Renata Holubova, Jiří Straus, Jana Slezáková - Forensics and Physics-Cambridge Scholars Publishing (2022)

Forensics and Physics

By
Renata Holubova, Jiří Straus

and Jana Slezáková
By Renata Holubova, Jiří Straus and Jana Slezáková
This book first published 2022
Cambridge Scholars Publishing
Lady Stephenson Library, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE6 2PA, UK
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Copyright © 2022 by Renata Holubova, Jiří Straus and Jana Slezáková
All rights for this book reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means,
electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without
the prior permission of the copyright owner.
ISBN (10): 1-5275-8407-0

ISBN (13): 978-1-5275-8407-5
TABLE OF CONTENTS
List of Illustrations ................................................................................... vii
List of Tables .............................................................................................. x
Introduction ............................................................................................... xi
Chapter One ................................................................................................ 1

Forensic Trasology
Introduction ........................................................................................... 1
1.1 Searching for and securing of trasological tracks ........................... 6
1.2 Biomechanical content of trasological traces ................................ 15
1.3 Physics behind trasology ............................................................... 27
1.4 Walking and Physics ..................................................................... 40
Chapter Two ............................................................................................. 48

Biomechanics of Falls
Introduction ......................................................................................... 48
2.1 Biomechanical classifications of falls ........................................... 49
2.2 Injuries caused by falls.................................................................. 53
2.3 Analysis and experimental results................................................. 66
2.4 Standing on a pad .......................................................................... 78
2.5 Human reaction time ..................................................................... 85
Chapter Three ......................................................................................... 107

Dactyloscopy
Introduction ....................................................................................... 107
3.1 Searching, visibility and securing dactyloscopic traces .............. 110
3.2 Examining of dactyloscopic traces.............................................. 113
3.3 Physics behind dactyloscopy ...................................................... 121
3.3.1 Optics ................................................................................. 121
3.3.2 Molecular physics-adhesion and cohesion ......................... 126
vi Table of Contents
Chapter Four ........................................................................................... 138

Forensic Ballistics
4.1 Forensic ballistics as a scientific discipline ................................. 138
4.2 Physics behind the ballistics ....................................................... 146
Appendix: Mathematics .......................................................................... 159

Differential and vector calculus ........................................................ 159
References .............................................................................................. 183
About the Authors .................................................................................. 188

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Figure 1-1. Types of soles

Figure 1-2. Heels and sole
Figure 1-3. Traces of vehicles
Figure 1-4. 3D trasological trace
Figure 1-5. Stride length and two-step locomotion
Figure 1-6. Plantogram with significant parameters
Figure 1-7. Dependence of body height on significant parameters of the
plantogram
Figure 1-8. Several types of plantograms
Figure 1-9. Bar foot trace
Figure 1-10. Kepler´s law of areas
Figure 1-11. Gravitation
Figure 1-12. Throw vertically upwards
Figure 1-13. Horizontal throw
Figure 1-14. Oblique up throw
Figure 1-15. Movement of the centre of gravity
Figure 1-16. Diagram of the human body
Figure 2-1. Classification of falls
Figure 2-2. The impact of the body and the representation of the primary
(triangle) and secondary injury (wheel)
Figure 2-3. Evaluating the course of the fall from the height
Figure 2-4. Fall schedule
Figure 2-5. Biomechanics of falls
Figure 2-6. Falling patterns of standing jump and running jump above the
jumping level: Running and standing jump are intimated at initial
velocities of 9.15 and 2.70 m·s-1 at initial angles of 21 at 38 deg above
the jumping level
Figure 2-7. Falling patterns intimated at various angles of jump at initial
velocities of 2.70 m·s-1 (A) and 9.15 m·s-1 (B): Maximal horizontal
movement can be achieved at about 40 deg; the angle at 50 deg or over
starts to minimize the horizontal movement
velocities of 2.70 m·s-1 (A) and 9.15 m·s-1 (B), falling from height of
100 m
viii List of Illustrations

velocities of 2.0 m·s-1 (A) and 9.5 m·s-1 (B), falling from height of 100
m
Figure 2-10. Range of maximal horizontal movement of standing jump
and running jump at angles between 0 and 40 deg
Figure 2-11. Body mass center trajectory comparison as relation of
different kind of falls
Figure 2-12. Unprotected fall
Figure 2-13. Scheme of dropping the body from stand to pad
Figure 2-14. Typical course of head velocity and center of gravity over
time
Figure 2-15. Typical course of the angular velocity of the head and the
angular velocity of the resting limb over time, in case of restored
stability
Figure 2-16. The course of the spontaneous fall of figurant
Figure 2-17. Categorization of reaction times
Figure 2-18. The process of motor response formation for each type of
reaction time, according to Donders
Figure 2-19. Structure of the total duration of the action
Figure 2-20. Dependence of reaction time on the intensity of the auditory
stimulus
Figure 2-21. Reaction time dependencies on alcohol level - maximum
alcohol level 0.6 ‰
Figure 2-22. Reaction time dependencies on alcohol level - maximum
alcohol level of 1.2 ‰
Figure 3-1. Comparison of the secured track and the captured fingerprint
Figure 3-2. Ridge characteristics
Figure 3-3. Visibility of the dactyloscopic trace with finely groung ferric
oxide
Figure 3-4. Visibility of the dactyloscopic trace by reaction with
ninhydride and by iodine vapour
Figure 3-5. Papilary lines
Figure 3-6. A compound microscope
Figure 3-7. Running rays
Figure 3-8. Comparative microscope for forensics
Figure 3-9. Ken – a – vision comparative microscope
Figure 3-10. Comparison microscope - image
Figure 3-11. Measurement of adhesion forces
Figure 3-12. Surface tension - forces
Figure 3-13. Liquid wetting the solid body
Figure 3-14. A liquid that does not wet the solid body
Forensics and Physics ix
Figure 3-15. A drop of liquid

Figure 3-16. Surface tension of a liquid drop on another liquid
Figure 3-17. Capillary elevation and depression
Figure 3-18. Adhesion of dactyloscopic powder to a dactyloscopic brush
Figure 3-19. Adhesion of dactyloscopic powder to the solid surface
Figure 3-20. Adhesion of dactyloscopic powder to a surface with a
dactyloscopic trace
Figure 4-1. Coriolis force
Figure 4-2. Air flow around the ball
Figure A-1. Magnitude of the instantaneous velocity of the point [x; y],
which moves along the curve k at time t
Figure A-2. Geometric meaning of the derivative
Figure A-3. Tangent and normal of the graph of the function
Figure A-4. Geometric interpretation of Rolle's theorem
Figure A-5. Geometric interpretation of the Lagrange’s theorem
Figure A-6. Local and global extremes of function
Figure A-7. Oriented line
Figure A-8. Bound geometric vectors
Figure A-9. Non-collinear vectors
Figure A-10. Collinear vectors (same oriented)
Figure A-11. Collinear vectors (not same oriented)
Figure A-12. Multiple of the bound geometric vector a) concordant
direction b) non concordant direction
Figure A-13. Free geometric vectors
Figure A-14. The sum of free vectors
FigureA-15. Orthonormal bases of vector spaces
Figure A-16. The scalar product of the vectors u, v
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1-1. Linear regression relations

Table 1-2. Frequency of walking steps
Table 1-3. Estimating the mean stride length for walking
Table 1-4. Mechanical power at different movements
Table 1-5. Mechanics of walking
Table 2-1. Biomechanical studies of standing (swimmer´s) jump and
running (long) jump
Table 2-2. Average group indicators of the development of psychic
properties of top wrestlers with different ways of fighting
Table 2-3. Conventional simple reaction time before selected combat
actions
actions
Table 2-5. Duration of combat actions
INTRODUCTION
Dear readers!
The presented publication entitled Forensics and Physics deals with

criminological aspects of investigations from the point of view of science,
especially physics. The book you hold in your hands deals with solving
complex scientific research tasks when examining forensic traces and
during forensic identification. The publication is based on extensive
suggestions from literary, professional studies, and articles in professional
journals. An interesting and key element is the connection between forensic
- criminology and physics. Physics can be seen as a scientific field whose
content is the study of the most general properties, states, and changes of
material objects. Physics comes with its knowledge in three basic ways. The
first method is the observation, e.g., observing the fall of a shot person. The
following important method is an experiment by which we observe the
phenomenon in artificially prepared conditions, such as the fall of a training
dummy by shooting. The third method is to create hypotheses based on
observations and experiments or based on the knowledge of the
phenomenon. Thus, we create a scientifically substantiated idea of the
course and causes of the occurrence under investigation.
The book is divided into four main chapters. Forensic trasology deals with
the method of finding and securing trasological traces. The general
principles of securing trasological traces are given here. The biomechanical
content of trasological traces is mentioned and the connection between
walking and physics is discussed. It is worth mentioning the explanation of
mechanical work during ordinary walking and the list of average values of
mechanical force during various movements that a person performs.
The second chapter deals with the biomechanics of falls. The introductory
part explains that the fall of the human body is a compound movement,
which consists of movement in the horizontal direction and free fall. The
text explains in detail the classification of falls using a training dummy,
whose weight parameters, dimensions, and location of the center of gravity
are the same as for a living person.
xii Introduction
Dactyloscopy is the content of the third chapter. This is the oldest method
of identification in criminology. Dactyloscopy is a scientific field of
forensic technology that allows you to identify a specific person under
optimal conditions. It shows how dactyloscopic traces are found, made
visible and secured, as well as how they are examined based on the
evaluation of dactyloscopic features. Attention is paid to applications in the
field of optics and molecular physics
The last chapter deals with the issue of forensic ballistics, which, due to the
nature of the use of weapons, is mostly dedicated to the study of small arms.
It is explained in detail that it is not just the science of firearms of all types
and kinds. Forensic ballistics is, among other things, a scientific discipline
that also examines by-products of firing, objects with traces of impact, etc.
Emphasis is placed on the question of the mechanism of criminological
traces during the shot itself and after leaving the projectile from the weapon.
Of interest is the description, classification, and identification of firearms.
In the part concerning physical applications, the reader will encounter, for
example, the concepts of energy, kinetic energy, variable force, work, work
in the gravitational field, mechanical energy saving, projectile energy,
Coriolis force, Magnus effect, and projectile motion. Their meaning and use
in connection with the issue of forensic ballistics are always explained.
The appendix Differential and Vector Calculus is focused on physical

applications in mathematics. This section mentions the historical development
of differential and vector calculus. The text contains an overview of basic
definitions and theorems about the derivation of a function of one variable.
The terms are supplemented by explanatory figures. The subchapter Vector
calculus deals with the introduction of the term-oriented line and its size,
the definition of bounded and free geometric vectors. The introduction of
vector coordinates in plane and space is also shown here, as it is directly
applicable in applications in physics and engineering. The reader is
acquainted with selected solved problems on physical topics in connection
with criminology.
We believe that the presented publication will be of benefit to all who are
interested in the currently most used examination techniques and their
significance from the point of view of physics.
Dear readers, we wish you a lot of joy and lots of new knowledge while
studying this publication.
—Authors
CHAPTER ONE
FORENSIC TRASOLOGY
Introduction
Trasology is a field of forensic technology that deals with the search for
securing and examination of footprints, footwear, means of transport, and
traces of other similar objects. Trasology examines the traces of these
objects if features of the external structure of the objects (morphological
features) are highlighted in the trace. It is a science of traces, which
examines a trace as a representation of the outer side of an object to identify
those objects or to determine group affiliation and to clarify all the
circumstances associated with the emergence of a trasological trace. The
objects of research are trasological traces, which can be divided into the
following groups:
a) footprints of bare and worn feet,

b) traces of human locomotion
c) traces of means of transport
d) other traces of similar species.
Traces of bare and worn feet are created by contact of the bare foot or the
bottom of the shoe with the pad. They are therefore the result of the
reflection of the outer structure of the flat feet or sole, heel etc. These traces
may have general (typical) so as special (specific) characters. Footprints of
shoes are created by contact of the bottom of the shoe with the pad. The
bottom of the shoe can be:
a) Sole – can be monolithic, bloc or rolled (cut out), injection molded,

pinned and quilted. Covers the lower part of the shoe upper (top)
from toe to heel.
b) Heel – it is either a part of the sole (monolithic) or forms a separate
part of the bottom of the shoe. It is made of various materials. From
the criminological and technical point of view, the most important is
the so-called bollard (the upper part of the heel). Separately pressed
2 Chapter One
Figure 1-1. Types of soles (monolithic, block sole without heel, doweled with
attached sole and heel, part of the rubber plate from which the rolled sole is cut,
rolled sole)
(Straus, Porada et al, 2004, p. 26-27).
Forensic Trasology 3
bollards give us the opportunity to distinguish new from old-repaired

– shoes, although if both cases bollards with different patterns are
often used.
c) Tread – covers the lower part of the shoe from the toe to the niche,
while the sole from the toe to the heel. It is cut by machine or by
hand from various materials and can be smooth or variously shaped.
The tread is attached to the upper by sewing, doweling, nailing and
gluing. The treads are mainly used for repairing worn shoes.
Footwear footprints essentially provide the possibility of identification,

which, however, depends on the quality of the footprint. In the case of
smooth soles, the entire imprint is usually required, in the case of shaped
soles, sometimes only the marginal part is sufficient to determine whether
it is:
a) Men´s, women´s, or children´s footwear

b) Footwear of a certain type, shape, size, etc. (group features)
c) Certain footwear (individual features).
Figure 1-2. Heels and sole

(Straus, Porada et al, 2004, p. 26-27).
Group affiliation can be determined by comparison in the sole collection

and in the footwear production catalogs. Individual identification can be
carried out only if the footprint contains some peculiarities caused by
production, use, and wear or repair (scratches, punch, trampling), which
cannot appear in the same arrangement in the second shoe.
4 Chapter One
The surface trasological footprint of the bare foot is called as the bare foot
plantogram (sometimes called podogram, especially in the medical
orthopedic literature). The plantogram is created by the contact of the foot
with the mat due to the natural loading of both legs by the body weight
during the dynamics of walking. Plantograms are relatively rare in crime
scenes, but they can occur, so it is necessary to know their geometric
characteristics. Traces of bare feet are examined in trasology only if they do
not show usable features of papillary lines (otherwise they are examined in
dactyloscopy).
Vehicle tracks – this group of tracks includes tire tracks, tracks of rubber,
wooden, and metal wheels, tracks of tracked vehicles, and track of skid
vehicles.
Figure 1-3. Traces of vehicles

(https://pixabay.com/cs/photos/stopy-pneumatik-sn%C3%ADh-silnice-497461/)
Traces of vehicles are created by direct contact of wheels, belts, or sliding

surfaces of skis and sleds on a pad (road or open terrain). Under certain
conditions, significant information about the technical characteristics of the
vehicle, structural elements of the external structure (shape, dimensions) of
the object that created the tracks can be obtained (the reflection of the
structure of the treads of tires, rims, belts, skis, and sleds).
There are general and specific features in traces of this type. General
features are important in terms of determining the group affiliation of the
object (relatively stable and unchanging shapes and dimensions of some
parts of the tire pattern, track and wheelbase of the vehicle, etc.). These
features are common to a particular type of tire or vehicle. They are
therefore material sources for determining such parameters as the shapes
and dimensions of patterns and size of tires, type of vehicle, type of the car,
etc.
Specific features relating to a particular object are material sources for

determining the identity of the object that created the track. Under certain
conditions, the contact surfaces of the tire treads and the rims of the wheels,
the belt, but also the skid surfaces of the skis and sleds may reflect features
which are specific only to a particular object.
In terms of their origin, the traces of means of transport are divided into
groups:
1. Tires for bicycles, motorcycles, cars, tractors, etc.

2. Rubber or iron wheel rims of agricultural and other machines
3. Tracked vehicles
4. Skid vehicles (skis and sleds).
Traces of tires on bicycles, motorcycles, cars, etc. are created on the ground
(road, open terrain) by turning the wheels when the vehicle is moving or
when it is standing. Depending on the mechanical properties of the surface,
either flat or volumetric traces are created. The tire tread pattern reflects its
shape and dimensions in the case of volume marks at the bottom of the tread.
In some cases, crushed tracks are created that do not display the specific
features of the reflected object in the required quality (e.g., when the tire
tread slips on the road, when braking, etc.).
Traces of wheel rims of agricultural and other machines occur infrequently.

Tracked vehicle tracks are mainly volume tracks (impressions) caused by
articulated belts, which usually have a significant shape and depth of
impression in the soil due to their considerable weight. Tracks of skid
vehicles are created by skidding of the sliding part of skis and sledges on a
snowy road or in open terrain. In most cases, there are volume traces.
Other traces of similar type include traces of lips, ears, knees, elbows, fists
and palms, gloves, socks, luggage, traces of animal feet, crutches, support
sticks, etc. if they reflect the morphological features of the object. They arise
6 Chapter One
under suitable conditions by contact with other objects, e.g., when the
offender is resting on a dusty wall, pad or window frame, on the ground,
etc. Mostly these are volumetric traces. In some cases, there are also flat
marks, such as traces of knees, elbows, gloves, etc.
1.1 Searching for and securing of trasological tracks

Searching for footprints of feet, shoes, means of transport, and other tracks,
was carried out by searching for crime scenes in buildings, or, more often,
directly in the terrain. Attention must be paid to both isolated tracks, resp.
fragments of fit, as well as two sets of tracks, such as a locomotion trail.
Depending on the mechanism of traces, surface and volume traces can be
found at crime scenes. It is necessary to search for the track systematically
from the moment of entering the search area, either in the building or in
terrain. The traces found are suitable, marked, and protected against adverse
weather conditions or damage, such as trampling. The traces are fixed and
secured for expert examination. Trasological traces are provided in the
original, by photographing, casting, or removal.
When searching for plastic traces of bare feet and human locomotion, it is
not possible to limit oneself to the place of the event. However, it is
necessary to search for these traces in a wider area. Areas to which special
attention should be paid are:
x The crime scene in the narrower sense - it is the specific area where
the crime was committed. For example, when committing violent
crimes, there is often a struggle or other activity that results in a large
number of trasological clues at a particular crime scene. Traces can
be left in the victim´s blood, clothing, and body, such as a wall as on
objects kicked on the floor during the match. When breaking in, there
may be objects on the floor, such as safe insulation, paper, or other
rubbish, on which trasological traces may be kept.
x Place of entry – this is the place where the offender entered the crime
scene. Violent entry occurs when the offender enters the object of
the unnatural way and usually, he is more likely to step on objects,
rubbish, etc. Usually provides a greater opportunity to find clues than
if the crime scene where the normal entry occurred, such as the door.
Trace locations should also include the outer areas of the site
immediately around the point of entry, such as flower beds,
verandas, balconies, etc.
x Path of transit – the path that the offender has passed through the
scene is depending on the nature of the crime scene, the identification
of the point of entry, the place of the offense, and the point of
departure. Wherever the passage is obvious, traces of human
locomotion and bare and worn legs should be carefully sought (dusty
and dirty surfaces - cellar, back porch).
x Route of departure – may be difficult to identify. Often traces can be
found around trees, bushes, where the perpetrator hid. Areas covered
with snow, soft soil, or sand can provide an extensive amount of
traces of human locomotion and bare and worn feet.
Immediately after finding the track, its technical and tactical value is
preliminarily evaluated. Only tracks or sets of tracks that show significant
and appropriate general and specific identifiers shall be provided.
The principles of providing trasological tracks are general and special. The
general principles define those aspects that must always be observed,
regardless of the type of trasological track. The principles that are important
only for a certain type of trasological track are special. Failure to comply
with even one of the principles below will run the risk of reducing the
quality of the secured track, which will lead to the impossibility of the group
and thus rather individual identification. Equally important, the track would
lose its tactical and criminal law significance.
General principles of providing trasological tracks:
a) Completeness - we provide all known tracks at the crime scene, as

only a forensic expert has the power to decide whether the track is
usable or not.
b) Integrity - we always provide the entire track, never just a part of it.
c) Speed - as tracks are affected by internal and external influences that
affect their quality and usability, they must be secured as quickly as
possible, considering the precision of securing.
d) Track protection - closely related to the principle of speed. The track
must be suitably protected from damage until it is secured and
handed over for examination.
e) Accuracy of documentation of the place of detention - is especially
important for the elaboration of an expert opinion, but also for other
activities of bodies active in criminal proceedings (forensic
experiments, verification of the testimony on the spot, repeated and
additional search of the crime scene, etc.).
8 Chapter One
f) Priority of nondestructive securing methods - if it is possible to apply

nondestructive securing (in nature photography), it always takes
precedence over destructive (casting, removal of a dactyloscopic
foil, electrostatic scanning etc.).
g) Priority of search and seizure - first, tracks should be found and
secured at the entrance to the crime scene and on the floor (ground).
The special principles of securing trasological tracks are:
a) If possible, we always ensure the track in nature.

