Some Observations on
GRAPHING in MODULAR SYSTEMS
By ANTHONY J. PICARD
University of HaY!aii
Honolulu, Ha waii
ONE interesting applicat ion of modula r
syst ems which provides a n opportunity
for students to reinforce th e basic ideas of
congruence c lasses a nd to search for pa t-
terns in novel situa tions is the construc-
tion of graphs of m ultip lica tion ta bl es ·with
respect to a given m odulus. T h e novelty
of the situa tion arises from using a circu la r
set of points for t he coordinate syst em. 1
~'or any given m odulus m, t he graph of
the multiples of a na tura l number, n,
will be genera ted as follows. Each natura l
number 1, 2, 3, ... , k, . . . will b e pa ired
with 1 X n, 2 X n, 3 X 11, . • . , lc X n, ...
respectively . If k X 11 > m, then k will be
paired with s wher e s = k X n (mod m)
and s ~ m . The ordered pairs (k, k X n)
will be graphed on a circula r set of m
points, labeled clockwi e 1, 2, . . . , m,
by joining k to k X n by a stra igh t line. 2
Note that while k is 1 1joined to" k X n,
k X n is not 11 joined t o" k unless there
exists a n ordered pair whose fi n:;t compo-
nent is congruent to k X n a nd whose sec-
ond component is congruent to k. This
suggests that t he r elation 11 joined to" is
not symmetric for poin ts of this kind of
graph.
Consider the m ultiplica tion of na tura l
numbers with resp ect to the modulus four.
T he mult iples of 1 generate the ordered
I. The original idea for this discussion arose out
of a session with slow 7th and 8th graders using
¥~CSM 's materials for slow learners, "St retchers and
rinkers" (Harper & R ow).
th 2. T he autho1· a r bitrariJy chooses to use m rat her
an 0 for the integers congruent t o the modulus.
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pairs (1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (4, 4), (5, 5),
~6, 6),.and so on. Note t ha t the pair (5, 5)
IS eqUiva lent to (1, 1) a nd (6, 6) is equiv-
alent to (2, 2) ·with respect to the modulus
four ; so there a re only 4 unique pa irs to
consider. Since each number is paired with
itself, the graph of the multiples of 1 is a
set of 4 d iscret e points . (See fig. 1.)
4
•
•I
•
2
Fig. I
Any p oint, k, for which t here exists an
ordered pa ir (k, k X n) such that k X n
= k m od m will be call ed a fi xed point;
t ha t is, a ny poin t k that is 11 joined to"
itself is a fi xed point. If k is a fixed point
and if t here is no other ordered p a ir of t he
graph (r, s) such tha t s = k mod m, k will
be ca ll ed an isolat ed point; that i!), a ny
fixed point to which no other point i
1
'joined" is isola ted . A graph t hat con-
sists of only isola t ed p oints will be called
a 11 null gra ph. " 3 H ence the graph of t he
mul tiples of 1 is a null graph .
The multiples of 2 genera te the ordered
pairs (1, 2), (2, 4), (3, 2), a nd (4, 4) 'vith
respect to the modulus four. Since the
ordered pairs (5, 10), (6, 12), and so on,
are congruent to (1, 2), (2, 4), and so on,
there a re aga in only fom unique pairs to
3. J ohn Fujii, Puzzles a11d Graphs (Washington,
D.C.: National Council of Teachers of Mathematics.
1966) ' p, 4.
l\I ay 1971 459

