Types of Sampling

Probability Sampling

Probability sampling refers to the sampling method in which all the members of the population has
a pre-specified and an equal chance to be a part of the sample. This technique is based on the
randomization principle, wherein the procedure is so designed, which guarantees that each and every
individual of the population has an equal selection opportunity. This helps to reduce the possibility
of bias.

Non-Probability Sampling

When in a sampling method, all the individuals of the universe are not given an equal opportunity of
becoming a part of the sample, the method is said to be Non-probability sampling. Under this
technique as such, there is no probability attached to the unit of the population and the selection relies
on the subjective judgment of the researcher. Therefore, the conclusions drawn by the sampler cannot
be inferred from the sample to the whole population.

Types of Probability Sampling

Simple Random Sampling

Simple random sampling is an entirely random method of selecting the sample. This sampling method is as easy
as assigning numbers to the individuals (sample) and then randomly choosing from those numbers through an
automated process. Finally, the numbers that are chosen are the members that are included in the sample.

There are two ways in which researchers choose the samples in this method of sampling: The lottery system and
using number generating software/ random number table. This sampling technique usually works around a large
population and has its fair share of advantages and disadvantages.

Stratified Sampling

Stratified sampling involves a method where the researcher divides a more extensive population into smaller
groups that usually don’t overlap but represent the entire population. While sampling, organize these groups and
then draw a sample from each group separately.

A standard method is to arrange or classify by sex, age, ethnicity, and similar ways. Splitting subjects into
mutually exclusive groups and then using simple random sampling to choose members from groups.

Members of these groups should be distinct so that every member of all groups get equal opportunity to be selected
using simple probability. This sampling method is also called “random quota sampling.”

Cluster Sampling

Cluster sampling is a way to select participants randomly that are spread out geographically. For example, if you
wanted to choose 100 participants from the entire population of India., it is likely impossible to get a complete
list of everyone. Instead, the researcher randomly selects areas (i.e., cities or counties) and randomly selects from
within those boundaries.

Cluster sampling usually analyzes a particular population in which the sample consists of more than a few
elements, for example, city, family, university, etc. Researchers then select the clusters by dividing the population
into various smaller sections.

Systematic Sampling

Systematic sampling is when you choose every “nth” individual to be a part of the sample. For example, you can
select every 5th person to be in the sample. Systematic sampling is an extended implementation of the same old
probability technique in which each member of the group is selected at regular periods to form a sample. There’s
an equal opportunity for every member of a population to be selected using this sampling technique.

Area Sampling

Area sampling is a method of sampling used when no complete frame of reference is available. The total area
under investigation is divided into small sub-areas which are sampled at random or according to a restricted
process (stratification of sampling). Each of the chosen sub-areas is then fully inspected and enumerated, and may
form the basis for further sampling if desired.

Multi-Stage Sampling
Multistage sampling is defined as a sampling method that divides the population into groups (or clusters) for
conducting research. It is a complex form of cluster sampling, sometimes, also known as multistage cluster
sampling.

In multi-stage sampling large clusters of population are divided into smaller clusters in several stages in order to
make primary data collection more manageable. It has to be acknowledged that multi-stage sampling is not as
effective as true random sampling.

Types of Non-Probability Sampling

Convenience sampling

Convenience sampling is a non-probability sampling technique where samples are selected from the
population only because they are conveniently available to the researcher. Researchers choose these
samples just because they are easy to recruit, and the researcher did not consider selecting a sample
that represents the entire population.

Ideally, it is good to test a sample that represents the population. But, in some research, the population
is too large to examine and consider the entire population. It is one of the reasons why researchers
rely on convenience sampling, which is the most common non-probability sampling method, because
of its speed, cost-effectiveness, and ease of availability of the sample.
Quota Sampling
Quota sampling is a non-probability sampling technique wherein the researcher ensures equal or proportionate
representation of subjects depending on which trait is considered as basis of the quota.

For example, if basis of the quota is college year level and the researcher needs equal representation, with a
sample size of 100, he must select 25 1st year students, another 25 2nd year students, 25 3rd year and 25 4th year
students. The bases of the quota are usually age, gender, education, race, religion and socioeconomic status.

Judgmental Sampling
Judgmental sampling is more commonly known as purposive sampling. In this type of sampling, subjects are
chosen to be part of the sample with a specific purpose in mind. With judgmental sampling, the researcher believes
that some subjects are more fit for the research compared to other individuals. This is the reason why they are
purposively chosen as subjects.

Snowball Sampling

Snowball sampling helps researchers find a sample when they are difficult to locate. Researchers use this
technique when the sample size is small and not easily available. This sampling system works like the referral
program. Once the researchers find suitable subjects, he asks them for assistance to seek similar subjects to form
a considerably good size sample.

