Ex. Two charges, each of 5 C but opposite in sign,
opposite of P so we can write in vector form:
are placed 4 cm apart. Calculate the electric field
 intensity of a point that is at a distance 4 cm

KP from the mid point on the axial line of the dipole.
E eqt = –
r3 Sol. We cannot use formula of short dipole here
(iii) Electric field at general point (r, ) : because distance of the point is comparable to
the distance between the two point charges.
q = 5 × 10–6 C, a = 4 ×10–2 m, r = 4 × 10–2 m


For this, let’s resolve the dipole moment P into K(5C) K(5C)
E res = E + + E – = –
components.  2cm  2
 6 cm 2
 30 Physics for NEET
144 From the potential energy curve, we can conclude :
= NC–1 = 108 N C–1 (i) At  = 0, there is minimum of P.E. so it is a
144  10 8
stable equilibrium position.
Ex. Two charges ± 10 C are placed 5 × 10–3 m apart
as shown in figure. Determine the electric field (ii) At = 180° , there is maxima of P.E. so it is a
at a point Q which is 0.15 m away from O, on position of unstable equilibrium.
the equatorial line. Ex. Two point masses of mass m and equal and oppo-
Sol. In the given problem, r >> a site charge of magnitude q are attached on the
corners of a non-conducting uniform rod of mass
m and the system is released from rest in uniform
electric field E as shown in figure from  = 53°
(i) Find angular acceleration of the rod just after
releasing

1 p 1 q(a)
 E= 3 = 4
40 r 0 r3
(ii) What will be angular velocity of the rod when
10  106  5 103
or E = 9 × 109 × NC–1 it passes through stable equilibrium.
0.15  0.15  0.15
(iii) Find work required to rotate the system by 180°.
= 1.33 ×105 NC–1
Sol. (i) net = PE sin53° = I 
(iii) Potential energy of a dipole placed in uniform
electric field : 4
(q) E  
B  5 48qE
 = 2 2

UB – UA = –  F . dr (for translational motion) m 2
  35 m
A
 m   m 
12 2
  2
 
B 
 (ii) From energy conservation :
Here, UB – UA = –   .d (for rotational motion) Ki + Ui = Kf + Uf
A
1 2
In the case of dipole, at  = 90° , P.E. is assumed to  0 + (– PE cos 53°) =  + (–PE cos 0°)
2
be zero.
2 2
 m2   7m 2
(PEsin )(d) where I = + m  + m  =
U – U90° = –  12 2 2 12
90
1 2 2
(As the direction of torque is opposite of )   = PE (1– 3/5) = PE
2 5
U – 0 = – PE cos 
 = 90° is chosen as reference, 1 7m  2 2
 × ×2 = qE
2 12 5

48qE
or =
35 m
(iii)  Wext = Uf – Ui
 Wext = (–PE cos(180° + 53°)) – (–PEcos 53°)
 3  3
or Wext = (q)E   + (q)E 5
So that the lower limit comes out to be zero. 5  
 
U = – P  E 6
 Wext =   qE
5
 ELECTROSTATICS 31
Dipole in Non-uniform Electric Field From action reaction concept, force on the dipole
 due to point charge will be equal to the force on
If the dipole is placed along E , (shown in figure)
2KPQ
charge due to dipole F = (towards left)
r3
is force on dipole due to point Charge.

FORCE BETWEEN TWO DIPOLES

Ex. A short dipole of dipole moment P is placed near a
Then, Net force on the dipole : point charge Q as shown in figure. Find force on
Fnet = q E(x + dx) – q E(x) the dipole due to the point charge.
E (x  dx) – E(x) +q
Fnet = q (dx)
dx
here (q (dx) = P) +Q
r
 dE 
 Fnet = P   -q
 dx 
Sol. Force on the point charge due to dipole
Ex. A short dipole is placed on the axis of a uniformly
charged ring (total charge –Q, radius R) at a dis-
R
tance from centre of ring as shown in figure.
2
Find the Force on the dipole due to the ring

F = (Q) (Edipole)
 KP 
F = (Q)  3  
 r 

So force on the dipole due to the point charge will
 dE  also be
Sol.  F=P  
 dx   KPQ 
d  KQx   r 

