Biological Classification

BIOLOGY

 Biological classification-  Formed Protista (bacteria , protozoa ,

 Grouping of living organisms into specific slime moulds , algae , fungi)
groups on the basis of similarities &  All unicellular
dissimilarities  Copeland - Four Kingdom system
 Since the dawn of civilisation, attempts to (1956)
classify living organisms – not scientific  Formed Mychota
but borne out of a need to use organisms  Later changed to Monera (Daughterty
for our own use – for food, shelter and & Allen)
clothing.  All prokaryotes
 Aristotle (Greek) was the earliest to Besides, gross morphology a need was also felt
attempt a more scientific basis for for including other characteristics like
classification (Artificial system) 1. Cell structure
 He used simple morphological characters 2. Nature of wall
to classify plants into trees, shrubs and 3. Mode of nutrition
herbs. 4. Habitat
 He also divided animals into two groups, 5. Methods of reproduction
those which had red blood (Enaima) & 6. Evolutionary relationships
those that did not (Anaima)  R.H. Whittaker (1969)
 Linnaeus(Greek) - Two Kingdom  proposed Five Kingdom Classification
system (1735) 1. Monera
 Plantae and Animalia kingdoms 2. Protista
 This system did not distinguish between 3. Fungi
1. Eukaryotes & Prokaryotes 4. Plantae
2. Unicellular & Multicellular organisms 5. Animalia
3. Photosynthetic (green algae) &  Main criteria for classification used –
Non-photosynthetic (fungi) organisms Trick – Re-CPMT
1. Reproduction
2. Cell structure/Complexity of cell
3. Phylogenetic relationships
4. Mode of nutrition
5. Thallus / Body organisation
Most diverse nutrition-Protista (Monera)

 Plantae –
 Bacteria , Algae , Fungi , Bryophytes ,
pteridophytes , gymnosperms &
angiosperms
 Animalia-
 Protozoa , invertebrates, vertebrates
 Ernst Haeckel - Three Kingdom system
 Drawbacks of 5-Kingdom-
(1866)
1.Algae grouped into 3 kingdoms-
a) BGA-Monera

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b) Dinoflagellates / diatoms-Protista
c) Green/red/brown algae-Plantae
2.No grouping of viruses , viroids , prions ,
lichens
 Earlier classification systems included
bacteria, blue green algae, fungi, mosses,
ferns, gymnosperms and the angiosperms 
under ‘Plants’
 The character that unified this whole
kingdom was that all the organisms
included had a cell wall in their cells.
 Brought together the prokaryotic bacteria 
and the blue green algae
( cyanobacteria) with other groups which
were eukaryotic.
 Also grouped together unicellular
organisms and multicellular ones, say, for
example, Chlamydomonas and Spirogyra
were placed together under algae.
 Did not differentiate between heterotrophic
group – fungi & autotrophic green plants,
 though they also showed a characteristic 1.
difference in their walls composition – the
fungi had chitin in their walls while the
green plants had a cellulosic cell wall
Kingdom Protista has brought together
1. Chlamydomonas, Chlorella
 earlier placed in Algae within Plants and
both having cell walls)
2. With Paramoecium and Amoeba
 earlier placed in the animal kingdom
which lack cell wall)
 Carl Woese –
 Six kingdom classification
 Difference in sequence of Gene for 16 s 
RNA
 Three-domain system of Life –
 divides the Kingdom Monera into two
domains (Archae & Eubacteria)
 Remaining eukaryotic kingdoms in the
third domain (Eukarya)
 He believed ‘All domains have evolved The cell envelope consists of a tightly bound three
from a common ancestor – Pregenote’
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Biological Classification
BIOLOGY
KINGDOM MONERA
 Bacteria are the sole members(All
prokaryotes)
 They are the most abundant
microorganisms
Bacteria occur almost everywhere.
 They are smallest , simplest organisms
 First inhabitants of Earth
 Hundreds of bacteria are present in a
handful of soil
They also live in extreme habitats such as
hot springs, deserts, snow and deep oceans
where very few other life forms can
survive
 Many of them live in or on other
organisms as parasites.
Structure of a typical
prokaryotic/Bacterial cell :
Nucleoid/Genophore/Incipient
nucleus/Prochromosome/Fibrillar nucleus
:
 Single,circular,ds-DNA (1Chromosome /
True chromosomes absent )
 Naked DNA — Not associated with
histone protein , nuclear membrane &
nucleolus is absent
 RNA , Non-histone proteins (Polyamines
present)
2. Plasmid :
 Small , Extra-chromosomal circular piece
of ds-DNA
Self replicating
 may contain special genes like F-gene
(fertility), R-gene (Resistance), Nif gene
(Nitrogen fixation).
 Non-essential / Dispensible elements
 Cell Envelope
layered structure i.e
 Biological Classification
BIOLOGY

1. outermost Glycocalyx  Fimbriae – shorter/thinner/300-400/cell :

2. followed by the Cell wall Help in cell attachment
3. then the Plasma membrane.
Although each layer of the envelope performs 8. Ribosomes :
distinct function, they act together as a  Smaller 70 – S type
single protective unit. (50-S + 30-S)
3. Glycocalyx –  About 15 nm by 20 nm in size
a) Capsule –thick & tough , m/o  Protein synthesis
polysaccharides & polypeptides
b) Slime layer – loose & thin , m/o mainly  Polyribosomes or polysome –
polysaccharides  Several ribosomes may attach to a single
 Protects bacteria from WBC , help in mRNA and form a chain
colony formation , virulence , cell  The ribosomes of a polysome translate the
identification etc. mRNA into proteins.
4. Cell wall :
 Absent in Mycaplasma 9. Flagella :
 Composed of Peptidoglycans / Murein  If present, composed of Flagellin protein
(Amino acid + Sugars) only.
 Sugars : N-Acetyl Glucosamine (NAG)  Single stranded / Monofibrillar
and N-Acetyl Muramic acid NAM  Smaller & thinner than eukaryotic flagella
5. Cell Membrane/plasma membrane:  Covering sheath membrane absent
 Structure same as in Eukaryotic cell  Rotatory movement – 360 o
 Lipoproteinaceous  Basal body , hook & filament
(a) No sterols for stability except Mycoplasma
(b) Stability by Hopanoids(pentacyclic sterols)10. Inclusion bodies / Storage granules-
6. Mesosome / Chondrioid:  Storage of reserve material
 Discovered by F.James  Not membrane bound
 Infoldings of plasma membrane  Lie free in cytoplasm
 Central (connected with Nucleoid) and a. Glycogen granules ( store carbohydrates)
peripheral/lateral b. Volutin granules ( phosphate)
c. PHB (PolyHydroxy Butyrate) granules –
 Functions of Mesosomes : store fats
a. DNA replication & Cell division d. Cyanophycean granules (proteins)
b. Enzyme of aerobic respiration (Analagous
to Mitochondria) 11. Cyclosis / Cytoplasmic streaming absent
c. Cell wall secretion 12. Periplamic space – between PM & CW
(digestive enzymes present)
7. Pili & Fimbriae :
 Filamentous extensions of plasma
membrane
 M/o Pilin protein (non-contractile)
 Pili - longer /thicker/1-5/cell : Transfer of
DNA (Conjugation)

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 Biological Classification
BIOLOGY


Basal body-
 4 rings-Gram –ve (L , P, S, M)
 2 rings-Gram +ve (S , M)
 Potassium iodide=Fixant /Mordant
 Decolorising / Destaining agent=
 Acetone / Ethyl alcohol
 Counterstain = Saffaranin (gram –
ve pink , Gram +ve purple)


