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Exploring persuasive sales Exploring

persuasive
techniques to improve customer sales
techniques
acceptance of sustainable but
unfamiliar menu in restaurants 3093
Chris He Cai, Anni Ding and Tiffany Shin Legendre Received 28 August 2020
Revised 25 November 2020
Conrad N. Hilton College of Hotel and Restaurant Management, 10 January 2021
University of Houston, Houston, Texas, USA Accepted 12 January 2021

Abstract
Purpose – Although restauranteurs hope to incorporate offal or variety meat, in the menu as an attempt to
reduce food waste, adopting these ingredients is still challenging due to customer rejections. This study aims
to propose potential persuasive sales strategies based on customers’ different information sources to increase
organ meat-based menu sales for restaurateurs.
Design/methodology/approach – In this research, a qualitative study was conducted to identify critical
factors that show persuasive effects from external, interpersonal and experiential information sources. A total
of 20 in-depth expert interviews with professional chefs and restauranteurs were conducted and key
persuasive service tactics were analyzed.
Findings – From their experience of persuading customers to try unusual foods, insights about how to
alleviate unfamiliar food aversion were obtained. The findings of this study showed that different persuasive
sales tactics can be implemented to decrease customers’ aversion to offal and offcuts on menus.
Research limitations/implications – The context of offal is meaningful theoretically because it sheds
light on the literature gaps related to persuasive sales strategies for food products with a negative social
stigma. Practically, the findings of this study explicitly address that offal usage in restaurants can not only
encourage the culinary uniqueness of a restaurant but also contribute to the reduction of food waste by
foodservice operations.
Originality/value – This research answers the calls for more research on sustainable food sources in
hospitality literature by proposing offal as a potential alternative protein source. The findings of this study
can further be used to improve customer acceptance of other sustainable but unfamiliar food items.
Keywords Food waste, Sustainability, Customer acceptance, Offal, Sales technique,
Unfamiliar food
Paper type Research paper

