Plant Growth and Development 1

YEAR LONG COURSE FOR NEET

(BOTANY)

Contents
TOPIC EXERCISE

PLANT GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

* Notes

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 2 Biology for NEET
PLANT GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
* Development :-
* It is sum of 2 processes :
1)Growth
2)Differentiation
* Development of a mature plant from a zygote follow a precise and highly ordered succession of events.
* Both intrinsic and extrinsic factors govern and control these developmental processes.
GROWTH :-
* Growth is the most characteristic feature of all living organisms.
* Growth is an irreversible increase in size of an organ or its part or even of an individual cell
* Growth is accompanied by metabolic processes, that occurs at expense of energy
* Eg - expansion of a leaf is growth.
* PLANT GROWTH IS
1. INDETERMINATE & Open :
* In plants growth continues throughout their life. So it is called as indeterminate or unlimited growth. (due to meristem
presence)
* Meristem continuously divides and add new cells to the plant body, such activity of meristem is called as open form of
growth or indeterminate growth.
2. Localised :
* Growth is diffused in animals but growth in plants is localised (Presence of meristem at certain locations in plant body
so growth is restricted to certain locations).
Seed germination is first step of plant growth

Two types of plant growth Two types of

 Plant Growth and Development 3
1)Primary :
* Root apical meristem and Shoot apical meristem responsible.
* Contribute to elongation of plant along their axis
2) Secondary :
* In dicots and gymnosperms , lateral meristem ( vascular cambium & cork cambium) responsible
* Contribute to increase in girth of organs( root , stem)

GROWTH IS MEASURABLE : At cellular level growth can be measured by measuring the increase in the amount to
protoplasm but it is very difficult to measure directly, so growth is measured by a variety of parameters, they are
(a)Increase in fresh weight
(b)Increases in dry weight
(c)Increase in length/surface area/ volume
(d)Increase in number of size of cells

* One single Maize root apical meristem ¡V give rise to more than 17,500 new cells per hour (growth expressed as increase
in cell number )
* Cells in Watermelon may increase in size by upto 3,50,000 times (growth expressed a s increase in cell size)
* Growth of a pollen tube is measured in terms of its length.
* Growth in a dorsiventral leaf is expressed as increase in surface area.
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Growth is measured by Auxanometer
AUXANOMETER
PHASES OF GROWTH :
1.Cell division or cell formation or Meristematic phase Number of cells is increased by cell division in this phase.
* The cells of this region have * Small size
* rich protoplasm * conspicuous nuclei
* Thin , primary & cellulosic cell wall with abundant plasmodesmatal connections
* High respiration rate

2.Cell enlargement or cell Elongation phase :

The cells proximal ( just next , away from tip) to the meristematic zone
a)Increased Vacuolation (number & size of vacuoles increase)
b)Cell enlargement (mainly due to vacuolation)
c)New cell wall depositions in this phase

3.Cell Maturation or differentiation phase :

The cells are more proximal to phase of elongation.
* The cells of this zone attain their maximal size in terms of wall thickening and protoplasmic modifications.
* It leads to formation of mature tissues.
GROWTH RATE :
* Increased growth per unit time is termed as growth rate.
* The growth rate shows an increase that may be arithematic or geometric
 Plant Growth and Development 5
1) Arithematic-growth : In arithematic growth only one daughter cell among the two further divides while other differen-
tiates and become mature (stop dividing).

2) Geometric Growth : Here both the progeny cells following mitotic divisions retain ability to divide and continue to do so
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Ex. Early embryonic development/division in zygote, division in unicellular organism.
 Plant Growth and Development 7
In most system ,
* The initial growth is slow (lag phase)
* It increase rapidly thereafter at an exponential rate (log or exponential phase), it is also called as “grand phase of growth
* However with limited nutrient supply, the growth slows down leading to a stationary phase or steady phase.
* If we plot the parameter of growth against time, we get a typical Sigmoid or S- curve
* Sigmoid or S- curve is characteristic of living organisms growing in a natural environment.
* It is typical for all cells, tissues and organs of a plant.
* r = relative growth rate and is also the measure of the ability of the plant to produce new plant material referred to as
efficiency index.