Types of Bacteria (basis=Flagellation)
1. Atrichous – flagella absent
2.Trichous -Flagellated
a) Monotrichous-1 flagella at one end ,
Vibrio
b) Amphitrichous-2 flagella , one each at
both ends , Nitromonas
c) Cephalotrichous – tuft of flagella at one
end , Corynebacterium
d) Lophotrichous – tuft at both ends ,
Salmonella
e) Peritrichous – flagella all over body ,
E.coli
 Bacteria are grouped under four
categories based on their shape:
1. Spherical Coccus (pl.: cocci)-
Singly/groups , non-motile
2. Rod-shaped Bacillus (pl.: bacilli) -
Most common , Endospore , singly/groups
3. Comma-shaped Vibrium (pl.: vibrio),
singly
4. Spiral Spirillum (pl.: spirilla), singly

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 Biological Classification
BIOLOGY

1. Sulphur bacteria-
a) Beggiatoa (H2S – S)
b) Thiothrix (S-H2SO4)
2. Iron bacteria – Ferrobacillus
Figure 2.1 Bacteria of different shapes 3. Nitrifying bacteria – Nitromonas ,
 Monococcus , Diplococcus Streptococcus Nitrosococcus , Nitrobacter , Nitrocystis
(chains) , Staphylococcus (grape like 4. Hydrogen bacteria – Hydrogenomonas
cluster) , Sarcinae (3-D )
 Monobacillus , Diplobacillus ,  All oxidation reactions
Streptobacillus , Palisade (stacked one  All exothermic reactions
over other)  Trick for Chemoautotrophs
 Stalked bacteria – Caulobacter Crime SIN Hai
 Budded bacteria- Rhodomicrobium
 Filamentous / Mycelial bacteria – 2.Vast majority of bacteria are heterotrophs
Thiothrix , Beggiatoa i.e., they depend on other organisms or on dead
 Bacterial structure is very simple but they organic matter for food (Saprophytic)
are very complex in behaviour  Main mode of nutrition –
 Compared to many other organisms,  Heterotrophic (mainly Saprophytic , also
bacteria as a group show the most parasitic & symbiotic)
extensive metabolic diversity.  Heterotrophic bacteria are most abundant
in nature
 Nutrition in bacteria-  The majority are important decomposers
1.Some of the bacteria are autotrophic, i.e., they
synthesize their own food from inorganic  Symbiotic bacteria –
substrates. 1. E .Coli in human intestine
 Photosynthetic (Anxygenic except BGA) (synthesize Vitamin K /B12)
autotrophic (PSB-sodium thiosulphate & 2. Cellulose digesting bacteria in rumen of
GSB – H2S ) or chemosynthetic cattles
autotrophic 3. Rhizobium in root nodules of leguminous
Chemosynthetic autotrophic bacteria plants (N2 fixation)
 Oxidise various inorganic substances
 such as nitrates, nitrites and ammonia Many of them have a significant impact on
 Use released energy for their ATP human affairs.
production. 1. They are helpful in Making curd from milk
 Play great role in recycling nutrients like 2. Production of antibiotics
nitrogen, phosphorous, iron ,sulphur 3. Fixing nitrogen in legume roots

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 Biological Classification
BIOLOGY

Some are pathogens causing damage to human

beings, crops, farm animals and pets.
 Cholera, typhoid, tetanus, citrus canker

 Respiration in bacteria-
 Glycolysis & Kreb cycle- Cytoplasm
 ETS / Respiratory enzymes-
PM / Mesosomes
 Endospore –
 Forms in unfavourable condition
 Lack of nutrients , excessive heat , cold ,
resistant to antibiotics , chemicals , UV
rays , heat , cold , dryness
 Can survive -100 to + 100o C
 Core
 (DNA , RNA ,PROTEINS,LIPIDS )
Fecultative Anaerobes – Pseudomonas Surrounded by Core wall
 Fecultative Aerobes – PSB , (PM & Cytoplasm) , surrounded by Cortex
GSB (Photosynthetic (CW , peptidoglycans) , Spore coat &
bacteria) Exosporium
 Anti-coagulant (Calcium dipicolinate) in
 Reproduction in bacteria- cortex prevents protein denaturation
 Main mode – Binary fission(fav)  Occurs in Bacillus , Clostridium
 Endospore formation – unfav  Only single endospore forms in one
(means of perennation) bacterium
 True sexual reproduction absent  Resistant to Pasteuriztion
 Genetic recombination – (62.8o C for 30 min)
by Transformation , transduction ,
conjugation  Reasons for Endospore survival-
 Bacteria reproduce mainly by fission 1. Thick resistant wall
 Sometimes, under unfavourable 2. Ca dipicolinate
conditions, they produce spores. 3. Dehydration
 They also reproduce by a sort of sexual 4. Low metabolic activity
reproduction by adopting a primitive type
of DNA transfer from one bacterium to  Genetic recombination/Parasexual
other. reproduction–
1. Transformation – transfer of genetic
material from donor to recipient bacterium
through surrounding medium
2. Conjugation- transfer of genetic material
from donor to recipient bacterium through
conjugation tube (direct contact)

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 Biological Classification
BIOLOGY

3. Transduction - transfer of genetic material Supermale / Metamale bacteria / Hfr high

from donor to recipient bacterium through frequency recombination bacteria)
Bacteriophage (virus) a) F- → F- ( Sexduction absent)
b) Genetic recombination occurs

 Transformation – by Griffith , in
Streptococcus / Diplococcus pneumoniae
 Conjugation- by Lederberg & Tatum , in 
E.coli
 Transduction – by Lederberg & Lederberg
, in Salmonella typhimurium
 Conjugation – 2 types
1.Male sterility conjugation-
 Free plasmid in male bacteria
a) F- → F+ ( Sexduction occurs)
b) Genetic recombination absent
 Eubacteria
 There are thousands of different
Eubacteria or ‘true bacteria’
They are characterised by the presence of a
rigid cell wall, and if motile, a flagellum.
 Cyanobacteria / Blue-green algae
 In 2-kingdom , Myxophyceae (Slimy
algae) & Cyanophyceae (Blue algae)
 Have chlorophyll-a similar to green plants
 Photosynthetic autotrophs
 Freshwater /marine or terrestrial algae
 Unicellular – Anacystis , Spirulina
 Colonial (Microcystis) or
 Filamentous
(Anabaena , Nostoc , Oscillatoria
Filament=Trichome)
 Colonies are generally surrounded by
gelatinous sheath

2. Male fertility conjugation -

 Episome
(plasmid integrated with genetic DNA in

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 Biological Classification
BIOLOGY

 Mucilage sheath-mucopolysaccharides
 CW-Gram –ve
 PM –lipoproteins
 Nucleoid
 70-S Ribosomes
 Mesosomes absent
 Lamellosome – coiled PM , similar to
mesosome
 Centroplasm – central cytoplasm
 Chromoplasm – peripheral colored
cytoplasm)
A  Thylakoids / Chromatophores
filamentous blue-green algae – Nostoc (pinched off from PM) –
 chl a & carotenoids like higher plants ,
 Red color of Red Sea  phycobilisome(phycobilin pigment +
(Trichodesmium erythraeum) protein)
 1st organisms to perform Oxygenic
photosynthesis  Gas vacoules –
 Converted reducing environment of earth  provide byouancy
into oxidising type  true membrane absent
 Gram –ve bacteria  Also in PSB & GSB
 Spirulina – unicellular BGA  2 PhotoSystems–PS I &PS II
 Often form blooms in polluted water  Oxygenic photosynthesis
bodies
 Inclusion bodies / Storage granules-
 Symbiotic relation-N2 fixation  Storage of reserve material
1. Anabaena azollae  Not membrane bound
(leaves of Azolla aquatic fern)  Lie free in cytoplasm
2. Anabaena cycadae (coralloid roots of a. α granules – store Myxophycean /
Cycas gymnosperm) Cynophycean starch
(similar to Glycogen ,I2 test negative)
b. β granules – store fat droplets
c. Volutin granules ( phosphate)
d. Cyanophycean granules (proteins)
 Gaidukov phenomenon seen
 ability to change body color according to
different wavelengths of light
 k/a Complementary Chromatic Adaptation
 Increase Phycoerythrin
( absorb blue i.e higher energy wavelength &
reflect red)

3.