1. Introduction
The restaurant industry faces growing customer demand for sustainable foodservice
practices in recent years. However, more than 40% of the US’ annual food production goes to
waste, making food waste the most significant contributor to the landfill mass nationwide
(Gunders et al., 2017). One major contributor to food waste is animal-based meat production
and consumption (Mekonnen and Hoekstra, 2012). Meat and poultry production, the largest
segment of US agriculture, reached £100bn in 2018, providing every American customer International Journal of
with more than £200 of animal protein annually (Jones et al., 2018). However, only half of the Contemporary Hospitality
Management
slaughtered animals by weight reach the customer market as dressed meats, such as steaks Vol. 33 No. 10, 2021
pp. 3093-3114
and roasts (Mullen et al., 2017). The other half of the animals’ total weight, including lesser- © Emerald Publishing Limited
0959-6119
used cuts (offcuts), bones, blood and organs (known collectively as offal), takes up less than DOI 10.1108/IJCHM-08-2020-0924
IJCHM 20% of its total dollar value. Offal is seldom seen on US customers’ tables due to its socially
33,10 stigmatized image; its association with disgust (Jayathilakan et al., 2012) induces its
undervaluation and underutilization.
Food waste reduction is one of the foodservice industry’s top priorities due to the severity
of the problem. Restaurants have unique opportunities to introduce unfamiliar and
seemingly disgusting ingredients (e.g. offal) and promote food sustainability to a wide range
3094 of customers (Gunders et al., 2017). Trained culinary professionals could set industry-wide
trends by designing delicious offal dishes, making them stand out in a highly
competitive market (Krader, 2017). While there have been many customer psychology
studies in the literature on unfamiliar food rejection, less is known about disgust with
unfamiliar food (Baker et al., 2016) and how to strategically overcome such aversions (Caber
et al., 2018). There is a distinct lack of hospitality literature exploring how restauranteurs
can better source, use offal for sustainability purposes and battle against customers’
rejections without sacrificing the bottom-line (Adams et al., 2000). In hospitality and even in
food-related literature, suggestive selling techniques are largely omitted (Norvell et al., 2018).
Among the few unfamiliar food sales research in hospitality, menu items were often
examined in “ethnic” restaurants that presented exotic novelties from non-American
cultures (Youn and Kim, 2018). Other studies were based in countries outside of North
America (Caber et al., 2018). However, this study focuses on non-ethnic American restaurant
sales contexts. Without understanding how to promote and sell offal and offcuts properly,
restauranteurs will be reluctant to seek innovative and sustainable food options on menus
for fear of customer rejection and the potential for profit losses (Mullen et al., 2017; Schaefer
and Arp, 2017).
Therefore, this study explores the persuasion effect on purchase intentions when selling
offal to different customers. Specifically, the current study’s objectives are: to examine the
persuasive effects of various information sources on the purchase intention of offal and
offcuts in the context of restaurant service. To propose persuasive sales strategies to
improve customer acceptance of unfamiliar foods in restaurants. This study contributes to
the literature in several ways. First, the lack of knowledge on better promotion techniques
causes low restaurant participation in offal utilization, increases food waste and threatens
sustainability (Papargyropoulou et al., 2019). While previous research examined the market
appeal of newly developed protein alternatives such as edible insects (Baker et al., 2016;
Legendre and Baker, 2020) and plant-based protein, this study shifts the focus to severely
underused offal that already exists in the food system (Lynch et al., 2018).
Second, existing literature only focuses on fractions of information sources in restaurant
service, such as server recommendations (Norvell et al., 2018) or menu presentation (Fakih
et al., 2016), rather than holistically examining all the information restauranteurs present to
customers to increase sales. This point of view could fail to realistically address the
complexity of the food choice process (Frewer and Van Trijp, 2006) and take an incomplete
account of the restaurants’ sales effectiveness. Past research shows that better use of sales
and promotion techniques could increase purchase intentions (Borchgrevink and Susskind,
2006). This study attempts to fill the literature gap on restaurant sales techniques for
unfamiliar dishes (e.g. offal) from the persuasion and information processing perspectives
(Guéguen et al., 2017; Jang et al., 2015).
Finally, restaurant servers’ sales capability is not extensively researched, especially
compared to sales professionals from other customer product categories (Lundqvist et al.,
2013). There is no doubt that restaurant servers hold essential roles in service interactions
with customers (Guéguen et al., 2017). In many cases, to increase dish sales, servers act as
the medium for delivering other customers’ testimonials to the right clientele by reading
customers’ non-verbal cues (Cialdini and Goldstein, 2002). However, less is known regarding Exploring
the sales techniques servers use to promote unfamiliar menu items in a more persuasive persuasive
manner (Alhelalat et al., 2017; Cialdini, 2007). This study attempts to shed light on
restaurant servers and their sales tactics.
sales
techniques
2. Literature review
2.1 Customer rejection toward sustainable but unfamiliar food 3095
Animal-based meat production and consumption come with significant environmental
impacts, including water consumption, land use, biomass appropriation and greenhouse gas
emissions (Han et al., 2017). Despite the value-adding and sustainable benefits of offering
more offal and offcuts on menus, most restaurants are still hesitant to take innovative
actions in their day-to-day operations to incorporate more sustainable practices for fear of
damaging their existing businesses (Krader, 2017). If the entire edible content of farmed
animals is used as a protein source, the need for more livestock could be met while still
satisfying the protein requirements of the global population (Lynch et al., 2018).
At the core of this problem is customers’ rejection of unfamiliar foods such as offal.
Humans are naturally cautious about unfamiliar foods, a tendency called neophobia. This
phenomenon could increase the level of perceived risk among customers (Siegrist and
Hartmann, 2020), causing them to reject products or experiences they have not encountered
before, even without trying (Baker et al., 2016). People with neophobia will display more
rejection when food products trigger disgust with their appearance, taste or violations of
social norms compared to their neophilic counterparts (e.g. adventurous eaters looking for
authentic food) (Veeck, 2010). However, these tendencies are related to human psychology
and are activated at the perceptual level; the disgust cue itself is good enough to induce
neophobic responses. For example, Legendre et al. (2020) explain that customers look at
imperfect produce and the social stigma around the ugliness triggers disgust-related
reactions. Moreover, because of the overwhelming complexity of food choice psychology
(Frewer and Van Trijp, 2006), it is difficult for restaurateurs to improve customers’ negative
perceptions (Shepherd and Raats, 2006). Considering customer rejection and potential loss in
sales, most restauranteurs are reluctant to incorporate such ingredients into their menus
(Schaefer and Arp, 2017).
Despite the reluctance, a growing number of pioneering restauranteurs (e.g. Chefs Fergus
Henderson and Chris Cosentino) with sustainability in mind hope to introduce offal and
offcuts to a broader audience. Previous research found that trying new food entailed many
benefits for diners, as it can provide senses of novelty and authenticity, adding value to the
overall customer experience (Mullen et al., 2017). This outcome is only relevant to the
adventurous customer groups. Many other customer segments reject unfamiliar food
because of its foreign and/or disgusting appearance (Adams et al., 2000). However, earlier
studies show that strategic product information displays and impression management can
overcome social stigma and enhance the product image of food with disgusting associations.
For example, Baker et al. (2016) show that if product information is strategically described
and communicated verbally and graphically, customers are less likely to reject unfamiliar
food such as edible insects even though the unfamiliarity brings disgust. Legendre et al.
(2020) also noted that impression management strategies can overturn customers’ negative
perceptions of stigmatized food.
As restauranteurs rarely serve harmful or distasteful food to customers on purpose,
rejection of new menu items stems from ideational motives (Rozin et al., 2008). Social
acceptability and perceived disgust negatively influence customer perceptions and attitudes
toward novel meat products (Adams et al., 2000). While it is evident that types of meats
IJCHM consumed or rejected habitually depend on cultural and religious practices (Marti et al.,
33,10 2011), offal and offcuts are featured in cuisines worldwide, from Pakistani organ meat
skewers to Scottish blood pudding and Caribbean cow foot soup. However, in the USA, these
types of meats are often deemed inappropriate for human consumption (Jones et al., 2018).
American diners rarely consider cooking or ordering organ meat for their next meal
(Schaefer and Arp, 2017), even though United States Department of Agriculture lists various
3096 offal as safe, viable and nutritious food sources (Marti et al., 2011). In restaurant operations,
staff in both the front of the house (FOH) and the back of the house (BOH) are tasked with
reducing the level of customer rejection of new and unusual menu offerings (Youn and Kim,
2018). While chefs look for appealing ways to incorporate offal and offcuts in the menu,
servers are responsible for encouraging and persuading customers to order these dishes
(Barnes et al., 2016). This collaborative relationship makes it necessary to holistically
investigate all critical players in restaurant sales to achieve better persuasive sales success.

2.2 Restaurants’ offal sales and customer persuasion

To lower customers’ risk perception and encourage repeat purchases of unfamiliar foods
such as offal, effective persuasion strategies that increase the willingness to purchase can be
used (DeCarlo and Barone, 2009). Sales professionals commonly use persuasion in various
retail settings (DeCarlo and Barone, 2009) and these techniques are studied less in the
hospitality restaurant sales literature (Cui et al., 2019). Several persuasion principles found in
retail business can also be applied to hospitality sales, including reciprocity, relationship
building and credibility through expertise (Cialdini and Goldstein, 2002). Restauranteurs
incorporate a multitude of persuasive messages throughout their operations to capture
customer interest (Cialdini, 2007), so this research focuses on the combined persuasive
effects of different sales techniques on customers’ purchase intention for unfamiliar food.
In restaurants, sales techniques are embedded in all aspects of the operations because
customers’ information acquisition occurs via varied sources. Therefore, it is fundamental to
develop persuasive selling strategies related to the customers’ information sources to
achieve higher offal sales. Nonetheless, research efforts to examine different sales
techniques in restaurants are minimal (Ebster et al., 2006) and they are even more scarce
when it comes to sales of unfamiliar dishes. Despite the significant literature gap, it can be
inferred that servers’ role and their persuasive narratives to customers are critical to sales.
Servers are incentivized to make dish suggestions to customers to maximize sales while
respecting every customer’s dining preference (Guéguen et al., 2017). Up-selling techniques
are often included in server training to encourage customer spending, but down-selling
techniques can also cultivate customer satisfaction (Norvell et al., 2018). Sometimes, even
unsolicited recommendations can positively impact customers’ dining experience, where
delighting customers with an unexpected order suggestion can increase satisfaction and
loyalty (Barnes et al., 2016). Essential to these selling tactics is the servers’ expert projection
of their credible authority, which is one of the most effective tools of persuasion (Cialdini,
2007). Customers are more likely to accept recommendations if they perceive the server as a
credible source of information (Borchgrevink and Susskind, 2006).