F =  3   (but in opposite direction) as
R
 F=P  2 2 3/2  ;(at x = )
dx  (R  x )  2 shown
Solving we get, F = 0 Ex. Find force on short dipole P2 due to short dipole P1
if they are placed a distance r apart as shown in
Force between a dipole and a point charge figure.
Ex. A short dipole of dipole moment P is placed near a r
point charge Q as shown in figure. Find force on
the dipole due to the point charge P1
P2

Sol.
Sol. F F P +q
+Q –q

Force on the point charge due to the dipole

F = (Q) Edipole Fnet = q2 E (x + dx) - q2 E (x)

 2KP   E(x  dx)  E(x) 

F = (Q)  3  (towards right) Fnet = q2   dx
 r   dx 
 32 Physics for NEET
 dE 
or Fnet = (P2)  
 dx 
(Usually this formula is valid when the dipole is

placed along E . However, in this case also, we
are getting the same formula)
 d  KP1  
 Fnet = (P2)  dr  3  
  r 
3KP1P2
 Fnet = (in magnitude) & (direction up- (ii) Two lines of force never intersect each other
r4

wards) because there cannot be two directions of E at a
single Point
Electric Lines of Force (ELOF)
The line of force in an electric field is an imagi-
nary line, the tangent to which at any point on
it represents the direction of electric field at the
impossilble
given point.
Properties (iii) Electric lines of force produced by static charges
(i) Line of force originates out from a positive do not form closed loop.
If lines of force make a closed loop, then work done
charge and terminates on a negative charge. If
to move a +q charge along the loop will be non-zero.
there is only one positive charge, then lines So it will not be conservative field. So these type of
starts from positive charge and terminates at lines of force are not possible in electrostatics.
. If there is only one negative charge, then lines
starts from  and terminates at negative charge.

+ (iv) The Number of lines per unit area (line density)

represents the magnitude of electric field.
If lines are dense  E will be more
If Lines are rare  E will be less
ELOF of Isolated positive charge and if E = O, no line of force will be found there

ELOF of Isolated negative charge (v) Number of lines originating (terminating) at a

charge is proportional to the magnitude of charge

Ex. If number of electric lines of force from charge

q are 10, then find out number of electric lines
of force from 2q charge.
Sol. No. of ELOF  charge
10  q  20  2q
So, number of ELOF will be 20.
 ELECTROSTATICS 33
(vi) E l ect r i c l i n es of for ce en d or sta r t surface. The electric flux of the field over the
perpendicularly on the surface of a conductor.  
area element is given by dE = E.dS
(vii) E l ect r i c l i n es of for ce n ever ent er in t o
conductors. dS E
Ex. Some electric lines of force are shown in figure.
For points A and B

A 
Direction of dS is normal to the surface. It is along n̂
B or dE = EdS cos 
or dE = (E cos ) dS
or dE = E n dS
where E n is the component of electric field in

(A) EA > EB (B) EB > EA the direction of dS .
(C) VA > VB (D) VB > VA The electric flux over the whole area is given
Sol. Lines are more dense at A, so EA > EB In the direc-  
tion of Electric field, potential decreases so VA > VB by E = S E.dS = S E n dS
Ex. If a charge is released in electric field, will it fol- If the electric field is uniform over that area then
 
low lines of force ? E = E  S
Sol. Case I Special Cases
If lines of force are parallel (in uniform electric Case I If the electric field is normal to the surface, then
field) 
E angle of electric field E with normal will be zero
F = q 0E
+q0 So  = ES cos 0 or  = ES
S

In this type of field, if a charge is released, force

on it will be qoE and its direction will be along

E .So the charge will move in a straight line , along Case II If electric field is parallel of the surface (grazing),
the lines of force. 
Case II then angle made by E with normal = 90º
If lines of force are curved (in non-uniform elec-
tric field) :-