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 Heterocysts - Some of these organisms a) Free-living –
can fix atmospheric nitrogen in specialised 1.Aulosira – Non-symbiotic N2 fixer in Paddy
cells
 Pale-yellow ,larger , Thick walled ,
Anaerobic
 Photosynthesis /PS II/CO2 fixation/water
splitting absent
 Activates Nitrogenase enzyme
 Obtain food from vegetative cells
e.g. Nostoc and Anabaena
 Heterocysts -
 CO2 fixation absent
 N2 fixation present
 Vegetative cells -
 CO2 fixation absent
 N2 fixation present
 PS I present (ATP
formation)
 Hence , these BGA acts as Biofertilizers
 Reproduction in BGA-True sexual
absent
 Trick - Hormones FAB Hai
1. Binary fission-amitotic , in unicellular
forms
2. Fragmentation- in filamentous forms
3. Heterocyst-in filamentous forms in special
conditions(heterocyst germinate to form
new BGA)
4. Akinete – in filamentous forms ,
unfavourable conditions , vegetative cell 
store food & becomes thick walled ,
Perennating structure
5. Hormogonia – in filamentous forms ,
Necridia (dead vegetative cells filled with
mucilage)
 Dio et.al called ‘Mollicutes Like
 Importance of BGA-
1.Role in evolution of aerobic forms of life –
 Most ancient organisms to have performed 
Oxygenic photosynthesis
2.As Biofertilizers – Nitrogen fixation / increase
soil fertility
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Biological Classification
BIOLOGY
fields
2.Anabaena & Nostoc species- reclaim
Usar soil
(non productive barren , high salinity ,
high alkanity , low N2 content soil)
b) Symbiotic BGA –
1.Anabaena azollae – with leaves of Azolla , used
in Paddy fields
2.Anabaena cycadae – with coralloid roots of
Cycas
3. Spirulina –as food supplement , rich in Proteins
 Mycoplasma/PPLO
 Discovery –Nocard & Roux (French)
(Pleural fluid of cattles suffering from
Pleuropneumonia)
 Jokers of plant kingdom (Pleomorphic-
change shape quickly)
Completely lack a cell wall
 Borrel et.al called them ‘Asterococcus’
 Term Mycoplasma- by Nowak , placed
under genus ‘Mycoplasma’
(branched filamentous Fungus-like)
Organisms’ (MLO)
Smallest living cells known
(M . gellisepticum)
 Can pass through Bacteria proof filters
 Biological Classification
BIOLOGY

 Bacteria with Coat-off / Coat off Fried eggs– colonies

bacteria/organism’(Cell wall absent) People – Pleomorphic
 Not viruses as can be cultured outside Hated his – Heterotrophic
body (sterol medium) FACES - Fecultative Anaerobes , -
 Can survive without oxygen (Fecultative CW absent
anaerobes) -Elementory bodies
-Sterols(PM Stability)

 Mycoplasmal diseases in plants-

1. Little leaf disease of Brinjal
2. Witches broom in Potato/Groundnut
3. Aster yellow of Sunflower
4. Bunchy top of Papaya

 Rickettsia -
 Obligate intra-cellular Gram negative
bacteria / Parasites
 Respiratory enzymes in Cytoplasm / PM
 Non motile
(Mesosomes absent)
 Non spore forming
 PM (3-layered) , Stabilized by Sterols
 Rocky mountain spotted fever-
 Replicating disc present-replication &
Rickettsia rickettsiae
segregation of genetic material
 Typhus fever - Rickettsia prowasakeii
 Heterotrophic (Parasitic-mostly &
Saprophytic)
 Chlamydia -
 Many Mycoplasma are pathogenic in
 Obligate intra-cellular Gram negative
animals and plants
bacteria / Parasites
 Non-motile (flagella absent)
 Non motile
 Non spore forming
 Resistant to Penicillin & Lysozyme
 Cause Chlamydiasis (STDs) –
 Sensitive to Streptomycin , Erythromycin ,
C . Trachomatis (affects genital parts like
Chloramphenicol (Metabolic inhibitors)
penis , vulva , discharge , itching etc)
 Bacteria without cell wall = Protoplast
(Lister / L-form )
 Actinomycetes -
 On culture in petri-dish , colonies gives
 Previously placed under Fungi
‘Fried-eggs appearance’
 Branched Fungi-like filamentous structure
(=Mycelium)
 Reproduction in PPLO-
 k/a ‘Filamentous
1. Binary fission
Bacteria’/‘Mycobacteria’/ ‘ Ray Fungi’
2. Elementary bodies
 Heterotrophic (mostly Saprophytic)
 Reproduce by Conidia
 Source of Antibiotics
My – Mycoplasma
(Streptomyces , Beggiatoa etc.)
Joker’s -Joker of plant kingdom
Cat has -Coat off bacteria

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 Archaebacteria-
 These bacteria are special since they live
in some of the most harsh habitats such as
1.Extreme salty areas (halophiles)
2.Hot springs (thermoacidophiles)
3.Marshy areas (methanogens)
 Archaebacteria differ from other bacteria 
in having a different cell wall structure
 this feature is responsible for their survival
in extreme conditions
 Peptidoglycans absent
 Pseudopeptidoglycans / Pseudomurein
present
 S-layers present
 Branched lipids in PM (monolayer lipid
layer , ether bond)
 Initiator amino acid = methionine (formyl
methionine in eubacteria)
 Introns present , like eukaryotes
 Methanogens
 Present in the gut of several ruminant
animals such as cows and buffaloes
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Biological Classification
BIOLOGY
 They are responsible for the production of
methane (biogas) from the dung of these
animals.
 HALOPHILES-
 Possess Bacterio-Rhodopsin
 Purple protein pigment in PM
Trap sunlight ( show Phototrophy)
 ATP formation (used for metabolic
activities)
 Can’t synthesize food
 Chemo-organotrophs
 Trick for Archaebacteria-
 Milind -Methanogens
 Gaba’s -Gut of ruminants
 Classical -CW structure different
 Mein -Methanogens
 Teri –Thermoacidophiles
 Hoi gaya -Halophiles
Economic Importance of Bacteria
 Some useful Bacteria –
1. Soil fertility / Biofertilizer :
a) Free living N2 fixing – Azotobacter ,
Azospirillum , Clostridium , Kleibseilla ,
Beijernickia
b) Symbiotic N2 fixing – Rhizobium ,
Frankia (Actinomycetes) , Anabaena
(Azolla/cycas)
Furious – Free living N2 fixing bacteria
BABR -Bacillus , Azotobacter ,
Beijernickia , Rhodospirallum
 Biological Classification
BIOLOGY