2.3 Sources of informational influence and purchase intention

Although the restaurant sales literature has a significant gap when it comes to sales of
unfamiliar dishes, a potential source of persuasion can be drawn from the information
processing literature. Throughout sales interactions, customers are exposed to multiple
information sources (Kim and Ratchford, 2012) that could have persuasive effects on
purchase decisions. Different selling techniques influence customers’ information choices
and processing outcomes (Maity et al., 2018). Despite the complexity in information Exploring
processing and persuasion, previous research in restaurant sales examined the impact of a persuasive
single source or two on dish sales (e.g. menu descriptions). Thus, the literature lacks
ecological validity because customers are exposed to various information sources to reach
sales
the final decision. Therefore, Keaveney and Parthasarathy’s (2001) categorization of techniques
information sources offers a superior ability to identify the sources of information to which
customers are exposed and to reveal how those data could be used to achieve better
persuasive results. Keaveney and Parthasarathy’s (2001) categorization has three segments; 3097
external, interpersonal and experiential information sources.
External information sources. Customers who seek external information sources are
interested in factual, impersonal and objective information, instead of word-of-mouth
(WOM), electronic word-of-mouth (eWOM) or any other user-generated content. External
information sources in hospitality include media coverage, advertisement (Campbell and
DiPietro, 2014) and objective third-party reviews and rankings such as the well-known
Michelin starring system. Murray (1991) notes that customers preferred factual information
sources when purchasing goods instead of services, making these sources applicable to the
tangible portion of restaurant service, mainly the menu offerings. Extensive research in
hospitality literature has been conducted on the effect of menu stimuli, which are shown to
effectively motivate patrons to choose unfamiliar foods (Suarez et al., 2019). Furthermore,
the environment in which the customers make their purchase decisions, such as restaurant
ambiance, can also affect purchasing behavior (Ryu et al., 2012). Finally, advertisements and
other promotional materials also effectively capture customers’ attention (Xu and Jeong,
2019).
Interpersonal information sources. The dining experience usually includes face-to-face
interactions between customers and restaurant servers (Edwards and Meiselman, 2005) – a
critical source of interpersonal information (Borchgrevink and Susskind, 2006). To deliver
quality service, front-line employees such as servers, bartenders and FOH managers
undergo training to improve job-specific skills and interpersonal communication skills
(Ottenbacher and Gnoth, 2005). Restaurant servers also use persuasive techniques to
influence customers’ purchase intention (Cialdini and Goldstein, 2002). Kotler (2000) defines
salespersons (servers in the hospitality industry) and managers as commercial information
sources, while friends, family and acquaintances are personal information sources. WOM
from both marketer-controlled and user-generated sources facilitates customers’ decision-
making process (Barrows et al., 2012; Cialdini, 2007). Some researchers assert that WOM
from friends and family can be another influential factor for a person’s purchasing decision
(Kotler, 2000). Based on this logic, reviews from other diners (both WOM and eWOM) can be
especially influential in switching customers’ food choice behavior (Keaveney and
Parthasarathy, 2001).
Experiential information sources. Restaurant service encounters are closely linked to
experiential information exchange, consistent with the intangible characteristics of
hospitality services (Mittal and Baker, 2002). Murray (1991) finds that customers, especially
those without prior purchasing experience, are more likely to seek experiential information
sources to evaluate services instead of products. The more perceived risks associated with
the purchase situation, as in the case of unfamiliar food choices, the more they refer to their
observations and experiences as sources of information (Murray, 1991). However,
foodservice professionals can significantly influence the image and customer attitude
toward novel ingredients. Nowadays, customers put much effort into selecting desired
restaurants for a much more complex set of hedonic motives, including sensory pleasure,
novelty-seeking and intrinsic enjoyment (Yang and Mattila, 2016). Researchers also find that
IJCHM customers with more experience trying a wide variety of foods through childhood influence
33,10 or cultural exposure tend to be more adventurous eaters (Rodríguez-L!opez et al., 2020).
Therefore, the goal of this study is to take a holistic view of all the information customers
are given in regard to their purchase decision of offal or offcuts on the menu. Knowing about
varied information sources provides distinctive benefits in terms of exploring new and
understudied restaurants’ unfamiliar food sales techniques and assisting the development of
3098 more appropriate theories in this area. Especially in restaurant sales of offal, it is critical to
developing effective persuasion strategies in BOH and FOH that can alleviate pre-disposed
customer rejections.

3. Methods
As there is a significant lapse in the restaurant sales technique literature (Norvell et al.,
2018), a qualitative approach was used to acquire more in-depth knowledge (Kang et al.,
2019) about the barriers to adopting offal and persuasive sales techniques used in
foodservice establishments. While previous research looked into improving customer
acceptance of edible insects as negatively stigmatized foods (Baker et al., 2016), offal sales in
restaurants are understudied in the literature (Lynch et al., 2018), making it difficult to
narrow down all the possible service variables involved in selling offal in restaurants.
Therefore, we adopted an exploratory approach (Legendre and Baker, 2020). This study
chose semi-structured interviews to gain a deeper understanding of the multi-faceted nature
of restaurant service. Semi-structured interviews allow experts to freely express their
thoughts on crucial service factors (i.e. menu language, chef’s reputation, etc.) that attracted
customers the most.