b) We always, without distinction, provide tracks by scaling using
appropriate photographic highlighting methods. Because the film
may be damaged, we take the picture twice.
c) Pour the plastic tracks or, on the surface track, remove them with a
dactyloscopic foil.
Examination of bare feet and footwear footprints - a trasological track

created by a person may contain not only information important for the
possibility of determining group affiliation. It may also enable individual
identification of a man or footwear according to footprints of the bare foot,
resp. worn legs, but may further include substantiated information about the
offender's movement behavior and some of its somatic properties. The
projection of them on the track is not excluded due to the various mechanical
connections between the track-forming object and the track-receiving
object.
When examining and evaluating bare feet, it is necessary to consider some

negative factors that affect the outcome of the examination. These are in
particular:
a) relativity of the dimensions of the bare foot;

b) differences in area and volume track values;
c) the mechanism of track formation (free walking, running, jumping,
etc.).
Examining the track of bare feet usually allows only the determination of
group affiliation, especially in cases where the track reflects and examines
only the shape and size of the foot and its parts. From this point of view,
grouping and different finger shaping are of considerable importance. All
elements of the foot and its parts which have been reflected in the track must
be measured with each other accurately. The acquired foot shapes and
dimensions are group identification marks. In summary, they can make it
possible to create a closer characteristic of the person who created the

researched track.
Examining footwear tracks involves determining group affiliation in the

first stage, in some cases it is not always an easy task. In some cases, it is
difficult to distinguish between men's and women's footwear, as they often
match size and patterns. Sometimes the difference between the bottom of
men's shoes and women's shoes is significant, e.g. in width, heels, finer
patterning, etc.
Figure 1-4. 3D trasological trace (Straus, Porada et al, 2004, p. 38)
In the process of determining the group affiliation of footwear, knowledge

of basic production technology, and footwear records (catalogs),
photographs of sole patterns are used. Often no track is required to identify
a group of shoes. The size of the footwear can also be determined according
to the track of the patterned block and especially the monolithic heel.
According to the tracks of the designs of these types of shoe soles, it is
possible to determine relatively accurately, the size, but usually also the
10 Chapter One
type, shape of the shoe sole and upper. According to the track created by the
smooth sole, the determination of group affiliation is only possible
approximately. For heel tracks, the so-called sowing (i.e., distance and
location of circular holes for nails) can be used, which is proportional to the
size of the heel.
The size of the secured track cannot be compared with the shoe size number
without appropriate corrections. It depends on the mechanism of the track
and the properties of the footwear as well as the properties of the material
in which the track is formed. It also depends on the type of footwear that
created the track. In most cases, the track is slightly larger (depending on
the size of the shoe framing). The differences can be 1, 2, or more
centimeters, which corresponds to one to four size numbers.
The technical value and quality of the group identification marks exhibited
by the size and shape of the sole and heel and their designs, as well as the
method of attachment, are decisive for determining the group membership
of the footwear.
Individual identification of footwear is based on the existence of specific

features reflected in the track of the micro relief of the surface structure of
the sole, a sole or heel. The specific character of these features lies, in
essence, in the individually unique, completely random, and incomparable
unevenness of the bottom surface of each individual shoe.
The forensic technical examination of footwear is an examination of the

macrostructure of the surface of the bottom of the footwear. This is due to
the fact that the material of the base (various types of soil, mud, linoleum,
asphalt, etc.) does not have such properties that it can accept or reflect the
microstructure of the relief of the shoe sole.
Unevenness in the external construction of the shoe sole surface is caused

by the manufacture, use, and repair of the shoe. Production-specific features
can only occur in footwear with a rubber rolled bottom. Specific features
given for use are created by trampling, sitting, penetration of various objects
into the bottom of the shoe, etc. Specific features given by the repair are
created when attaching the sole, bollard, repairing the sole, sole, heel, etc.
The track of a shoe, i.e., each individual track, contains certain information
about the shoe that created that track. It therefore contains features that can,
in a favorable case, lead to individual identification of the footwear.
However, already in the first phase of the examination (until a piece or pair
of shoes to be compared has been secured), it is possible to determine not
only the group belonging to the shoes, but also certain information about
the person who wore these shoes (under normal circumstances) - height,
albeit statistically on average, i.e. regardless of individual disproportionate
variations.
When evaluating the tracks of a locomotion trail (walking, running,

jumping, or a combination), it should consider that the walking of some
people is not regular, but has an individual character, which is displayed in
the trail. Therefore, whenever a continuous set of walking tracks is provided
at the crime scene, due care must be taken.
To evaluate the walking path, it is necessary to carefully measure and draw

in particular:
a) length of the track (shoe or foot imprint);

b) width of the track (shoe or foot imprint);
c) step length (this is the longitudinal distance of the heel of the right
and left foot in the walking direction);
d) the length of the two-step (it is the longitudinal distance of the heel
of the right and right foot in the direction of walking or the left and
left foot);
e) track angle (angle between the axes of the foot and the longitudinal
direction of walking).
According to research in recent years, the biomechanical content of

trasological tracks of locomotion can be decoded in bipedal locomotion
tracks. The biomechanical content of trasological tracks created during
bipedal locomotion can be understood as the reflection of some biological
properties of a person and his movement behavior in the track created during
mechanical interaction with the substrate.
Examination of tire tracks and various tracks created by means of transport

- examination of tire tracks is performed to determine the group affiliation
of wheeled vehicles, most often cars. It is based on the existence of
characteristic identifiers which are common to a certain type (group) of tires
and a certain type (group) of cars.
The individual identification of wheeled vehicle tires depends on the

existence of specific features reflected in the surface or volume footprint of
the tire tread surface of a particular vehicle, such as a car.
The bearer of group identification marks is the tread pattern of the tire
treads regarding the structural location of individual wheels in connection
12 Chapter One
with the wheelbase and track of the car. The following identification
features are decisive for the group determination of the membership of
wheeled vehicles with tires: tire dimensions, tread shape and dimension,
track, and wheelbase of the vehicle.
The size of the tire indicates the width of the tire tread and its inner
diameter. Width and circumference, resp. tire diameters are important group
identifiers. They make it possible to determine the production dimensional
markings of the tire, which are typical for only a few types of cars. The
width of the tire shown in the track can be obtained by measuring the
distance from the edge of the pattern of one side to the edge of the pattern
of the other side. To determine the circumference of the tire, it is necessary
to look in the track on a continuous route for two consecutive marked
specific characteristics, such as a certain type of tire damage. The
determined tire size is then determined from the measured tire circumference
dimension with the help of specialized catalogs.
The size of the basic tread shape is always proportional to the size of the
tire. There is a so-called ribbing (gap) between the individual figures of the
pattern. The dimension of the basic shape of the tread changes. The tread
pattern is created according to precise matrices, so all products in the series
are identical. The dimensions of the ribbing depend on the tire pressure, the
weight of the load, and the condition of the road. Therefore, the dimensions
of the ribbing vary according to the specific conditions.
The wheelbase of cars is different. It is determined in feet by measuring the

distance from the center of the right wheel track to the center of the left
wheel track. In the case of lorries, if they are equipped with twin wheels,
the track gauge is determined by measuring from the center of the space
between the pair of wheels. Most cars have different front and rear
wheelbases. The wheel tracks are best detected in a slight bend, when the
tracks of the front and rear wheels do not overlap. The wheelbase of the
vehicle does not have a constant value. It depends on the vehicle load,
direction and speed of travel, vehicle wear, and whether it is a vehicle with
a fixed or split axle. Therefore, when determining the size of the track after
measuring specific values, it is necessary to take into account a certain
tolerance. The size of the track in connection with the shape of the tread and
the dimensions of the tire makes it possible to narrow down the circle of
inspected objects to the smallest number.
The most important group identification feature is the wheelbase of the

vehicle, i.e., the distance between the front and rear axles. This is because
almost every type of vehicle has a different wheelbase size. The possibility
of detecting the wheelbase is only given when turning backwards or during
heavy braking, when the locking tracks of the front and rear wheels of the
car are created.
In the case of reversing rotation, the wheelbase is determined by measuring

the distance from the leading edges of the marked front and rear wheel
tracks. The measured values can be different between the right and left
wheels. The measurement is always subject to a certain error.
In the latter case, for the measurement, which is analogous to the previous
example, the completed locking tracks of the front and rear wheels are
authoritative.
When evaluating the wheelbase, deviations can be taken into account, which
can be caused by material wear, various chassis repairs or suspension
properties, and the degree of tire inflation. All listed features of group
affiliation make it possible to determine the type and type of cars in
summary.
The individual identification of wheeled tires is based on the quantity and

quality of irregularities in the surface structure of the tire tread, which could
not have arisen in terms of spatio-temporal arrangement of two or more
objects of a similar type used in different conditions. These characters
shown in the track are therefore naturally considered random and non-
repeatable characters. The origin of their origin and their uniqueness
individually, but especially in their summary, are unique to the individual
surface of a single, specific tire tread.
Specific identification features arise by:
a) detrition when the tire is used;

b) various repairs.
The features caused by tire detrition are different. They can be cuts, markets,
cracks, or grooves. Furthermore, various smaller objects, such as nails,
stones, fragments of glass, metal, etc., can be pressed into the tire.
The features caused by the repair of the tire tread are local and given by the
individual repair during the use of the tire. They occurred, for example, as
a result of a puncture or other damage to the tire.
14 Chapter One
Examination of the tracks of other motor vehicles with tires does not
allow as detailed a group delimitation of objects as is generally possible in
determining the group affiliation of an automobile. For these vehicles, there
are not so many group identification features (structural-technical elements)
that, according to their reflection in the tracks, would allow to narrow the
range of inspected objects to a certain group (motorcycles, tractors, etc.).
Depending on the size of the tires, the shape, and the size of the tread, it is
not possible to determine exactly the type or type of vehicle.
For some means of transport, e.g., single-track, the possibility of group

identification features, such as gauge (not applicable) and wheelbase,
cannot be used. In the case of agricultural vehicles, one type of tire is
commonly used on the wheels of different types of machinery, which makes
it difficult or even impossible to determine the group membership of a
particular means of transport.
Under certain conditions, the examination of tracks created by means of

transport is of tactical importance. It is mainly a comprehensive and
consistent evaluation of the track, respectively on-site tracks, as they can
help to determine the direction of travel, the approximate speed of the
vehicle, and, where appropriate, the type of vehicle.
The determination of the group affiliation of tracked vehicles depends on

the group identification features, such as: the length and width of the belt
and the dimensions of the belt links. According to these features, the given
type of tracked vehicle can be determined.
The length and width of the belt are determined similarly to tires. The length
of the belt is determined by measuring the distance between the repetitive
features displayed in the belt track. The width of the belt is given by the
distance from the outer edge to the inner edge of the same belt. The
dimensions of the belt link are determined by longitudinal and transverse
measurements.
Individual identification of the tracked vehicle is possible on the basis of

specific features reflected in the track. These characters are of different
shapes. They are caused by wear, deformation of the belt, or by replacing
individual belt links.
The determination of the group affiliation of wheeled vehicles with rubber

or metal rims is possible on the basis of group identification features such
as: the width of the rim tracks, the dimension of the outer circumference of
the rim and the track gauge of the vehicle. These characters can be used to
further characterize the vehicle with metal rims. Due to the nature of these
vehicles, it is not possible to determine their form, shape, or purpose
according to the displayed tracks.
Individual identification of vehicles with rubber or metal rims can usually

be done very rarely, as the reflected traces in most cases show very few
usable specific features (e.g., the shape of the rim, weld, significant wear or
deformation of the rim, etc.).
The determination of the group affiliation of the sledge can usually be

performed only according to the displayed profiles and the width of the
sledges, their gauge and the sliding surface shown in the track. As with
determining the group membership of skis according to the reflected tracks
in the snow, there is only a limited possibility of using these tracks to determine
the group of these objects, respectively, for their closer characterization.
Individual identification of sledges and skis is practically limited to the

existence of only such peculiarities exhibited by sliding surfaces of sledges
and skis, such as objects in sledge fittings, places of random deformations
of sliding surfaces of sledges and skis, etc. These peculiarities can be
detected under certain conditions; quality, shape, and size, so that they can
be considered as specific features specific to only one specific object
(sledges, skis), which were reflected in the trail. In some cases, the tracks of
ski poles may also reflect specific features (e.g., features of various repairs
or modifications) that can be used for the forensic identification process.
Examination of tracks of objects of a similar type can lead to the

determination of individual identification, often there are tracks of the outer
ear lobe on the door, or tracks of gloves, teeth, and lips. These tracks are
examined by scoring, overlaying, or a combined view.
1.2 Biomechanical content of trasological traces

Trasological traces of bipedal locomotion are a typical representative of
traces that reflect the functional and dynamic properties of the acting object
(person). From these traces it is possible to decode the biomechanical
content. The biomechanical content of trasological traces is classified into
geometric, kinematic and dynamic features.
Geometric features of the biomechanical content of trasological tracks are

manifested mainly in the spatial arrangement of the track (track set) in the
length, the width and area of the track, in the depth (volume) of the plastic
16 Chapter One
track, and in the spatial relationships between tracks in the track set. The
basic characteristics of the geometric features of the biomechanical content
of trasological tracks include: length and width of footwear, length and
width of bare foot, length of right and left foot steps, length of right and left
step, left and right foot angle.
Among recent works that have broadened the so far sparse basis for the
analysis of the biomechanical content of tracks, enhancing the possibilities
of criminalistic identification by these means, the most notable is that by
Titlbach et al. The authors of this study have treated the question of the
existence of relationship, and their numerical expression, between the
dimensions of the soles of the feet and body height, between the dimensions
of soles and shoes, and between the sizes of shoes and body height. The
statistical analysis of this problem involved the following parameters: body
height, mass of the body, length of the sole of the foot, width of the sole,
shoe length, shoe width, shoe type, age. The individual geometric somatic
parameters were measured either by common anthropometric methods or
by means of a special device for the measurement of the dimensions of the
soles of feet. These experimental data provided the basis for an evaluation
of the statistical characteristics of the random variables involved. i.e., their
mean values, standard deviations, and the average error in the mean.
Furthermore, the length/width ratio of the sole, the difference between the
length of the sole and that of the shoe, and the difference between the width
of the sole and that of the shoe were computed. Statistical treatment of the
final set of data yielded information that seemed to indicate the following
correlations:
1. Body height depends on both the length and the width of the sole.
2. With increasing body height, the length of the sole also increases
within a certain scatter band with the average rate of this increase
being 2.5 cm/cm (increment of height against that of the length of
the sole).
3. A simultaneous correlation exists between body height and the width
of the sole, the ratio between the increments in body height and the
width of the sole being 4.5 cm/cm.
The correlations defined above allowed an empirical relationship to be con-

stituted for the prediction of the probable body height of an average
individual depending on data on the dimensions of the soles of his feet in
the form of
vT = 3.1 dn + 4.0 sn + 53 (cm),

where vT represents the body height (cm), dn is the sole lengths (cm), and
sn is the width of the sole (cm).
The probabilistic relationship between body height and shoe size was deter-
mined in an analogous manner. This correlation can be expressed as
vT = 2.6 do+ 4.3 so + 55 (cm),
where do is the shoe size (cm) and so stands for the width of the shoe (cm).
These relationships allow the probable body height of an individual to be

evaluated on the basis of numerical data on the dimensions of his feet or on
the shoe size. The scatter band of these two correlations’ lies within the + 1
cm limits to the mean curve, which represents acceptable accuracy for
practical purposes.
In subjectively normal walking, the average stride length of 70 cm was

experimentally determined and the length of the two-step in the same type
of walking is 142 cm. Analytical dependencies vary around these statistical
averages as follows:
a) step length (dK) – body height (vT)

x up to 70 cm step length, the relationship applies
vT = 0.297 dK + 153
x over the 70 cm stride length, the relationship applies
vT = 0.315 dK + 163
b) length of two steps (dDK) – body height (vT)
x up to 142 cm, the two steps length, the relationship applies
vT = 0.157 d + 151
x over 142 cm, the two steps length, the relationship applies
vT = 0.175 dDK + 155
If at the crime scene a set of at least four consecutive tracks is found, there
are several ways to determine the height of the person who created the
tracks. It is possible to use the dimensions of the footprint, or it is
appropriate to use the relationships given above. If we want to obtain the
body height as accurately as possible, it is suitable to use more independent
methods. The accuracy of the calculation and prediction of body height can
be set to ± 2 cm. The highest accuracy is achieved using the maximum
number of input parameters.
18 Chapter One
Several functional dependencies exist for these needs. According to

experimental verification, the following two ways of determining body
height from walking parameters appear to be optimal:
Figure 1-5: Stride length and two-step locomotion
1. determination of body height from stride length (dK) and two-step

(dDK)
vT = 0.153 dK + 0.083 dDK + 155.5 (cm)
2. determination of body height from stride length, two-step length,

footprint length (dDO) and footprint width (dSO)
vT = 0.076 dK + 0.041 dDK + 1.35 dDO + 2.4 dSO + 101.25 (cm)
The mentioned functional dependences apply to subjectively natural

walking on a flat surface without external influence. From the known
equations, we can present a suitable number of different equations for all
variants of input variables for the needs of criminalistic practice with a
suitable mathematical combination. The body height of the offender can be
calculated according to the measured parameters of the locomotion path and
the accuracy of the calculation depends only on the number of measured
input parameters.
For the need of wider use of the indicated dependencies, a large number of
experiments were performed for walking in different dispersion environments,
in different substrates and in different topographic conditions. For all types
of experiments, the step of stride length and two-step length of body height
were significant. All measurements showed a higher correlation of the
length of two-step to body height than the length of the step-to-to-body
height. Linear regressions depending on two variables when walking in
different types of substrate are shown in the following table.
Table 1-1. Linear regression relations
Type of substrate Linear regression relations

plowed soil vT = 0.278 dK + 0.175 dDK + 134
snow vT = 0.248 dK + 0.194 dDK + 126
sand vT = 0.322 dK + 0.196 dDK + 118
slag vT = 0.384 dK + 0.218 dDK + 109
asphalt vT = 0.308 dK + 0.217 dDK + 119
Analogous significant relationships have been shown in the study of the

dependence of the length of the two-step and the length of the step on body
height, e.g., for running
vT = 0.379 dK + 0.161 dDK + 92
for walking just before running was found
vT = 0.178 dK + 0.086 dDK + 151
and for steady state running
vT = 0.380 dK + 0.190 dDK + 72
Four variables are important for predicting a person´ s body height from the
parameters of the walking path, namely, the length of the step, the two-step,
the length of the shoe trace, and the width of the shoe trace.
In addition to the geometric features of the biomechanical content of

trasological tracks, it is possible (with some probability) to decode the
kinematic features of trasological tracks, especially the speed of
locomotion. Determination of the locomotion speed is currently only
possible for movement on a flat, horizontal and rigid surface. From the basic
research, several possible expressions of locomotion rate are available. All
following formulas require knowledge of the value of the step length, or the
length of the jump in the run, which can be deducted from the walking path,
as well as knowledge of body height and lower limb length (measured from
the mat to the spina iliac anterior superior).
Precise determination of the locomotion speed based on the measured

parameters of the locomotion path:
20 Chapter One
a) walking speed
v (km·h-1) = 11.6 l – 11.61 hDK + 8.54
v (m·s-1) = 3.23 l – 3.14 hDK + 2.31
The above equations apply to walking speeds from 0.88 to 2.2 m·s-1.
b) running speed
v (km·h-1) = 11.35 l – 8.17 hDK + 6.79
v (m·s-1) = 3.06 l – 2.21 hDK + 1.83
apply to running speed from 2.22 m·s-1 to 3.58 m·s-1. After the start on the
first 30 meters, the stride length increases linearly.
A simpler basis, also suitable for indicative determination of the locomotion

rate of the subject, can be expressed as:
v (m·s-1) = 3.89 l – 1.41
v (km·h-1) = 14.01 l – 0.51
Both formulas apply to speeds from 0.83 m·s-1 to 2.7 m·s-1. In all cases, the
length of the lower limb and the length of the stride are set in meters.
Functional dependencies usable in criminalistic practice must include input

variables and such values that are directly and relatively accurately
measurable from the locomotion path. Such values are the dimensions of
the shoe trace and the length of the stride and two-step. Then it is possible
to express the value of the probable locomotion a speed (speed or running)
by one of the following equations:
walking speed
v = 9.314 dK – 2.226
v = 11.962 dK – 1.440 dDK – 1.784
v = 11.962 dK – 26.831 dDO – 34.613 dSO + 7.554
running speed
v = 5.761 dK – 5.055
v = 11.351 dK – 3.23 dDK + 3.905
v = 11.351 dK – 18.88 dDO – 24.35 dSO + 6.09
where v is the locomotion rate (m·s-1), dK is the step length (m), dDK is the
two-step length (m), dDO – footprint length (m), dSO – footprint width.
The prediction of the velocity according to the traces of locomotion can

expressed more precisely by an exponential or algebraic function. Formulas
used for estimating the frequency of walking steps are in the table.
Table 1-2. Frequency of walking steps
Author, year Formula