+q

So  = ES cos 90º = 0
The charge will not follow lines of force Physical Meaning
Ex. A charge + Q is fixed at a distance d in front of an The electric flux through a surface inside an
infinite metal plate. Draw the lines of force indi- electric field represents the total number of
cating the directions clearly. electric lines of force crossing the surface. It is
Sol. There will be induced charge on two surfaces of a property of electric field
conducting plate, so ELOF will start from +Q Unit
charge and terminate at conductor and then will
(i) The SI unit of electric flux is Nm 2 C–1 (Gauss)
again start from other surface of conductor.
or J m C–1.
Electric Flux (ii) Electric flux is a scalar quantity. (It can be

Consider some surface in an electric field E . positive, negative or zero)

Let us select a small area element dS on this
 34 Physics for NEET
Ex. The electric field in a region is given by
 3 4
E  E 0 iˆ  E 0ˆj with E0 = 2.0 × 10 N/C. Find
3

5 5 E

the flux of this field through a rectangular surface

R
of area 0.2m2 parallel to the Y–Z plane.
Flux passing through the surface  = E (R2)
   3 ˆ 4 ˆ N  m2
Sol.
5 5 
 
E = E  S =  E 0 i  E 0 j  . 0.2iˆ = 240
C
(ii) Now suppose, a hemispherical surface, is placed
in the electric field. Flux through hemispherical
Ex. A point charge Q is placed at the corner of a surface :
square of side a, then find the flux through the ds
square. E
Q
E
a

a R
Sol. The electric field due to Q at any point of the  =  Eds cos 
square will be along the plane of  = E  ds cos 
squa r e a nd t h e el ect r i c fi el d l i n es a r e where,  ds cos  is
perpendicular to square ; so  = 0. projection of the spherical surface Area on base.
In other words we can say that no line is crossing
the square so, flux = 0. &  ds cos = R2
Ex. Find the electric flux due to a point charge 'Q' So,  = E(R2) = same Ans. as in previous case
through the circular region So, we can conclude that
of radius R if the charge is placed on the axis of
ring at a distance x. If the number of electric field lines passing through
two surfaces are same, then flux passing through
these surfaces will also be same, irrespective of the
+Q
R
shape of surface
x

Sol.

1 = 2 = 3 = E(R2)

Case IV
Flux through a closed surface
We can divide the circular region into small rings.
Suppose there is a spherical surface and a charge
Lets take a ring of radius r and width dr.
'q' is placed at centre.
Flux through this small element
 Flux through the spherical surface
d = E ds cos 
r R
KQ
net =  E ds cos  = 
r o
(x  r 2 )
2

 x  Q  x 
(2r dr)  2 2  = 1  2 
 x r  2 0  2
x  R 
Case-III
   
Curved surface in uniform electric field
Suppose a circular surface of radius R is placed in
= 
E . ds =  E ds (as E is along ds

a uniform electric field as shown. (normal))

 ELECTROSTATICS 35
1 Q ETOOS KEY POINTS
 =  ds = 4R 2
4 R 2
ds where,
 (i) Flux through Gaussian surface is independent
of its shape.
 1 Q  Q (ii) Flux through Gaussian surface depends only on
 =  2   4 R 
2
 =

 4 0 R  total charge present inside Gaussian surface.
Now if the charge Q is enclosed by any other closed (iii) Flux through Gaussian surface is independent
surface, still same no of lines of force will pass through of position of charges inside Gaussian surface.
the surface. (iv) Electric field intensity at the Gaussian surface
Q is due to all the charges present inside as well
So, here also flux will be  = . That's what Gauss as outside the

Gaussian surface.
Theorem is.
(v) In a closed surface incoming flux is taken
Q Q
= = negative, while outgoing flux is taken positive,
 
because n̂ is taken positive in outward
direction.
(vi) In a Gaussian surface,  = 0 does not imply E =
0 at every point of the surface but E = 0 at every
+Q
+Q point implies  = 0.

Ex. Find out flux through the given Gaussian

surface.