3.1 Sampling procedure and informants

Theoretical sampling is chosen for this study to identify theoretical themes because it allows
for insights from a group of informants that are theoretically relevant to the phenomena we
are investigating (Lastra et al., 2020; Legendre and Bowen, 2020). It also obtains diverse
perspectives from the people (FOH and/or BOH side of restaurant operations) associated
with selling activities in restaurants. To begin with the sampling procedure, the researchers
interviewed a restaurant consultant with over 30 years of restaurant consulting experience
in the city of our choice. With this recommendation, we could identify the non-franchised
restaurants that serve unfamiliar and socially stigmatized products. Next, following the
theoretical sampling principles, we recruited industry experts who had successfully
convinced their customers to order offal on menus. As restaurant sales are enabled through
a combination of various information sources such as culinary expertise, customer rapport
and menu design, this study sampled both FOH and BOH experts who met several criteria;
served unfamiliar and socially stigmatized food items to customers in the past 18 months;
have sold the dish successfully and kept it on the menus for over two weeks; have more than
a decade of restaurant experience in the USA. For this study, we collected 20 samples from
previous research (Alrawadieh et al., 2020). A large city (approximately six million people)
located in the southern US was chosen for its diverse restaurant scene. Mid-scale and up-
scale independent restaurants were selected over their franchise counterparts because these
small- to medium-sized independent establishments provided more freedom for culinary
innovation with unfamiliar ingredients, while franchise restaurants are obligated to follow
limited and standardized menus (Barrows et al., 2012).
A total of 20 restaurant industry experts, including chefs, restauranteurs and managers,
participated in the interviews. Of the informants, 50% were in managerial positions in the
FOH, while the other 50% were managers or chefs in the BOH; 80% were male and 20% Exploring
were female (Table 1). persuasive
sales
3.2 Data collection
Upon receiving approval from the Institution Review Board, solicitation emails were sent to
techniques
the potential informants that satisfied the selection criteria. The email addresses used to
solicit responses were the informants’ public business emails posted on their restaurant 3099
websites. Upon receiving the signed consent forms, face-to-face, semi-structured individual
interviews were scheduled and pursued and were audio-recorded. We followed the
procedures outlined in the previous literature to extract the most relevant information from
the informants’ experiences (Lastra et al., 2020; Legendre and Bowen, 2020). Foodservice
experts, including academics and industry practitioners, reviewed our interview questions
before conducting the interview. Face validity and ecological validity were checked through
these expert reviews.
The interview started with a question about the types of unfamiliar food that informants
had served to customers. By asking questions (1), (2), (3), (5) and (7), this study identified
what suggestive selling techniques have been applied in the restaurant industry for offal
sales and how these techniques satisfy customers needs for such information. Through
questions (4), (6) and (8), we investigated the characteristics and acceptance of customers
who were served offal, which explained the success of some suggestive selling techniques.
On average, the interviews lasted for approximately 30 min.
! Upon launching the dish, how did you convey the new dish information to your
customers? What did you write on your menu?
! When you served this dish, what strategies did you use to make it more attractive to
guests?
! How did you train your servers to promote/sell this dish to first-time guests?

Interview ID Gender Managerial position No. of years in the restaurant industry

I-1 Male Chef 12

I-2 Male Chef 14
I-3 Male Chef, Owner 17
I-4 Male Chef 10
I-5 Male Chef 11
I-6 Female Chef, Owner 11
I-7 Male General Manager 21
I-8 Male Chef 15
I-9 Male Owner 11
I-10 Male Chef, Owner 13
I-11 Male Restaurant Owner 17
I-12 Male Chef, Owner 19
I-13 Male General Manager 18
I-14 Female FOH Manager 10 Table 1.
I-15 Female FOH Manager 15
Interview
I-16 Male Chef 14
I-17 Male General Manager 15 identification
I-18 Female FOH Manager 10 numbers and basic
I-19 Male FOH Manager 12 information of
I-20 Male FOH Manager 13 informants
IJCHM ! What was the customers’ response when they first became aware of this dish?
33,10 ! If the guest was hesitant, what did you do to successfully persuade a customer to try
the dish?
! Demographic-wise, who came to eat this unusual dish?
! How did they know about this dish?
3100 ! How did they decide to choose this dish?

3.3 Data analysis

The thematic coding process was used to analyze and categorize sales techniques in
restaurants systematically. We followed an approach used by Kumar and Noble (2016) and
coded the transcripts with open codes, axial codes and themes. Due to this study’s
exploratory nature, the informants provided results that were highly subjective and difficult
to standardize (García-Muiña et al., 2019). Therefore, we manually coded the data to obtain a
more in-depth understanding of the informants’ sales strategies. We followed procedures in
previous qualitative research (Kang et al., 2019). First, the interview was transcribed and
content analysis was pursued to capture the codes that showed significant commonalities
among informants’ answers (Kang et al., 2019). Similar responses were grouped first as open
codes. The open codes were carefully examined and categorized under different axial codes,
which were further aggregated under three overarching themes within the information
sources framework (Keaveney and Parthasarathy, 2001). Two trained coders were used to
transcribe and code the interviews separately. Upon completion, another foodservice
research expert examined the solidarity of the themes that emerged from the data. Inter-
coder reliability showed a 96.8% agreement, which is a satisfactory figure over the 80%
threshold (Bitner et al., 1990). After transcribing and analyzing the informants’ responses, 43
open codes, 14 axial codes, and three thematic codes were generated (Table 2).

4. Results
4.1 External information sources
Truthful presentation. Restauranteurs noted that they received good responses from
customers who were intrigued by the flavors or cooking methods mentioned on menus. The
informants also emphasized the importance of straightforward menu names and avoided
concealing any information from the customers. Interestingly, some chefs reported
successful cases of presenting whole, distinguishable pieces of foie gras in dishes, while
others found that significant portions of conspicuously plated organs (beef tongues and
hearts) were rejected more frequently. The negative responses from diners could be an
ideational rejection because these ingredients’ appearance was too reminiscent of living
organs (Henchion et al., 2016). On the other hand, foie gras was long praised as a luxurious
delicacy and could, therefore, be more readily accepted by customers for its hedonic values
(Frewer and Van Trijp, 2006; Henderson and Gellatly, 2012). Wansink et al. (2005) found that
descriptive food names could positively influence diners’ evaluation of food quality.
Truthful and descriptive information about menu items could increase customers’
acceptance of otherwise unfamiliar foods (Fakih et al., 2016).
For example, informants noted:
“You really need to watch your words, but you also should not lie to the customers. We just call
the dish strictly by their names and ingredients, maybe a cooking method.” [I-4]
Open codes Axial codes Thematic codes
Exploring
persuasive
Flavor description Truthful presentation External information sources sales
Honest description
Preparation method description techniques
Distinguishable presentation
Media coverage Restaurant image
Chef reputation 3101
Sustainability theme
Innovative dining format Restaurant promotion
Intriguing online posting
Sample tasting nudges
Ambiguous menu name Casual ambiguity
Hide as components
Strong seasoning
Exotic menu name
Beautified description Deliberate beautification
Artful menu names
Playful presentation
Aesthetically pleasing plating
Server instruction on how to eat Sensory education Interpersonal information sources
Server tasting experience
Server storytelling Narrative selling
Server product knowledge
Read the table Relational selling
Server attitude
Manage expectation
Rapport building
Beverage pairing Suggestive selling
Food pairing
Cheaper smaller bites
Diner WOM online Diners’ word of mouth
Diner WOM in-real-life
Familiar server verbiage Learned familiarity Experiential information sources
Familiar dish element
Familiar menu element
Customer trust Positive experience
Regulars with good memories
Childhood background Cultural influence
Cultural familiarity
Travel experience
Food media influence Table 2.
Adventurous omnivores Diners’ personality Thematic coding
Novelty seeker results