consider. The graph formed from these
pairs contains a single fixed point, 4, which
is not isolated. ( ee fig. 2.)
4
3 3
2
Fig. 2
The multiples of 3 generate the ordered
pai r~ (1, 3), (2, 2), (3, 1), and (4, 4); so
the graph Rhown in figure 3 contains two
fix ed points, 2 a nd 4, which a re both
isolated. The multiples of 4 generate the
ordered pairs (1, 4), (2, 4) , (3, 4), and
(4, 4 ) , which produce a graph (fig. 4) with
one fixed point, 4, which is not isolated.
4 4
•
3 3
• 2 is identica l to the graph of the multiples
2 2
Fi~. a Fig. 4
One immediate observation about t his
set of g raphs would be thttt the graph of
th e multipll'S of 2 is a 1R0° rotation of the
graph of the multiples of 4. Another would
be that 4 is a fix ed point of every graph.
A third observation would be that the
graph of the multipl rs of 1 has four lines
of symmetry , th e graph of the multiple.
of 3 has two, and th e graphs of the
multipl es Z a nd 4 each hav e one. This is
exactly the number of fi xed point for
each of these gra phs, but it is not true
that every line of ·y mmetry pa e ,
through a fixed poin t . The four fixed
points fo t· the multiples of 1 fall on two
line · of symmetry; a nd for the multiples
of 3, the two fix ed point fa ll on one line
of ymmetry . ( 'cc ta ble 1. )
460 The l athe matics Teacher
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TABLE 1
SuMMARY FOR Moou1.us FouR
;\lui-
Number Number Fixed Poiota
Fixed Points of Fixed of Lines of on Linea or
tiples Points Sym•netry Symmetry
1 1, 2, 3, 4 4 4 4/ 2
2 4 1/ 1
2,4 2 2 2/ 1
4 4 1/ 1
One furthe1· observatio n will complete
the discussio n of the modulus four. If the
multipl es of 5 are computed, 1 is paired
with 5, 2 with 10, 3 with 15, and so on.
Since 5 =1, 10 =
2, and 15 3 mod 4, =
this set of mult iples produces a graph iden-
t ica l to th e graph of th e mult iples of 1.
H ence t here a re o nly 4 distinct graphs of
4 p airs each in the modulus-fou r system.
The previous comment suggests there
will b e 5 graphs of i5 pairs each in the
modulus five system. ( ee fig. !5.) The
graph of the mul t iples of 1 is agai n a null
graph. If the graph of the multiples of 1 i,
excluded , each graph ha~ exactly one
fixed point, 5, and one vertical line of
symmetry . Th e graph of the multiples of
of 3. Notice that .5 is an isola.ted point of
every graph except th e graph of the multi-
ples of 5. If the segment joining a to b is
consider ed distinct from the segment
joining b to a, then every graph except the
graph of the multipl es of 1 contains 4
segments . The graphs of th e multiples of
2 and 3 are unique in that the 4 segments
form a cyclic path; that is, the path may be
t raced without lifting the pencil in such a
way that each edge is traced only once and
the starting point and terminal point are
the same. 4 (See fig. 5. )
One additional observation will com-
plete the discussion of the modulus five.
If the cyclic path for t he multiples of 2 is
traced from 1 to 2, 2 to 4, 4 to 3, and 3 to l ,
it may be de cribed by the quadruple
(1, 2, 4, 3). This notation will define a
4. I bid .. p. lf..
 Multiples of I Multiples of 2 Multiples of 3
5 5
• • 5
•
4•

3
• •2

Multiples of 4 Multiples of 5
t 5

4-------- 4

3 2 2
Fig. 5

directed cyclic path obtai ned by con- points on the respective directed cyclic
necting each point of the quadruple to the paths.
succeeding one and the last point to the There app ear to be a re lationship be-
tween these directed path and the gene-
TABLE 2 rators of this system-that is, those
SuMMARY FOR Moo u Lus F1v~: numbers whose succe ·sive power::; produce
1\tul- Number :-:umber Fixed Points all t he non-zero element s of the system
tiples Fixed Points of Fixed of Lines of on Lines of
(see table 3).
Points Symmetry Symmetry

1,2,3,4,5 5 5 5/ 5 Some elementary conclusion::; can be

easily proven at this point. For example,
2 5 l 1/ 1
for any modulus m a nd a ll natural num-
3 5 l 1/ 1 bers n, m is a fixed point of the graph of
4 5 l/ 1 the multiples of n. This statement follows
from the statement n X m = 111 for any
5 5 1 1/ 1 modulus m and for all natural numbers n.
Hence m will a lways be paired with m.
first. Notice that the quadruple (2, 4, 3, 1) A second result is that the graph of the
defines the same directed cyclic p ath. This multiples of 1 will be a null graph for any
suggests that the quadruple notation is not modulus nt because the multiplicative
unique; that is, any point may be used as identity 1 pairs every number k with it elf
a starting point as long as the direction is and with no other number. That is, every
preserved. T he d irected cyclic path in the
graph of the multiples of 3 i described by TABLE 3
(1, 3, 4, 2). Since (1, 3, 4, 2) has the CoNs~:cuTI V~: Pow~:as or 2 ANI> 3
wiTH R ESPJ·:cT ·ro •r1n: MoouL LJS 5
opposite direction of (2, 4, 3, 1), it is a
u.nique directed cyclic path. If consecu- 2 1 ;;~ 2 mod 5 3'•3 mod 5
tive powers of 2 and of 3 are computed, 22 a 4 mod 5 32 m4 mod 5
23 s 3 mod 5 3 3 a 2 mod 5
the order in which points of the path are 2• s 1 mod 5 34 s l mod 5
generated is identical to the order of the

May 1971 461

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 Multiples of 2 Multiples of 3