(CO2 fixer also) 11. Antibiotics -

Cruel -Clostridium  First discovered antibiotic - by Alexander
Killing -Kleibsella Fleming in Penicillium notatum (Fungi) –
2. Nitrification – Nitrifying bacteria – Penicillin (wonder drug)
 Nitrosomonas , Nitrobacter  First discovered antibiotic from bacteria –
3. Decomposition of organic compounds – Streptomycin
 Acts as decomposers in nature  Term ‘Antibiotic’ - Waksman
 Helps in mineralization
 Helps in nutrient recycling 1. Streptomycin-Streptomyces griseus
 Also called ‘Natural Scavengers’ 2. Chloramphenicol – S. venezuelae
3. Tetracycline – S. aureofaciens
4. Vinegar production (Acetic acid)– 4. Terramycin – S. remosus
 Acetobacter aceti 5. Erythromycin -S. erythraeus
 Clostridium butylicum(Butyric acid) 6. Neomycin – S. fradiae
5. Curd , Cheese , Yogurt production – 7. Bacitracin – Bacillus licheniformis
 Lactobacillus , Streptococcus lactis 8. Subtilin –B. subtilis
 Propionibacterium shermanii (Swiss 9. Polymyxin-B –B. polymyxa
cheese)
12. In sewage treatment -
6. Petroleum pollution control / Remove Oil  Due to this Biogas is produced
Spill  E.coli , Streptococcus , Micrococcus ,
 Pseudomonas putida Clostridium etc.
13. As clots buster – dissolve blood clots in
Myocardial infarction patients
7. Retting of fibres –  Streptokinease enzyme produced by
 Separation of Fibres from plants by help of Streptococcus
bacteria Harmful activities -
 Clostridium perfringens , Pseudomonas 1. Denitrification – reduce soil fertility
fluorescence  Thiobacillus denitrificans , Pseudomonas
8. Curing / Flavouring of leaves – denitrificans
 Micrococcus candidans (Tea) 2. Food poisoning – Botulism
 Bacillus megatherium (Tobacco)  Clostridium botulinum
3. Water pollution-
9. In genetic engineering-  Vibrio cholerae
 E.coli (host)  Salmonella typhi
 Agrobacterium (vector) 4. Biological weapons –
 Source of Restriction endonucleases  Anthrax causing Botulism
10. Vitamin production - 5. Disease in humans-
 Vit.K & B12 - E.coli (Human intestine)  Tuberculosis–Mycobacterium tuberculosis
 Vit.B12 -Propionibacterium,  Leprosy – Mycobactreium leprae
Bacillus megatherium  Tetanus – Clostridium tetani
 Vit. B2 - Clostridium butylicum  Typhoid – Salmonella typhi
 Cholera – Vibrio cholerae

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 Biological Classification
BIOLOGY

 Some have pseudopodia , flagella or cilia

6. Disease in Animals- (9+2)
 Anthrax – Bacillus anthracis  Nutrition –
1.Photoautotrophic (No chemoautotroph)
7. Disease in plants – 2.Heterotrophic
a) Citrus canker – Xanthomonas citri  Saprophytic
b) Leaf blight of rice – X.oryzae  Parasitic
c) Black rot of cabbage– X.campestris  Symbiotic
d) Crown gall disease – Agrobacterium  Holozoic (Ingestion)
tumefaciens  Classification –
e) Hairy root of apple – A . rhizogenes 1. Autotrophioc / photosynthetic Protists -
f) Wilt of potato – Pseudomonas Euglenoids ,Dinoflagellates , Diatoms &
solanocearum Desmids , 80% total photosynthesis on
Earth
 KINGDOM PROTISTA 2. Consumer-decomposer protists- Slime
 Term ‘Protista’- Ernst Haeckel moulds
 All single-celled eukaryotes are placed 3. Holozoic protists – Protozoa
under Protista
 But boundaries of this kingdom are not
well defined
 What may be ‘a photosynthetic protistan’
to one biologist may be ‘a plant’ to
another.
 Following included under Protista -
 Chrysophytes
 Dinoflagellates
 Euglenoids
 Slime moulds
 Protozoans
 Members of Protista are primarily aquatic
 This kingdom forms a link with the others
dealing with plants, animals and fungi
 Ancestors of multicellular eukaryotes

 Tissue level absent

 Being eukaryotes, contains a well defined
nucleus & other membrane-bound
organelles (80-s ribosomes)
 Some have Cellulosic cell wall
 Reproduce asexually (fission & spore) &
sexually by process involving cell fusion
& zygote formation
 1st sexually reproducing organisms

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 Dinoflagellates / Golden – brown
protists
 Pyrrophyta division (Fire algae)
 Show Bioluminiscence (Luciferin protein)
eg-Noctiluca
 k/a Night light & Sea ghost
Head Office : Plot No. 46, In front of Skyline Apartments, Corner Building, Rajeev Gandhi Nagar, Kota (Raj.) Pin Code : 324005
Biological Classification
BIOLOGY
 Mostly marine
 Photosynthetic
 Yellow , green, brown, blue or red
depending on the main pigments present in
their cells
 Chlorophyll a , c ,α-carotenoids ,
xanthophylls
 Stored / reserve food – carbohydrates & oil
 The cell wall has stiff cellulose plates on
the outer surface (sculptured plates of
cellulose & pectin) k/a Theca/Lorica
 Hence called ‘Armoured dinoflagellates’
 Most of them have two flagella
(Heterokont condition – 2 types of
flagella)
 one lies longitudinally(narrow smooth)
 other transversely in a furrow
(annulus/girdle/Cingulum) between the
wall plates(ribbon like)
 At right angles to each other
 ‘Whirling whip protists’(spinning
movement
GONYAULAX
 Very often, Red dianoflagellates
(Example: Gonyaulax , Gymnodinium )
undergo such rapid multiplication that they
make the sea appear red (Red tides)
 Toxins (Saxitoxin) released by such large
numbers may even kill other marine
animals such as fishes eg-Gonyaulax
 If such Shell fishes are consumed by
Human , can cause “Paralytic Shellfish
Poisoning(PSP)”
 Biological Classification
BIOLOGY

 Trick for Dinoflagellates-  Synthesize About 50% total organic matter

 TouF -Two Flagella in biosphere
 GRaDes -Gonyaulax Red Dinofl.
 Physics –Photosynthetic,Pigments  Trick for Diatoms-
 Chemistry-Cellulosic CW(sculptured)  Saurabh -Silica in CW
 Maths by – Marine mostly  Ganguly -Gritty
 Teachers -Toxins (Gonyaulax)  Should Be –Soap Box
 Directly Entered in-Diatom Earth
 PHD -Photosynthetic , Pigments ,
 Chrysophytes Habitat , Diatoms & Desmids
 Includes diatoms & golden algae  Class –Chief producers in oceans
(desmids).
 Fresh water as well as in marine  2 types of Diatoms on basis of
environments Symmetry-
 Microscopic and float passively in water 1. Pinnate -Bilateral symmetry
currents (plankton). 2. Centric – Radial symmetry
 Photosynthetic
 Chlorophyll a , c , β-carotenoids , Reproduction in Diatoms –
xanthophylls 1. Aseual reproduction-
 Stored / reserve food – VOL (Volutin , Oil a) Favorable condition – Binary fission
, Leucosin) b) Unfav condition – by Statospore
 In diatoms the cell walls form two thin 2. Sexual reproduction –
overlapping shells, which fit together as in  Iso / aniso / Oogamous
a soap box (Epitheca & Hypotheca)  Gametic meiosis
 The walls are embedded with silica  Diplontic life cycle
 Thus walls are indestructible.  Zygote(2n) k/a Auxospore
 Thus, diatoms have left behind large
amount of cell wall deposits in their Reproduction in Diatoms :
habitat
 This accumulation over billions of years is
referred to as ‘Diatomaceous
earth’/Diatomite/Kieselguhr’
 Being gritty , this soil is used in Polishing,
filtration of oils & syrups & insulating
material
 k/a ‘Jewels/Pearls of Sea’ (transparent wall
due to silica)
 Size reduces with generations , k/a
 Flagella absent , except in reproductive
MacDonald Pfitzer law
stage
 Size correction by Sexual reproduction
 Move by ‘Mucilage propulsion’
 Diatoms are the chief ‘producers’ in
 Trick for Euglenoids-
oceans
 Harry -Habitat(stagnant FW)
 Porters -Pellicle (CW absent)