Gauss's Law in Electrostatics or Gauss's theorem

This law was stated by a mathematician Karl F
Gauss. This law gives the relation between the
electric field at a point on a closed surface and
the net charge enclosed by that surface. This
surface is called Gaussian surface. It is a closed
Qin 2C  3C  4C 3 106
hypothetical surface. Its validity is shown by Sol. = = = Nm 2/C
0 0 0
experiments. It is used to determine the electric
fi el d due t o som e sym m et ri c ch arge Ex. If a point charge q is placed at the centre of a
distributions. cube, then find out flux through any one face of
cube.
Statement and Details
q
Gauss's law is stated as given below : Sol. Flux through all 6 faces = . Since, all the
0
The surface integral of the electric field intensity
surfaces are symmetrical
over any closed hypothetical surface (called
1 q
1 So, flux through one face =
Gaussian surface) in free space is equal to 6 0
0
Flux through open surfaces using Gauss’s Theorem
times the total charge enclosed within the
Ex. A point charge +q is placed at the centre of curva-
surface. Here, 0 is the permittivity of free space.
ture of a hemisphere.
n
If S is the Gaussian surface and qi is the Find flux through the hemispherical surface.
i 1
total charge enclosed by the Gaussian surface, +q
then according to Gauss's law,
  1 n
E = E.dS =   q i .
0 i 1 Sol. Lets put an upper half hemisphere.
The circle on the sign of integration indicates
q
that the integration is to be carried out over the Now, flux passing through the entire sphere =
closed surface. 0
 36 Physics for NEET
30

10 20

As the charge q is symmetrical to the upper half 15

and lower half hemispheres , so half-half flux will Sol. Net flux through the closed surface = + 20 + 30 +
emit from both the surfaces. 10 -15 = 45 N.m2/c
From Gauss`s theorem :
q in q in
Flux emitting q Flux emitting net =  or 45 = 
from lower half surface = q
from upper half surface = 0 0

Ex. A charge Q is placed at a distance a/2 above the  qin = (45)

centre of a horizontal, square surface of edge a as
shown in figure. Find the flux of the electric field Finding electric field from Gauss`s Theorem
through the square surface. From Gauss`s theorem, we can say
•   q in
 E .ds = net = 
a a/2 0

Finding E due to a spherical shell

a
(a) Electric field outside the Sphere
Sol. We can consider imaginary faces of cube such that
the charge lies at the centre of the cube. Due to Since, electric field due to a shell will be radially
symmetry, we can say that flux through the given outwards.
Q So lets choose a spherical Gaussian surface Ap-
area (which is one face of cube),  = 6 plying Gauss`s theorem for this spherical Gaussian
0
surface,

Ex. Find flux through the hemispherical surface

+q +q

Sol. (i) Flux through the hemispherical surface due to

q
+q = (we have seen in previous examples)  q in q
20 = net =  = 
 E ds  
(ii) Flux through the hemispherical surface due to

+q0 is 0, because due to +q0, field lines enter-
  
ing the surface = field lines coming out of the
surface.  | E || ds | cos0 because E is normal to the sur--
face
+q0

E  ds (because value of E is constant at the sur--
face)
Finding qin from flux
Ex. Flux (in S.I.units) coming out and entering a closed E (4r2) (  ds total area of the spherical surface
surface is shown in the figure . Find charge en- = 4 r2)
closed by the closed surface.
 ELECTROSTATICS 37
q in q E  ds
 E (4r2) =  Eout = 4 r 2
0 

(b) Electric field inside a spherical shell
E (4r2)
Lets choose a spherical Gaussian surface inside the
shell. Q Q
E (4r2) =  or Eout = 4 r 2
 

(b) Electric field inside a solid sphere :

+ + Q,R +
+ ++ + +
+ + + + G.S
+ + + + r ++
+ +
+ + + + ++ Q = Total charges
+ ++ contained by
++ + + solid sphere
+ + +
++ + + R = Radins of sphere
+ + +
Applying Gauss`s theorem for this surface + + + +
+ ++ + + + + +
+ + +
 q in
 E ds = net
= 0 = 0
 For this choose a spherical Gaussian surface in-
  side the solid sphere Applying Gauss`s theorem for
 | E || ds | cos0 this surface
Q 4
  r 3
4 3 3
q in R Qr 3
E  ds 
E ds =  = =
3
=

 net   R 3
E (4r2) 
 E (4r2) = 0  Ein = 0  E ds
Electric field due to solid sphere (having uniformly 
distributed charge Q and radius R) Qr 3
E (4r2)  E(4r2) =
(a) Electric field outside the sphere R 3
Direction of electric field is radially outwards, so Q r kQ
we will choose a spherical Gaussian surface Ap- E = 4 R 3   Ein = 3 r
 R
plying Gauss`s theorem
Electric field due to infinite line charge (having uni-
formly distributed charged of charge density l)
Q,R