Absolute and Relative growth rates : Quantitative comparison between growth

Absolute growth rate :
Total growth which occurs in unit time in plant or plant parts.
Relative growth Rate :
Growth which occurs in unit time with respect to initial parameter in plant or plant parts. Relative growth rate is generally
high in young developing plant parts.
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Relative growth Rate = Growth per unit time X 100 Initial size

Both posses Same Absolute Growth rate i.e 5 cm2 in 7 days.

• But high relative growth rate is in leaf ‘A’ about 100% while in leaf ‘B’ it is about 10%.
• A= 5/10 *100=100%
• B=5/50*100= 10%
Conditions for growth
1.Water :
* The plant cells grow in size by cell enlargement which in turn requires water
* Turgidity of cells helps in extension growth. Thus, plant growth & further development is intimately linked to water
status of plant
* Water also provides medium for enzymatic activities needed for growth.
2.Oxygen - helps in releasing metabolic energy essential for growth activities (oxidation of respiratory fuel)
3.Nutrients (macro and micro essential elements) - are required by plants for synthesis of protoplasm and act as source of
energy (Respiratory fuel)
4.Light – for Photosynthesis
5.Gravity
6.Temperature – optimum temperature range suited for its growth. Any deviation from this range could be detrimental to its
survival
 Plant Growth and Development 9
DIFFERENTIATION, DEDIFFERENTIATION & REDIFFERENTATION
Cells produced after division (mitosis) in meristem transform or differentiate themselves according to specific function
* This act leading to maturation of cells - differentiation , e.g
1. Formation of primary permanent tissues like parenchyma etc
2. Formation of tracheary element - loss of protoplasm , develop very strong , elastic , lignocellulosic secondary cell wall

* Living & differentiated cells sometimes again have to divide according to requirements of plants
* For this purpose these cells regain their dividing capacity, k/a dedifferentiation , e.g
1.Formation of interfascicular cambium from differentiated pemanent parenchymatous cells
2.Formation of cork cambium from hypodermis
Such dedifferentiated cells divide and produce cells that once again lose capacity to divide but mature to perform
specific functions, this is called as Redifferentiation
* Example of redifferentiated tissues are
1.secondary xylem 2.secondary phloem 3.secondary cortex

Differentiation in plants is open :

* because cells/ tissues arising out of same meristem have different structures at maturity & some of them have ability to
return to division stage.
* The final structure at maturity of cell/tissue is also determined by location of cell within
* Example : Cells positioned away from root apical meristems differentiate as root-cap cells, while those pushed to
periphery mature as epidermis.
Development : It includes all changes that an organism goes through during its life cycle from germination of seed to
senescence. It is also applicable to tissues/ organs.
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Plasticity : Plants follow
* different pathways
* in response to environment or phases of life
* to form different kinds of structures
* This ability is called plasticity
e.g. Heterophylly (ex. Of plasticity) – difference forms of leaves on same plant
1 ) Internal plasticity / developmental Heterophylly - In cotton, coriander and larkspur , leaves of juvenile plant are different
in shape from those in mature plants

2) Environmental Heterophylly / plasticity -

* difference in shapes of leaves produced in air & those produced in water
* in Buttercup / Ranunculus (emergent hydrophyte) also represent heterophylly due to environment

Development is considered as the sum of growth and differentiation,

* which is controlled by both extrinsic (environmental) & intrinsic (internal) factors
(i)Extrinsic factors - Light, gravity , temperature , water , oxygen , nutrition
(ii) Intrinsic factors - Genetic factors (intracellular) and PGR (intercellular)
 Plant Growth and Development 11
PGRs - plant growth substance / plant hormones / Phytohormones
* The plant growth regulators (PGRs) are small, simple molecules of diverse chemical composition
PGRs are of two types-
(1) Plant growth promotors: growth promoting activities
* Cell division , cell enlargement , tropic growth , flowering , fruiting , seed formation
(i)Auxins (ii) Gibberellins (iii) Cytokinins

(2) Plant growth inhibitors : growth inhibiting activities

* Dormancy (growth & development temporarily stopped , like failure of seeds to germinate due to lack of favourable
environmental conditions)
* Abscission (falling or shedding of leaves/fruits/flowers)
(iv) Abscisic acid (v) Ethylene (both groups)