Panel Sampling

Panel sampling is the method of first selecting a group of participants through a random sampling method and
then asking that group for (potentially the same) information several times over a period of time.

Measurement
Measurement is the process of observing and recording the observations that are collected as part of a research effort.

Levels of Measurement
In descending order of precision, the four different levels of measurement are:
Nominal–Latin for name only (Republican, Democrat, Green, Libertarian)
Ordinal–Think ordered levels or ranks (small–8oz, medium–12oz, large–32oz)
Interval–Equal intervals among levels (1 dollar to 2 dollars is the same interval as 88 dollars to 89 dollars)
Ratio–Let the “o” in ratio remind you of a zero in the scale (Day 0, day 1, day 2, day 3, …)

The first level of measurement is nominal level of measurement. In this level of measurement, the numbers in the
variable are used only to classify the data. In this level of measurement, words, letters, and alpha-numeric symbols
can be used. Suppose there are data about people belonging to three different gender categories. In this case, the person
belonging to the female gender could be classified as F, the person belonging to the male gender could be classified
as M, and transgendered classified as T. This type of assigning classification is nominal level of measurement.

The second level of measurement is the ordinal level of measurement. This level of measurement depicts some
ordered relationship among the variable’s observations. Suppose a student scores the highest grade of 100 in the
class. In this case, he would be assigned the first rank. Then, another classmate scores the second highest grade of an
92; she would be assigned the second rank. A third student scores a 81 and he would be assigned the third rank, and
so on. The ordinal level of measurement indicates an ordering of the measurements.
The third level of measurement is the interval level of measurement. The interval level of measurement not only
classifies and orders the measurements, but it also specifies that the distances between each interval on the scale are
equivalent along the scale from low interval to high interval. For example, an interval level of measurement could be
the measurement of anxiety in a student between the score of 10 and 11, this interval is the same as that of a student
who scores between 40 and 41. A popular example of this level of measurement is temperature in centigrade, where,
for example, the distance between 940C and 960C is the same as the distance between 1000C and 1020C.

The fourth level of measurement is the ratio level of measurement. In this level of measurement, the observations,
in addition to having equal intervals, can have a value of zero as well. The zero in the scale makes this type of
measurement unlike the other types of measurement, although the properties are similar to that of the interval level of
measurement. In the ratio level of measurement, the divisions between the points on the scale have an equivalent
distance between them.

Data
• Data is a set of values of subjects with respect to qualitative or quantitative variables.
• Data is raw, unorganized facts that need to be processed. Data can be something simple and seemingly
random and useless until it is organized.
• When data is processed, organized, structured or presented in a given context so as to make it useful, it
is called information.

Types of Data

Quantitative Data
Quantitative data deals with numbers and things you can measure objectively such as height, width, and length.
Temperature and humidity, Prices. Area and volume. There are two types of quantitative data:

• Continuous: the variable can, in theory, be any value within a certain range. Can be measured.
o Examples: height, weight, blood pressure, cholesterol.

• Discrete: the variable can only have certain values, usually whole numbers. Can be counted.
o Examples: number of visits to doctor in last year, number of fractures, number of children.

Qualitative Data
Qualitative data deals with characteristics and descriptors that can't be easily measured, but can be observed
subjectively—such as smells, tastes, textures, attractiveness, and color.

• Nominal: the variable does not have a specific order.

o Examples: eye color, blood type, ethnicity.

• Ordinal: the variable has a specific order.

o Examples: stages of cancer, class letter grade, position in a race.

Sources of Data
Primary Data

Primary data are information collected by a researcher specifically for a research

assignment. In other words, primary data are information that a company must gather
because no one has compiled and published the information in a forum accessible to the
public. Companies generally take the time and allocate the resources required to gather primary data only when
a question, issue or problem presents itself that is sufficiently
important or unique that it warrants the expenditure necessary to gather the primary data.
Primary data are original in nature and directly related to the issue or problem and current
data. Primary data are the data which the researcher collects through various methods like
interviews, surveys, questionnaires etc.

Advantages of Primary Data

• The primary data are original and relevant to the topic of the research study so the
degree of accuracy is very high.
• Primary data is that it can be collected from a number of ways like interviews, telephone
surveys, focus groups etc. It can be also collected across the national borders through
emails and posts. It can include a large population and wide geographical coverage.
• Moreover, primary data is current and it can better give a realistic view to the researcher
about the topic under consideration.
• Reliability of primary data is very high because these are collected by the concerned and
reliable party.