+ + +
+
+ + + +
+ +
+ + + + +
+
+ +
+ + +
+ +
+ +
+ +
+ +
+ +
+ +
+ +
 q in Q +
+
+
+
 E ds = net
=  =  + +
+ +
+ +
 + +
+ +
+ +
  + +
+ +
 | E || ds | cos0 +
+
+
+
+
+
+ +
 + +
 38 Physics for NEET
Electric field due to infinitely wire is radial so we (i) E at outside point :
will choose cylindrical Gaussian surface as shown
is figure:

q in 
=  = 
 

 
3 =  E .ds =  E ds = E  ds = E (2r)

  2k
 E (2r) =   E = 2 r =
  r
Lets choose a cylindrical Gaussian surface.
Electric field due to infinitely long charged tube (having Applying Gauss`s theorem :
uniform surface charge density s and radius R)) q in  R 2 R 2
E × 2r =  = Eout =
  2r  0
(ii) E at inside point :
Lets choose a cylindrical Gaussian
surface inside the solid cylinder.

(i) E outside the tube :- Lets choose a cylindrical

Gaussian surface of length  :
q in 2R
 net =  = 
  Applying Gauss`s theorem :
2R R q in   r 2  r
 Eout × 2r =   E= r E × 2r = = Ein = 2 
  0
 0
(ii) E inside the tube :
Lets choose a cylindrical Gaussian surface inside
the tube.
q in
net =  = 0


Conductor and it's properties [For electrostatic

condition]
(i) Conductors are materials which contain large
number of free electrons which can move freely
inside the
conductor.
So Ein = 0 (ii) n elect r ost a t i cs con duct or s a r e a lwa ys
equipotential surfaces.
E due to infinitely long solid cylinder of radius R (hav- (iii) Charge always resides on outer surface of
ing uniformly distributed charge in volume (volume conductor.
charge density )) (iv) f there is a cavity inside the conductor having
no charge then charge will always reside only
on outer surface of conductor.
 ELECTROSTATICS 39
(v) E lect ri c fi el d is a lwa ys per pendicul ar t o Applying Gauss's theorem for this surface :
conducting surface.
(vi) E l ect r i c l i n es of for ce n ever ent er in t o
conductors.
(vii) Electric field intensity near the conducting
 
surface is given by formula E = n̂
0
A

C 
B
ds
So, Eds =  E= 
     0 0
E A  A nˆ ; E B  B nˆ and E C  C nˆ Electric field just outside the surface of conductor
0 0 0 :
(viii) When a conductor is grounded its potential
becomes zero. 
E= (direction will be normal to the surface)
V=0 0
 
in vector form: E  nˆ (Here, n̂ = unit vector
0
(ix) When an isolated conductor is grounded then normal to the conductor surface)
its charge becomes zero.
(x) When two conductors are connected there will
Electrostatic pressure at the surface of the
be charge flow till their potentials become equal.
(xi) Electric pressure : Electric pressure at the surface conductor
of a conductor is given by formula uppose a conductor is given some charge. Due to
repulsion, all the charges will reach the surface of
2 the conductor. But the charges will still repel each
P= , where  is the local surface charge
2 0 other. So an outward force will be felt by each
density. charge due to others. Due to this force, there will
Finding field due to a conductor be some pressure at the surface, which is called
Suppose we have a conductor and at any 'A', local electrostatic pressure.
surface charge density =  We have to find elec- +
+ +
tric field just outside the conductor surface.
+ +
+
+ +
+ + +
+ + A +
E=? +
+ +
+ +
+ +
+ +
+ +
+ +
+ + +
+
+
+ + To find the electrostatic pressure, lets take a small
+ +
surface element having Area 'ds'.
For this, let’s consider a small cylindrical Gaussian
surface, which is partly inside and partly outside Force on this element due to the remaining charges
the conductor surface, as shown in figure.
It has a small cross section area ds and negligible
height.