Characteristic ¡¥or¡¦ chemical nature of plant growth regulator :

(i) Indole compounds - Auxin (Indole-3-acetic acid=IAA,Indole -3-butyric acid=IBA)
(ii) Adenine derivatives (N6-furfurylamino purine = kinetin) „± Cytokinins
(iii) Terpenes (gibberellic acid = GA3) - Gibberellins
(iv) Derivatives of Carotenoids (Abscisic acid = ABA)
(v) Gases ( Ethylene = C2H4)
AUXINS Discovery –
• Term Auxin derived from Greek word ‘auxein’ which means to grow.
• First of all Charles Darwin & Francis Darwin (son of C. Darwin) observed the process of phototropism. They observed
coleoptile bending in Canary grass (Phalaris canariensis ), responded to unilateral illumination

Experiment used to demonstrate that tip of the coleoptile is the source of auxin. Arrows indicate direction of light.
* After a series of experiments, it was concluded that the tip of coleoptile was the site of transmittable influence (Auxin)
that caused the bending of the entire coleoptile
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* Auxin was isolated by F.W. Went from tips of coleoptiles of Oat seedling (Avena). (First of all, Auxin was isolated from
human urine)
* F. W. Went gave the name “auxin” to growth substance
* Credit of discovery of auxin is given to F. W Went.

Biosynthesis of auxin occurs at both shoot and root apex , from where they migrate to regions of their action.
* Precursor - Tryptophan amino acid , Zn2+ ions required.
* Transport of auxin is basipetal and polar .
Concentration of Auxin required for:
* Shoot growth - 10 ppm
* Root growth (main/primary root)- 0.0001 ppm
* Lateral/adventitious roots - > 0.0001 ppm ( stimulate cells of pericycle , primary root formation stops )

Natural Forms and Synthetic Forms

• Natural forms- IAA, IBA
•Synthetic forms –
1.NAA (Naphthalene acetic acid)
2.2,4-D (2,4 – dichlorophenoxy acetic acid)
3.2,4,5-T (2,4,5 – trichlorophenoxy acetic acid)

Bio-assay:
* Testing of substance for its activity in causing a growth response in a living plant or its part
* Quantitative test (measure concentration required to produce the effect)
1.Avena (oat) curvature test 2.Root growth inhibition test

PHYSIOLOGICALEFFECTS OFAUXIN
(1)Apical Dominance (Characteristic function of auxin) :-
* The phenomenon in which apical bud dominates /does not allow the growth of lateral or axillary buds
* Removed of shoot tips (decapitation) usually results in the growth of lateral buds.
It is widely applied in tea plantations, hedge - making.
 Plant Growth and Development 13
(2) Cell Division & Xylem differentiation
(3) Root initiation / Rooting :- Rooting on stem cuttings (widely used in plant vegetative propagation) is promoted by IBA
& NAA.
* So auxins are k/a Root Setting Hormone(RSH) / Rootone
(4) Prevention of Abscission :-
* IAA, NAA prevent premature abscission of plant organs.
* Promote the abscission of older mature leaves , flowers & Fruits
(5) Flower initiation / Flowering :- Auxin promotes flowering in Pineapple & Litchi plants. (NAA , 2,4-D)
(6) Parthenocarpy :- Seed-less fruits (fruits formed without fertilization) can be produced by spray of IAA , IBA . Eg.
Tomato.
(7) Selective weed killer / Weedicide :-
* 2,4-D is widely used to kill Dicot weeds in cereal crops or monocots (does not affect monocot plants ).
* 2, 4-D + 2, 4, 5-T - Agent orange during Veitnam-US War
* It is used to prepare weed free lawns.
(8) Increase sweetness in fruits (complex carbohydrates-fructose)
(9)Prevent falling down / bending / lodging in Grasses (strengthens weak stem)
(10) Formation of callus in PTC
(11)Dwarf shoots formation in Apples (fruits grow on dwarf shoots)