Disadvantages of Primary Data

• For collection of primary data where interview is to be conducted the coverage is limited
and for wider coverage a more number of researchers are required.
• A lot of time and efforts are required for data collection. By the time the data collected,
analysed and report is ready the problem of the research becomes very serious or out
dated. So the purpose of the research may be defeated.
• It has design problems like how to design the surveys. The questions must be simple to
understand and respond.
• Some respondents do not give timely responses. Sometimes, the respondents may give
fake, socially acceptable and sweet answers and try to cover up the realities.
• With more people, time and efforts involvement the cost of the data collection goes
high. The importance of the research may go down.
• In some primary data collection methods there is no control over the data collection.
Incomplete questionnaire always give a negative impact on research.
• Trained persons are required for data collection. In experienced person in data collection
may give inadequate data of the research.

Secondary Data

Secondary data are the data collected by a party not related to the research study but
collected these data for some other purpose and at different time in the past. If the researcher
uses these data then these become secondary data for the current users. These may be
available in written, typed or in electronic forms. A variety of secondary information
sources is available to the researcher gathering data on an industry, potential product
applications and the market place. Secondary data is also used to gain initial insight into the
research problem.

Advantages of Secondary Data

• The primary advantage of secondary data is that it is cheaper and faster to access.
• Secondly, it provides a way to access the work of the best scholars all over the world.
• Thirdly, secondary data gives a frame of mind to the researcher that in which direction
he/she should go for the specific research.
• Fourthly secondary data save time, efforts and money and add to the value of the
research study.

Disadvantages of Secondary data

• The data collected by the third party may not be a reliable party so the reliability and
accuracy of data go down.
• Data collected in one location may not be suitable for the other one due variable
environmental factor.
• With the passage of time the data becomes obsolete and very old.
• Secondary data collected can distort the results of the research. For using secondary
data a special care is required to amend or modify for use.
• Secondary data can also raise issues of authenticity and copyright.

Methods of Data Collection

Collection of Primary Data

Primary data is collected in the course of doing experimental or descriptive research by doing experiments,
performing surveys or by observation or direct communication with respondents. Several methods for collecting
primary data are given below –

1.Observation Methods

It is commonly used in studies relating to behavioural science. Under this method observation becomes a scientific
tool and the method of data collection for the researcher, when it serves a formulated research
purpose and is systematically planned and subjected to checks and controls.

• Structured (descriptive) and Unstructured (exploratory) observation – When a observation is

characterized by careful definition of units to be observed, style of observer, conditions for observation
and selection of pertinent data of observation it is a structured observation. When there characteristics are
not thought of in advance or not present, it is an unstructured observation.
• Participant, Non-participant and Disguised observation – When the observer observes by making
himself more or less, the member of the group he is observing, it is participant observation but when the
observer observes by detaching himself from the group under observation it is non-participant observation.
 If the observer observes in such a manner that his presence is unknown to the people he is observing it is
disguised observation.
• Controlled (laboratory) and Uncontrolled (exploratory) observation – If the observation takes place
in the natural setting it is a uncontrolled observation but when observer takes place according to
some pre-arranged plans, involving experimental procedure it is a controlled observation.

2.Interview

In this method the interviewer personally meets the informants and asks necessary questions to them regarding
the subject of enquiry. Usually a set of questions or a questionnaire is carried by him and questions are also asked
according to that. The interviewer efficiently collects the data from the informants by cross examining them. The
interviewer must be very efficient and tactful to get the accurate and relevant data from the informants. Interviews
like personal interview/depth interview or telephone interview can be conducted as per the need of the study.

3.Questionnaire

In this method a questionnaire is sent (mailed) to the concerned respondents who are expected to read, understand
and reply on their own and return the questionnaire. It consists of a number of questions printed on typed in a
definite order on a form on set of forms. It is advisable to conduct a `Pilot study’ which is the rehearsal of the
main survey by experts for testing the questionnaire for weaknesses of the questions and techniques used.

Essentials of Good Questionnaire

• It should be short and simple.

• Questions should proceed in a logical sequence.
• Technical terms and vague expressions must be avoided.
• Control questions to check the reliability of the respondent must be present.
• Adequate space for answers must be provided.
• Brief directions with regard to filling up of questionnaire must be provided/
• The physical appearances – quality of paper, colour etc must be good to attract the attention of the
respondent.

4.Schedules

This method of data collection is similar to questionnaire method with the difference that schedules are being
filled by the enumerations specially appointed for the purpose. Enumerations explain the aims and objects of the
investigation and may remove any misunderstanding and help the respondents to record answer. Enumerations
should be well trained to perform their job; he/she should be honest hard working and patient. This type of data
is helpful in extensive enquiries however it is very expensive.