 electric field at   charge of 

   
that place due to   the small
dF =  
 remainig charges   element 
   
40 Physics for NEET
Let electric field at that point due to the remaining So, Er – Es = 0
charges = Er  Er = Es ...........(3)
and charge of the small element = dq = ds from eqn. (2) and eqn. (3), we can say that :
 dF = (Er) (dq) = (Er) (ds)
 
So, pressure on this small element 2Er =   E r = 2
o o
dF (Er ) (ds)
P  Now, we can easily find the pressure from eqn. (1)
ds ds
 P = (Er) () ...........(1)  2
Now to find pressure, we have to find Er (electric P = (Er)() = 2 () =
o 2o
field at that position due to the remaining charges)
Suppose, So, electrostatic pressure at the surface of the
Electric field due to the small element near the
surface = Es 2
conductor P =
2o
Electric field due to the remaining part near the
surface = Er where, = local surface charge density.
At a point just outside the surface, electric field
due to the small element (Es) will be normally out
wards, and electric field due to the remaining part
(Er) will also be normally out wards.
Es
Er

ds

So Net electric field just outside the surface = Es +

Er and we have proved that electric field just out-

side the conductor surface = 
o


 Es + Er =  ...........(2)
o

Now, lets see the electric field just inside the metal
surface. Here, electric field due to the remaining
charges (Er) will be in the same direction (normally
outward), but the electric field due to the small el-
ement will be in opposite direction (normally in-
ward)

ds

Es Er

So net electric field just inside the metal surface =

Er – Es and we know that electric field inside a
conductor = 0
 ELECTROSTATICS 41

1. Electric Charge 7. Equilibrium of three point charges

Charge of a material body is that property due to (i) Two charges must be of like nature.
which it interacts with other charges. There are r
two kinds of charges-positive and negative. S.I. unit q
Q1 Q2
is coulomb. Charge is quantized, conserved, and r
additive.
(ii) Third charge should be unlike nature.
2. Coulomb`s law Q1 Q1Q 2
 x r and q 
1 q1q 2 2
Force between two charges F 
4 0 r r 2
rˆ Q1  Q 2  Q1  Q 2 
8. Equilibrium of symmetric geometrical point
r = dielectric constant charged system
q a
q1 q2 q q

a a
r a Q a
Q
Note : The Law is applicable only for static and
point charges. Moving charges may result in mag- q
a
q q a q
netic interaction. And if charges are extended, in- Value of Q at centre for which system to be in state
duction may change the charge distribution. of equilibrium
3. Principle Of Superposition q
Force on a point charge due to many charges is (a) For equilateral triangle Q 
3
given by
   
F  F1  F2  F3  ..... (b) For square Q 

q 2 2  1 
Note : The force due to one charge is not affected 4
by the presence of other charges. 9. Equilibrium of suspended point charge
system
4. Electric Field or Electric Intensity or Elec-
tric Field Strength
(Vector Quantity)
In the surrounding region of a charge there exist a
physical property due to which other charge expe-
riences a force. The direction of electric field is
direction of force experienced by a positively
charged particle and the magnitude of the field
(electric field intensity) is the force experienced by
a unit charge.

 F
E  unit is N/C or V/m. For equilibrium position
q Tcos  = mg & Tsin  =
5. Electric field intensity due to charge Q
 kQ 2 Fe kQ 2
 F 1 Q Fe   tan   
E  Lim  rˆ x2 mg x 2 mg
q 0 0 q 4 0 r 2
0 If whole set up is taken into an artifical satelite
6. Null point for two charges (geff 0)
r 2
If |Q1| > |Q2| kq 2
Q1 Q2 T = Fe =
q 180° q 4 2
Q1 r 10. Electric potential difference
 Null point near Q2 x
Q1  Q2 work
V  = W/q
(+) for like charges charge
(–) for unlike charges
 42 Physics for NEET
P  
11. Electric potential Vp    E.dr 1 p 1  3cos 2 
(2) Electric field E 
 4 0 r3
It is the work done against the field to take a unit
positive charge from infinity (reference point) to E 1
the given point (3) Direction tan    tan 
Er 2
q
(i) For point charge : V = K (f) Electric field at axial point (or End-on)
r 
 1 2p
q1 E of dipole
(ii) For several point charges : V = K  4 0 r 3
r1
 (g) Electric field at equatorial position (Broad-on)
12. Relation between E & V