Sholz, 1953 f (steps/min) = (C1 v + C2)1/2
Dean, 1965 f (steps/min) = 63 v0,65
Grive-Gear, 1966 f (steps/min) = 64.8 . v0,57
௩
Cavagna-Margaria, 1966 f (steps/sec) = ,
଴.ଷ଺ଶା଴.ଶହ଻×௩
apply for v ¢ 0.83 m·s-1; 2.7 m·s-1 ²
The formulation for estimating the mean stride length for walking is
expressed in the following table:
Table 1-3. Estimating the mean stride length for walking
Author, year formula
l = 0.257 v + 0.362,
Cavagna, l – step length (m), v - speed (m·s-1),
Margaria (1966)average step length was 0.83 m, apply to speed 2.7
m/s
l = 0.0836 v + 0.97 hT – 0.714
Van der Walt l – step length (m), v - speed (km·h-1), hT – lower limb
Wyndham (1973) length (m), average step length was 0.88 m, apply
to speed 2.2 m/s
଴.ହଶ଼ି଴.ଷଵ௩
݈ = ሺ଴.ହିଵ.ଵ
௩ሻ×௧೚
Zaciorskij
Kajmin (1978) l – step length (m), v - speed (m·s-1),
to – support time (s)
22 Chapter One
At a running speed of 2.22 to 3.58 m·s-1 applies to the average step length
the formula
dK = 0.0881 v + 0.720 hT – 0.598,
where dK is the step length (m), v is the average running speed (km·h-1) and
hT is the lower limb length (m).
One of the important information about the biomechanical content of

trasological traces is, in addition to body height, the information about the
dynamic features of the biomechanical content of trasological traces. For
the needs of criminology, it tis the information about the body weight. The
weight of the body together with the body height give a precondition for
creating an idea of the probable somatotype of the person who created the
footprints.
For the prediction of the person´s body weight, the bare foot plantogram or
bare footprints in a dispersive environment are determined. The footprint of
the area trace can be clearly delimited by external tangents. These tangents
define four touch points on the plantogram. With a large range of
measurements, it was found that only cross-sections in front of the foot
correlate with body weight. The correlation of this dimension with body
weight was found to be 0.72.
For the needs of forensic practice, it is possible to calculate the probable

body weight from selected significant plantogram parameters.
For a set of men, we can express several relations for the calculation of
weight (h), e.g.
h = 4.2 p + 5.4 x5 - 90.5,
h = 21.6 x2 + 2.6 x4 - 61.2.
For the set of women, similar equations for calculating the probable weight
apply, e.g.:
h = 3.8 p + 8.3 x5 - 94.0,
h = 5.7 x2 + 2.9 x4 + 19.2.

These relationships predict body weight with an accuracy of plus or minus

4 kg. By further modification, we obtain usable equations for the input
variables, the result of the calculation of the probable body weight is more
accurate, according to the research data in tis based on a tolerance of plus
or minus 2.5 kg.
For the set of men apply:
h = 2.1 p + 10.8 x2 + 1.3 x4 + 2.7 x5 - 75.9
For the set of women apply:
h = 1.9 p + 2.8 x2 + 1.4 x4 + 4.2 x5 - 37.4.
The given equations are for input values measured in centimeters; the
weight of a person is obtained in kilograms. Research focused on the
dynamic features of biomechanical content has shown that body weight can
be predicted from selected parameters of the bare foot plantogram. The
current level of knowledge does not allow estimating the weight of the body
from the footprints of shoes, in tis possible only from the footprints of bare
feet. The calculation of body weight can be performed from four precisely
defined parameters measurable on the plantogram. These are three width
dimensions (x2, x4, x5) and one diagonal parameter (p).
These four dimensions show a significant relationship with body weight,

which is expressed in the table with correlation coefficients. Body weight
can be calculated according to a relatively simple linear regression. These
formulas are created for the input of all four variables, but it always depends
on which dimensions can be measured on the track. Body weight is most
accurate when all input variables are available.
Previous and current research shows that the footprint of the foot plantogram
is not only capable of determining the individual identification of a person,
but is an important information needed to predict a person´s weight. The
information obtained from the plantogram expands the overall biomechanical
content of trasological traces, apart from geometric and kinematic features.
These are so far the only important sources of dynamic features of the
biomechanical content of criminological tracks. It was shown that it is
possible to obtain essential information about the perpetrator even from a
single trasological trace.
24 Chapter One
Figure 1- 6. Plantogram with significant parameters

Figure 1-7. Dependence of body height on significant parameters

of the plantogram.
26 Chapter One
Figure 1-8. Several types of plantograms

(http://www.socea.cz/projekty/paloucek/material/TVM/13.pdf. [online]. In: [cit.
2019-05-17]. DOI: https://www.eobuv.cz/boty-brooks-launch-5-120266-1b-003-
black-teal-green-white.html).
Figure 1-9. Bar foot trace

([online]. In: [cit. 2019-05-17]. DOI: http://www.krimi-ltsezam.cz/cs/meritko-
plast-oboustr-trasolog-cernobile-30x15-cm).
1.3 Physics behind trasology

Impulse of force and momentum
Image the following situation: there is a box on the floor that someone is
pulling with a rope. The force exerted by the rope on the box is constant
over a period of time. We define:
‫ܫ‬Ԧ = ‫ܨ‬Ԧ ሺ‫ݐ‬ଶ െ ‫ݐ‬ଵ ሻ = ‫ܨ‬Ԧ ο‫ݐ‬

28 Chapter One
This is the so-called impulse of force. The impulse of a force in a given time
is a vector quantity. The unit is kgms-1. The numerical value can be written
as
‫ܨ = ܫ‬οt
Note:
The value of the impulse does not depend on whether and how the body
moves, or whether other forces act on them.
Significance of the force impulse:

ሬԦ
ο௩
Consider II. Newton´s law in the form ‫ܨ‬Ԧ = ݉ܽԦ, where ܽԦ = . Then ‫ܨ‬Ԧ =
௧
ሬԦ
ο௩ ο௣Ԧ
݉ . It folows ‫ܨ‬Ԧ = , ‫ܨ‬Ԧ ο‫ = ݐ‬ο‫݌‬Ԧ.
ο௧ ο௧
The change in momentum is equal to the impulse force.
If we know that some forces acted on a particle (mass point) from time t2 –
t1 with a constant resultant force ‫ܨ‬Ԧ , thus the momentum changed form ‫݌‬Ԧଵ to
‫݌‬Ԧଶ , then we can write
‫݌‬ ሬሬሬԦଵ = ‫ܨ‬

ሬሬሬሬԦଶ െ ‫݌‬ ሬሬሬԦሺ‫ݐ‬ଶ െ ‫ݐ‬ଵ ሻimpulse theorem for a mass point
Linear momentum of a system of particles
The momentum of a system of particles (in a certain frame of reference) is

defined as the sum of the momentums of all its parts
‫݌‬ଵ + ሬሬሬሬԦ
‫݌‬Ԧ = ሬሬሬԦ ‫݌‬ଶ + ‫ ڮ‬+ ሬሬሬሬԦ
‫݌‬௡
Forces acting on a system of particles
- Internal forces – these are the forces by which the individual parts of
the system act on each other
- External forces – forces by which the environment acts on the system
If we add all the forces acting on one selected mass point, we find that the
sum of internal forces will be zero (it follows from Newton´s 3rd law) and
the sum of external forces holds
ο‫݌‬Ԧ
‫ܨ‬௩௡ =
ሬሬሬሬሬԦ
ο‫ݐ‬
If ο‫ ݐ‬՜ 0
d‫݌‬Ԧ
‫ܨ‬Ԧ =
d‫ݐ‬
Conservation of linear momentum
If the sum of external forces acting on the system is zero (‫ܨ‬Ԧ vn = ሬ0Ԧ ), then ‫݌‬Ԧଶ
- ‫݌‬Ԧଵ = 0 ሬԦ , i.e. ‫݌‬Ԧଶ = ‫݌‬Ԧଵ . Since ‫݌‬Ԧଵ and ‫݌‬Ԧଶ are the momenta of the system at
two different moments, the momentum of the system is constant, i.e., ‫݌‬ ሬሬሬԦ =
const.
ሬሬሬሬሬሬሬሬሬሬሬԦ
ሬሬሬԦଵ + ሬሬሬሬԦ
‫݌‬ ‫݌‬ଶ + ‫ ڮ‬+ ሬሬሬሬԦ
‫݌‬୬ = const
ሬሬሬሬሬሬሬሬሬሬԦ
‫ݒ‬ଵ + ݉ଶ ሬሬሬሬԦ
݉ଵ ሬሬሬሬԦ ‫ݒ‬ଶ + ‫ ڮ‬+ ݉௡ ሬሬሬሬԦ
‫ݒ‬௡ = const
ሬሬሬሬሬሬሬሬሬሬԦ
The total momentum of an isolated system of mass points with mutual force
interaction does not change. The momentum of individual mass points can
vary.
Example – the impact of a human body on a surface
E.g., with an impact lasting approximately 0.006 s and the change in

momentum is 2 kgms-1, while the magnitude of the applied force is equal
to 3.3102 N.
When two rigid objects collide, the collision time is very short and the force
is large, on the contrary, when the object is soft, the interaction time is
prolonged, and the forces are reduced. Therefore, for example, falling into
sand or loam is less dangerous than falling onto concrete pavement.
If a body (human body) falls from a height h, its velocity of impact is equal
to v = ඥ2݄݃ , the corresponding change in momentum is mv = mඥ2݄݃ =
ଶ௛
FGට . After substituting into the relation for the calculation of the force
௚
௠
impulse, the given force can be expressed by the relation F=
ο௧
ඥ2݄݃.
It is generally assumed that the time of impact of the body on the surface is
10-2 s. The force that causes the bone to break is approximately 104 N·cm2.
30 Chapter One
If a person falls on his heels, the contact area is about 2 cm2. The
corresponding force is 2104 N. From the previous relation for calculating
the force, the corresponding height of the fall can now be expressed
ଵ ிο௧ ଶ
h=
ଶ௚
ቀ ௠ ቁ , m = 70 kg, 't =10-2 s, we have h = 41.6 cm.
Center of mass of a system of particles
A. Effect of external forces acting on the system:
‫ = ܨ‬σ ሬሬሬሬԦ
the resulting external force ሬሬሬԦ ‫ܨ‬௞ .
B. The behavior of the system under the action of this force can be described
by a single point, the so-called center of mass (= center of gravity)
Definition
The center of mass is a fictitious point assigned to a system that has the
following properties:
x It concentrates the weight of the entire system,

݉ ் = σ௡௞ୀଵ ݉௞ ,
x It moves as if it were affected by the resultant of external forces,
x Its momentum ሬሬሬሬԦ ‫ ்݌‬is therefore equal to the total momentum of the
system,
݉‫ݒ‬ሬሬሬሬԦ் = σ௡௞ୀଵ ݉௞ ሬሬሬሬԦ
‫ݒ‬௞ .
x The position of the center of mass relative to a system of mass points
does not depend on the choice of the reference system.
Calculation of the coordinates of the center of mass
Designation ‫ݎ‬ሬሬሬԦ் = position vector of the center of mass
ଵ ଵ + ሬሬሬሬԦ݉
‫ݎ‬ሬሬሬԦ݉ ‫ݎ‬ଶ ଶ + ‫ ڮ‬. + ሬሬሬሬԦ݉
‫ݎ‬௡ ௡
‫ݎ‬ሬሬሬԦ் =
݉ଵ + ݉ଶ + ‫ ڮ‬+ ݉௡
σ௡௞ୀଵ ‫ݎ‬ሬሬሬԦ௞ ݉௞
‫ݎ‬ሬሬሬԦ் =
σ௡௞ୀଵ ݉௞
This vector equation can be written using three scalar equations for each
coordinate
σ௡௞ୀଵ ݉௞ ‫ݔ‬௞
‫= ்ݔ‬
σ௡௞ୀଵ ݉௞
σ௡௞ୀଵ ݉௞ ‫ݕ‬௞
‫= ்ݕ‬
σ௡௞ୀଵ ݉௞
σ௡௞ୀଵ ݉௞ ‫ݖ‬௞
‫= ்ݖ‬
σ௡௞ୀଵ ݉௞
The center of gravity of the human body
The center of gravity of an upright human body with outstretched arms lies
at approximately 56 % of the height of the body measure from the heel of
the figure. The position changes with any movement of the body. The stable
position of the human body requires the center of gravity to lie above the
feet, otherwise the body falls. Assume a body height of 1.5 m from the feet
to the shoulders. A force ሬሬሬԦ
‫ܨ‬௩ will act on the body in the area of the shoulders.
The body falls – it rotates around one point (we assume it does not slip).
The magnitude of the moment of rotation can be written as
Mr = Fv x 1.5 Nm.
This moment of force will be counteracted by the moment caused by the

gravitational force of the human body of magnitude
MT = FG x 0.1 Nm.
If we consider the body weight 70 kg, then gravity force FG = 70 x 9.8 N =

686 N.
The magnitude of the momentum is MT = 68.6 Nm. The condition of a fall

in this case is given by the violation of the equality of both moments, i.e..
Mr = MT. From here you can determine the magnitude of the force Fv, that
will cause the body to fall
Mr = Fv x 1.5 MT = 68.6 Nm
Fv = 68.6 /1.5 N = 45.7 N
The human body can withstand greater force if it leans against the applied
force or stretches its legs.
32 Chapter One
Gravitation
The gravitational field mediates the force of the Earth on the bodies around
it by means of gravitational force. The source of the gravitational field is all
material objects. Newton´s law of gravitation describing the interaction of
bodies was derived on the basis of Kepler´s law.
The empirical basis for understanding the motions of the planets are
Kepler´s three laws.
The law of orbits: All planets move in elliptical orbits having the Sun at one
focus.
The law of areas: A line joining any planet to the Sun sweeps out equal areas
in equal time.
The orbiting body moves more rapidly when located in perihelion (close to
the central body), than if it is in the aphelium.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kepler%27s_laws_of_planetary_motion#/me
dia/File:Kepler-second-law.gif
Figure 1-10. Kepler´s law of areas

(http://fyzweb.cz/materials/srazky_a_rotace/k38.php)
The law of periods: The square of the period of any planet about the Sun is
proportional to the cube of the planet´s the mean distance from the Sun.
ܶଵଶ ܽଵଷ
=
ܶଶଶ ܽଶଷ
The law only applies if the mass of both planets is negligible relative to the
Sun.
The validity of Kepler´s law is not limited to planets but applies more or
less to the trajectories of all bodies that move in the radial gravitational field
of a central body with a mass many times greater than the mass of the
orbiting body (e.g., satellites and planet moons).
Newton´s law of universal gravitation

Every particle in the universe attracts every other particle with a force
directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance between them. The direction of
this force is along the line joining the particles.
The forces are an action and reaction, these forces are equal in magnitude
but oppositely directed.
Figure 1-11. Gravitation

(https://www.google.com/search?q=Newton%C5%AFv+grav.+z%C3%A1kon&rlz
=1C1GCEU_csCZ936CZ936&sxsrf=ALeKk03YibEx6WPenEp6_rG_tTfYYnSE
Kg:1613566592337&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiPyrr8-
_DuAhVw-ioKHb08A5cQ_AUoAXoECBAQAw&biw=1296&bih=900
#imgrc=FPF33KuBOnTz2M)
ሬሬሬԦ ሬሬሬԦ
‫ܨ‬௚ -‫ܨ‬ ௚
݉ଵ ݉ଶ
‫ܨ‬௚ = ‫ܩ‬
‫ݎ‬ଶ
Here G is the so-called gravitational constant. It is a universal constant that
has the same value for all pairs of particles.
34 Chapter One
G = 6.67 10–11 N m2 kg–2
We can also use this shape for nonhomogeneous objects of other shapes
than spheres, if their dimensions can be neglected due to their distance, i.e..
we consider them as mass points.
The space near the Earth´s surface where the effects of the gravity take
effect is called the gravity field. The force of gravity is not the same in all
parts of the Earth´s surface. This is due to the unequal magnitude of the
inertial force ‫ܨ‬௦ = ݉Zଶ ‫݉ = ݎ‬Zଶ ܴ௓ cos ߮. In the region of the equator is
the inertial force the largest and the gravity force is the smallest. The
opposite situation is on the poles (the inertial force is zero). By changing the
gravitational force, the gravitational acceleration also changes. An
agreement was determined between the normal gravitational acceleration gn
= 9.80655 ms-1. Near the Earth we are talking about a homogeneous field
of gravity.
Movement of the Earth´s gravity field

Consider a particle located in the homogenous gravitational field of the
Earth, which is acted only by the gravitational force ሬሬሬሬԦ ‫ = ீܨ‬m݃Ԧ, where ݃Ԧ is
the gravitational acceleration. At time t = 0 we give the particle an initial
velocity ‫ݒ‬ሬሬሬԦ.
௢ The particle performs a compound motion – a uniform
rectilinear motion with the velocity ‫ݒ‬ ሬሬሬԦ௢ in the direction of the x-axes and a
free fall – a uniformly accelerated motion with acceleration ݃Ԧ in the
direction of the y – axes (vertical direction). In a general case, the initial
velocity vector ‫ݒ‬ሬሬሬԦ௢ makes an elevation angle D. with the x – axes. According
to the size of the angle D we recognize different types of throws:
x Throw vertically upwards D = 90°

x Throw vertical down and free fall D = - 90°
x Horizontal throw D = 0°
x Throw sloping upwards 90° ! D ! 0°
x Throw sloping down 0° ! D ! -90°
The motion is studied in the reference frame connected to the Earth´s

surface.
Throw vertically upwards

The motion is a compound of moving vertically upwards at an initial
velocity of a magnitude vo and a free fall. The initial velocity vector ‫ݒ‬ሬሬሬԦ௢ has
an opposite direction to the direction of the gravitational acceleration vector.
The movement upwards of the body is an uniformly slowed motion.
The velocity decreases until the top of the

trajectory, where it is zero. The body returns to the
Earth in a free fall.
The velocity at time t (upwards):
v v0 gt
Height at time t:
1 2
s v0 t gt
2
The greatest height that the body reaches is called
the height of the throw h. The velocity is zero at this
point and the ascent time is
v0
th
g
The height of the throw is
v02
h
2g
Figure 1-12. Throw vertically upwards
Horizontal throw
It is a compound movement, consisting of a movement in the horizontal
direction (in the direction of the x axis and the free fall. It is performed by a
body to which we give the initial velocity ሬሬሬԦ
‫ݒ‬௢ in the horizontal direction.
36 Chapter One
The trajectory of this movement is a part of a parabola with the vertices at

the point of throw. If we draw this parabola in a coordinate system with the
vertices at points x = 0; y = h, so the point B at which the body finds itself
at time t, has the coordinates:
‫ݒ = ݔ‬଴ ‫ݐ‬
1
‫ ݄ = ݕ‬െ ݃‫ ݐ‬ଶ
2
The maximum distance from the place of throw d (point D, in which x = d,
y = 0).
2݄
݀ = ‫ݒ‬଴ ඨ
݃
The trajectory of the motion depends on the size of the initial speed v0 and
the height h.
Figure 1-13. Horizontal throw