All auxins have been used extensively in agricultural and horticultural practices.
* Auxins have feminish effect ( formation of female flowers)
GIBBERELLINS
* More than 100 gibberellins reported from fungi and higher plants. (GA1,GA2 etc) .
* First discovered & Most intensively studied - Gibberellic acid (GA3)
* Nature
* All GAs are acidic.
* Derivatives of Terpenes.
Discovery and Isolation:
• Observed by Japanese pathologist Kurosawa , he reported appearance of symptoms of disease (Foolish seedling/
Bakane disease) in uninfected rice seedlings (tall , weak , pale yellow , sterile) when treated with sterile filtrates of
fungus Gibberella fujikorai
* Discovered by Yabuta (gave Term) , Sumiki and Hayashi from the fungus Gibberella fujikorai.
* Precursor – Mevalonic acid (Acetyl-Co-A)
* Synthesis – Root tip and developing embryo
1.Seed germination - eg barley seed
* GA stimulate synthesis of many hydrolytic enzymes like amylases , proteases for mobilisation of reserve food. (Barley
endosperm test )
* Use : Speed up malting process in brewing industry. It increase yield of malt from barley grains.
2. Bolting – stem elongation in rossette plants (Internodal growth is retarted and leaves are arranged in form of whorl)
* Eg - cabbage, beet (natural bolting occurs prior to flowering due to GA )
* GA stimulate intercalary meristem , leads to internodal elongation & increase in stem height
* Dwarf pea test & Dwarf maize test (bolting in genetically dwarf varieties) – Bioassay test
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3. INCREASE IN FRUIT SIZE -
* Commercially available compound - Pomalin (cytokinin -Benzyl amino purine BAP + GA – GA 4 +GA7)
* Increase fruit size in apple
* Improve shape of apple (thalamus -edible portion , thalamus is an internode)
* Increase length of grape stalks ( stalk size is small , so grapes come in contact , so growth is inhibited) , stalk is an
internode .

4. Increase productivity of sugarcane -

* Store carbohydrates as sugars in their stem.
* Economically edible part - stem (internode)
* Spraying sugarcane crop with gibberellins increases the length of the stem, thus increasing the yield by as much as 20
tonnes per acre.

5.Delays Senescence -
* thus fruits can be left on the tree longer , so as to extend the market period.
6. Effect on Seed Production:
* Spraying juvenile conifers with GAs hastens the maturity period, thus leading to early seed production.
7. Flowering in Long Day Plants
8. GA have male effect on flowering (Male Steroidal Hormone – MSH)
Bio-Assay:
1.Dwarf pea test &
2. Dwarf maize test (based upon internodal elongation activity)
3. Barley endosperm test (based upon á- amylase activity)

CYTOKININS
1. Discovery and Isolation:
•Discovered by Miller and Skoog as Kinetin from autoclaved Herring fish sperm DNA.
•Took internodal segments of Tobacco stem & tried callus proliferation.
Auxin + any one of ( yeast extract+ coconut milk extract+DNA extract + extracts of vascular tissue ) essential for callus
proliferate
• (Kinetin-N6 furfuryl amino purine , doesn’t occur naturally in plants , powerful cytokinetic effect)
* First natural cytokinin isolated / Discovered by Letham as Zeatin (Benzyl amino purine, BAP) from corn kernels (unripe
maize grains ) and coconut milk
2. Chemical nature :
* Modified form of Adenine , a purine
* Derived from tRNA
3. Synthesis/ Site of formation Natural cytokinins are synthesised in regions where rapid cell division occurs, for example,
root apices, developing shoot lateral buds, young fruits etc.
4. Natural Forms and Synthetic Forms
• Kinetin does not occur naturally in plants
• Synthetic forms – BAP, Kinetin
 Plant Growth and Development 15
5. Cell Division:
* Helps in cell division (By stimulating genes for Cyclins and CDK) .They are true cell division factors.(cytokinesis)
6. Overcome Apical Dominance:
* Cytokinins help overcome the apical dominance.(promote growth of lateral buds)
* Antagonistic to Auxin

7. Delay Senescence:
* They promote nutrient mobilisation which helps in the delay of leaf senescence. (increase phloem transport)