9 9
•

2 7 2
7

5 4 5 4
Fig. 6A

Multiples of 4 Multiples of 5

9 9
• •

2 7 2
7

5 4
Fig. 6B

Multiples of 6 Multiples of 7

9 9
•

2 2
7

5 4 5

Fig. 6C

point of the graph of the multiples of 1 is from th e fact that multiplying by m

an i olated point for any modulus m.
Another conclu ion is that the graph of t he
m ultiples of the modulus m will always con-
si t of exactly m - 1 . egments, each con-
necting one of the points 1, 2, 3, ... ,
m - 1 to m. Thi follow from the fact
that m i a fixed point of every g raph and
pairs 1 with m, 2 with 2m = m, :3 with
3m =
m, .. . , a nd m - 1 w it h (m - 1)
X m = m. A conclusion tha t may not be
apparent from the examples g iven is that
t he graph of the multiples of m - 1 will
consist of a set of di joint parallel segment
and two isola t ed points if modulus m is

462 The ~lathematics T eacher

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 TABLE 4
-IN E
SUMMARY FOR MODULUS
Number Number Fixed Points
Mul- Fixed Points of Fixed of Lines of on Lines of
tiples Points Rymmetry Symmetry
I 1 1 2, ' ' '1 9 9 9 9/9
2 9 1 1
3 9
4 3,6,9 3 3
5 9 1 1/ 1
6 9
3,6, 9 3 3
7 3/3
8 9
9 9
even and a set of disjoint parallel segments
and one i olated point if the modulus m is
odd. The previous s tatement m ay be
shown by considering the multiples of
m - l . For any natural number k,
k X (m - 1) = k X m - /c. But k X m
= m, so k is paired with m - k. Because
the points of the system a re arranged in a
circle, the segment ( 1, m - 1) will be
parallel to (2, m - 2), and so on. If two
of the segments are connected, there exists
a pair (lc, m - s) with k = s, which is a
contradiction. If m is odd, m/ 2 is not an
integer, so m/ 2 - ~ will be paired with
m/ 2 + ~ . If some point (r, s) has s
= m, then s =
r X (m - 1) = r X m - ,.
= m - ?'. That is, if s = m, then m - r
= m. But. th is is true if 1· = m, which
implies m is an isolated poin t . The proof
for an even morlulus is similar to th e o ne
above.
In order to establish some further
generalizations, consider t he modulus 9.
Because of the previous discussion we need
only construct the graphs of the multiples
of 2, 3, 4, .5, 6, and 7 (see figs. 6A, 6B, 6C,
and table 4}.
The graphs of the multiples of 2 and 5
are identica l, and th e g raphs of the multi-
ples of 4 a nd 7 are identical. A careful
inspection of the graph of the multipl es of
2 reveals that both 2 and .5 are joined to 1.
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A similar s tatement can be made for 4 and
7 jn the graph of the multiples of 4. This
suggests that k1 a nd k2 will have identica l
graphs if and only if k2 X k1 = 1 mod m
and if k1 and k2 a re not 1, m - 1, or 111,.
For example, there is exactly one number
1I I
k between 2 a nd 7 such that 2 X k = 1
1/ 1 mod 9. There is exactly one number k
3/3 between 2 a nd 7 such that 7 X k = 1 mod
9. There is no number between 2 and 7
such that 3 X lc = 1 mod 9 or 6 X k
1/ 1 = 1 mod 9. Another observation that
can be made from the graphs in table 4
is that th e gntphs of those numbers th at
1/ 1 a re relatively prime to 9 have at least one
1/ 1 isolated poinL and t hose tha t arc not r eln,-
t ively p rime to 9 have none.
The observation that certa in pa irs of
gra phs may be identical •·educcR even fur-
ther the number of graphs that mu t be
constructed for a ny given modulus. For
example, with a modulus seven, 2 X 4
= 1 and 3 X 5 = l. S ince the graphs of
the multiples of 1, 6, and 7 hav e already
been described , it is only necessary to
graph the multiples of 2 and :~ in order to
complete the set of graphs for the modulus
seven (sec fig. 7).
Graph of the Multiples Graph of the Multiples
of 2 or 4 of 3 or 5
.
7 7
•
5 2
4 3 4
Fig. 7
It appelti'H t hat the graphs for prime
moduli JJ > 3 (excluding th e graphs for 1,
p - 1, and p) may b e grouped in to two
differe nt cn.Legories. E ach graph is a cyclic
path of p - 1 segments (a nd one isolated
point), or it is composed of two cyclic
pat.hs, each of (p - 1) 2 segment s (and
one isolated point) . For the modulus
seven, Lhe graph of th e 111L1ltiples of 3 or f>
forms a cyclic path of s ix segments and the
!\lay 1971 463
 TABLE 5
CoNs~;cuTJ v~; PowERS OF 3 AND 5 MOD 7