 V  1  p 
E = – grad V =  V , E ; of dipole E 
r 4 0 r 3
 V ˆ V ˆ V ˆ  
E i j k , V =   E.dr 15. Equipotential Surface And Equipotential
x y z Region
13. Electrical potential energy of two charges In an electric filed the locus of points of equal po-
1 q1q 2 tential is called an equipotential surface. An equi-
U potential surface and the electric field line meet at
4 0 r
right angles. The region where E = 0, Potential of
14. Electric dipole
the whole region must remains constant as no work
d is done in displacement of charge in it. It is called
-q as equipotential region like conducting bodies.
+q
r 16. Mutual Potential Energy Or Interaction En-
(a) Electric dipole moment p = qd
(b) Torque on dipole placed in uniform electric field
ergy
   “The work to be done to integrate the charge
  pE system”.
(c) Work done in rotating dipole placed in uniform q1q 2
electric field For 2 particle system U mutual 
40 r

W   d   PE sin d  pE  cos 0  cos   For 3 particle system
0
q1q 2 q q qq
U mutual   2 3  3 1
(d) Potential energy of dipole placed in an uniform 40 r12 4  0 r23 4 0 r31
 
field U = p.E
n  n  1
(e) At a point which is at a distance r from dipole For n particle there will be terms.
2
midpoint and making angle  with dipole axis.
Total energy of a system = Uself + Umutual
1 p cos   
(1) Potential V 17. Electric flux :    E.ds
4 0 r 2  
(a) For uniform electric field ;   E.A = EA cos
 
where  = angle between E & area vector A .  
Flux is contributed only due to the component of
electric field which is perpendicular to the plane.

(b) If E is not uniform throughout the area A, then
 
   E.dA

  q
18. Gauss`s Law : E.ds  (Applicable only to
0
closed surface)
 ELECTROSTATICS 43
q en 23. For a charge long conducting cylinder
Net flux emerging out of a closed surface is . q
0 (a) For r  R : E 
2 0 r
  qen
  E.dA  where qen = net charge enclosed
0 (b) For r < R : E = 0

by the closed surface  does not depend on the

(a) Shape and size of the closed surface
(b) The charges located outside the closed surface.
19. For a conducting sphere
1 q 1 q 24. Electric field intensity at a point near a
(a) For r  R : E  2
,V 
40 r 40 r 
charged conductor E 
1 q 0
(b) For r  R : E  0, V 
40 R 25. Mechanical pressure on a charged conduc-
2
20. For a non - conducting sphere tor P 
2 0
1 q 1 q 26. For non-conducting long sheet of surface
(a) For r  R : E  2
,V 
40 r 40 r 
charge density  E
2 0
1 q  3R  r 
2 2
1 qr
(b) For r  R : E  3
,V  27. For conducting long sheet of surface charge
4 0 R 4 0 2R 3
21. For a conducting/non conducting spherical 
density E 
shell 0
1 q 1 q 28. Energy density in electric field
(i) For r  R : E  ,V  29. Electric lines of force
4 0 r 2 4 0 r
Electric lines of electrostatic field following prop-
q erties

R
+ A B –

qA>qB
1 q (a) Imaginary
(ii) For r  R : E  0, V 
4 0 R (b) Can never be closed each other
22. For a charged circular ring (c) Can never be closed loops
E E (d) The number of lines originating or terminat-
ing on a charge is proportional to the magni-
tude of charge. In rationalised MKS system
(1/  0 ) electric lines are associated with it
(called flux) will be q/  0 .
x x (e) Lines of force ends or starts normally at the
q surface of a conductor.
(f) If there is no electric field there will be no lines
x
P of force.
R
(g) Lines of forceper unit area normal to the area
at a point represents magnitude of intensity,
crowded lines represent strong field while dis-
1 qx 1 q
EP  , VP  tant lines weak field.
4 0  x 2  R 2 3 2 4 0  x  R 2 1 2
2
(h) Tangent to the line of force at a point is an
R electric field gives the direction of intensity.
Electric field will be maximum at x 
2