8. Effect on Shoot Growth:

* It helps to produce new leaves, chloroplasts in leaves, lateral shoot growth and adventitious shoot formation.
9. It is abundantly found in coconut water.
10. Flowering in Lemna (aquatic plant) - Female flowers
11. Induce opening of stomata

12. Tissue culture - Morphogenesis

* Cytokinins and auxin together cause dedifferentiation in differentiated parenchymatous cells in tissue culture.
* A=CK - Callus
* A> CK- Root differentiation
* CK>A –V Shoot differentiation
13. Assay:
a)Chlorophyll preservation (retension) test ( by leaves)
b) Tobacco pith cell division test

ETHYLENE (CH2=CH2)
1. Discovery and Isolation:
• Cousins confirmed the release of a volatile substance from ripened oranges that brought about early ripening of unripe
bananas kept nearby.
2. Synthesis/ Site of formation
• Ethylene is a simple gaseous PGR.
• Synthesised in almost all plant parts like roots , leaves , flowers, fruits , seeds etc.
• It is synthesised in large amounts by tissues undergoing senescence (ageing) and ripening fruits.
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1.Effect on Fruit Ripening:

* Ethylene is highly effective in Fruit ripening in Climacteric fruits.(rise in respiratory rate called Respiratory Climactic)
* Eg - tomato , apple , banana , oranges , peach , plum , pear etc
Note - induce flowering in pineapple (not fruit ripening)
* The most widely used compound as a source of ethylene is Ethephon / CEPA (chloro ethyl phosphonic acid)
* Ethephon in an aqueous solution is readily absorbed and transported within the plant and releases ethylene slowly.

2. Abscission:
* It accelerates abscission of plant organs especially of leaves and flowers.
3. Senescence:
* It promotes senescence of plant organs especially of leaves and flowers.
Note - Ethephon is used to accelerate abscission in flowers and fruits (Thinning of cotton , cherry , walnut)
4. Effect on Roots:
* Ethylene also promotes lateral root growth / adventitious roots growth on cuttings and root hair formation, thus helping
the plants to increase their absorption surface
5. Effects on Flowering:
* Flowering and fruit set-up are synchronised in pineapples.
* It also initiates flowering in mango.
* It promotes female flowers & fruits in cucumbers thereby increasing the yield.
 Plant Growth and Development 17
6. Triple response of ethylene in plants (Bioassay test) : It influences
a)Horizontal growth of seedlings
b)Swelling of the axis
c)Apical hook formation in dicot seedlings.(protect plumule from wear & tear)

7. Effect on Leaf and Shoot Growth:

* Ethylene promotes rapid internode/petiole elongation in deep water rice plants.
* It helps leaves/ upper parts of the shoot to remain above water.

8. Dormancy:
* Ethylene breaks seed and bud dormancy
* initiates germination in peanut seeds, sprouting of potato tubers.
* Since ethylene regulates so many physiological processes, it is one of the most widely used PGR in agriculture.

ABSISSIC ACID (ABA)

1.Discovery and Isolation:
* Three independent researchers reported it as inhibitor-B, abscission II and dormin. It was named abscisic acid (ABA).
(mildly acidic)
* ABA was discovered for its role in regulating abscission and dormancy
* Occurrence - dormant seeds and buds

* Precursor - Violaxanthin (a type of Xanthophyll )

* Chloroplast based formation (Epoxycarotenoid deoxygenase enzyme)
* ABA - dextrorotatory , cis , terpene , 15 carbon compound.