Collection of Secondary Data

A researcher can obtain secondary data from various sources. Secondary data may either be published data or
unpublished data. Published data are available in:
 • Publications of government
• technical and trade journals
• reports of various businesses, banks etc.
• public records
• statistical or historical documents

Unpublished data may be found in letters, diaries, unpublished biographies or work.

Before using secondary data, it must be checked for the following characteristics –

• Reliability of data – Who collected the data? From what source? Which methods? Time? Possibility of
bias? Accuracy?
• Suitability of data – The object, scope and nature of the original enquiry must be studies and then
carefully scrutinize the data for suitability.
• Adequacy – The data is considered inadequate if the level of accuracy achieved in data is found
inadequate or if they are related to an area which may be either narrower or wider than the area of the
present enquiry.

Sources of Error

The following are the possible sources of error in measurement:

• Respondent: At times the respondent may be reluctant to express strong negative feelings or it is just
possible that he may have very little knowledge but may not admit his ignorance. All this reluctance is
likely to result in an interview of ‘guesses.’ Transient factors like fatigue, boredom, anxiety, etc. may limit
the ability of the respondent to respond accurately and fully.

• Situation: Situational factors may also come in the way of correct measurement. Any condition which
places a strain on interview can have serious effects on the interviewer-respondent rapport. For instance, if
someone else is present, he can distort responses by joining in or merely by being present. If the respondent
feels that anonymity is not assured, he may be reluctant to express certain feelings.

• Measurer: The interviewer can distort responses by rewording or reordering questions. His behaviour,
style and looks may encourage or discourage certain replies from respondents. Careless mechanical
processing may distort the findings. Errors may also creep in because of incorrect coding, faulty tabulation
and/or statistical calculations, particularly in the data-analysis stage.

• Instrument: Error may arise because of the defective measuring instrument. The use of complex words,
beyond the comprehension of the respondent, ambiguous meanings, poor printing, inadequate space for
replies, response choice omissions, etc. are a few things that make the measuring instrument defective and
may result in measurement errors. Another type of instrument deficiency is the poor sampling of the
universe of items of concern.

Types of Error

Gross Error
Gross errors are caused by mistake in using instruments or meters, calculating measurement and recording data
results. The best example of these errors is a person or operator reading pressure gage 1.01N/m2 as 1.10N/m2. It
may be due to the person’s bad habit of not properly remembering data at the time of taking down reading, writing
and calculating, and then presenting the wrong data at a later time. This may be the reason for gross errors in the
reported data, and such errors may end up in calculation of the final results, thus deviating results.

Blunders
Blunders are final source of errors and these errors are caused by faulty recording or due to a wrong value while
recording a measurement, or misreading a scale or forgetting a digit while reading a scale. These blunders should
stick out like sore thumbs if one person checks the work of another person. It should not be comprised in the
analysis of data.

Measurement Error

The measurement error is the result of the variation of a measurement of the true value. Usually, Measurement
error consists of a random error and systematic error. The best example of the measurement error is, if electronic
scales are loaded with 1kg standard weight and the reading is 10002 grams, then

The measurement error is = (1002 grams-1000 grams) = 2 grams

Measurement Errors are classified into two types:

1. Systematic Error
2. Random Error

Systematic Error

The Systematic errors that occur due to fault in the measuring device are known as systematic errors. Usually
they are called as Zero Error – a positive or negative error. These errors can be detached by correcting the
measurement device. These errors may be classified into different categories:

• Instrumental Errors: Instrumental errors occur due to wrong construction of the measuring instruments.
These errors may occur due to hysteresis or friction. These types of errors include loading effect and
misuse of the instruments.

• Environmental Errors: The environmental errors occur due to some external conditions of the
instrument. External conditions mainly include pressure, temperature, humidity or due to magnetic fields.

• Observational Errors: These types of errors occur due to wrong observations or reading in the
instruments particularly in case of energy meter reading. The wrong observations may be due to
PARALLAX. In order to reduce the PARALLAX error highly accurate meters are needed: meters
provided with mirror scales.

• Theoretical Errors: Theoretical errors are caused by simplification of the model system. For example, a
theory states that the temperature of the system surrounding will not change the readings taken when it
actually does, then this factor will begin a source of error in measurement.
Random Error

Random errors are caused by the sudden change in experimental conditions and noise and tiredness in the working
persons. These errors are either positive or negative. An example of the random errors is during changes in
humidity, unexpected change in temperature and fluctuation in voltage. These errors may be reduced by taking
the average of a large number of readings.