“We always show the preparation methods, such as braising, frying, stewing [. . .] something
easier for them to approach and not intimidating.” [I-15]

“The chef sliced the whole cow tongue length-wise to show the silhouette of the organ. Guests
either loved it or hated it, so we ended up cutting them in smaller pieces.” [I-10]
Restaurant image. Informants mentioned that they took care to cultivate unique restaurant
images to stand out in a highly competitive market. Some restauranteurs focused on local
food sourcing practices on the menu and restaurant website. Others featured chefs
IJCHM specialized in whole-animal butchering, showcasing their dedication to food waste
33,10 reduction and cultivating a socially-responsible image of the business (Kim et al., 2018).
Restaurants have been increasingly valued as destinations for leisure and
entertainment rather than just for sustenance (Barrows et al., 2012). Similarly, chefs
enjoyed growing media recognition and positive WOM (Pang, 2017) for their culinary
expertise (Chang, 2013). Restaurants also started to focus on green initiatives that
3102 appealed to the growing number of environmentally conscious customers (Jang et al.,
2015; Line et al., 2016; Xu and Jeong, 2019).
For example, informants cited:
“We got some local magazine and newspaper coverage, and then a New York Times review
through some famous food critics. They also featured my rabbit dish on a popular national TV
program!” [I-12]

“The courses with organ meat, we usually have the head chefs come out to the table and talk to
the customers about the dishes. it was always exciting for the diners.” [I-15]

“We put local producers’ names on the menu, so customers know that this ingredient came from
right down the street. We are a sustainable, local restaurant, and we are very proud of our in-
house butcher program.” [I-20]
Restaurant promotion. Restaurant operators also proactively showcase their food offerings
through different promotional activities. As many informants mentioned, smaller dining
formats such as wine dinners, degustation service and tasting menus allow chefs the
freedom to express their creativity and push boundaries with unusual ingredients. One
informant said that customers would book reservations months in advance for unique foods
and pricey wine. The exclusivity of these meals also attracted more adventurous diners
willing to spend more. The informants used tasting samples to encourage customers to try
novelty foods in smaller portions. Servers mentioned options to void the charge of
unfamiliar dishes if the customers did not enjoy them, another way to prompt customers to
try novel foods.
Furthermore, social media’s growing popularity also provided restauranteurs marketing
tools to promote their offerings to thousands of potential customers online. For example, one
of the first successful operations to adopt social media was the award-winning food truck
Kogi Korean BBQ, which attracted a loyal following by posting its locations and menus
daily on Twitter. These promotional strategies gave customers a greater sense of freedom of
choice, increasing purchase intention (Guéguen et al., 2017; Kotler, 2000). Many chefs run
social media accounts to exhibit innovative culinary demonstrations with unfamiliar
ingredients (e.g. Chefs David Chang and Chris Shepherd).
For example, informants mentioned:
“Wine dinners are good opportunities to bring fun stuff, because the customers are buying tickets-
they know what they are signing up for. Typically, in wine dinners, people are more adventurous,
and they want to try new things.” [I-1]

“We obviously do the beautiful online posts on our website and social media - but so does
everyone else. With Instagram Stories, we can also show all the love and labor behind a dish.
Customers loved those.” [I-6]

“Servers always say ‘It’s on us.’ That was an easy selling point – ‘What’s the worst that could
happen? If you don’t like the dish, we will buy it back.’” [I-15]
Casual ambiguity. In contrast with truthful descriptions, another noteworthy portion of the Exploring
menu language was its ambiguity. Industry experts mentioned both practices in the persuasive
interviews, reasoning that they saw less objection when other euphemisms or foreign names sales
replace the offal’s clinical names. The latter strategy was especially preferred by
restauranteurs selling more exotic cuisines, for which the authenticity of the food culture
techniques
origin was crucial to customer satisfaction. Informants also mentioned that they tend to use
more pungent spices and cooking methods that could “tone down” the unusual taste or 3103
appearance of organ meats, which, according to Henchion et al. (2016), are ways to make
offal more palatable for first-time customers. This finding was consistent with research on
ambiguous menu language (McKeown, 2014), while other researchers confirmed that
naming dishes using languages from their culture of origin (e.g. foreign) could increase
purchase intention (Youn and Kim, 2018).
For example, informants noted:
“Instead of straight-up calling it ‘beef cheek’ you could say ‘barbacoa’, and ‘tête de cochon’ instead
of ‘head cheese’ to seem more refined – or less shocking.” [I-10]

“You can mask the fact that it’s an organ to not freak people out. If you grind it and put in a pâté,
or drizzle with a spicy sauce, the first impression would be less scary.” [I-2]

“If you have a less straightforward name on the menu such as ‘sweet breads’ instead of ‘thymus
gland’, or ‘tripe’ is just another name for cow stomach [. . .] customers accept that better.” [I-8]
Deliberate beautification. In addition to ambiguous descriptions, aesthetically pleasing or
shocking plate presentations were also used to present organ meats. While it is common for
chefs to garnish their dishes for visual attraction and increase purchase intention, many
informants mentioned the importance of fresh herbs and neat plating arrangements. These
chefs saw garnishes as a means to visually obscure that they were serving ingredients
potentially unappealing to some diners, possibly those with more neophobic tendencies
(Rozin et al., 2008). On the other hand, some chefs deliberately appealed to the neophilic,
sensation-seeking nature of more adventurous diners, describing and presenting offal in the
most shocking, eye-catching formats for not just novelty and entertainment, but
deliciousness as well (Alley and Potter, 2011).
For example, informants cited:
“We served chitterlings – intestines. I called it ‘intestinal pretzels’ and make them into pretzel
shapes to serve [. . .] and a roasted duck skeleton. We called it a ‘Pterodactyl’ because it looked so
crazy.” [I-12]