2. Inhibit Metabolism.
* Inhibitor protein & RNA synthesis , cause chlorophyll destruction , thus Senescence of leaves stimulated
3. Effect on Abscission:
* Promote abscission of flowers and fruits , hence the name.
4. Effect on Seed Germination:
* ABA inhibits seed germination (inhibits gibberellin mediated amylase formation ).
5. Dormancy of buds & seeds :
* ABA acts as growth inhibitor & induces Dormancy in buds and seeds.
* Also called “Dormin”
* By inducing dormancy, ABA helps seeds to withstand desiccation and other factors unfavourable for growth.
* Buds and seeds sprout only when ABA is overcome by gibberellins.
6. Closure of stomata :
* ABA stimulates the closure of stomata in the epidermis to prevent loss of water/transpiration during dessication or
stressful situations .
* Cause efflux of K+ from guard cells -Potassium malate decrease - Osmotic pressure decrease ¡÷ stomatal closure
* Also called Anti-transpirant.
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* It increases the tolerance of plants to various kinds of stresses. Therefore, it is also called the Stress hormone.
* In most situations, ABA acts as an antagonist to GA , hence called Anti-GA
7. Flowering in SDP
8. Parthenocarpy in Rose
9. Formation of roots in Ivy
10. Cambial activity in plant decreases
11. Bioassay
* Cotton or Bean Explant Test
Synergistic actions -
1) Cell division -
* Auxins and Cytokinins
2) Abscission -
* Ethylene & ABA
Antagonistic effects –
1) Dormancy – ABA induces while GA inhibit it
2) Apical dominance – Auxin promote while Cytokinins inhibit it
3) Senescence –prevented by Auxins while stimulated by ABA
Flowering (reproductive phase) Inductive conditions –
1.Light ( Photoperiodism)
2.Low temperature ( Vernalization )

PHYTOCHROMES -
* a photoreceptor , a pigment (chromoprotein) that plant uses to detect light
* Regulates photoperiodic induction of flowering
* Regulate light induced seed germination
 Plant Growth and Development 19

PHOTOPERIODISM -
Responses shown by plants to changes in relative lengths of dark/night (scotoperiod) & light/
day (photoperiod)
* Most plants can flower only if they were exposed to light less than or more than a certain
period , called “ Critical period”
Photoperiodism discovered by – Garner & Allard in Maryland mammoth ( Mutant variety
of Tobacco)
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 Plant Growth and Development 21

Before flowering , shoot apices modify themselves into flowering apices. (shoot apices can-
not percieve photoperiods)
* The site of perception of light / dark -Leaves of plants
* Hypothetical hormone - Florigen is responsible for flowering.
* When plants are exposed to required inductive photoperiod , Florigen migrates from leaves to
shoot apices for inducing flowering.
 22 Biology for NEET
Importance of photoperiodism –
1. Plants could be made to remain vegetative
phase to obtain higher yield – tubers , rhi-
zomes
2. Keeping plants in reproductive stage to yield
more flowers & fruits
3. Useful to commercial flower growers - Can
induce or retard flowering by regulating pho-
toperiod & temperature conditions in glass
houses to meet demands of the market.
VERNALISATION/ Yarovization
* There are plants for which flowering is ei-
ther quantitatively or qualitatively dependent
on exposure to low temperature -
Vernalisation
Promotion of flowering by a period of low
temperature - VernaliSation
* Devernalisation
* Vernalisation prevents precocious reproduc-
tive development late in the growing season,
and enables the plant to have sufficient time
to reach maturity.
* Vernalisation refers specially to the promo-
tion of flowering by a period of low tem-
perature.
* Term vernalization - Lysenko
* First observed by - Klipport
Importance of vernalization –
1) Shortens period between germination and
flowering . Thus more than one crop can be
obtained during a year.
2) Sowing of winter crops ( cereals) in spring
season after vernalisation can avoid killing
of cereals in severe winter.
3) Can convert biennials ( sugarbeet , cabbage ,
carrot) into annuals
4) Can convert winter varieties into spring va-
rieties.
Conditions required for vernalisation :
1.Seed hydration
2.Aerobic
3.Proper nutrition
4.Low temperature – for hours to few weeks
5.Actively dividing cells – stimulus is percieved
by SAM (mature stem apex) , embryo of
seed , developing leaves etc.
6.Hypothetical hormone – Vernaline (reported
by Mechlers)

Some important food plants, wheat, barley,

rye have two kinds of varieties:
1. The ‘spring’ variety are normally planted in
the spring and come to flower and produce
grain before the end of the growing season.
2. Winter varieties, if planted in spring would
normally fail to flower or produce mature
grain within a span of a flowering season.
Hence, they are planted in autumn. They ger-
minate, and over winter come out as small
seedlings, resume growth in the spring, and
are harvested usually around mid-summer.