Oblique up throw motion

Motion with two components – the object is thrown with an angle to the
horizontal and a free fall (the vertical component of the velocity is at the
maximum height zero).
Figure 1-14. Oblique up throw
The initial velocity vector ‫ݒ‬ሬሬሬԦ௢ grips to the horizontal an elevation angle D.
The trajectory of motion is a parabola (only in vacuum), its peak is the
highest point of the trajectory. In air, the object moves along a ballistic curve
(due to the air resistance).
We can write:
‫ݒ = ݔ‬଴ cos ߙ
1 ଶ
‫ݒ = ݕ‬଴ ‫ݐ‬sin ߙ െ ݃‫ݐ‬
2
Distance of the throw:
ଵ
x = d and y = 0 ‫ݒ‬௢ ‫ ݐ‬sin ߙ െ ݃‫ ݐ‬ଶ = 0
ଶ
Time of impact:
38 Chapter One
ଶ௩೚
‫ݐ‬ௗ = sin ߙ.
௚
ଶ௩೚మ ௩೚మ
After substituting ݀ = ‫ݔ‬ௗ = ‫ݒ‬௢ ‫ݐ‬ௗ cos ߙ = sin ߙ cosߙ = sin 2ߙ.
௚ ௚
The time for reaching the maximum of the trajectory
vy = 0
௩೚ ୱ୧୬ ఈ
vy = vo sin D - gtv = 0, ‫ݐ‬௩ = .
௚
Maximum height:
1
‫ݒ = ݕ‬௢ ‫ݐ‬௩ െ ݃‫ݐ‬௩ଶ
2
‫ݒ‬௢ଶ sinଶ ߙ
݄=
2݃
The maximum height is reached for the elevation angle 45°.
Movement with air resistance

Therefore far, we have in our calculations neglected the resistive force
acting in the air on the movement of the object. It is easy to prove that the
magnitude of the resistive force is proportional to the velocity of the object
and the magnitude of its surface. The relation for the calculation of the air
resistance force was derived by I. Newton. The formula can be written as
Fo = C S v2,
where v is the velocity of the object due to the air, S is the surface of the
object perpendicular to the direction of motion, and C is the coefficient of
friction. The size of coefficient depends on the shape of the object. For the
human body is its value C = 0.88 kg·m3.
If we now study the fall of the human body, the equation of motion can be
written in the same form
ma = FG - Fo .
At the beginning of the fall, the velocity of the body is zero and the only
force that acts on the body is the force of gravity. As the velocity of the
falling body increases, the magnitude of the resistive force increases and the
magnitude of the force that imparts acceleration to the body decreases. If
the body falls from a sufficient height, the velocity reaches such a value that
the magnitude of the resistive force is equal to the magnitude of the
gravitational force. From this moment on, the body is no longer accelerated
and falls at a constant velocity. Since the force acting on the body is not
constant, the limiting velocity cannot be found by a simple algebraic
adjustment. However, you can proceed as follows. According to the
previous one applied
FG - Fo = 0
mg = C S v2
Speed limit:
ிಸ
vm = ට .
஼ௌ
If we substitute the value for the human body weighing70 kg and the size
of the effective area of 0.2 m2 in this relationship, we calculate the value of
the speed limit
ிಸ ଻଴ήଽ.଼
vm = ට = ට ms-1 = 62.4 ms-1 = 224 kmh-1
஼ௌ ଴.଼଼୶଴.ଶ
It follows that the limiting velocity of an object having a comparable density

and shape is proportional to ξ݈. This statement follows from the following
consideration:
FG (m) v l3, S v l2
௟య
vm vට మ =ξ݈
௟
It is therefore possible to estimate the height an animal can survive a fall.

For example, if a person is trained, he can jump from a height 10 m. In this
case, the person hits the ground at a velocity of ‫ = ݒ‬ඥ2݄݃ = 14 ms-1.
40 Chapter One
1.4 Walking and physics

During evolution, only very few modes of terrestrial movement of animals
have evolved. Undoubtedly, the most effective of these are walking and
running, moving using limb supports. Let us study the most common
movement, human walking, in terms of mechanics.
Walking differs from running in that at least one foot is in contact with the
surface at times. Assume that at the very beginning of the step, the right foot
is at the back and the left foot is ahead. The step begins with the right foot
bouncing off the ground and then the foot slightly bent flips forward. The
body performs an arch on the tense left leg. This moves the right foot
forward and the left foots backward. This movement repeats alternately with
the right and left foot. In the following text, we will understand the duration
of two consecutive steps as a walking period.
Mechanical work while walking

The horizontal motion of a body in a homogeneous gravitational field is a
typical example of primary and secondary school physics. In this case, no
work is done. However, one subjectively evaluates the amount of work done
by feeling tired, and therefore, for example, carrying a bag around the
classroom cannot convincingly demonstrate such movement. At the same
time, with the help of a very simple reasoning, we can show the need to
expend mechanical energy when walking, even without considering the
ubiquitous resistance forces.
Decisive for estimating the mechanical work performed while walking is

the movement of the center of gravity of the body, the trajectory of which
is schematically shown in Fig. 1-15. The center of gravity moves
approximately along a curve composed of parts of arcs and the energy
required to maintain this movement is done by the work needed to increase
the position of the center of gravity by the cant h.
A B
Figure 1-15. Movement of the center of gravity
In each step, therefore, we must supply the energy that we will not regain
when the center of gravity of the body subsequently decreases. From the
simple geometry (see Fig. 13) it follows directly
݀ ଶ
݄ = ݈ െ ඨ݈ ଶ െ ൬ ൰
2
where the meaning of the symbols is clear from the drawing.
Substituting typical values of l = 0.95 m, d = 0.80 m, we get h = 0.1 m,

which is about a tenth of the step length.
42 Chapter One
Figure 1-16. Diagram of the human body
The (so called) biomechanical principle states then when walking on a

horizontal surface, we must perform about 1/15 the necessary mechanical
work to lift the body in the vertical direction by the same distance. Our
simple estimation provides a slightly higher value, the movement of the
center of gravity is more complicated than indicated in Fig. 1-15 and the
number is actually smaller. When walking, the whole body moves in a
coordinated way, which effectively smoothest the trajectory of the center of
gravity, and, in addition, distributes mechanical power into more muscle
groups. The main contributors to this are:
1. Bending foot to the ankle. We bounce off the tip of the foot, which
prolongs the effective length of the foot at the final phase of the step,
and thus prolongs the step.
2. Shooting the pelvis. We always turn the pelvis upwards on the side
of the support leg, the rotation is maximal in position B from Fig.1-
15. This will reduce the maximum height of the center of gravity of
the body, and thus reduce the value of the cant. During a racing walk,
a significant rotation of the pelvis minimizes the undulation of the
trajectory of the center of gravity and the associated expenditure of
energy.
3. Limb movement. Stepping accompanied by the movement of the

hands shifts the center of gravity of the body upwards with respect
to the torso. Thus, in position A, we increase the minimum height of
the center of gravity and again decrease the height h.
Using the biomechanical principle, it is easy to estimate the average walking

power as the 1/15 the power required to climb vertically at walking speed.
Thus
ଵ ଵ ଵ
ܲ= ή‫ܨ‬ή‫= ݒ‬ ή݉ή݃ή‫= ݒ‬ ή 80 ή 10 ή 1.1 W ൎ 60 W,
ଵହ ଵହ ଵହ
where we count on walking speed ‫ = ݒ‬4 km · hିଵ = 1.1 ms-1.
The following table shows the average values of mechanical power at

different movements, and, for comparison, also the thermal power of a
person at rest.
Table 1-4. Mechanical power at different movements
human activity output

walking 60 W
running a marathon 300 W
run 1 500 m 500 W
run 100 m 1 200 W
thermal output at rest 80 W
It is interesting to compare walking with a sprint for 100 m. When walking

ten times slower, we give twenty times less power. Thus, walking is
approximately twice as efficient as running fast.
The vertical movement of the center of gravity and therefore also of the
eyes, is usually not even realized when walking. It will become clear, for
example, if we walk next to another pedestrian, so there will be a phase shift
S/2 between our steps. Try to estimate the cant value h of your step.
Activity
Glue foil to a mirror with drawn horizontal lines spaced, for example, by 2
cm. Position the mirror vertically, approximately at eye level. Walk towards
the mirror and observe through this foil the reflection of your eyes. From
44 Chapter One
the mutual apparent movement of the eye reflection and the orientation
lines, you can easily be convinced of the vertical movement of your eyes
and, with little attention, you can also estimate the size of h.
Walking velocity
From the point of view of mechanics, the swing of the foot forward sis and
the swing of a physical pendulum rotatable mounted in the hip joint.
Walking will be the most comfortable and least tiring if the frequency of the
step is close to the frequency of the leg´s own oscillations. To estimate this
frequency, assume that the swing of the foot is a harmonic motion, for the
period of which
‫ܬ‬
ܶ = 2ߨඨ
݉ή݃ήܽ
where J is the moment of inertia of the foot with respect to the axis of
rotation, a – distance of the center of gravity of the foot from the axis of
rotation.
The moment of inertia of the foot and the position of the center of gravity
with respect to the axis of rotation can only be estimated approximately. To
calculate the moment of inertia, assume that the leg is a homogeneous rod.
Its narrowing in the lower part is at least partially compensated by the foot,
which forms an additional weight at a great distance from the axis of
rotation. The center of gravity of the foot is approximately 40% of its length.
Under these assumptions for the period of natural (undamped) oscillations
we get:
ଶ
1 ଶ + ݉ ቀ݈ቁ
݈݉ ଶ 0.95ଶ
ܶ = 2ߨ 12
ඩ 2 = 2ߨඨ ݈ = 2ߨඨ s
݉ή݃ήܽ 3ή݃ήܽ 3 ή 10 ή 0.4 ή 0.95
ൎ 1.8 s
We have used Steiner´s theorem to calculate the moment of inertia J. With

an average stride length of 0.8 m, the walking velocity would be 3.2
km·h-1, close to the common velocity of slow and comfortable walking. If
we want to speed up our walking, we must speed up the swing of the leg by
the strength of our muscles, which requires an effort that is disproportionate
to the increase in velocity. Doubling your walking velocity requires more

than double your muscle power.
Why do we wave our hands while walking?

Waving the hands, as mentioned earlier, increases the position of the center
of gravity at the moment of maximum stepping, and thus reduces the actual
value of the cant h. Both upper limbs make up about 10 % of the body
weight and by deviating them 30 %, we increase the height of the center of
gravity by about 5 % of the previously calculated value h.
In fact, the movement of the hand also requires the work of muscles, but
when waving our hands, we involve other muscle groups, min activity, and
thus we help to relieve the muscles of the legs.
A small smoothing of the trajectory of the center of gravity is not the only
reason for the movement of the hands. Waving the hands and possibly also
turning the upper part of the torso compensates the momentum of the legs
relative to the vertical axis of the body. The oscillating movement of the
legs during walking is related to the momentum, which, if the body was
isolated system, would have to be compensated by the rotational movement
of the whole torso or by the movement of the hands in antiphase with the
movement of the legs. Of course, our body is not isolated system when
walking, so we can walk completely stiffly without any movement of the
torso or hands. The torso is then kept at rest by the frictional force between
the feet and the surface and the associated moment of force. However, the
moment of the frictional force torsionally strains our lower limbs and makes
such gait very uncomfortable.
Mechanical work and fatigue

The human body, like the bodies of other animals, is a complex system and
therefore the results of simple mechanical considerations cannot be fully
applied. Just two examples:
1. The tensioned spring does not do a work, but the tensioned muscle
gets tired. When mechanical work should be done, it is necessary to
move the body while applying force. A tensioned and fixed spring
does not do any mechanical work, but just standing there (a person)
is going. From the point of view of the release of mechanical energy,
46 Chapter One
in tis indifferent whether we are standing with tense legs or squatting.

However, it tis more advantageous to use strong skeletal supports
than to keep the gravity of the body by the tense of muscles. Walking
downhill will get the person tired, even if the body´s center of gravity
is constantly decreasing.
2. A muscle works more economically when it produces less power.
With low power, muscle regeneration occurs in the muscle at the
same time, so that a person is able to do more work with low power
over a long period of time than with a large effort concentrated in a
short time interval. For example, on a long climb, a slow steady pace
is more advantageous than a fast ascent with frequent breaks.
Why doesn´t have a human wheel?

Wheel rolling is a very efficient way to move. Low rolling friction and the
ability to convert accumulated potential energy into kinetic energy
(downhill riding) are the undeniable advantages of moving on a wheel
(bicycle), so the wheel has become an absolutely dominant mode of land
transport for technical civilization. Nevertheless, for the nature is a wheel
unknown. Are good reasons why evolution did not create a wheel:
a) Effective movement with wheels is possible only on a sufficiently

flat surface and in a loose rugged environment it this completely
unsuitable.
b) The technical solution is very difficult, so it is no wonder that it has
not been mastered by nature. For example, how would we solve the
axis of rotation, the supply of blood to vessels and nerves to the
rotating part, what muscle groups would drive the wheel, and how?
Does a human really have not wheels?

The answer to this, at first glance an absurd question, may not be
unambiguous if we compare the mechanics of walking with the rolling of a
wheel:
Table 1-5. Mechanics of walking
Rolling of a wheel Walk

The center of gravity The movement of the center of gravity is only
remains at a constant slightly undulating.
height.
The contact area is at The contact area is at rest against the surface.
rest on the surface.
If we compare the energy consumption when walking with a sliding the

body on a surface, we find that walking is equivalent to sliding two surfaces
with a coefficient of friction f = 0.07. This value is lower than, for example
the friction between two steel surfaces (f = 0.1). Our limbs therefore allow
us not only to walk with small energy consumption in a difficult terrain, and
to climb fences, climb trees, and swim. (Šteigler, 2001)
CHAPTER TWO
BIOMECHANICS OF FALLS
Introduction
The fall of the human body from the height is based principally on the
physical nature of the body's body litter. It is a composite motion, consisting
of moving in a horizontal direction (in the x-axis direction) and a free fall.
It carries the body to which we assign the initial velocity in the horizontal
direction. Trajectories of motion are part of the parabola with the top in the
throwing spot. The length of the litter depends on the initial velocity v0 and
the height h from which the body was thrown. In the case of biomechanical
evaluations of falls from a height, it is necessary to strictly rely on the laws
of physics. For objective assessment of factors affecting the course of the
fall of the body and the impact position, it is necessary to take into account
the conditions under which the body contact was lost at the starting point.
The fall of the body is determined at the moment when body contact with
the pad is lost.
For forensic solutions to fall biomechanics, it is necessary to define the basic

classification of falls and define some terminological problems of injury and
traumas arising from falls from a height. Depending on the height of the fall,
the falls can essentially be divided into three groups, namely, a drop from a
stand, a fall from a height, and free fall. For Forensic Biomechanics, the
most important are the drops from a height and the falls from standing.
An objective solution to the question of height and type of fall is possible in

principle in two ways. On the one hand, it is possible to create an optimal
mathematical model and a theoretical simulation of the fall trajectory and
body position at impact. Or maybe the second way, experimenting and
simulating a fall with a suitable dummy that will meet the characteristics of
the human body. This dummy can be dropped from a suitable height and to
assess the conditions of their own fall and the impact conditions. For the
gain of serious scientific knowledge, it is then the optimal comparison of
Biomechanics of Falls 49
theoretical simulations with experimental data on the fall of the

biomechanical dummy.
A study was published in the literature that dealt with 30 cases of death due
to a fall from a height. Information on the injury, including the height of the
fall and the location of the body from the base of the building (horizontal
distance) was obtained from police investigation files. Further inquiries
were made of relatives and interceptors. The height of the fall and the
distance of the body's impact were confirmed by measuring personally at
the crime scene, for each case being studied personally (Kiran Kumar,
Srivastava 2013).
Falls have been reported, for example, in one case, the father kept his baby
in his arms on the balcony of his house when the child slipped out of his
arms while trying to save it from falling from the balcony. In another case,
a 10-year-old boy in a children's home slid on the railing along the staircase
when he fell from a height of 5.1 meters. A thief climbed the eaves on the
patio of the house and was revealed by a lady who slept on the terrace. When
the shout started, the thief tried to hurry down the same way back and fell
from a height of 14.4 meters.
In most cases, the victim fell from a height of less than 10 meters (66.6 %).
A fall of more than 20 meters was registered in just 5 cases (16.5 %). In
most cases the victim fell near the building (76.6 %) and 1 m from the base
of the building.
Only in one case the body was found 8 meters from the building in which
the thief jumped from the terrace (4th floor). To escape the police, he made
a short-jump jump. The majority of fatal deaths occurred in adult men aged
21-50 years. Most of the falls were accidental from balconies or terraces.
The most common cause of death after impact on the ground was
craniocerebral head injury.
2.1 Biomechanical classification of falls

In this chapter the biomechanical solution of falls will be discussed, both
from a height and falls of a person from a standing position on a solid
surface. The aim of the study is to analyze the size if a mechanical stress of
the organism. We will also provide the calculation of the critical limit for
fatal destruction of the organism, or determination of physical conditions of
short-term survival, onset of unconsciousness, etc. To solve this question it
50 Chapter Two
is necessary to define the classification of falls from a height and describe

the mechanism of injury arising from impact on the surface.
From the point of view of biomechanics, it is possible to classify the fall of

a person into a variety of categories. Only two of them. Theory distinguishes
mainly from a standing down, a fall from a height and a free fall. This
division is logically based on the specifics of the different factors that act
on individual cases in the course of the fall. Stalling occurs when the body
is tipped over a tilting edge formed by a line that passes through a flat
footrest. The body then falls to the front or back. In these cases the air
resistance values are absolutely marginal and the height of fall of individual
parts of the body is different. The height from which the head falls on the
head is naturally the largest when the upright body falls, the height from
which the lower body parts fall, then decreases proportionately. The most
common task of Forensic Biomechanics in relation to standing falls is to
determine whether the fall was spontaneous or whether it was caused by
stroke. A fall from a height occurs when the body is on a raised floor with
respect to the plane, and when the body flips around the tipping edge and
releases it from the pad and then falls. Depending on the presence of the
applied forces and their size, the body moves either through the parabola,
the vertical, in exceptional cases the general curve. These are falls from
relatively small heights, i.e., heights up to 150 meters.
Throughout the fall, motion of the body is evenly accelerated, depending on

the gravity constant, while the air resistance can be neglected.
As a fall, it is called the fall of a body from high heights over one hundred
and fifty meters. The fall of the body corresponds to a certain point of the
model of equally accelerated motion, so its speed is constantly increasing
until it reaches its maximum. Experimentally, air resistance stabilizes the
vertical velocity at falls from a height that is greater than 152 m. Then the
air resistance equals the gravitational force FG = mg, and the speed of body
movement is no longer increased.
In addition, it is possible to classify falls according to whether the body is

inactive or active in fall or fall. In passive falls the body is at rest before
leaving the support, and its fall is essentially determined by gravitational
acceleration only. In case of active falls, the body is in the fall and at the
moment of detachment from the pad in motion and besides the gravitational
acceleration it is further accelerated by other forces. These forces are created
either by the person's own active activity or by the action of other subjects,
most often by the other person. The course of the fall depends mainly on the
action and orientation of the force-acting vector and on how its acceleration
is added.
The course of the fall is determined by the release of the body from the pad.
From this point on, the body can take up either the vertical or horizontal
position until the moment of impact, and it can also rotate during the fall.
Rotation can occur in both passive and active falls. Its presence depends on
various factors, but most often on the position of the center of gravity of the
body when uncovering from the pad and on the size, direction and location
of the force applied, especially if these forces act on or outside the center of
gravity of the body. If there are other obstacle-forming bodies, such as parts
of terrain, buildings, balconies, vehicles, etc., there is a so-called cascade
collapse that causes the body to burst and change its path. The body is thus
given secondary rotation. Impacted by fall, the fall may be slow. The body's
impact on the ground mostly due to a strong impact on a certain part of the
body occurs, depending on the height from which the body falls, to
variously serious injuries. The first contact of the body after falling with the
washer is called the primary impact. At the site of primary impact, the
human body usually has a very high dynamic component of the force vector
that is given by the impact velocity, body mass, and mechanical properties
of the impact area. The subsequent impact of other parts of the body is
referred to as secondary impact. With secondary impact, the lower impact
force usually acts on the incident body part because the largest energy has
already been absorbed at the primary impact site.
The vertical position of the body during the fall occurs most often to the
impact on the legs (especially the heels), the knee, buttocks or the head. If
the body falls horizontally, the impact on the front, back or side of the body
is considered. The extent of the injury depends on the impact force, which
is given by the body speed at the time of impact, the contact surface of the
body and the washer, the mechanical properties and the shape of the impact
area, the angle of incidence and the nature of the tissues affected by the
impact. The force of a blow to the destruction of the organism is, in addition
to the factors mentioned above, such as body mass and its impact rate, also
dependent on the length of the time period during which the body speed is
zero. It follows that the harder the impact area, the greater the destructive
effect will occur.
According to the height of the fall, the falls can be divided into three groups:
52 Chapter Two
Figure 2-1. Classification of falls (Straus 2012)
1. A fall from a standing position occurs when the body is tilted