“We served a whole cow head. It was on the menu as ‘Beef Cheek, Bone-in’. And the customers
would get this giant, steaming head on the table. We did it with a bit of tongue-in-cheek fun.”
[I-12]

4.2 Interpersonal information sources

Sensory education. Servers recalled the persuasive power of describing their own experience
of tasting the offal or other unusual ingredients for the first time. It was an effective strategy
to lower the level of skepticism among more hesitant diners. Also, almost every chef in the
interviews emphasized the importance of having a menu tasting with servers every time an
offal dish is launched. This practice trained servers first-hand how to describe the unusual
IJCHM dish to customers using intriguing language. The hedonic nature of food consumption
33,10 makes sensory description an effective persuasive tool to attract customers.
For example, informants mentioned:
“For the turkey necks, because you have to pick it up and eat it, I would tell the customers ‘it’s a
hands-on dish. You really into get in there.’” [I-18]

3104 “We served whole fried baby shrimp with their heads still on, and guests didn’t know how to eat
them. So, with their permission I would show them - just pop a whole shrimp in my mouth.” [I-19]

“Server tasting makes all the difference in the world. If you let them try the dish and describe their
own experience, and what they love about the dish to customers. That is a lot more effective.” [I-5]
Narrative selling. Some informants mentioned testing servers for their menu knowledge
during pre-shift meetings to equip servers with correct selling knowledge. The informants
also stated that this practice increased credibility, professionalism and eloquence in servers.
The managers train servers to describe dishes in appealing detail and prepare them for any
possible questions about the ingredient sources behind each menu item. Some servers were
said to craft intriguing stories about creating novel dishes, capturing the customers’ interest
and persuading them to order a broader selection of dishes. This outcome was consistent
with the finding in narrative literature (Youn and Kim, 2018). The importance of servers’
narration or “sales pitch” was noted by Murphy and Smith (2009) in their interviews with
chefs. Consistent with persuasion literature, servers who were more knowledgeable about
the menus could be perceived as more credible and persuasive (Cialdini, 2007; Cialdini and
Goldstein, 2002).
For example, informants noted:
“The servers would tell a story ‘Chef’s grandmother used to make cornbread with leftover
crawfish tails, and this is his play on that memory.’” [I-11]

“We teach the servers every dish before we open the restaurant. They are encouraged to ask as
many questions as needed, and they take notes and we quiz them – including the pronunciation.”
[I-7]
Relational selling. Both FOH and BOH managers talked extensively about the importance of
rapport building between servers and customers, an interpersonal experience in nature. In
the study context, relationship building often started with first-time customers pleasantly
surprised by the delicious taste of offal dishes they tried. Over time, these customers would
become more open to trying new dishes suggested by their servers, even though these
suggestions are less familiar. This outcome occurs because FOH servers make specific
efforts to build customer rapport with the customers. Informants also noted that experienced
servers pay attention to subtle, non-verbal cues from customers when making food choices.
This ability to “read” the table helps servers to gauge the diners’ comfort level with unusual
foods and make adjusted recommendations if necessary, increasing customers’ perceived
service quality and revisit intention (Alhelalat et al., 2017). Seasoned servers benefit from
adaptive communication to influence customers and sell more effectively by choosing
appropriate approaches for different customers and relationship stages (Arli et al., 2018).
For example, informants mentioned:
“It’s about reading your guests [. . .] when to push them and when to throw in the flag. If I could
sense that someone is super hesitant, I would say ‘You know perhaps this dish isn’t for you,’ and
steer them to something easier.” [I-18]
 “Do they think they can sell this unusual dish after they engaged with the customers? Are they Exploring
able to read the customers based on how they were behaving? Servers can pick up these cues in
passing.” [I-17]
persuasive
sales
“The servers go to customers [. . .] who they already had a good relationship with - the regulars, or techniques
even good friends to push these new dishes first.” [I-16]
Suggestive selling. Informants noted from the FOH perspective that food and beverage 3105
pairings as up-selling strategies increase the perceived value or quality of the dining
experience, making the customers more accepting of unfamiliar dishes. Some chefs
successfully featured expensive offal such as fish roe as unique add-on options to regular
entrees. On the other hand, down-selling could also be an effective strategy, as some
restauranteurs mentioned that they would mark down the prices of menu items with offal,
especially smaller dishes such as appetizers and bar snacks, attracting the more price-
conscious customers to try new foods. FOH staff was entrusted with making suggestions to
help diners with their purchase decision (Guéguen et al., 2017; Norvell et al., 2018). When the
servers are perceived to be more credible, they can leverage their persuasive power on
customers and be used in the sales of unfamiliar food such as offal dishes (Cialdini and
Goldstein, 2002).
For example, informants cited:
“Know how to cut out or complement the unique flavor of organ meats [. . .] Servers could point to
a drink on the menu and say ‘this pairs really well with the (offal) dish.’ To ease them into the idea
of trying something new.” [I-15]

“We run most organ meat dishes as appetizers first, to try them out and tweak them. Servers
downplay it as just a ‘test bite’. This makes the customers less nervous.” [I-14]

“I would save all the trimmings and offal in the freezer and use them to come up with cheap
amuse bouche ideas.” [I-13]
Diners’ word of mouth. The informants put great emphasis on WOM from both real-life
examples and online platforms. Restauranteurs appreciated that eWOM could now be
spread to millions of other potential customers with almost no marketing cost. Some
informants specifically cited previous customers’ praises of offal dishes by screen-capturing
and re-posting their positive social media comments. Other FOH informants mentioned
enjoyable experiences past diners had with offal menu items as a part of their menu
recommendation, spreading the positive WOM to sway other more hesitant guests. Also,
because restaurant-goers find each other to be more relatable sources for honest opinions,
they might have more trust in WOM from friends, families or the diners sitting at the table
next to them than in advertisers. Kotler (2000) stated that while salespeople were perceived
to be persuasive because of their expertise, customers with personal relevance could also be
considered trustworthy because they were not financially related to the business. In the
psychology literature, this effect is because of the persuasion based on the norms (Goldstein
et al., 2008). Restaurants’ effort to share customers’ offal dish testimonials via restaurant
social media pages can convince the customers that it is not too strange to try offal.
For example, informants mentioned:
“Social media definitely had a big effect with those nice pictures and buzz words [. . .] some of
our dishes are everywhere online, then the customers point them out as soon as they get the
menu.” [I-19]
IJCHM “If we did a good job with the organ meats, customers would talk to anyone about it, their
coworkers, their neighbors. Then more people would come in asking for the dish” [I-3]
33,10
“Customers would say ‘my friend said you guys have the best foie gras in town. I’ll have a try
with that’.” [I-9]