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 Biological Classification
BIOLOGY

 Best Friend-Body Flexible

 Forever -Flagella(2)
 ASH -Absence Sunlight
Heterotrophs
 is Playing - Photosynthetic , Pigments

Protozoans
All protozoans are heterotrophs and live as
predators or parasites. They are believed to
be primitive relatives of animals. There are
four major groups of protozoans.
Amoeboid protozoans:
 These organisms live in fresh water, sea
water or moist soil.
 They move and capture their prey by
putting out pseudopodia (false feet) as in
Amoeba.
 Marine forms have silica shells on their
surface.
 Some of them such as Entamoeba are
parasites.
Flagellated protozoans:
 The members of this group are either free-
living or parasitic.
 They have flagella.
 The parasitic forms cause diaseases such
as sleeping sickness.
 Example: Trypanosoma.
Ciliated protozoans:
 These are aquatic, actively moving
organisms because of presence of
thousands of cilia.
 They have a cavity (gullet) that opens to
outside of cell surface.
 The coordinated movement of rows of cilia
causes water laden with food to be steered
into gullet.
 Example: Paramoecium
Sporozoans:
 This includes diverse organisms that have
an infectious spore-like stage in their life
cycle.
 The most notorious is Plasmodium
(malarial parasite) which causes malaria, a
disease which has a staggering effect on
human population.
 Slime moulds / Protistan Fungi–
 Earlier included under class
‘Myxomycetes’ of Fungi
 Slime moulds are saprophytic protists
 The body moves along decaying twigs and
leaves engulfing organic material
 Mostly free-living
 Chloroplast absent (Achlorophyllous)
 Possess cellulosic CW in reproductive
phase / spores
 The spores possess true walls
 Lack cell wall in vegetative phase
 Have ‘Naked Protoplast’

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 Biological Classification
BIOLOGY

( Biflagellated motile Swarm cells or Non-motile

Myxamoebae)
 Diplontic life cycle

 Slime moulds-
 Fungus like-Fruiting bodies formation
 Plant like-Cellulosic CW in spores
 Animal like-No CW in vegetative
phase(Plasmodium & Myxamoeba)

 Trick for Slime moulds-

 Please -Protistan
 Under suitable conditions, they form an
 Show -Saprophytic
aggregation called plasmodium which may
 Beautiful -Body creeps over……
grow and spread over several feet
 Pics on -Plasmodium(vegetative ,
(2n,multinucleated,CW absent)
multinucleated , diploid,CW absent)
 During unfavourable conditions,
 FB -Fruiting Bodies
 Plasmodium differentiates & forms several
 Status - Spores at tip (true wall ,
fruiting bodies (Sporangia) ,
air current dispersal)
 bearing spores at their tips
 Cellular / Colonial slime moulds -
 The spores possess true walls.
 Vegetative phase-
 They are extremely resistant and survive
 Represented by Myxamoeba
for many years, even under adverse
 Haploid
conditions
 Uni-nucleated
 The spores are dispersed by air currents.
 Amoeboid
 CW absent
 Acellular / Plasmodial slime moulds -
 Vegetative phase-
 Holocarpic -entire plasmodium forms
 Diploid
fruiting bodies
 Multi -nucleated
 Monocentric – formation of single
 CW absent (Animal character)
terminal fruiting body
 Amoeboid (move by pseudopodia)
 Anisogamous reproduction
 Form aggregate of protoplast k/a
 Haplontic life cycle (only Zygote diploid)
Plasmodium , grow and spread over
 Zygotic meiosis
several feet
 Complete absence of flagellated structure

 Holocarpic -entire plasmodium forms

 Exhibit Multicellularity
fruiting bodies
 Exhibit Division of Labour
 Polycentric – plasmodium forms several
 k/a Colonial slime moulds
fruiting bodies
 K/a Advanced Protists
 Spores formed by Meiosis - Sporic
(more advanced than Acellular)
Meiosis
 k/a Primitive/Ancestors of Fungi
 Isogamous reproduction

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 Biological Classification
BIOLOGY

 White spots seen on mustard leaves are

due to a parasitic fungus
 Wheat rust-causing Puccinia
 Some are source Of antibiotics, e.g.,
Penicillium.

 Have you ever wondered why we keep

food in the refrigerator ?
 Yes, it is to prevent food from going bad
due to bacterial or fungal infections.
 Nutrition-
KINGDOM FUNGI (=Mycota) 1. Saprophytic
 Unique kingdom of heterotrophic 2. Parasitic
organisms 3. Symbiotic
 Eukaryotic , multicellular , non-
photosynthetic (Achlorophyllous) , 1. Saprophytes / Absorbtive / Decomposers
Thalloid , Spore forming organisms - Most fungi are heterotrophic & absorb
 Show a great diversity in morphology and soluble organic matter from dead
habitat substrates
2.Parasites - Those that depend on living plants &
 Study of Fungi- Mycology animals
 Father of Mycology – Micheli 3.They also live as Symbionts –
 Father of Modern Mycology–de Bary a) In association with algae as Lichens
 Father of Indian mycology – Butler b) Roots of higher plants as Mycorrhiza

 Habitat - cosmopolitan & occur in air,  Body structure - With exception of yeasts
water, soil & on animals & plants (mostly (unicellular) , fungi are filamentous
terrestial)  Their bodies consist of long, slender
 Prefer to grow in warm and humid places thread-like structures called hyphae
 Fungi on a moist bread & rotten fruits.  Network of hyphae –Mycelium (thalloid /
loose tissue)
 Fungi present on-
1. Dung - Coprophilous  Types of Mycelium –
2. Wood -Epixylous 1.Coenocytic / Aseptate hyphae -
3. Burnt wood-Xylophilous  Some hyphae are continuous tubes (septa
4. Tree Bark -Corticolous absent) filled with multinucleated
5. Nails -Keratinophilous cytoplasm
2. Septate hyphae - have Septae or cross walls in
 The common mushroom you eat & their hyphae
toadstools are also fungi a) Primary mycelium -Monokaryotic (n)
 Some unicellular fungi, e.g., yeast are used b) Secondary mycelium -Dikaryotic (n+n)
to make bread and beer

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 Biological Classification
BIOLOGY

 Types of Septa – 2. Mode of spore formation

1.Complete septa 3. Fruiting bodies
2. Simple central septa
3. Dolipore septum –
 With Barrel shaped central swelling
 Characteristic feature of Basidiomycetes
 Parenthesome (Pore cap ) present

 Cellular structure – P- Many Rabbits Are

1. Cell wall- composed of Chitin & Mucor Rhizopus Albugo
polysaccharides A- Coming At Neha’s PartY
 Chitin – k/a Fungal cellulose Claviceps Aspergillus Neurospora Penicillium
 Chitin – Polymer of N-Acetyl glucosamine Yeast
(NAG) B- Party has Ullu And
2. Lomasome Puccinia Ustilago Agaricus
 Present between CW & PM D- CAT
 Increase surface area for transport of Colletotrichum Alternaria Trichoderma
materials
3.Golgi body – Unicisternal Reproduction in fungi –
 Mitosis in somatic cells – Karyochorisis 1) Vegetative means –
(Intra-nuclear spindle / Intra-nuclear A. Fragmentation (more common)
mitosis) B. Fission– non-mycelial form(Yeast)
C. Budding-non-mycelial (Yeast)