around the tilting edge, which is formed by a straight line passing
through the surface of the foot support. In these cases, the body falls
on the abdomen or back, and for biomechanical analysis, the hit to
the head and the associated consequences are dominant.
2. A fall from a height occurs when the body is on a raised surface,
flips around the tipping edge, and a fall occurs. When falling, the
center of gravity of the body moves along a parabola or vertically.
The fall of the body is from such a height that throughout the fall,
the body is accelerated by the weight constant and the resistance of
the air can be practically neglected, its size is minimal. The
movement of the body is a uniformly accelerated movement
throughout the fall. These are most often falls from the windows of
buildings.
A fall from a height occurs when the body is on a raised floor with
respect to the plane, and when the body flips around the tipping edge
and releases it from the pad and then falls. Depending on the
presence of the applied forces and their size, the body moves either
through the parabola, the vertical, in exceptional cases the general
curve. These are falls from relatively small heights, i.e., heights up
to 150 m. Throughout the fall, motion of the body is evenly
accelerated, depending on the gravity constant, while the air
resistance can be neglected.
3. Free fall occurs when a person's body falls from a very high height.
The body accelerates during the fall, and when it reaches its
maximum speed, the air resistance increases to such an extent that it

equalizes the force of gravity. Further moves the body at a constant
speed. The movement of a falling body is at the beginning a
uniformly accelerated movement and from a certain moment the
movement is then at a constant speed. A typical example of free falls
is falls in airplane disasters.
Depending on whether the body before its own fall is at rest or in motion
we distinguish:
x passive falls - before the actual fall, the body is at rest,

x active falls - at the moment of the fall, the body is in motion, the
body is accelerated by the applied forces,
Depending on whether the body rotates during a fall, we distinguish

between falls:
x with rotation,
x without rotation
2.2 Injuries caused by falls

As a result of the collapse, regardless of the type of fall, two categories of
injury are created: local, primary or remote, otherwise referred to as
secondary. Local (primary) injuries arise at places of immediate destructive
force at the moment of impact on the mat. Secondary or distant injuries arise
at sites of secondary impact of other parts of the body. On impact, the impact
force is transmitted from the point of primary impact to the downstream part
of the body even before the secondary impact of the other parts of the body
occurs. This effect is noticeable, for example, in the vertical position where
the body falls on the head or lower limbs. In both cases, the fall of the
primary impact site, i.e., the head or the lower limbs, occurs in falls from
height to devastating injury. However, due to the construction of the human
support, the impact force is transferred to the spine, pelvic region and
internal organs.
When the body hits the surface when falling from the height, the body is
injured both in the direct contact points of the body with the pad and on
those parts of the body where the direct force impact was not directly
directed. The traumatic damage to more distant parts of the body occurs
when the fall is completed. After impact, a primary strong blow occurs on
54 Chapter Two
a certain part of the body, then the body can either bounce and fall with a
secondary impact (in a case of free fall) or flip and fall on other parts of the
body, usually on a larger area of the body.
According to the body damage that is identificated, we distinguish the

effects on:
x primary impact of the body

x secondary impact of the body
The process of falling and the subsequent flight of a person (body) from a
height is further limited by a number of laws and has several stages.
In the case of a passive fall, the body is first tilted around the supporting
edge without slipping, translation, and the movement of the body is rotated,
namely rotation of the body and translation, followed by “cancellation” of
body contact with the support and subsequent fall with or without rotation.
If there are any obstacles in the trajectory of the next fall (e.g. parts of
buildings, balconies) there will be an impact and the path of the falling body
will change.
In the case of active falls, the trajectory of the fall is influenced by the action
and the orientation of the vector of the acting force (location in the center
of gravity of the body or outside and also by the way of its acceleration.
In the biomechanical assessment of the fall of the human body from a

height, we consider quite often the fall of the body with the attached external
force. The term applied force or force indicates the force that acts on the
human body at the moment of detachment from the pad, and it can be
developed by the person who falls, by his movement, or by another person
acting on it. The vertical collapse or vertical is a designation for a convex
line representing the perpendicular from the edge of the pad from which the
body falls to the impact surface. If we are referring to a shift in the course
of a fall, we mean the distance from which the center of gravity of the body
moves from the starting position to the moment when the body leaves the
support of the pad. Angle of tilt Į when leaving the support is the angle
which forms the vertical of a fall with a line that is the joint of the edge of
the pad from which the body falls and of the total body center of gravity.
The angle of impact ȕ is the angle that is constrained by two lines when the
body is at the water level. The first one passes through the point where the
body first contacts the surface and is parallel to the perpendicular fall. The
second line is a link between the total body center of gravity and the
intersection of the water level plane and the first straight line.
56 Chapter Two
Figure 2-2. The impact of the body and the representation of the primary (triangle)
and secondary injury (wheel) (Straus 2012).
For all subsequent considerations, suppose that the body acts as an open
kinematic chain when it falls. The center of gravity of the body moves along
the parabola in the fall. From the position to the point of contact loss (usually
the horizontal position), the body moves along the circle. Only the forces
that arose at the moment of reflection act on the body. The fall of the body
is from a relatively small height, and therefore the strength of air resistance
can be neglected.
During the free fall a person who has started the fall in a certain position of
the body can change the position through active activities of the limbs and
the whole body. The position of the body during the fall can be changed
with help of volition and the active doings of the falling person, the body
can rotate around the center of gravity.
From the moment of rebound or leaving the foothold until the moment of
impact, the falling person can take several fundamental positions, namely:
vertical – head down or feet down

horizontal – forehead or back down
or a position very close to this two one
In a vertical body position (at the time of flight), the person may fall on
x feet
x knee area
x head
x seating area
Figure 2-3. Evaluating the course of the fall from the height (Straus 2012)
With the body in a horizontal position, the body falls on the body area,
namely
x front surface
x back surface
x side part
All types of impact can be combined, e.g., the impact on the knees and then
the impact on the front surface of the torso. The extent of the body damage
58 Chapter Two
and of individual tissues depends on the velocity of the body at the moment
of impact, the contact area of the body and the pad at the moment of impact,
the nature and shape of the impact surface, the angle of impact and the
nature of damaged issues. The force of the hit, which acts on the body at the
moment of impact as a destructive force, depends primarily on the impact
velocity and the weight of the body. Important is the time of destruction, the
moment in which the velocity is zero. If a person is at rest until the
beginning of the fall, then the velocity of his motion depends only on the
height of the surface from the point of impact and the acceleration of
gravity. The kinetic energy of the falling body, from which the force of the
impact can be derived, is directly proportional to the weight of the body and
the height of the fall.
In the first second of the free fall the body has a velocity of 9.81 ms-1. It
was experimentally found that in the 12th second the body has a velocity of
65 ms-1, i.e. 216 kmh-1. Maximum velocities during free falls were
measured during falls realized by athletes. In the low layers of the
atmosphere, they reach velocities of 298 kmh-1 (82.7 ms-1), at the highest
altitudes measuring instruments fixed the velocity of 988 kmh-1 (274 ms1).
Deformation and destruction of the body at the moment of impact is not

governed entirely by the laws of mechanics and physics, the human body is
highly elastic, has varying degrees of flexibility, and these consequences,
the force of impact and destruction is reduced. The reductions in destructive
forces are also caused by the fact that at the moment of impact the limbs are
folded and at the moment of impact the human body falls on two or more
parts of the body.
Irrespective of the type of fall, two kinds of injuries occur in principle:
x local (primary)
x distant (secondary).
Local (primary, contact) injuries occur at the points of direct contact of the
attached traumatic destructive forces at the moment of impact on the
surface. Secondary (distant) injuries subsequently arise as secondary
injuries away from the locus of primary injury.
When the body falls in a vertical position and hits the head, primary injuries
occur on the head, hand injuries are also widespread in these falls. The body
turns around the head and hits the front, abdomen, or back part of the body.
When a hit to the back occurs, secondary injuries to the knees, abdomen,
and toes arise. Moreover, secondary injuries to the neck, seat (coccyx) and
heels can be found.
When the body falls in a vertical position and hits the feet, there are primary
injuries in the area of the legs, feet, the secondary injury is again dependent
on further tilting of the body.
When the body is tilted forward, there are secondary injuries to the knees,
elbows, and abdomen. When the body is tilted back, there are secondary
injuries to the seat of the body, chest, and parietal part of the head.
When falling with the impact and he knees, the primary injuries are located
on the knees and the front area of the legs.
For further biomechanical analyzes, the most important group are falls from
a height these falls can be sub classified (for a subsequent biomechanical
assessment) according the diagram.
Mathematical model of the trajectory of the center of gravity of

the body during a free uncoordinated fall from a height
An objective answer to the question concerning the height and the type of
fall can be found in principle in two ways: 1. it is possible to create on
optimal mathematical model and a theoretical simulation of the trajectory
of the fall and the body emplacement on impact, 2. Providing experiments
with a suitable dummy (with characteristics of a human body). This object
can be dropped from a suitable height and the conditions of the fall and
impact can be studied. In order to gain serious scientific knowledge, an
optimal comparison of theoretical simulations with experimental data of the
fall of a biomechanical dummy must be provided.
When solving the task of the biomechanical analysis of the model of the
fall, we rely mainly on theoretical methods. These methods are based on the
synthesis of current knowledge and mathematical speculative procedures,
based on the knowledge of mechanics applied to a living system. However,
the human body has different mechanical properties than a rigid physical
body. The general characteristics and physical laws will apply to the fall of
the human body, but it is necessary to slightly correct them according to the
biological characteristics of the human body. That is why it is necessary to
schematize the situation, to simplify and to carry out model experiments
with a biomechanical dummy whose weight ratios of the individual body
60 Chapter Two
segments will be the same as the living body. If we analyze in greater detail
the whole situation of a person's fall from a height, then in a natural,
uncoordinated fall, the body first pivots about an axis forward and falls only
when the contact of the feet with the fall site is interrupted. The body (and
therefore the center of gravity of the body) describes ideally a quarter circle,
and when the body's longitudinal axis is in the horizontal position, the center
of gravity trajectory turns into a dish.
Figure 2-4. Fall schedule (Modified by Kumar, Srivastava, 2013)
The initial speed can be calculated from the height and the horizontal
movement in the event of a fall at various angles with the speculative
formula:
݃‫ ݔ‬ଶ
‫ݒ‬଴ = ඨ ሺ‫ݔ‬sin ߠ െ ‫ݕ‬cos ߠሻcos ߠ
2
The solution to the question of biomechanics of falling from a height is very

important and crucial for expert investigation in forensic biomechanics. If
the response is to be serious, objective and appropriate to real conditions, it
is necessary to have sufficient input information available for the
subsequent biomechanical solution to the fall issue. This issue has not yet
been satisfactorily solved, the current results correspond to the experiments
in which a height drop with a training dummy was modeled, whose mass
parameters, dimensions and location of the center of gravity were the same
as the living person.
For the experiments, a training dummy was used, used by wrestlers to

practice technical-tactical shuffle actions in the game. The biomechanical
dummy was constructed in such a way that the individual body segments
corresponded to the live weight ratio of the man and the position of the
manikin's overall center of gravity corresponded to the location of the center
of gravity of the living person.
The generalized results correspond to a sufficient number of experiments -

free uncoordinated falls from two different, fixed heights, 7 - 8 meters and
10 -11 meters, which corresponds to a fall from the second or third floor of
a standard building. In the experiments, the aim was to determine and
specify the free uncoordinated fall trajectory depending on the height of the
fall, the starting position of the body at the onset of the fall, the site of the
primary impact, the center of gravity of the body from the vertical to the
point of origin of the fall, the position of the body at the secondary impact,
the force, the place of the vector's field of external force.
For the experiments and the fall modeling scenes, three starting positions
were selected for the beginning of the fall:
1. Fall of the windowsill, the dummy was tilted from the vertical axis
to 10° forward, followed by a free uncoordinated fall from the
heights of 7.3-8.1 meters or 10.4 -11 meters.
2. A balcony from 10.4 to 11 meters high, with 10 kg (98.1 N) external
force (stroke) attached. The external force vector was attached to the
shoulders, the center of gravity, or the knees. This simulated a
situation where a man is struck by a force of 10 kg in his shoulders,
center of gravity or in his knees.
3. Fall from the "dream-on-hand" position from the balcony rail from a
height of 10.4 -11 meters.
In the first case, forward velocity v1= 1.37 m·s-1, in the latter case forward
velocity v2 = 1.78 m·s-1. For these values, it is possible to express a linear
relationship for calculating the probable forward velocity of the body's
center of gravity during free uncoordinated fall.
One form of a possible fall from a height is that at the moment of contact
loss the outer body is attached to the body. This situation will occur in those
cases where a person fights back. For free fall, there are physical laws that
can be described by equations for motion evenly accelerated by
gravitational acceleration (g). Considering that external forces are exerted
on a person at a moment, then we will consider for the subsequent
62 Chapter Two
consideration that they must be reflected either from the spot or with the
start, and thus the body is given an external force that causes the initial
velocity of the v0.
When jumping with the attached external force, the jumper is reflected
upwards, the body's center of gravity trajectory (and the whole body) first
flies up the parabolic curve upwards, and when it reaches the peak, it falls
down. The maximum horizontal length of the jump can be affected by the
size of the initial velocity vector and the angle D. The length of impact is
deterministically determined by three factors, namely the height of the
jump, the magnitude of the reflection velocity and the magnitude of the
reflection angle.
In principle, there may be two types of jumps, namely a long jump with a
start and jump into the distance from the place (the so-called swimming
jump). Initial jump distance with a start of 9.15 ± 0.11 m·s-1 and a jump of
2.70 ± 0.11 m·s-1, the angle of reflection was found to be 21° r 0.40° and to
jump from 38° ± 1.33° (Shaw, Hsu 1998).
Jumps from high heights are either suicidal jumps or unfortunate accidents
when people want to overcome some distance. The reflection point, the
reflection angle, the point of impact, and the height are the main
determinants that can be used to determine the type of fall.
The mathematical modeling of living systems has been recently considerably

topical. Modeling is most often understood as a reproduction of some
selected properties of the suited object constructed according to certain
rules. The mathematical model is constructed according to the principle of
mathematical modeling, which has a different nature than the object. Its
behavior is described by a system of equations, which is identical to the
system describing the examined aspect of the original. The construction of
the model requires a certain analogy between the aspects and processes that
take place in the model and the object. Modeling simplifies how to gain
knowledge and how to analyze processes taking place in objective reality.
The human body, when falling, behaves like an open kinematic chain. The
movement of the body´s center of gravity is determined at the moment of
rebound. If we consider falls from relatively small heights, then only those
forces that were applied to the mass system at the moment of detachment
Figure 2-5. Biomechanics of falls
from the ground are thought of. External forces can act on a falling body in
those cases where the body falls from relatively high heights. The body then
reaches a very high speed and, on the body, begins to act the air resistance
force.
For all subsequent considerations, assume the following mechanical

conditions:
x the body, when it falls, behaves like an open kinematic chain

x when falling the center of gravity of the body moves along a parabola
x from the standing position until the moment of loss of contact
(usually a horizontal position), the body moves in a circle
x only the forces that arose at the moment of rebound act on the body
x the fall of the body is from a relatively small height, and therefore
the force of air resistance can be neglected
64 Chapter Two
The biomechanics of a fall can be analyzed from two basic approaches:
1. It is possible to determine the main factors before the fall, whose

evaluation can lead to determination of the type of fall.
2. It is possible to decode the fall information based on secured traces
after the fall.
The main factors of the fall, which determine the type of fall are the point
of reflection, angle of reflection, point of impact and height of fall.
The biomechanical analysis of falls allows to solve the following questions:
1. Was the person´s fall spontaneous, without the attached external

forces, so did the person fall without any other fault, without being
pushed out, or without his own reflection?
2. On the contrary, was the impact caused by external forces, i.e. did
the person either bounce or were they pushed out?
3. Is it possible to calculate approximately the magnitude of the applied
external force at the moment of loss of contact?
4. Does the distance of the body´s impact from the vertical of the fall
correspond to the probable height of the fall?
5. If a person bounces, is it possible to calculate the size of the
reflection velocity vector?
6. According to the mechanism of fall and impact, a suicidal jump or
an unfortunate accident or intentional push by another person can be
inferred.
The information obtained from the crime scene investigation provides a

necessary and unique basis for biomechanical analysis of the fall and
determination of the original conditions at the moment of loss of contact
with the rebound, i.e., assessing whether the person fell spontaneously
without external forces or was pushed out or bounced at the rebound. Based
on the literature analysis, the created mathematical model and several
specific cases, we can state the requirements necessary for the objective
biomechanical assessment of falls from height. To calculate the trajectory
of the center of gravity, it is necessary to obtain the following information:
1. Body height and body weight.