3 1 = 3 .,. 3 36 = 243 .,. 5 51= 5 a 5 56 = 3125 5!! 3

32 = g .,. 2 36 = 729 5 1 52= 25 iiE 4 56= 15625 a I
33 =27 .,. 6 37 =2 187 =3 53 = 125
54 = 625
IIi 6
2
57 = 78125 iS 5
34 =8 1 ... 4 1!1

graph of the multiples of 2 or 4 forms two of (p - 1)/ 2 segments. I nvestigation of

cyclic paLhs of three segments.
An observation similar to the one for
the modulu · five involving directed cyclic
path and generators may be made for the
other prime moduli. Consecutive powers
of 3 mod 7 generate the directed cyclic
path (3, 2, 6, 4, 5, 1), while consecutive
powers of 5 mod 7 generate the directed
cyclic path (5, 4, 6, 2, 3, 1). (See tab le 5.)
The graphs of those numbers n
(n EE { 1, p - 1, p}) that are not genera-
tors for prime moduli possess another in-
teresting property. These graphs con ist
of two di tinct but identical cyclic paths
the pa th t,hat doesn' t have 1 as a vertex re-
veals t ha t p - 1 and all the generators
are the only vertices of this path. This
suggests that once the graph of a non-
generator has been constructed, the gen-
erators may be determined from the ver-
tices of the pa th that doesn't have 1 as
a vertex .
Unfortuna tely, there is no way of con-
veying in print the sense of excitement that
t he actual construction of these graph
generated. The reader should experiment
at this point by constructing a complete
set of graphs for several prime and non-

Gr·aph of the Multiples of 2

72

54
18

36
Fig. 8

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 Graph of the Multiples of 3
36
Fig. 9
prime moduli. With this background, the
reader will enjoy verifying or disproving
the following statements. In each, the
modulus rn or p is greater than three.
1. For any modulus m, if m a nd n a re
relatively prime, the graph of the mul-
tiples of n contains at least one isolated
point.
2. For any prime modulus p, p is the
only isolated point of every graph except
the graph of the multiples of p and 1.
3. For any prime modulus p, there a re
(p - 3)/ 2 pairs of identical graphs.
4. If rn is any even modulus a nd if 11 is
an even number, the graph of the mul-
tiples of n contains an odd number of
fixed points and there is a line of sym-
metry through each fixed point.
5. If m is any even modulus and if n is
an odd number, the graph of the multiples
of n contains an even number of fixed
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points and they occur in pairs on lines of
symmetry.
6. If p is any prime modulus and 11 is
any number not congruent to 1, p - 1,
or p, then the graph of the multiple.· of n
will be a cyclic path of p - 1 segments
a nd one isolated point or two distinct
cyclic paths of (p - 1)/ 2 segments each
and one isolated point.
7. If p is any prime modulus and 11 is a
number such that consecutive power of
n genera t e 1, 2, 3, . . . , p - 1, then the
graph of the multiples of n is a cyclic path
except for the isolated point p.
8. If p is any prime modulus, the graph
of the multiples of 2 is identical to the
graph of the multiples of (p +
1)/ 2 and
the graph of the multiples of p - 2 is
identical to the graph of the multiples of
(p - 1)/ 2.
9. If m is any odd composite number,
the graph of the multiples of 2 is identical
l\fay 1971 465
to the graph of the multiples of (m + 1}/2
and the graph of the multiples of m - 2
i. identical to the graph of t he multiple
of (m - 1)/ 2.
If t he moduJu · is large enough, the
graphs of t he multiple of certain numbers
fo rm a set of tangent to orne familiar
and interesting curves. For example, for
th e modulus 72 th e graph of the mult iples
of 2 fo rms an epicycloid with one cu ·p
(fig. ), the graph of the multiples of 3
fo rms an epicycloid with t wo cusp (fig. 9),
and the graph of the multiple of 4 form
an epicycloid with three cusp .5 As n be-
comes larger in proportion to m, the dis-
tinctness of t he cu rve outlined by the
gmph decrea es.
5. IT. A. Elliott, J . R. Maclean , and J. l\1 . J orden,
Grom(try in the Classroom, New Concepts and Methods
(Toronto : Holt, Rinehart & Winston of Canada.
19&8) . p. 143.
Discussion
The relationship of this type of graphing
to number theory, theory of graphs,
modular arithmetic, and the geometry of
certain higher-order curves is fairly ob-
vious. It may provide t he necessary moti-
vation and interest to lead student into
the di. cu . ion of some very sophisticated
mathematic . At a much less sophisticated
lev el, it may provide slow students with
an opportunity to practice number com-
binations in a novel situation and to
search for unfamiliar pattern without be-
coming bogged down in lengthy computa-
tions. It may also give them some insight
into t he way in which math ematicians use
induction to form generalizations. G
6 ..\ nthony J. Picard. "The D anger/ Ynlue of
Leaping to Conclusions... ARITHM ETIC TEACHER n
( Februar~· 1970): 151- 53.

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