3106
4.3 Experiential information sources
Learned familiarity. Informants said that they used more conventional cooking methods and
flavors to create a familiarity that customers can relate to more easily. Additionally, chefs
crafted their menus in more well-rounded ways that mixed organ meats with more familiar
items. As previous research suggested, customers could be gradually introduced to new
foods and learn to lower neophobia levels over time (Kalat and Rozin, 1973).
For example, informants noted:
“There is ‘gateway food’ that we can tell people. For our Korean braised goat dumplings, I would
tell guests it’s like Bolognese sauce – something they are more likely to relate to.” [I-18]

“The word ‘confit’ could sell anything. We put confit duck heart with the more common confit
duck legs, so guests at least knew parts of the dish.” [I-13]

“Some customers told us they were scared to try anything on our menu. We added some more
familiar meats like pork belly and lamb shanks, and vegetarian options, so there was something
for everyone to try.” [I-12]
Positive experience. Informants emphasized the critical role of their regular, returning
customers who already enjoyed dining at the restaurant. FOH managers would offer
experimental dishes to regular customers because they had a long history of positive
experiences in the restaurant and are more likely to cooperate when a new dish is
recommended. Informants also asked their trusted returning customers for their honest
opinions on offal dishes so that modifications could be made if certain components were less
appealing to customers. Not only did regulars already have trust and confidence in the
restaurant to serve delicious food but they also developed emotional attachment over time,
transforming them from “patrons” into the role of “coworkers” who cooperate with the
employees (Hyun and Kim, 2012). This reliance on positive previous experience started
because customers refer to their own experience for product information first (Keaveney and
Parthasarathy, 2001; Kotler, 2000) before searching for any other external cues. Over time, if
the positive experience is maintained with care, satisfied customers can become loyal
regulars.
For example, informants noted:
“I would recommend these dishes little by little. If they loved the food we served before, I could
push them to try some more adventurous dishes. At first you have to establish trust with the
customer.” [I-14]

“It was all about who had tried it before - if this dish sparks the good memory for people. Whether
it was a certain restaurant or a trip that they could relate to.” [I-2]

“We have lots of returning guests, regulars. They ask for the sweat bread dish all the time
because it was surprisingly good.” [I-4]
Cultural influence. When asked characteristics of diners who readily accepted unusual Exploring
dishes containing offal, informants often mentioned cultural background and traveling persuasive
experience as common traits. Customers also used popular food and travel shows as sales
reference points for unfamiliar ingredients and restauranteurs cited these shows for the
increased diner acceptance of offal. This finding was consistent with the literature on
techniques
tourism and food choice (Santos et al., 2020).
For example, informants noted: 3107
Everything we served could be traced back to the origins, or back in the old days, where this dish
came from. “ [I-3]

Just people from any culture where these ingredients are common [. . .] or in a big melting pot city
people know much more about these cultures, and they are more receptive.” [I-8]

We had many world travelers ordering organ meats. People came back from trips to Europe or
Asia or South America. They already saw this food and knew it was good.” [I-20]

“Anthony Bourdain and David Chang made great shows about cuisines and cultures. Now a lot
more people are interested in new foods.” [I-9]
Diners’ personality. Overall, informants did not notice any specific demographic groups
more open to organ meats than others, but they said more adventurous diners are more
likely to seek these novelty items. Additionally, some servers mentioned that customers
who identified as omnivores tend to habitually order a more diverse group of menu
items, regardless of the unusual natures. As mentioned in psychology literature,
neophobia is a common personality trait in the population (Alley and Potter, 2011).
Meiselman et al. (2010) found no link between gender and neophobia, but they did notice
positive effects of travel experience and food knowledge level on acceptance of
unfamiliar foods.
For example, informants noted:
The adventurous eaters, the foodies, I don’t even think there is a certain demographic [. . .]their
interest is solely in the food. Always seeking out the next new thing to try [. . .] it’s their
entertainment.” [I-1]

Customers asking for only the weird stuff, the new things they’ve never seen [. . .] people who are
used to trying new things.” [I-6]

“For special requests we would do rocky mountain oysters – sheep testicles. If customers want the
dish specifically by name, we would fry them whole and serve them straight up. No special
garnishes or anything.” [I-2]

5. Conclusion
Based on the informants’ answers to interview question (6) regarding the
demographic characteristics of customers who ordered and enjoyed offal dishes, the
interviews informed us about how different persuasion efforts can be used for
different customer segments. Table 3 summarizes the informants’ persuasive sales
techniques and specific consumer segments that these techniques influenced
successfully.
IJCHM Themes Sales techniques Customer segment characteristics
33,10
External information sources Truthful presentation Knowledgeable foodies, capable home cooks
Restaurant image Eco-minded customers, celebrity chef
watchers, food media viewers
Restaurant promotion Trend seekers, cost-conscious customers,
social media users
3108 Casual ambiguity Neophobic customers, customers with less
food knowledge
Deliberate beautification Neophobic customers, novelty seekers
Interpersonal information sources Sensory education First-time customers, sensory-oriented
eaters
Narrative selling First-time customers
Relational selling First-time customers
Suggestive selling Neophobic customers, more hesitant
regulars
Diners’ word of mouth Social media users, online review readers,
customers with foodie friends
Experiential information sources Learned familiarity Regulars and returning customers,
knowledgeable foodies, ethnic or foreign
Table 3.
customers
Informants’ sales Positive experience Regulars and returning customers
technique Cultural influence Culturally-aware customers, world
suggestions for travelers, food media viewers
customer segments Diners’ personality Adventurous eaters, novelty seekers