2. Measuring the distance of the body´s impact from the vertical of the
fall – the shortest distance, the longest distance.
3. Body position on impact – crouched, upright.
4. Angle of the longitudinal axis of the body (torso axis) to the base of
the building.
5. Assessment of the type of injury and intensity in the primary and
secondary fall; assessed by a medical examiner and described in the
autopsy report.
6. Departure of clothing components, especially shoes and headgear –
whether the shoes flew off in the fall, where they were found, where,
for example, hats were found, etc.
7. The height of the presumed fall, i.e., from where the victim
approximately fell (for example the height of a window, windowsill)
All the considerations, mathematical formulas and classification criteria

presented here serve as an input for subsequent experiments, whose results
will contribute to the objectification of expert evaluation of the
biomechanics of falls from a height. Experimental data on the mechanical
behavior of the human body when falling from a height are still lacking, and
therefore research in these directions is very desirable and actual. In the
process of investigating some crimes in which a fall from a height has
occurred, the issues to clarify the circumstances of the fall itself are
addressed, the position of the injured person´s body at the time of the fall,
whether the fall occurred spontaneously without the other person´s
contribution or with external forces.
These questions can be answered seriously and objectively if there is

sufficient evidence available to inspect the crime scene and a forensic
medical report about wounds of the injured person. The results of research
in modelling the conditions of a fall from different positions, different
heights and with different applied forces were published in literature.
(LebedČv 1986) The conditions were simulated using a dummy whose
weight corresponded to a living body. Solution of the question of assessing
the biomechanics of fall from a height is very important and crucial in crime
scene investigation in the field of forensic mechanics. If the answer should
be serious, unquestionable and in accordance with real conditions, it is
necessary to have a sufficient amount of input information for the
subsequent
biomechanical solution of the fall question. Because this task has not been
satisfactorily analyzed, we performed a series of experiments in which we
modeled a fall from a height with a training dummy. The weight parameters,
dimensions and location of the center of gravity of the body were identical
to a living person. The dummy was a training manikin used by wrestler to
practice technical a tactical grip actions during the match. The height of the
66 Chapter Two
dummy was 163 cm, the weight was 57 kg, and the center of gravity was in
the height of 107 cm measured from the sole.
2.3 Analysis and experimental results

Biomechanical studies were conducted by thirteen athletes through
biomechanical measurement to test the running jump and standing jump
(swimmer’s start jump) (Shaw, Hsu 1998). The initial velocity of the
running jump and standing jump in normal athletes is 9.15 r 0.11 m·s-1 and
2.70 r 0.11 m·s-1 with jumping angles of 21 r 0.40 deg and 38 r 1.33 deg,
respectively. The practical measurements of horizontal velocity of the
running jump and swimmer’s start jump were 8.54 r 0.07 m·s-1 and 2.10 r
0.05 m·s-1, and vertical velocity, 3.88 r 0.12 m·s-1 and 1.59 r 0.07 m·s-1,
respectively. These results suggest an initial velocity between 0 m·s-1 for
the standing jump and 9.15 m·s-1 for the run-up and jump that may
contribute to launch the fall from a height by a voluntary (suicidal) jump.
The initial velocity of 9.15 m·s-1 can be defined as the maximal value of a
normal individual engaging in a fall with a pre running acceleration before
launch.
Table 2-1. Biomechanical studies of standing (swimmer´s) jump and

running (long) jump (Shaw, Hsu 1998).
Biomechanical Swimmer´s Jump Long Jump

Maesurement (n = 9) (n = 30)
Initial angle (deg) 38.00 r 1.33 21.00 r 0.40
Initial velocity (m·s-1) 2.70 r 0.11 9.15 r 0.11
Horizontal velocity (m·s-1) 2.10 r 0.05 8.54 r 0.07
Vertical velocity (m·s-1) 1.59 r 0.07 3.88 r 0.12
Standing Jump
To present the typical standing jump, without adding any running activity,
selective modes of the swimmer’s start jump provide unique jumping
patterns that emulate the jumping activities through which the
biomechanical measurements are obtained. Although many scholars have
demonstrated how to find the initial velocity in sports that include a standing
jump, the standing swimmer’s jump represents a distinctive pattern of jump
from a height that can truly emulate the jump of falling from a height. A
standard standing broad jump can generate up to 3.60 m·s-1 of initial
velocity at an angle of 41.03 deg on the basis of the body gravity of normal
athletic students. The swimmer’s start jumps, an ideal model to mimic the
standing jump and falling from a height, makes it almost impossible to
adjust the body position while the jumper has already left the jumping point,
and thus permits us to measure the initial velocity and order related
biomechanical parameters, including both horizontal and vertical velocity
as well as jumping angle. Distinct body gravities may explain the lower
value of the initial velocity of the standing jump while we compare the
initial velocity of the standing broad jump with an adjustable gravity. A two-
hand push of a normal individual to other individuals (70 kg of body weight)
can generate an initial velocity up to only 0.4 m·s-1 (Chen 1987). An initial
velocity exceeding 2.70 m·s-1 or so becomes the criterion for the running
jump that is distinguishable from being pushed or slipping before falling
from a height. For distance, an initial velocity lower than 2.70 m·s-1 cannot
be distinguished between suicide, homicide or accident (Shaw, Hsu 1998)
Running Jump
The running jump is a situation where is a running start to a jump from a

height when an individual is really out of his mind or has convinced himself
to jump from a height. This jump is preceded by a pre-running acceleration
before launching to result in an intentional fall. When an individual actually
launches at maximal force, the maximal horizontal movement can reach
42% of the height (42.21 m away from the jumping point while falling from
a 100 m height at an angle of 11.44 deg with an initial velocity of 9.15 m·s-
1
). A running jump initial velocity that reaches 9.15 m·s-1 reasonably
explains the maximum capability of normal athletes. An initial velocity
between 2.70 and 9.15 m·s-1 supports a jumping activity with pre-running
assistance before the jump. Such data permit us to determine the pattern of
fall and jump. Any initial velocity exceeding 9.15 m·s-1 should be carefully
evaluated for other reasonable explanations, including wind factor, an
inaccurate jumping point, a faulty impact point, launching machine
assistance, etc. It is evident that falling after a running jump is a manner of
intentional jump. Therefore, the decedent’s attempt to commit suicide
should be considered. A falling fatality with an initial velocity exceeding
2.70 m·s-1 should not be mistaken for accidental or homicidal cause of death
(Shaw, Hsu 1998).
68 Chapter Two
Figure 2-6. Falling patterns of standing jump and running jump above the jumping
level: Running and standing jump are intimated at initial velocities of 9.15 and
2.70 m·s-1 at initial angles of 21 at 38 deg above the jumping level (Shaw, Hsu
1998).
Initial velocities from 2.70 to 9.15 m·s-1 may explain the running activity
before jumping as well as the conviction of intentional running and jumping.
Besides, it does become the standard criterion to characterize the voluntary
jump as well as the suicidal fall. The initial velocities estimated from these
experiments of standing and running jumps allow us to distinguish the
jumping patterns of deaths caused by high falls. The difference between the
standing and running jump can be recognized as the mental status of the
jumper, including the determination or hesitation of the jumper’s thoughts.
The results of biomechanical studies suggest that in initial velocity over 2.70
m·s-1 is a critical point for a voluntary jump while 9.15 m·s-1 is a cutoff point
of maximal physical capability for an intentional jump.
An initial velocity over 2.70 m·s-1 in a voluntary jump, with the help of pre-
running acceleration before the jump, suggests that the attempt to commit
suicide is considerable. The initial velocity can be derived from the height
and horizontal distance of falling at various speculative angles by using eq.
In conclusion, in every case, both the horizontal distance of movement and
height should be used to estimate the initial velocity, to reconstruct the
difference between the standing and running jump can be recognized as the
mental status of the jumper, including the determination or hesitation of the
jumper’s thoughts. The results of biomechanical studies suggest that in
initial velocity over 2.70 m·s-1 the falling pattern, and to theorize on the
manner of death so as to rule out the suicidal jump (Shaw, Hsu 1998).
Table 2-2. Maximal horizontal movement and initial jumping angle

varies with height at constant initial velocity of standing and running
jump (Shaw, Hsu 1998).
Standing Jump Running Jump

Height v0 = 2.70 m·s-1 v0 = 9.15 m·s-1
(m) ------------------------------- -------------------------------
Dmax Dmax (deg)Horizontal
(deg )Horizontal movement (m)
Movement (m)
0.0 45 0.74 45 8.54
0.05 33.151.14 43.42 9.03
1.0 27.501.43 41.99 9.49
3.0 18.372.24 37.4711.15
5.0 14.742.83 34.1712.59
7.0 12.663.31 31.6213.88
10.0 10.723.93 28.6815.62
20.0 7.7 5.51 22.7620.36
30.0 6.316.72 19.4524.20
40.0 5.487.75 17.2627.50
50.0 4.918.66 15.6730.45
60.0 4.499.48 14.4633.14
70.0 4.16 10.23 13.4935.62
80.0 3.89 10.94 12.6937.95
90.0 3.67 11.60 12.0240.13
100.0 3.48 12.22 11.4442.21
70 Chapter Two
Figure 2-7. Falling patterns intimated at various angles of jump at initial velocities
of 2.70 m·s-1 (A) and 9.15 m·s-1 (B): Maximal horizontal movement can be
achieved at about 40 deg; the angle at 50 deg or over starts to minimize the
horizontal movement (Shaw, Hsu 1998).
Figure 2-8. (A) - Falling patterns intimated at various angles of jump at initial
velocities of 2.70 m·s-1 (A) and 9.15 m·s-1 (B), falling from height of 100 m
(Shaw, Hsu 1998)
72 Chapter Two
Figure 2-9. (B) - Falling patterns intimated at various angles of jump at initial
velocities of 2.0 m·s-1 (A) and 9.5 m·s-1 (B), falling from height of 100 m (Shaw,
Hsu 1998).
Figure 2-10. Range of maximal horizontal movement of standing jump and

running jump at angles between 0 and 40 deg (Shaw, Hsu 1998).
74 Chapter Two
Figure 2-11. Body mass center trajectory comparison as relation of different kind
of falls.
76 Chapter Two
Figure 2-12. Unprotected fall, v = 0.997 ms-1 ti = 40 ms

78 Chapter Two
2.4 Standing on a pad

Introduction
In the analysis of falls and head injuries in extreme dynamic loads of
humans, a separate direction of investigation is formed by a group of falls
that occur when the body is tipped around the tilting edge formed by the
line passing through the flat surface of the feet. If there is no flexion in the
knee joint (the person does not flex the knee) and there is no flexion in the
hip joint, then the center of gravity of the body moves along a part of the
circle. In the fall from a vertical standing position to a horizontal position,
the body's longitudinal axis is tilted 90° and the center of gravity of the body
moves along the quarter circle. In these cases, the body falls on the surface
of the abdomen or the back, and the biomechanical analysis is the dominant
blow to the head and the associated consequences.
Figure 2-13. Scheme of dropping the body from stand to pad (Zarubin 2003).
From the point of view of practice needs, the most common way is a fall
from a standing position that causes a head injury, a fall back. The man falls
from behind, falls on his back, and the greatest force strikes his head. In this
type of fall, the person does not hold the head in the safe position with the
neck muscles and, in the event of impact, strikes the head as a result of very
strong dynamic forces. In the course of a movement, the falling person does
not coordinate in the vast majority of cases, falls spontaneously, chaotically,
and moves his back, curls his head, and in this case falls backwards on his
head. The highest dynamic load then receives only the occipital portion of
the head of the falling person. Exceptions may occur in the case of a very
small group of specially trained athletes, especially junior sports (judo,

wrestling, karate), who are specially trained on this type of fall and react
reflexively, the fall damping by coordinated movements. They are perfectly
capable of stunning, shock-absorbing, collapsing body when falling, and
head-to-head contact does not come into contact with the right fallback
technique. In the other considerations, we will not consider this type of fall,
from a biomechanical analysis point of view we will be interested in the
crisis variant of the fall, in which the person strikes the head.
The essence of the biomechanical assessment is the assessment of the

possible fall, head impact on the ground and the occurrence of the injury.
The angular velocity of the falling body is
ସ.ଽଶ
߱= .
ξ௅
Or if we calculate the peripheral velocity of movement of the center of

gravity of the head segment (vr), it is necessary to base the general
relationship:
vr = Z · ro
If we know the distance between the center of gravity of the head and the
rotation axis, it is possible to express the peripheral velocity of the head
center of gravity movement during a spontaneous fall. According to
biomechanical data (Korsakov 1991, Sažajeva 2008) the distance
considered can be expressed as
ro = 0.94 L
Then you can enroll

4.92
‫ݒ‬௥ = Z × 0.94‫= ܮ‬ × 0.94 × ‫ܮ‬
ξ‫ܮ‬
After editing, we get (Korsakov 1991)
‫ݒ‬௥ = 4.62 ξ‫ ܮ‬or very precisely ‫ݒ‬௥ = 4.417 × ‫ܮ‬଴.ସଽ

80 Chapter Two
Mathematical modeling of a fall from a stand on a mat

Mathematical modeling of the whole process and simulations of the human
body by the mechanical model can express the magnitude of the forces that
act at the moment of falling into the person's head. Calculation of the impact
force is best suited to the theoretical modeling process from the empirically
derived inputs, and compare the resulting computation with those literary
data that were obtained, for example, by stroke. The experiments confirmed
the expected and logical conclusion that the destruction time of the head
varied depending on the surface hardness, it was found (Gromov 1979):
a) For the hard surface it is ti = 0.006 – 0.007 s

b) For the semi-hard surface ti = 0.007 – 0.009 s
c) For a soft surface ti = 0.021 – 0.030 s
From the known time of head destruction in the fall, it is possible to

calculate the probable magnitude of the force that acts on the head of a
person when falling back from the stand on a pad of varying quality of
elasticity. The calculation of the force size depends on the weight of the
person (G), resp. weight and body height (L) (Gromov 1979).
a) For the hard surface it is F = (7.7 r 0.6) × ‫ × ܩ‬ξ‫ܮ‬

b) For the semi-hard surface F = (5.6 r 0.7 ) × ‫ × ܩ‬ξ‫ܮ‬.
c) For a soft surface F = (1.6 r 0.3) × ‫ × ܩ‬ξ‫ܮ‬
Experimentally, these values, procedures, and formulas were verified by

dropping the biomechanical dummy into a strain gauge plate that sensed the
magnitude of the force generated by the head stroke of the fall. Differences
between the calculation and the measured values were minimal, i.e., 50 kg,
and the formula can therefore be accepted for forensic biomechanical
analyzes.
From the point of view of forensic biomechanical assessment of the fall

from the stand on the pad, it is necessary to consider the case when the
person is accelerated by the applied vector of force located above the center
of gravity of the body. In practice, this is the case where a person is struck
in the head, for example, by blowing his fists, kicking his foot, blowing open
his palm, or some object. As a result of the strike, the head curves, the body
bends downwards, and the impact on the pad faces the main blow to the
head part of the head. The most common site of destruction of the skull is
in the area of the lamb seam.
Bend and fall from stand

Falls caused by disruption of attitude or walking are a relatively frequent
phenomenon in forensic biomechanics. In the Czech criminal area, 15% of
cases are dealt with in forensic biomechanics. This issue is not used only in
criminal cases, but also in civil cases, for example, in the fall caused by
alleged slipping on the surface, in which a knee or hip injury occurs, when
it is necessary to determine the mechanism of the fall, which often occurred
without further witnesses. The case was also described when slipping on the
head, and consequently the cause of the fall, which was underpinned by
incomplete testimony, was extremely small, especially in comparison with
established biomechanical models. Therefore, it is necessary to know the
typical and appropriate features of individual disruptions.
The following figures show the kinematic values of motion - the movement
of the head and the body's body during fall.
82 Chapter Two
Figure 2-14. Typical course of head velocity and center of gravity over time, y axis: speed (m·s-1), axis x: time (s)
Figure 2-15. Typical course of the angular velocity of the head and the angular velocity of the resting limb over time, in case of
restored stability (walking speed: 6.9 km·h-1, response time: 0.08 s), y axis: angular velocity (rad·s), axis x: time (s).
84 Chapter Two
Figure 2-16. The course of the spontaneous fall of figurant

2.5 Human reaction time

Introduction
Free reactions to the stimulus are much more complex than reflexes and
require higher brain function. In case of free reactions, the signal from the
eye or other sensory organ, or even several sensory organs at the same time,
it is sent to the motoric centers of the brain that process it, determines the
nature of the response, and transmits the given instruction to the muscles,
which then perform the reaction, after a certain period of time. However,
the response to a given stimulus does not react with a muscle reaction
immediately but with some delay. The length of the reaction time is
physiologically limited and, to a certain extent, influences the speed of the
entire movement (in fact, the total duration of the movement), which is
essential especially for short-duration movement movements of the order of
seconds. Response rate is also essential in solving motor activity involving
large muscle groups (Straus 2001).
In forensic biomechanics, in recent years, the issue of addressing external

and internal responses to reaction time has emerged as a very topical issue.
As the current factor we consider the influence of alcohol on the decision
time, i.e., the reaction time is a complex motor response.
Concept of reaction time

The simplest is the reaction time (Danko 2013), the time that elapses from
the beginning of the perception of the stimulus to the beginning of the
response to the stimulus. The expanded concept of reaction capability was
provided by Human Factors Design Handbook, defining a simple reaction
time as the shortest possible time between the moment the senses detect the
stimulus and the time at which the body begins to respond, while the
complex reaction time additionally involves the process of human thinking.
It is further characterized by the fact that the role of the complex reaction
time is to create several stimuli with different modes of response.
The distribution of simple reaction times and selective reaction times with
a simple motor response is revealed by the fact that the visual information
process is the most important part of the human reaction capacity.
Additionally, the optional response time includes a decision-making process
that logically causes delay, thus comparing with a simple reaction time, the
overall reaction rate increases. Moreover, the time needed for the decision
86 Chapter Two
is the most variable component of the reaction rate. However, this difference
provides an approximation of the determination of the decision time
interval, according to specific conditions, respectively. The number and
type of factors that will be further elaborated in this work. The most
important factor here is the kind of incentive, because the need to make
decisions based on a more or less standard incentive makes this component
unstable compared to other components (Demirarslan 2008).
The total reaction time can be expressed as the sum of the duration of the
visual perception and the duration of decision-making that the motor
response itself is immediately following. Visual perception includes the
interval needed for the detection of the stimulus since it is detectable, while
the decision time represents the time needed for selection and response
decisions. Then the body starts the performance of the corresponding
response. Above the definition of reaction time, the time required for muscle
movement is built up, which nevertheless constitutes an unavoidable
category, since exploring only the reaction speed without interest, motor
responses would be lost to forensic biomechanics of practical significance.
Expressing the reaction velocities in terms of these components is as

follows:
‫ݐ‬୰୲ = ‫ݐ‬௣ + ‫ݐ‬୰ ,

trt… reaction time
tp… the time required for perception
tr… time needed for decision making.
Categorization of reaction times

Donders in his publication (Donders 1969) first proposed a classification
scheme in which experts continue to describe and distinguish between
response rates:
- simple - consisting of the stimulus itself, to which the subject

responds as quickly as possible, immediately after the discovery of
the stimulus;
- recognition - consisting of two or more stimuli, but with only one
response corresponding to one stimulus, while the rest can not
respond;
- selective - consisting of two or more stimuli to which the subject
must make different responses, if the subject must choose what
signal was present and then make the response appropriate to that
stimulus.
The scheme concerns and continues to concern experimental psychology

and closely related science disciplines. In a simplified way, this branch can
be included in the reaction time, the essence of which is motor-friendly, and
a terminologically slightly different scheme can be expressed in Fig. 2-17.
Figure 2-17. Categorization of reaction times
Response rate with complex motor response characterizes a situation where

the subject engages in response to a large muscle group, unlike simple motor
responses where it is absent.
88 Chapter Two
Simple reaction time
Recognition reaction time
Selective reaction time
Figure 2-18. The process of motor response formation for each type of reaction
time, according to Donders (1969).
Components important to the duration of the action

From the point of view of a relevant event, whether traffic accidents or
conflict fighting analysis, it can create next to these components another
important category of latency caused by the device. If a person performs a
response by means of an instrument, then they form an inseparable system
together with the human being, and the duration of a human reaction cannot
be considered relevant. Most often, given these examples, it is certainly a
means of transport or a firearm.
The basis for the interpretation of the components includes, without

question, the elucidation of the essence of perception, since perception is
the basic process of man and the reaction of the initiation process in
response to any stimulus. The most important types of perception are visual
and auditory perceptions.
Visual perception
Visual perception is the most important in many situations. The entity
obtains basic information about the situation. However, the eye has different
areas of distinction. In this context, we talk about central and peripheral
vision. The central frontal vision has a range of only a few degrees at the
highest level of sharpness. For the optimal use of this vision, the subject
needs to constantly change the direction of vision. Peripheral detection,
general vision, on the other hand, captures the entire area outside the conical
central vision. Visual perception is the most important for identifying
information important for further decision making, which, as mentioned,
plays a significant role.
The general process of vision is as follows (Porada 2000):
x the eye is oriented in the field of view with volatile

micromovements;
x the external stimulus attracts attention;
x the visual receptor focuses and focuses on an interesting optical
stimulus and, on the basis of the detected optical parameters of the
optical situation (distance, brightness, etc.), is prepared for
reception;
x the stimulus processed by the optical system of the eye will hit the
luminescent elements of the retina;
x the transformation of the optical stimuli in the nerve impulses
generates a response in the optic nerve, which leads to the brain
center of vision where the sensation is generated;
x synthesis generates a perception, on the basis of which the
organism's response to the given stimulus is decided, so-called
differentiation occurs;
x the sensation can be lost or stored in memory or can be transformed
into anxiety, spreading from the movement nerves to neuromuscular
plaques;
x in neuromuscular plaques, nerve impulses are transformed into
nervous contractions;
x during the process, the central nervous system is constantly informed
about changes in the properties of the observed object and its
surroundings; sends commands, controls the adaptive state
smoothly.
90 Chapter Two
Theoretically, a role can also be played by perception within so-called

"foveal vision," where the whole yellow spot does not come to the picture,
but only in its part called the central well and only suppositories are filled.
In this section, the highest quality display of items is displayed.
Hearing perception
Hearing perception allows the subject to retrieve information that would be
difficult to detect by sight, because it did not work, so he would not be able
to handle it. Audio information, unlike optical, is perceived unconsciously
inadvertently, without the intention of registering it.
The hearing organ consists of three parts: the outer, the middle, and the inner
ear. The outer ear consists of the bolt and the ear canal and ends with a drum.
The outer ear captures the sound of the drum. This part of the auditory
organ, along with the shadow of the head, influences the intensity of the
stimuli coming to the drum from different directions, so it is important for
the directional characteristics of the auditory organ. The sound is best
received at the party and somewhat from the front. Directional effect occurs
at high frequencies, while tones deep up to 200 Hz, perceive on all sides of
the same volume. The middle ear has a transfer and protective function. The
string of three auditory bones transmits and amplifies the vibration of the
drum into the oval window of the inner ear. The sound energy is collected
from a relatively large area of the drum, it concentrates on a small area of
the oval window, and virtually no loss passes into the middle ear fluid. If a
strong sound comes to the hearing organ, the two muscles will withdraw in
a reflective fashion. This increases the tension of the drum and makes it
difficult to transfer, especially deep tones. It happens at sound levels of 65
- 85 dB. Throughout the moment of stimulation, the perceptiveness of
strong sounds is reduced, and the labyrinth is protected from damage. The
reflex has a latency of 10 -150 ms. However, for sounds of impulse nature
(duration up to 200 ms), this protective function of the middle ear is not
actuated, so it is easier to damage the inner ear.
The minimum sound level audible to the human ear is called the audible
threshold, which corresponds to a sound pressure level of 10-5 Pa. If the
intensity of acoustic waves on the ear increases, the perceived noise
becomes louder and louder, when the hearing around 120 dB stops and
changes into ticking, so that the tactile sensation also occurs in the hearing
organ, which is referred to as the tactile threshold. However, if hearing
sounds for long periods of time, the threshold of audibility is already in the
first minutes. Adaptation is taking place and the noise is perceived at a lower
volume. This adaptation phenomenon is followed by another storyline -
hearing fatigue that occurs already in the first minute and reaches its
saturation in a period of 7 to 10 minutes. It also involves altered
differentiation of frequencies, volume, and change of camouflage. It recedes
in tens of minutes, hours and sometimes lasts all day.
Duration of action and its components

The total duration of the action can be sequentially subdivided into separate
sections for didactic purposes. These sections are the reaction time, the
duration of the motor response, and facultative latency caused by the device.
Clearly, this complex is represented by the following scheme:
Figure 2-19. Structure of the total duration of the action.