 Some important terms- 2) Asexual reproduction by Spores (Mitospores

1. Holocarpic Fungi – whole body is used in , haploid)
forming reproductive stage eg- Yeast 1. Zoospore
2. Eucarpic Fungi – only a part of body is 2. Sporangiospores
used in forming reproductive stage , most 3. Chlamydiospore
of Fungi 4. Oidia
5. Conidia
3. Heterothallic Fungi (unisexual)–
fertilizing gametes formed on different A) Zoospores-
thallus (gametes genetically disimilar) , 1. Thin walled
most of fungi 2. Motile / flagellated
4. Homothallic Fungi (bisexual) – 3. Endogenous in Zoosporangia
fertilizing gametes formed on same thallus 4. In Oomycetes (Phycomycetes)
(gametes genetically similar) eg- Albugo Eg- Saprolegnia

Form basis for division of kingdom into various B) Sporangiospores-

classes- 1. Thin walled
1. Morphology of mycelium 2. Non-Motile / Non-flagellated

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 Biological Classification
BIOLOGY

3. Endogenous in Sporangia B. Ascospores–

4. In Zygomycetes (Phycomycetes)  Sexual spores
Eg- Rhizopus , Mucor  Haploid
 Non-motile
C) Chlamydiospores-  4-8 in number
1. Thick-walled  Produced endogenously in sac like Asci
2. Non-Motile / Non-flagellated (singular ascus) , on ‘Fruiting body
3. In Zygomycetes (Phycomycetes) Ascocarp’
4. Perennating / resting structure , viable for
years C. Basidiospores–
5. Formed during unfavourable conditions  Sexual spores
 Haploid – formed by Meiosis
D) Oidia-  Non-motile
1. Thin walled  4 in number
2. Non-Motile / Non-flagellated  Produced exogenously on basidium (club
3. In Zygomycetes (Phycomycetes) shaped) , on ‘Fruiting body basidiocarp’
4. Formed in high sugar/high salt/low pH
5. Show budding , form Torula stage (chain  Sexual cycle involves following 3 steps:
of Oidia) (i) Fusion of protoplasm between two motile or
non-motile gametes called Plasmogamy
E) Conidia- (ii) Fusion of two nuclei called Karyogamy
1. Thin walled (iii) Meiosis in zygote resulting in haploid spores
2. Non-Motile / Non-flagellated (Embryo is not formed)
3. Exogenous in Zoosporangia
4. Basipetal arrangement (in chains) When a fungus reproduces sexually,
5. In Ascomycetes &Deuteromycetes  two haploid hyphae of compatible mating
Note- Asexual spores absent in Basidiomycetes types come together and fuse.
 In some fungi the fusion of two haploid
3) Sexual reproduction – by cells immediately results in diploid cells
A. Oospores - Oomycetes (2n).
B. Zygospores - Zygomycetes
C. Ascospores - Ascomycetes  However, in other fungi (Ascomycetes &
D. Basidiospores-Basidiomycetes Basidiomycetes), an intervening dikaryotic
 The various spores are produced in distinct stage (n + n, i.e., two nuclei
structures called fruiting bodies per cell) occurs
 Condition is called a dikaryon
A. Oospores & Zygospores –  Phase is called dikaryophase
 Products of sexual reproduction  Short lived – Ascomycetes
 Diploid  Long lived-Basidiomycetes
 Site of Meiosis
 Later, the parental nuclei fuse and the cells
become diploid

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 The fungi form fruiting bodies in which
reduction division occurs, leading to
formation of haploid spores
 HAPLONTIC life cycle
 Only Zygote is Diploid
 Zygotic Meiosis
 Embryo is not formed
 Types of Plasmogamy –
1. Planogametic copulation (motile gamete 
fusion) –
 Simplest type of sexual reproduction
 Fusion of 2 gametes of opposite strains 
(1 or both gametes motile)
 Isogamous / Anisogamous / Oogamous
 In Aquatic Fungi like Allomyces
2. Gametangial contact –
 Gametangia = gamete forming cell
 Seen in Oomycetes
 Exception in Pyronema (Ascomycetes)
 Haploid Gametangia (sex organs
Antheridium & Oogonium/Ascogonium)
formed & come in contact
 Fertilization tube develops
 Transfer of entire contents of male
gametangia into female gametangia
through fertilization tube
 Then separate away
2 gametangia never fuse losing their identity
 Dipolid oospores formed , undergo
meiosis to form haploid spores
 These germinate to form new individual
3. Gametangial copulation / conjugation –
 Seen in Zygomycetes like Rhizopus
(k/a Conjugation fungi)
 Direct fusion of two gametangia , followed a)
by dissolution of cross wall
 Dipolid Zygospore formed , undergoes
meiosis to form Germ spores(haploid) ,
which germinate to form new individuals
4. Spermatization –
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Biological Classification
BIOLOGY
 Seen in Puccinia (Basidio) & Ascobolus
(Ascomycetes)
 Spermatia – single celled minute spores ,
non-motile male gametes
 Transfer of sprematia to receptive female
hyphae (=trichogyne) through wind , air ,
water ,insects
 Migration of contents into receptive
hyphae
Dikaryotic condition established (n+n)
5. Somatogamy / Pseudogamy –
Direct fusion of somatic hyphae cells
 In higher fungi where sex organs &
gamete formation is absent
 Seen in basidiomycetes (Mushrooms ,
Morrels , truffels ) except Rust & Smut
 Clamp connection
 Secondary mycelium formation (n+n)
 Formation of fruiting bodies like basidio &
ascocarps
 Formation of ascus & basidium , then asco
& basidiospore formation by meiosis
 Phycomycetes (lower fungi)
 Found in aquatic habitats & on decaying
wood in moist and damp places or as
obligate parasites on plants
 Mycelium is aseptate & coenocytic
a) Oomycetes (=Algal Fungi , CW cellulosic)
b) Zygomycetes (CW Chitin)
 Vegetative reproduction – Fragmentation
 Asexual reproduction by Zoospores
(motile) or Aplanospores (non-motile) like
Sporangiospores / Oidia/ Chlamydiospores
 Sexual reproduction –
Gametangial contact – Oomycetes
b) Gametangial copulation - Zygomycetes
 Spores endogenously produced in
sporangium.
 Biological Classification
BIOLOGY

 A zygospore is formed by fusion of two 2.Pyronema-Gametangial contact

gametes 3.Ascobolus – spermatization
 Gametes are similar in morphology  Dikaryotic stage – short lived
(isogamous) or dissimilar (anisogamous or  Sexual spores are called Ascospores
oogamous) (haploid/non-motile/4-8)which are
produced endogenously in sac like Asci
Examples (singular ascus)
1. Mucor (Dung / Pin mould)  These asci are arranged in different types
2. Rhizopus (Black bread mould) of fruiting bodies k/a Ascocarps
3. Albugo (parasitic fungi on mustard)-
Albugo candida cause ‘White rust of Examples –
crucifers’ 1. Claviceps-Ergot disease of Rye , LSD
source
4. Phytophthora infestans – 2. Aspergillus(Green smoky mould)-Weed of
Late blight of potato (Famine of Ireland) laboratory
5. Saprolegnia – Salmon disease of gills 3. Neurospora(Red/Pink mould)-used
extensively in biochemical and genetic
 White spots seen on mustard leaves are work (Drosophila of Plant kingdom)
due to a parasitic fungus.
4. Penicillium(Blue/Green mould) –
P.notatum (Penicillin-wonder drug)
5. Yeast – Bakers/brewers/Beer yeast
(Saccharomyces cerevisae)
 Many members- Morels(Morchella) &
Figure 2.5 Fungi: truffles(Tubers) are edible & considered
(a) Mucor delicacies (fruiting body Ascocarp edible)
(b) Aspergillus
(c) Agaricus
 Ascomycetes  Basidiomycetes/The Club fungi/The Gill
 Sac-fungi fungi -
 Mostly multicellular -Penicillium  Commonly known forms are mushrooms,
 Rarely unicellular – yeast bracket fungi or puffballs
(Saccharomyces)  Grow in
 Saprophytic , decomposers, parasitic or 1. Soil
coprophilous (growing on dung). 2. on logs and tree stumps
 Mycelium - branched and septate 3. in living plant bodies as parasites, e.g.,
 Asexual spores are conidia produced rusts and smuts
exogenously on the special mycelium
called conidiophores.  Most abundant fungi
 Most commonly seen fungi
 Conidia on germination produce mycelium  Mycelium – branched & septate
 Plasmogamy –  Dolipore septum (except Rust & Smut)
1.Somatogamy