5.1 Theoretical implications

This research answers the calls for more research on sustainable food sources in hospitality
literature (Baker et al., 2016) by proposing offal as a potential alternative protein source
(Mullen et al., 2017; Marti et al., 2011). The context of offal is meaningful theoretically
because it sheds light on the literature gaps related to persuasive sales strategies for food
products with negative social stigmas (Legendre et al., 2020). This study draws attention to
better utilization and sales of offal despite its distasteful or disgusting image, thus
contributing to restaurant sales literature and consumer psychology literature regarding
alleviating food aversion and neophobia (Legendre and Baker, 2020; Henchion et al., 2016).
This study also builds upon the existing persuasion and information processing literature
and suggests a more holistic view of the multiple information sources that restauranteurs
use to persuade customers (Keaveney and Parthasarathy, 2001). Previous research
focuses on the influence of information in separation from other information sources, such as
external information in menu displays or interpersonal information from severs’
recommendations, taking an incomplete view of the restaurant service interactions. In
reality, two or all three information sources are combined to persuade restaurant customers
to try unfamiliar foods. Thus, it is critical to examine all three information
sources simultaneously to increase the understanding of the unfamiliar dish sales
techniques’ effects on customer behavior.
The current study addresses the gap in hospitality research concerning unfamiliar dish
sales techniques used by restaurateurs. While previous studies note the importance of
servers as diners’ direct points of contact throughout dining experiences (Edwards and
Meiselman, 2005), this study took a more comprehensive view of the roles that both BOH
and FOH staff (e.g. chefs, servers, managers) play in promoting offal on menus. The lack of
this knowledge creates misunderstandings of the “human” effects on restaurant sales and
might lead to inaccurate customer behavior predictions. Therefore, this study contributes to Exploring
interpersonal sales literature by examining the mutually beneficial relationship servers persuasive
could establish with guests. Not only do these rapport-building practices enrich customers’
dining experience but it also increases their acceptance of offal and sales effectiveness of
sales
servers as well. techniques
Furthermore, this study further examines the social aspect of the service environment,
including customer-server interactions and customer-customer interactions in restaurant
sales. Considering the realism of how customers purchase food in restaurants, social 3109
experience in service is a crucial issue to consider. However, the current dialogue relies
heavily on eWOM or the effects of other customers on emotions and encounter satisfaction.
However, this study’s findings uncovered that restaurant servers play the role of telling
stories of other people’s positive experiences (e.g. testimonials) as a normative persuasion
technique for customers to try socially stigmatized unfamiliar dishes.

5.2 Practical implications

The findings of this study explicitly address that offal usage in restaurants can support the
culinary uniqueness of a restaurant and contribute to the reduction of food waste by
foodservice operations. This study suggests that despite the socially constructed negative
stigma attached to offal, astutely used sales techniques can educate customers and
potentially improve the sales of such dishes. Moreover, associating offal sales with
sustainability motivation has marketing merits as it contributes to food waste reduction.
Informants provided tried and true tactics that eased customers into the idea of eating the
whole animal and adopting a more diverse source of animal proteins. Also, our results offer
what persuasion strategies are more suitable for specific customer segments. This study’s
findings provide practical suggestions and likely outcomes related to the offal sales in
restaurants, thus assuring the restauranteurs who hope to contribute to a more sustainable
US food system.
To incorporate offal into the menu successfully, this study highlights the importance of
holistic thinking and active engagement of both FOH and BOH staff. Restauranteurs should
design FOH training programs on both technical knowledges on menu items containing
offal and personal knowledge of how to detect customers’ nonverbal cues. Not only would
serving offal gives BOH staff opportunities for innovation and creativity but it also stands
out as a unique menu offering that gives restaurants a trendsetting and competitive
advantage. Of course, chefs should explain the rationale behind using offal (e.g.
sustainability) and provide tasting samples for servers to develop a more descriptive and
captivating narrative when promoting dishes containing offal.
Restaurant operators can research the history and origin of the cuisine served at the
establishment for inspiration from historically successful organ meat dishes. For example,
oxtails recently became popular among US diners, partly because of Vietnamese pho soup’s
widespread success. Similarly, braised veal shanks are commonly used in Italian osso buco
and beef tripe is one of the main ingredients in Mexican Menudo soup. By incorporating
offal as authentic components of traditional cuisines, restauranteurs can better appeal to
customers’ cultural curiosity and willingness to try.
Chefs can introduce offal in a smaller format at lower price points to nudge customers to
try. For example, instead of serving slices of the liver as the main entrée, operators can
promote a small tasting sample of spiced liver mousse on crackers first. Additional
noteworthy strategies stem from success with both “ambiguous” and “straightforward”
offal presentations on menus and in plating. Restauranteurs could experiment with both
strategies while serving different offal items to determine the more attractive format. The
IJCHM better the first impression of offal, the more customers would lower their skepticism on the
33,10 new ingredients because customers’ anticipation about the potential negative outcome
would not be as severe. Once customers gain familiarity with the ingredients and overcome
the initial fear, they will be more open to other offal dish suggestions in the future.
Finally, social media and online review platforms can be invaluable marketing tools for
restauranteurs. At a fraction of the cost of a traditional marketing campaign, restaurant
3110 owners can broadcast to millions of users the new menu items with attractive pictures and
intriguing stories. Reviews from other diners about unusual dishes such as offal have a
similarly significant influence on the restaurant’s reputation, as eWOM travels
instantaneously across the internet. Restauranteurs should carefully cultivate positive
WOM and use them to create testimonial effects to implement normative persuasion
strategies. This outcome can be achieved by re-posting customers’ offal dish reviews on
restaurants’ social media pages.

5.3 Limitations and future research

This study has certain limitations. First, the findings’ generalizability should be recognized
because the study was conducted in the southern US with qualitative data from a relatively
small group of mid-and up-scale restaurants. A quantifiable analysis of qualitative data (e.g.
NVivo) could potentially provide different insights about this study’s findings. Additionally,
because of the study’s exploratory nature, the data were collected through in-depth
interviews with restaurant experts who were inclined to promote offal menus. Future
studies could focus on customers’ perspectives in making menu decisions via experimental
design studies to examine the causal effects of persuasive sales techniques on unfamiliar
dish purchase intentions. For example, while informants reported success with both “casual
ambiguity” and “truthful presentation” strategies, these two attributes can be further
empirically tested to compare their persuasive effectiveness. Finally, only independent
restaurants were included in this study, while other sectors in the food supply chain share
the burden of reducing waste and fuller utilization of animals. Further studies can look into
national chain restaurants, food vendors and supermarkets regarding their motivation to
provide offal and offcuts for customers.

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Corresponding author
Tiffany Shin Legendre can be contacted at: jslegendre@uh.edu

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