92 Chapter Two
Reaction time
It represents a time that takes time from the moment the respondent registers
the impulse that has occurred and decides on the response until the
beginning of the response. This is the start-up phase of the whole process,
consisting of the four subcategories listed below.
Perception: the time that is required for sensor sensing by sensor sensors.
The factors determining perception, detection and their actual influence on
the reaction time value will be described extensively in the following
chapter, however, there is a need to make a certain introduction to this topic.
The character of the perception significantly affects the overall reaction
time, the most important being the intensity of the stimulus, its complexity,
and the circumstances in which the stimulus is perceived, as well as the
person's readiness for the stimulus to occur.
Recognition of perceptual nature: the time required to recognize the sense

of perception. This component requires the application of information and
experience from a person's memory to interpret the excitement coming from
the sensory sensor. In some cases, there is an automatic answer, in this
section is very short. In these cases, of course, there are simple reactions,
including unconditional reflexes. In other cases, this is a controlled response,
which represents a disproportionately significant time. Generally speaking,
a new subject, a stimulant, unknown stimulus, slows the reaction time, a less
intense signal, and the uncertainty, whether the source of the stimulus, the
specific moment of appearance of the stimulus or its form, and, of course,
surprise. Undoubtedly, there is a very close connection with the previous
subcategory of perception, respectively. It is possible to conclude in many
experiments the redundant character of subcategory recognition. However,
its introduction brings a more complex theoretical basis to the problem of
reaction time components. Finally, the results of the research justify the
inclusion of this theoretical framework.
Awareness: the time needed to recognize and interpret the nature of the
environment, extract its meaning, and predict eventual development for the
future. E.g., once the driver recognizes the pedestrian on the road and
combines this perception with the knowledge of his own speed and distance,
he will present a sequence of how and what will happen. As with the
previous subcategory, the new stimulus slows down this phase, which is
intelligently processed.
Choice of response: the time needed to decide what kind of response will be
needed. Selection of possible reactions slows the reaction time if a more
diverse set of possible signals exists.
Time to move
Once the response is selected, the subject must perform the required muscle
movement. It is clear from the nature of the matter that the very beginning
of the movement can be almost equal to the time of completion of the
movement, especially in the simple reaction times. However, these cases
are not very interesting for us. A more marked difference between the start
of the reaction and the moment of completion of the reaction is observed for
complex motor manifestations of behavior. For example, I can point out the
situation in a confrontational struggle where the beginning of the reaction
to an effective defense is totally irrelevant, as the defense itself becomes
effective only after the transition to a certain stage of the technique.
Of course, there are a number of factors influencing the time required to

perform the movement on this stage. In general, the more complex
movement is required, the higher the latency.
Meaning of reaction time components in confrontational

combat
The mandatory conditions of necessary defense in a clash, ie, the ability of
the attacker to resist the attack by reacting, occur when the inequality of the
success of the defensive action is fulfilled:
ο‫ݐ‬ୢ < ο‫ݐ‬ୟ
ο‫ݐ‬ୢ … duration of defensive action,
ο‫ݐ‬ୟ … duration of the offensive action.
The duration of the defensive action consists of two parts:
ο‫ݐ‬ୢ = ο‫ݐ‬୰୲ + ο‫ݐ‬୫
ο‫ݐ‬୰୲ … the current response time of the defender,
ο‫ݐ‬୫ … duration of the defense movement.

94 Chapter Two
At the same time, the reaction time of the subject can be expressed by:
ο‫ݐ‬୰୲ = ο‫ݐ‬୮ + ο‫ݐ‬୰
ο‫ݐ‬୮ … duration of perception,
ο‫ݐ‬୰ … duration of the decision-making process.
ο‫ݐ‬୮ + ο‫ݐ‬୰ + ο‫ݐ‬୫ < ο‫ݐ‬௔
There are several possibilities to increase the chances of effective defense:
- reducing the duration of the perception of the complaint,

- reducing the duration of the decision-making process,
- reducing the duration of the motor response.
Time requirements for individual components can be divided into three

phases: visual perception, decision making, and muscle movement.
Approximately 70% of the total reaction time is the time required for visual
perception, while 30% requires a motor response. This ratio refers to the
transport driver's motor response in the Demirarslana study 2008). Average
division according to Bradáþ (1997) is 28.4 % for muscle movement, 71.6
% for visual perception, respectively 23.8 % to 76.2 %. The proportion of
perceived speed response increased as the driver followed another object,
either within a range not exceeding five degrees from the perpendicular to
the relevant object, respectively. exceeding this value. Of course, in the case
of a struggle, there are more complex motor responses, thus balancing the
two components.
Visual perception as a component of the reaction rate is influenced by the

factors that will be discussed in the next chapter where the nature of the
action will be explained. In general, the external environmental conditions,
the spatial location of the subject towards the source, the direction in which
the stimulus is exposed.
The time required for decision making is the most variable component of
the reaction time. The factors that act on it can be very difficult to categorize
in some way. It is clearly determined by the subject itself caused by the
psychic states of the infected person, by emotions, disturbance, inexperience
in conflict, struggle, etc. Therefore, the reduction of the duration of this
phase may be mainly the experience gained in these situations, the
psychological resistance.
In the motor, movement speed determines the time required to perform a

particular movement act, due in particular to the training of the muscular
apparatus and to the speed of muscle contraction of the involved muscles.
Trained subjects are therefore better placed to reduce the duration of this
phase.
These people have reached a stage called stereotype motion stabilization,

where the movements are carried out accurately, fluently, in a coordinated
way, and economically. As a result, the time required for the motor response
is greatly reduced, and the person is able to act precisely, thus increasing
the chances of effective defense incomparably with the untrained. Another
positive aspect in terms of effective defense is the fact that trained subjects
generally gained the ability to perceive quickly in the trained area and,
thanks to a stabilized dynamic stereotype, also reduce the time needed for
decision-making. All these benefits of training contribute to a substantial
reduction in the overall duration of action.
However, many offensive actions can be made at short distances so quickly

that they cannot be resisted. The attacker therefore detects the stimulus at
maximum, but without a relevant motor response it has no meaning in terms
of its effective defense. Therefore, it is desirable not to react to the impulse
that has already occurred, because it makes an effective defense impossible.
Regarding unarmed attacks, the easiest, fastest means to reach a criminal
target in a violent way is to strike the limb, i.e., the stroke, and the kick. The
velocity of the strike itself does not play a significant role because it
achieves the desired effect in the event of an appropriate attitude and the
optimum distance from the injured person. The effectiveness of the strike
also affects the correct pronation, respectively forearm suppression and
rotation and relocation of the hull. Similar motor operations are required
when using a short cold weapon or heavy object strikes. However, the use
of a short cold weapon is effective even with the movement of the limb
itself. On the other hand, a stroke driven by just the movement of the limb
would not be effective enough, but in both cases the initiation of motion and
its detection as a stimulus for the injured would be less readable.
Therefore, if the attack action takes a considerably shorter duration than the
duration of the defensive action challenged, its defense as a reaction to it is
unrealistic. In order for it to be possible, it is essential that the attacker
responds not to the beginning of the offensive action of his opponent, but to
something that has been sufficiently prevented and helped to identify the
stimulus itself. The attacker then anticipates the future development of his
96 Chapter Two
opponent's behavior, which he then acts on. To anticipate the probable

behavior, it also offers a solid opportunity to defend itself effectively.
The determination of the components of the psychic and physical abilities

of the subject was the subject of research by the already mentioned authors
Olenika, Rožkova, Kargina (1984). We present the measured values
according to the subject's preferred capabilities:
Table 2-2. Average group indicators of the development of psychic

properties of top wrestlers with different ways of fighting
Rationality
Complex Response of operative
Type Simple motion to a Feel thinking
reaction reaction moving for (number of moves)
time (ms) object time
(ms) (ms) (s)
Player 148.2 ± 200.9 ± 500 ± 190 3.87 ± 7.72 ± 0.41
10.2 11.2 1.86
Stronger 157.7 ± 224.9 ± 610 ± 220 4.93 ± 8.32 ± 0.71
11.3 18.5 2.84
Tempaer 160.1 ± 223.5 ± 690 ± 250 7.31 ± 8.42 ± 0.66
11.1 24.1 4.20
For illustration, we also attach the results of the measurements of Novák,

Skoupý, Špiþka (1991) concerning this narrow issue. From the reaction
times mentioned, it is obvious that the experimental person responds to
something that prevents the opponent's leg from moving away from the pad.
These measurements were performed in the gym during normal evening
lighting.
Measurement has confirmed that the level of illumination and its location
greatly affect the ability of the test person to respond. With good
illumination in the right
direction, the simple reaction time of a non-standard signal, whose substrate

is offset followed by a kick, also gets negative values. The conventional
start of the action takes the moment when the striker's leg has begun to move
away from the pad. However, the last irreversible changes in the preparation
of the trial person to carry out the follow-up action can be reliably identified
under these conditions for 0.5-2 seconds before the determined start of the
attacker's movement, which is sufficient for practical purposes.

actions
Conventional simple
Response type after exposure to a reaction time (ms)
standard visual signal
The Ordinary
shortest
Press the button 153 180-200
Straight cast of the distant arm 211 270-330
Hook aside 229 270-330
External rotary key 228 260-290
An arc kick from a far farther foot from a 220 240-280
combat guard
A circular kick from the bottom of the 300 300-380
opponent's shin to the legs
Loss of battle guard to trace forward 226 260-300
Loss of combat prudence on track back 210 260-280
Cover from the front of the arm from the 203 220-250
battle guard
Cover from top to front of arm from combat 211 230-250
guard
Reverse the head 211 230-260
Bend your head aside 201 230-280
98 Chapter Two

actions
Duration of action
Type of combat action (ms)
The Ordinary
shortest
Direct hit 91 120-150
Hook aside 120 130-150
External rotary stroke without strain 181 190-200
The outer threshing of the distant arm from the 139 150-170
combat guard
Top down from the battle guard through the 105 110-120
forward arm
Direct the kick aside from the battle guard with 241 270-290
the leg up to the knee
The end kick from the bottom of the opponent's 143 150-160
shin
Arcing kick from the bottom of the battle guard 277 300-320
to the far legs 90°
The swinging knob aside from a combat guard 334 350-370
close to the legs to the waist
An outer kick from a combat guard over the 345 360-380
legs to the waist
Seoi-nage from the distance from the front of 467 550-590
the arm to the front
Placing over the calf (tai-otoši) 441 500-550
External impact (o-soto-gari) 643 670-720
Front thrust (uþi-mata) 338 470-560
External cover (according to Šotokan school) 159 180-190
Indoor cover (according to Šotokan school) 111 150-190
Reverse the head 100 -
Bend your head aside 110 -
Table 2-5. Duration of combat actions
Experimental Person No. 2 performs: Duration of simple

Response Time of
Experimental Person No.
1 (mean of measured
values in ms)
Lift forward + arch to the waist height 48
End kick from far farther leg 62
The end kick is closer to the leg 93
A kick from the bottom to the waist 88
height
A kick from the front to the waist 37
Swing the kick aside from the front
6
position to the waist height
Lift forward + arc kick from bottom to
115
waist height
Factors influencing the reaction time

Response time determinants can be classified according to a number of
criteria, including alcohol, drug-stimulating drugs, and therapies that are
relevant for both theory and practice. drugs, age, training, fatigue, spatial
orientation to the stimulus, warning of incoming, stimulus and tension. In
the next, we were primarily interested in the question of changing the
reaction time due to the level of alcohol.
Alcohol reduces the speed of information processes, simple, selective, and

recognition reaction times in experiments requiring a simple motor response
in response. Finally, it also disrupts the cognitive abilities of the higher
order, which is a prerequisite for the negative determination of complex
motor responses.
Experimental part
The main objective of the experiment was to find human reaction times in
an experiment focused on complex reaction time selective to a complex
motor response. In addition to this goal, we focused on quantifying and
expressing the reaction time dependency on the amount of ingested alcohol,
preparedness due to the distraction of the subject and the intensity of the
100 Chapter Two
auditory stimulus. Another task was to express the time duration of the
stroke from the rest position, both in the free space and the rigid body. On
the contrary, the aim was not to follow the analysis of simple reaction times,
whether with a complex motor response or with a simple type of motor
response. Likewise, it seemed desirable, given the goal set, to configure the
experiment so that the stimulus would characterize its randomness caused
by spatial and temporal uncertainty during exposure.
Random stimulus signs for this experiment: an impulse from a defined set
of stimuli with which the subject was informed before the experiment
began, each of which was the only correct response, the most important of
which is the complex motor response, unlike the typical patterns used in
experimental psychology, there are no constant time intervals between
stimuli, respectively. almost constant intervals (Experimental psychology
uses time intervals between impulses whose duration is in the range of about
500-3500 ms, which inevitably, at least in some cases, decreases the
reaction time due to the sequential effect), thus eliminating the so-called
sequential effect; in this experiment, on the other hand, we worked with
time frames ranging from tens of milliseconds to more than a minute upper
limit.
Furthermore, an important factor for the randomness of the stimulus is the

fact that there was a change in the character of the stimulus, if there was an
alternate exposure to the auditory stimulus (from the point of view of the
complexity of the unimodal) with the audiovisual (in terms of bimodal
complexity), and accidentally participated in an undefined impulse, which
the subject did not react at all. There has also been an ongoing substitution
of the spatial location of the source of the stimulus, again to maintain the
variability with respect to the subject.
The experiment was attended by 25 volunteers representing a group of very

well-trained people. The practical part of the research was carried out at the
police gym of the Police Academy of the Czech Republic. Experiments and
measurements for all volunteers lasted roughly 60 minutes. Because of the
nature of the experiment, only a complex and simple reaction time was
present that required a complex motor response.
The instructions were presented to the subjects before the start of the
experiment. This was an outline of the focus of the experiment, with the
focus on the research of reaction times for a random stimulus that requires
complex motor reaction. In addition, the instructions consisted of defining
the impulses, the kick, back, the pulling of the pistol, abdomen, sed, light,
crank. It was explicitly stated that they should not respond to any further
stimulus. Such instructions form the nature of a sample experiment - the
subject responds to stimuli, for which they must choose the right response
and, in addition, to distinguish undesirable stimuli. If simple types were
present, this was the way the subject performed a "neutral reaction, a simple
move", and only modified the process to a correct response during the
movement. In this case, we determined the value of the simple reaction
velocity, and then the latency, which determines the period from the start of
the simple reaction to the actual reaction that is relevant to the given
instruction. We are, of course, contemplating the overall reaction time,
which we continue to work within the context of the analysis of addiction.
Exposure to the sound of the conclusion was exclusively in the dorsal

direction towards the subject. The criterion for selecting the suggestions
made in the verbal expression was the requirement for a relatively equal
duration of the instructions, which was also subject to the method of
formulation of the assignment, the objective of which was not immediately
obvious. Therefore, the subject received the appropriate instruction on the
correct answers. In the case of more concise but significantly different
signals in terms of length, it would be more likely to detect an undefined
signal, thereby obtaining the conditions for a simple reaction time, and
during its execution, the whole information would be expunged in the
meantime, thereby "specifying" his / her response, i.e., he has made the
required response. In other words, it could be said that the subject would be
a signaling agent of the incoming stimulus, which is the exclusively positive
determining factor of the reaction rate.
The alcohol level in the blood was measured with a breath alcohol detector
- Alcohol Tester, however, to eliminate alcohol in the breathing body for
about a while. He spent 10 minutes exercising to remove alcohol from his
breath and speed up the absorption of alcohol in the blood.
Methods and results of data analysis

The methods of data analysis were that we extracted the unchanged
soundtrack in the best quality from the video we obtained. We analyzed the
video in VirtualDubMod 1.5.10.2 build 2540. The record was used to
determine the moment when the subject responded, which meant 40 ms
accuracy due to the methods used in the video. With the interleaving
cancellation function, a sequence of 20 ms was finally created, meaning this
limits errors in the output measurement. The input at the start of the stimulus
102 Chapter Two
exposure, the essence of which was the audio signal, was analyzed by
Audacity 1.2.6, which was already working only with the audio track, for
better accuracy and for the possibility of further analysis of the track and
made it easy to work on the timeline with resolution less than 1 ms, this
sensitivity to the circumstances was optimal.
For each of the stimuli, we used a sound analysis that included the
determination of the intensity of the auditory stimulus (expressed in dBFS
units, the level of 0 dBFS corresponds to the maximum intensity), analysis
of the frequency of the signal (frequency analysis) and its complete
spectrum (spectrogram). Frequency analyzes and spectrograms do not, of
course, be of primary importance in terms of the purpose of the work, but
we consider their inclusion to be important in the complex processing of the
given topic.
The average response time of all subjects at zero alcohol level was 395.27
ms (ı = 113.37). This value represents the mean of all values without
resolution. For a unimodal audible stimulus of 0 dBFS, the average of all
subjects was 342.65 ms.
Figure 2-20. Dependence of reaction time on the intensity of the auditory stimulus.
The nature of the dependence is obvious - faster reaction times reach the
subject if the stimulus gets higher and vice versa. Of course, the curve
created from our measured values does not apply to stimuli that have not
reached such intensity that they are detected. Such incentives did not occur
in our experiment. It is obvious from the very essence that the value of the
reaction time would not increase, respectively. did not diminish indefinitely,
if the theoretical impetus was infinitely small, respectively of great
intensity. In the graph, such a circumstance would be represented by
asymptotes, each of which would be parallel to the corresponding axis.
Figure 2-21. Reaction time dependencies on alcohol level - maximum alcohol level
0.6 ‰
104 Chapter Two
Figure 2-22. Reaction time dependencies on alcohol level - maximum alcohol level
of 1.2 ‰ (Straus, Danko 2009).
Analysis of the experimentally determined values indicates the excitatory

effect of alcohol for very low blood alcohol levels, namely, 0.17- 0.23 g/kg.
The experiments and measurements carried out were performed only on a

group of men, so it is not possible to say with certainty what specific values
of reaction time women would achieve. Pilot research has shown the need
to make the following steps in follow-up research: Performing multiple
measurements from frontal positions vis-à-vis the subject, both with visual
and audio-visual suggestions. The aim of this experiment would be to
complete a set of reaction times for audio, visual, and audiovisual
stimulation, which are the most important insights for expert research in the
field. In all relevant areas of investigation, to obtain additional data to help
clarify the dependencies and to clarify the reaction potential of the common
population as well as to show the physiological boundary capabilities of
highly trained subjects. To determine the effect of alcohol, it is necessary to
further determine the influence of alcohol on the reaction capacity of other
components of the reaction capability. In addition, we consider it necessary
to obtain reaction time values for higher levels of alcohol in the blood than
approx. 0.6 ‰. The hypothesis of reaction rate conditionality in response to
stimulus intensity was confirmed. It was the only audio stimulus so far, but
the sound stimulus responds most quickly to these types of stimuli. This has
resulted in the best possible average response times, which will then be
helpful in analyzing audiovisual stimulus responses, respectively. in the
overall comprehensive assessment of human responsiveness from normal

population or trained people. Analysis of the effect of distraction on
readiness and thus on the value of the reaction time confirmed the
expectations and formed a determinant of a non-negligible character. The
data obtained again provide a solid basis for examining the readiness and its
impact on reaction time. Interesting results have been obtained by analyzing
the influence of alcohol on the reaction rate, where subjects were even
excited on average at low levels, specifically at the level of alcohol in the
blood, approx. 0.08 ‰. Subsequently, a negative determination occurred at
approx. 0.4 ‰ and relatively high values. Analysis of the experimentally
determined values indicates the excitatory effect of alcohol for very low
levels of alcohol in the blood, for 0.17- 0.23 g/kg. The graphs in Figures 2-
21, 2-22 show quite accurately the prediction of the reaction time for a
random stimulus requiring a complex motor response depending on the
level of alcohol in the blood.
Task - Measure the conduction velocity of the nerve excitation!