Head Office : Plot No. 46, In front of Skyline Apartments, Corner Building, Rajeev Gandhi Nagar, Kota (Raj.) Pin Code : 324005

 Digest both cellulose & Lignin, hence Best 3.
decomposers of wood
eg- Ganoderma
 Asexual spores are generally not found
 but vegetative reproduction by
fragmentation is common
 Sex organs are absent
 but Plasmogamy (Somatogamy) is brought 
about by fusion of two vegetative or
somatic cells of different strains or
genotypes
 In Puccinia - Spermatization
 Resultant structure is dikaryotic (long-
lived) which ultimately gives rise to
basidium
 Karyogamy & meiosis take place in the
basidium producing 4 basidiospore
 Basidiospores are exogenously produced
on basidium
 Basidiospores - formed by
meiosis(haploid)
 Basidia are arranged in fruiting bodies
called basidiocarp
1. Puccinia (Rust fungus)
2. Ustilago (Smut)
Head Office : Plot No. 46, In front of Skyline Apartments, Corner Building, Rajeev Gandhi Nagar, Kota (Raj.) Pin Code : 324005
Biological Classification
BIOLOGY
Agaricus (Mushroom) / Gill fungi
4. Toadstools (=poisonous mushrooms)–
Amanita caeserea (Caeser’s mushroom)
5. Bracket / Shelf fungi – Ganoderma ,
Polysporum
6. Puff balls - Lycoperdon
1. Puccinia (Rust fungus)
2. Ustilago (Smut)
In these , Dolipore absent
 Deuteromycetes/
 The Dustbin fungi
 Imperfect fungi because-
 Only asexual or vegetative phases of these
fungi are known
 Mycelium- septate & branched
 Deuteromycetes reproduce only by asexual
spores known as conidia
 Vegetative reproduction – by
Fragmentation
 When sexual forms of these fungi were
discovered they were moved into classes
they rightly belong to
 Asexual & vegetative stage have been
given one name
(and placed under deuteromycetes)
 and sexual stage another
(and placed under another class).
Later when the linkages were established, the
fungi were correctly identified and moved
out of deuteromycetes
 Once perfect (sexual) stages of members
of dueteromycetes were discovered –
 they were often moved to ascomycetes and
basidiomycetes.
 Biological Classification
BIOLOGY

 Some members are saprophytes or 2. Leaf spot of Rice –

parasites Helminthosporium oryzae
 While large number of them are- Bengal Famine (1942-43)
1. Decomposers of litter & 3. Red rot of sugarcane –
2. Help in mineral cycling Colletotrichum fakatum

Examples-  Animal diseases by Fungi -

1. Colletotrichum 1. Ringworm – Microsporum ,
2. Alternaria Epidermophyton , Trichoderma (MET)
3. Trichoderma 2. Aspergillosis (lung infection) –
A.niger , A.flavus
 Useful activities of Fungi -
1. Source of Antibiotics  KINGDOM PLANTAE
2. Brewer / Beer industry  Kingdom Plantae includes all eukaryotic
3. Bakery industry chlorophyll-containing organisms
4. Cheese ripening ( Penicillium) commonly called plants.
5. Source of SCP (yeast)
6. Source of Statins (blood cholesterol  A few members are partially heterotrophic
lowering agent ) – by Monascus purpura such as insectivorous plants or parasites
7. Edible mushrooms (Agaricus)  Bladderwort and Venus fly trap-
Insectivorous plants
 Harmful activities of Fungi -  Cuscuta - parasite
 Oomycetes-
1. Downy mildew in Cereals –  KINGDOM ANIMALIA
Sclerospora graminicola  Heterotrophic eukaryotic organisms
2. Damping off of Mustard –  Multicellular
Pythium debaryanum  Cells lack cell walls
3. White rust of Crucifers- Albugo candida
4. Late blight of Potato – Phytophthora  Directly or indirectly depend on plants for
infestans (Famine of Ireland) food
 Zygomycetes-  Digest their food in an internal cavity and
Soft rot of Apple(Rhizopus) store food reserves as glycogen or fat.
 Mode of nutrition is holozoic – by
 Ascomycetes – ingestion of food.
1. Ergot of Rye – Claviceps purpura
 Basidiomycetes –  Mycorrhiza –
1. Black Rust of Wheat-  Symbiotic association of fungi with roots
Puccinia graministritici of higher plants (Gymno/Angiosperms)
2. Covered Smut of Baerley – (+,+)
Ustilago hordei  Both partners benefitted
 Such roots don’t have Root cap & Root
 Deuteromycetes - hair
1. Early blight of potato– Alternaria solania

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 Biological Classification
BIOLOGY

 Benefits to Fungi- 2. 95-99% of body

1. Food 3. Ascomycetes(mostly), basidiomycetes
2. Shelter (few)
 Benefits to Plant
1. Fungal mycelium increase surface area for  Algae prepare food for fungi (BGA
absorption of water & minerals additionally fix N2)
(P , N) from soil  Fungi provide-
 Shelter (protection)
 Types of Mycorrhiza(Basis= fungal  Anchorage
location)  Absorb mineral nutrients & water for its
1. Ectomycorrhiza - 10% partner
 Mantle – wooly covering of fungal  Sexual reproduction (fruiting bodies)
mycelium on external surface of root  So close is their association that if one saw
 Hartig net – hyphae / mycelial network a lichen in nature one would never imagine
in intercellular spaces in cortex of roots that they had two different organisms
 Hyphae don’t penetrate cortical cells within them (Dual / Composite organism)
(intracellular)  Lichens are very good pollution indicators
 Fungal partner - Basidiomycetes – they do not grow in SO2 polluted areas
 Eg- Pinus roots (SO2 destroy Mg from chlorophyll →
colorless chl Phaeophytin → cant trap
2. Endomycorrhiza - 90% light → no photosynthesis → lichens die
 Fungal hyphae penetrate roots , spreading due to lack of food)
both intercellularly & Intracellularly ,  Pioneer community during succession
without damaging cortical cells
(CW broken partially & PM invaginated)  Perennial
 Also called VAM  Slow growth
(Vesicular Arbuscular Mycorrhiza)  Habitat –
 Fungal partner – Phycomycetes (Glomus)  Found in even inhospitable &
 Eg- Orchid roots uninhabitated areas like rocks , icy tundra
or alpines etc.
 Lichens :  Habitat Lichens k/a
 Symbiotic associations i.e. mutually useful 1. Rocks -Saxicolous
associations, 2. Soil -Terricolous
 between algae and fungi (permanent 3. Tree bark -Corticolous
relation) 4. Wood -Lignicolous
 Term Lichen – by Theophrastus
 Types of Lichens (Basis = external
 Algal component – Phycobiont morphology of lichen)
1. Autotrophic 1. Crustose –
2. Forms only 1-5% of lichen body  Crust-like appearance
3. Chlorophyceae (mostly) / BGA(Few)  Attachment to substratum at several points
 Fungal component – Mycobiont  Absent special structure for attachment
1. Heterotrophic a) Graphis

Head Office : Plot No. 46, In front of Skyline Apartments, Corner Building, Rajeev Gandhi Nagar, Kota (Raj.) Pin Code : 324005

b) Leconora esculenta (=Bread of heaven)
c) Rhizocarpon (as food)
d) Dermatocarpon (=stone mushroom,as food b)
in Japan)
2. Foliose –
 Flat broad lobed leaf-like
 Attachment at 2 points
 Attaches with Rhizines
Eg – Parmelia (=Rock flower , used as food
delicacy)
3. Fruticose –
 Branched , bushy / shrub like
 Attachment at 1 point , called Disc
 Attaches with Disc
a) Usnea (=Old man’s beard , usnic acid
medicinal use) , cause Forest Fire
b) Cladonia (=Reindeer moss) , antibiotic
property (medicine)
c) Ramalina-perfumes d) Evernia-perfumes
e) Rocella-dye Orchil , source of Litmus (pH 
indicator)
 Special structures in thallus of lichens-
1. Breathing pores – on upper cortex , for
gaseous exchange/aeration
2. Cyphellae – on lower cortex , for gaseous
exchange/aeration , similar to stomata
3. Cephalodia – on upper cortex , additional
N2 fixation , retain moisure , k/a
Diphycobiontic lichen (BGA &
Chlorophyceae algae both present)
 Reproduction in lichens-
1. Sexual reproduction – by fungal partner
2. Vegetative – by Fragmentation (due to 
mechanical injury by wind, animal bite
etc)
3. Asexual reproduction –
a) Isidia – outgrowths meant for increase in 
surface area , hence more photosynthesis ; 
Head Office : Plot No. 46, In front of Skyline Apartments, Corner Building, Rajeev Gandhi Nagar, Kota (Raj.) Pin Code : 324005
Biological Classification
BIOLOGY
if broken off → reach suitable substratum → new
lichen
Soredia / Fungal spores – microscopic
lichen propagules , formed in Sori
(=pustules) , dispersed by wind → reach
suitable substratum → new lichen
 Most efficient means of asexual
reproduction
VIRUSES, VIROIDS, PRIONS
In the Five kingdom classification of Whittaker
there is no mention of –
 Lichens
 Some Acellular organisms like viruses,
viroids and prions
 Prions :
 Discovered by ‘Alper’
 Infectious protein particles (No genetic
material)
In modern medicine certain infectious
neurological diseases were found to be
transmitted by an agent consisting of
abnormally folded protein
 Similar in size to viruses
 The most notable diseases caused by
prions are Bovine Spongiform
Encephalopathy (BSE) commonly called
‘Mad cow disease’ in cattle and
 its analogous variant Cr–Jacob disease
(CJD) in humans (Cruedz Feldt
Jacobs)
 Viruses –
 All of us who have suffered the ill effects
of common cold or ‘flu’
Viruses did not find a place in
classification since they are not considered
truly ‘living’, if we understand living as
those organisms that have a cell structure
Study of viruses - Virology
The viruses are non-cellular organisms

 Are characterised by having an inert
crystalline structure outside the living cell.
 Once they infect a cell ,
 they take over the machinery of the host
cell to replicate themselves, killing the
host.
 Would you call viruses living or non-
living?
 They are exceptions to cell theory
 Connecting link between living & non-
living
 Obligate intra-cellular parasites /
endoparasites
 Non-living characters –
1. Absence of protoplasm
2. Absence of metabolism like respiration
3. Absence of multiplication outside host
(Inert viruses k/a Virions)
4. High specific gravity
5. Ability to get crystallized eg- TMV
6. Absence of ability to live independently
outside host
7. Absence of growth & division
 Living characters –
1. Presence of genetic material
2. Presence of organic macromolecules like 1.Capsid –
proteins
3. Ability to multiply within host cell
4. Presence of some enzymes like Reverse 
transcriptase
5. Host specificity & ability to cause
infections/diseases in host
6. Ability to get killed by autoclave & UV- 2.Nucleoid –
rays
7. Ability to get mutated (occurrence of
mutations)
8. Ability to utilize biosynthetic/cellular
machinery of host to replicate itself
 Name virus means venom / Poisonous
fluid –by Pasteur (1880)
 D.J Ivanowsky (1892) recognised
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Biological Classification
BIOLOGY
 certain microbes as causal organism of
mosaic disease of tobacco
 Smaller than bacteria because they passed
through bacteria-proof filters.
 M.W. Beijerinek (1898) demonstrated -
 extract of infected plants of tobacco could
cause infection in healthy plants
 called fluid as Contagium vivum fluidum
(infectious living fluid)
 W.M. Stanley (1935) showed that –
 Viruses could be crystallised (TMV)
 Crystals consist largely of proteins
 They are inert outside their specific host
cell
 Viruses are obligate parasites
 In addition to proteins, viruses also contain
genetic material, that could be either RNA
or DNA
 No virus contains both RNA & DNA
 A virus is a Nucleoprotein
 Genetic material is infectious
 Structural components of Viruses –
 Outer protein coat
 Protects genetic material
Present in all viruses
 Made of units called ‘Capsomeres’
 These capsomeres are arranged in helical
or polyhedral geometric forms.
 Represent Genetic material
 Contain either DNA or RNA
 Present in all viruses
 Ribovirus & Deoxyriboviruses
In general,
 Viruses that infect plants have single
stranded RNA (ds DNA-CMV)
 Biological Classification
BIOLOGY

 Viruses that infect animals have either  Bacteriophage

single (HIV) or double stranded
RNA(Reovirus) or double stranded DNA
(chicken pox virus).
 Bacterial viruses or bacteriophages
(viruses that infect the bacteria) are usually
double stranded DNA viruses
 ss DNA-M13 & θX174
3.Envelope –
 Outer thin covering , outer to capsid
 Made of proteins , carbohydrates , lipids Lysogenic cycle – if host cell is not killed , after
 May be present in virus
 Eg- HIV
 Plant viruses = Phytophagineae
(ssRNA)
 Animal viruses = Zoophagineae
(ssRNA , dsRNA, dsDNA)
 Bacterial viruses = Bacteriophage
(ds DNA)
 Head – Capsid enclosing dsDNA as
genetic material
 Tail fibres – 6 in no. , helps in attachment
on host bacteria
 Shape – Rod shaped
Genetic material – ds DNA
 Capsid symmetry - Polyhedral
 Reproduction in Virus-
Lytic cycle – if virus kills host cell , after
multiplication
viral multiplication
 Viruses cause diseases like mumps, small
pox, herpes and influenza , AIDS
 In plants, the symptoms can be-
1. Mosaic formation
2. Leaf rolling and curling
3. Yellowing and vein clearing
4. Dwarfing and stunted growth.

 Viroids :
 In 1971, T.O. Diener discovered
 a new infectious agent that was smaller
than viruses and
 caused Potato spindle tuber disease
 It was found to be a Free RNA (Naked
RNA)
Tobacco Mosaic Virus (TMV)
 It lacked protein coat, found in viruses ,
 Tobacco Mosaic Virus (TMV) hence name ‘Viroid’
 Shape – Rod shaped  RNA of viroid was of low molecular
 Genetic material – ss RNA weight
 Capsid symmetry - Helical a) Potato spindle tuber disease
b) Chrysanthemum stunt
c) Citrus exocortis

Bacteriophage

Head Office : Plot No. 46, In front of Skyline Apartments, Corner Building, Rajeev Gandhi Nagar, Kota (Raj.) Pin Code : 324005