Measure your reaction time to an optical or sound stimulus (we assume that
the excitement reaches the brain immediately). Then measure the speed of
your response to touch the end of the foot or hand.
We assume that the length of the nerve transmitting this signal to the brain
is small.
The procedure for measuring the reaction time can be realized as follows:
a) the man A holds a ruler between the fingers of man B, suddenly

releases him and B as soon as he sees a falling ruler, catch him. From
the length in which B catches the ruler and the free fall time, the
ଶ௟
reaction time is determined ‫ = ݐ‬ට .
௚
b) Let something randomly appear on the computer monitor (change
the background color, start a sound). At the moment when we
register the signal, press the bottom keyboard (mouse). Let the
computer record the reaction time. One can use the program
http://www.happyhub.com/network/reflex/
We can use a ruler with a small spike or a piece of paper. We close our eyes
and register a touch stimulus. The reaction time tn is comparable to the
reaction time t when we were looking at the ruler. The time tn includes the
106 Chapter Two
time from the beginning of the ruler´s fall until the brain realizes that the
ruler touched his hand. On t , on the other hand, the time of the beginning
of the ruler´s falls to the moment when the brain realizes that the eye has
seen the falling ruler. Therefore, it is an incorrect assumption that the optical
(or sound) stimulus arrives in the brain immediately. The time it takes the
stimulus to arrive in the brain can be estimated from the fact that the
sampling frequency of the eye is about 20 Hz, so the sampling time is about
0.05 s.
CHAPTER THREE
DACTYLOSCOPY
Introduction
Dactyloscopy is one of the oldest identification methods of criminology,
which deals with the identification of persons. The possibilities of
identifying persons based on dactyloscopic principles were already known
to ancient human culture, such as Chinese culture. It is known from history
that already in ancient Chinese cultures various documents issued by the
monarchs were provided with the fingerprint of the monarch's papillary
finger lines to prove their authenticity.
From the point of view of the history of criminology, dactyloscopy is the

second forensic technical method used in practice to identify persons (the
first method of identification was identification according to 11
anthropometric dimensions of the human body, co called bertillonage,
introduced by Alphons Bertillon).
Jan Evangelista PurkynČ, Czech scholar and physiologist, is an important

Czech personality who is associated with the emergence of forensic
dactyloscopy and its use for the identification of persons according to
fingerprints. He studied the structure of human skin, its function, and shape
characteristics of papillary lines. In most textbooks and professional
forensic publications, he is mentioned as one of the founders of applications
of dactyloscopy in forensics. A work of fundamental importance in the
history of dactyloscopy appeared in a wide range of PurkynČ's works, and
in 1823 he wrote "Comentatio de examine physiologico organi visus et
systematis cutanei" (Debate on the Physiological Examination of the Organ
of the Visual and Skin System). The credit of J. E. PurkynČ lies in the fact
that he was the first to describe the basic patterns of papillary lines on the
last sections of his fingers and to suggest their classification. His research
was motivated solely by biological interests and he did not think about using
papillary line drawing to identify people.
108 Chapter Three
Dactyloscopy of criminals has been carried out in our country since 1903,
and since 1908 only dactyloscopic cards have been made for forensic
identification purposes, bertillonage has been abolished.
Dactyloscopy is a branch of forensic technology that examines the

patterns of papillary lines on the inside of the last parts of the fingers,
palms and toes and feet in terms of the laws of their origin, search,
securing and research to identify a person. The importance of
dactyloscopy lies in the fact that it makes it possible to identify a specific
person under optimal conditions.
By dactyloscopic traces, we mean all fingerprints and imprints of fingers,

palms, and bare feet that reflect information about the surface structure
reflecting parts of the human body and were caused by activities having a
causal, local, temporal and other relationship to the clarified event.
Papillary lines create complex and inherently unique patterns, the purpose
of which has not yet been clearly elucidated. It has been clearly shown to be
related to the sensitivity of the skin and its tactile properties. The papillary
lines form continuously elevated reliefs, the height of which is 0.1 - 0.3 mm
and the width of 0.3 - 0.6 mm. By crossing them, changing direction,
branching, etc., various shapes are created in summary.
The origin and existence of papillary line patterns are governed by the
following generally accepted laws:
1) relative indelibility of papillary lines;

2) relative invariance of papillary lines;
3) relative individuality of papillary line drawing.
Dactyloscopic traces are created in principle by a simple mechanism at the

moment of direct action - at the moment of contact of two objects - a human
and an object, which is able to accept the dactyloscopic trace and preserve
the reflection of papillary lines for a certain time. The formation of one's
own dactyloscopic trace can occur in several ways:
1) A mirror-inverted relief of the surface structure of the papillary lines

is created, i.e., a volumetric (3D) dactyloscopic trace. This type of trace
arises if the object that receives the trace is capable of plastic deformation
(plasticine, wax, chocolate, cheese). Under suitable conditions (as long as
the temperature does not exceed the melting point of the substance), the
trace is preserved. The relief of the surface structure of the papillary lines is
mirror inverted.
Dactyloscopy 109
2) The dactyloscopic trace is created by transferring the substance from

the surface of the object to the papillary lines, thus disrupting the surface
structure of the trace carrier. In places corresponding to the inter-papillary
spaces, the original surface remains intact. The mechanism of these traces
can be different:
x Moisture dissolves a small amount of the substance, and the resulting

solution has the ability to adhere to the top of the papillary lines - for
example, water-soluble adhesives on postage stamps.
x Substances that have their own adhesive properties adhere to the top
(ridges) of the papillary lines - for example, fresh paint, dyes, glues,
blood, etc.
x At the top (ridges) of the papillary lines, a microscopic amount of a
substance forming a continuous surface adheres to another, usually
smooth object - for example, a fine layer of dust on furniture. This
type of dactyloscopic trace usually occurs when the papillary lines
of the fingers and palms are covered with a layer of sweat, which
itself has adhesive properties. Because this mechanism of formation
of this type of dactyloscopic trace always transfers a certain amount
of substance from the continuous surface of the carrier to the
papillary lines of the object forming the trace, they are referred to as
layered traces.
3) The dactyloscopic trace is created by transferring a substance located

on the surface of the papillary lines to a suitable carrier. The dactyloscopic
traces formed in this way are referred to as layered dactyloscopic traces.
Thus, the substance that previously adhered to them from the top of the
papillary lines is transferred to various objects - for example, paint, blood,
writing instruments, and dust. Depending on whether the resulting
dactyloscopic traces are observable to the naked eye or not, they are divided
into visible and invisible (latent). The vast majority of latent tracks are
sweat, but this may not always be the rule.
4) Latent dactyloscopic traces are formed by sweat (weight approx.

10 micrograms, thickness 0.1 micrometer). Sweat is made up of more than
99 % water (some literature sources give somewhat different data - the fact
will probably be due to a particular human individual), followed by lactic
acid, sodium chloride, urea and amino acids. Lipids (fats), such as squalene,
fatty acids, and mono-, di- and triglycerides, are also present. The composition
of sweat is different in children and adults, in men and women, it is also
affected by the type of food, health, and medication. In addition to time, the
number of excreted substances in the trace is also due to the properties of
110 Chapter Three
the carrier on which the dactyloscopic trace is formed (to date, however, it
has not been explained whether it is a physical or chemical process). The
term latent trace is usually referred to as a trace formed by sweat, but it
should be noted that daily contact with many objects of different nature can
transmit to the fingers other chemicals (grease, cosmetics, etc.), which may
affect the final composition, and thus possibly complicate the visibility of
the dactyloscopic trace.
The durability of latent dactyloscopic traces depends on several factors.

Temperature, humidity, time from the formation of the dactyloscopic trace
to secure solar radiation, etc. have a significant effect. Despite the above
factors, it is not easy to determine the time after which the track would
disappear. According to the literature, the oldest visible latent trace was 42
years old (visualized by ninhydrin). In practice, it is not a problem to make
traces on the paper visible with ninhydrin several years old.
3.1 Searching, visibility and securing dactyloscopic traces

Forensic technology has developed several methods that are used in the
visibility of latent dactyloscopic traces, securing and documentation. When
choosing a method, it is necessary to consider the type of track, the quality
and character of its carrier the expected age of the track, and other factors.
The choice of the method is based on the knowledge and experience of a
police officer. The following methods can be used in principle:
1) Physical methods (argentorate, carborafin, iron filing, bronze

powder, camphor, carbon black, graphite, fluorescent powder, magnetic
powder, crystal violet, gentian violet, Sudan black). They are based on the
principle of different adhesion of the individual components of sweat to
solid, finely ground, and water-insoluble particles of the substance-induced
substance. The adhesion of these particles decreases with the time (age) of
the dactyloscopic trace, so their use is more suitable for relatively fresh
dactyloscopic traces.
There are currently a large number (several hundred) of dactyloscopic

powders. The most used powder is argentorate, it is a silver-gray powder, a
finely ground aluminum, which is applied with a fine brush (usually from
hair or various animal hairs - currently glass fiber brushes are used,
especially for their longevity), the imprint of which is visible in it has a
silver-gray color.
Dactyloscopy 111
Good results are achieved especially on objects with a smooth and shiny
surface, on glass, painted objects, etc. A visible print is provided on a black
dactyloscopic foil. Not suitable for visualizing dactyloscopic traces on paper
carriers.
In some cases, other powders in large quantities are used to make

dactyloscopic traces visible, for example, graphite (finely ground graphite),
carborafin (finely ground charcoal), ultramarine, cinnabar. Reliable
visibility of latent dactyloscopic traces on paper carriers is possible with the
help of ferromagnetic powder (finely ground iron filings). The powder is
applied with a so-called magnetic brush, which is a permanent magnet
placed in a plastic case.
Under favorable circumstances, dactyloscopic traces can also be developed

and secured on textiles, using a fabric, which is a dark brown to black
mixture of several substances. It can be used to develop dactyloscopic traces
on fabrics with a smooth surface, such as nylon, damask, poplin, silk, etc.
In contrast, with long pile fabrics or woven from thicker fibers with an
uneven, rough surface, dactyloscopic traces cannot be provided by the fabric
at all.
The development is carried out by pouring the fabric on the fabric at the
place of the presumed dactyloscopic imprint, the excess powder being
poured onto the fabric by gentle, careful tapping of the fabric. The fabric
adheres to the fabric in those places where sweat remains on the papillary
lines when touched with a finger or palm. The traces thus developed are
secured with a transparent dactyloscopic foil. They can also be documented
photographically.
The fabric does not damage the fabric to which it was applied and is easily
dusted after securing the impression. It has not been used in practice in
recent years. New agents used to induce dactyloscopic traces include higher
intensity powders, either white or black. The powders show low adhesion
to the track carrier. With these powders, traces of plastics, painted objects,
weapons (white powder), hardened paper, etc. can be secured without any
problems.
Some mixtures were experimentally tested for visualization of latent

dactyloscopic traces, which have elapsed since the creation of a long time.
The most suitable are:
112 Chapter Three
x ZnO (19 parts) + rosin (1 part),

x CuO (19 parts) + rosin (1 part),
x sodium salicylate (1 part) + starch (10 parts),
x carbon black (10 parts) + rosin (1 part),
x bismuth nitrate Bi (NO3) 3. 5 H2O (10 parts) + starch (1 part).
By using these mixtures, it is possible to make visible and ensure

dactyloscopic traces up to 14 days old, even if they are exposed to weather
conditions.
In cases where the color of the developing powder coincides with the color
of the trace carrier or in some cases conventional powders (e.g., argentorate)
cannot be used, bronze powders can be used successfully, which, among
other things, dust from traces and do not contaminate objects, such as
argentorate. The use of bronze powders is recommended to make
dactyloscopic traces visible, e.g., on formica, hard PVC, painted metals, etc.
In recent years, many fluorescent powders have been produced and used,
which fluoresce when illuminated with a suitable source and can also be
used for visibility on light-reflecting surfaces, which causes problems in
photographic security. Magnetic powders are composed of iron dust,
sometimes mixed with copper or aluminum (discoloration) or also contain
fluorescent dyes. They are applied with a magnetic brush, which prevents
so-called brushing - insensitive application of classical powders with a
brush and can cause smearing, in extreme cases even erasure of the
impression.
The use of carbon black burning camphor can also be included among the
physical methods. The visibility of the trace is carried out by igniting the
camphor and placing a dactyloscopic trace carrier over its flame (the flue
gases contain a large proportion of very fine soot). After careful removal of
excess soot (weakly flowing stream of water, pulp), a visible dactyloscopic
trace in deep black can be observed. The use of camphor carbon black is
especially suitable for the visibility of dactyloscopic traces on metal carriers
(e.g., knives, scissors, firearms).
2) Chemical methods (ninhydrin, silver nitrate, 1,8-diazo-9-fluorene

[DFO], osmium oxide, and ruthenium oxide). These methods are based on
a chemical reaction between a sweat component and a chemical to form a
colored compound. They are mainly used for developing dactyloscopic
traces on paper carriers.
Dactyloscopy 113
3) Physic-chemical methods (iodine vapors, cyanoacrylate, laser

methods). They are based on the adhesion of chemical compounds in places
where the dactyloscopic trace is located.
4) Special methods (neutronography, autoradiography, 8-

hydroxychynoline, autoelectronography) that use special techniques or
special procedures, such as X-rays, neutron flux, etc.
3.2 Examination of dactyloscopic traces

Dactyloscopy allows in particular:
x identification of persons according to traces or footprints left

(created) at the place of forensically relevant events;
x identification of corpses of unknown identity;
x identification of persons who do not want or cannot prove their
identity;
x finding out whether the dactyloscopic trace has been created by a
person who has already committed as yet unexplained criminal
offenses;
x In some cases, decide which finger or part of the skin covered by the
papillary lines created the dactyloscopic trace.
In practice, the most common comparisons are:
x Traces and prints obtained at the crime scene (criminally relevant

events) with control (comparative) prints of selected, suspicious or
domestic persons (a person who moved to the spot within another
activity - apartment user, an employee of an organization, etc., but
did not have a share of investigated events - these prints and
comparative prints of these persons may not be used except in the
given case and are destroyed after use);
x traces obtained at the crime scene with comparative fingerprints of
persons stored in dactyloscopic registrations;
x Fingerprints of persons of unknown identity and corpses with
fingerprints in registration.
The actual dactyloscopic identification is performed based on the evaluation

of dactyloscopic markers (individual features). The individuality of
papillary line patterns is based on many markers that occur randomly and
114 Chapter Three
independently and ultimately form a unique structure. The individual

markers, such as beginning, end, eyelet, bridge, forks, crossing, and others,
differ from each other not only in the geometric shape, but also in the
frequency of occurrence, which can also be used for further conclusions.
The identification value of a sign (dactyloscopic marker) can be calculated

according to the relation:
I = - log n, where
I - character identification value
n - frequency of occurrence of the character on the area of 1 mm2.
The significance of determining the identification value of individual

dactyloscopic features lies in the fact that on their basis it is possible to
determine the minimum number of features necessary to express a reliable
categorical conclusion about the identity of the object. It is not the simple
number of identical characters found that should be decisive for
identification, but the total sum of their identification values. In the
criminalistic practice of different countries, there are different opinions on
this issue, and the required number of identification marks also differs.
The number of dactyloscopic markers necessary for individual human

identification in the Czech Republic is set at 10 markers or more. At present,
the universally required number of dactyloscopic markers necessary for
individual human identification has not been and has never been determined
worldwide. In domestic forensic practice, a dactyloscopic trace with enough
markers sufficient for individual human identification (i.e., a usable trace)
is considered a dactyloscopic trace containing more than 10 markers. The
partially usable track shows 7 to 9 markers.
The unusable track then shows 6 or fewer markers. The division of

dactyloscopic traces into partially usable and unusable is traditional in the
domestic professional literature, but not very suitable. Both groups of
dactyloscopic traces have a common forensic tactical use - they make it
possible to exclude some of the suspects, but they do not allow their
individual identification. The numbers of markers required for individual
identification in other states are listed in the following table. Currently, the
world literature discusses whether the condition of a minimum number of
markers is necessary, or an individual evaluation of each case, where the
frequency of individual markers can be considered.
In addition to the use of dactyloscopic markers, the literature also mentions

the use of the appearance and location of skin pores for identification
Dactyloscopy 115
purposes, especially by measuring their position, relative distances, size and

more. This method is called poroscopy, it is almost not used in practice and
in fact lies on the border of dactyloscopy.
Comparative prints of the last links of the fingers, palm, or feet and toes
are most often obtained with the help of dactyloscopic black, which is
basically printed black. This black is applied in a thin layer on a solid and
flat surface (glass, metal) and parts of the skin covered with papillary lines
are pressed on this surface. For these purposes, it is also possible to use
factory-produced plastic foils, on which the optimal layer of dactyloscopic
black is already applied. The parts of the skin thus blackened are transferred
to the marked part of the dactyloscopic card, in the case of the last finger
joint by a rolling movement, in other cases by simple pressing. Before the
actual dactyloscopy, the scanned part of the skin must be thoroughly
washed, and the same is necessary even after dactyloscopy, because black
adheres relatively firmly to the skin.
Furthermore, the so-called "pure" dactyloscopy is used, which does not use
dactyloscopic black, but a special, so-called wax paste, which is very lightly
smeared on the pad and the impression is transferred to a specially treated
paper. The chemical reaction between the paste and the paper components
produces black prints. This method has been used and continues to be used
in various modifications to obtain the prints of "domestic" persons.
Comparative corpse prints are taken analogously as in the case of living

persons. Again, dactyloscopic black is most often used, variously shaped
dactyloscopic spoons are used, which enable a better fingerprinting with the
help of an inserted piece of paper. If the corpse's skin is wrinkled, a suitable
liquid can be injected under it with a syringe to turn it off. For some older
corpses, it is more advantageous to dissect a part of the skin with papillary
lines and obtain prints from them, or to photograph this skin.
The process of dactyloscopic identification consists of three stages, which

can be characterized as follows:
x In the first stage, the expert examines the objects of identification in

terms of their suitability for identification research.
x In the second stage of dactyloscopic identification, the expert
performs his own comparative examination, the principle of which
is the evaluation of individual dactyloscopic identification features
contained in both trace and comparative materials. The results are
compared and conclusions are drawn about the similarity or
116 Chapter Three
difference of the examined (assessed) objects. At the same time, a

reasoned explanation of the differences found in the ruling of one of
the types of categories of courts is stated.
x In the third stage, based on the quality and quantity of dactyloscopic
features, the expert decides on the conformity or differences of the
examined objects. Using formal and dialectical logic, he can
pronounce four types of categorical judgments:
- a categorically positive court (the trace from the crime scene and
the comparative fingerprint were created by one person);
- categorically negative court (the track and the comparative
fingerprint were created by two persons);
- partially positive and a partially negative court (differences were
found in the footprint and the comparison sample, which the
expert must explain before deciding on the overall conclusion of
the investigation).
In the past, there were (so far exist in some countries) dactyloscopic
collections, in which the comparative fingerprints of the last fingerprints on
the hands were classified according to established criteria and divided into
groups and subgroups within the records. These records were used in the
manual search for similar registered fingerprints according to dactyloscopically
classifiable traces. Such systems were very diverse, common were single-
finger systems (monodactyloscopic), which allowed the identification of a
person (especially the perpetrator) according to a single trace created by the
last finger joint, and multi-finger systems (most often decadactyloscopic),
which were used mainly to identify unknown persons. and corpses. These
manual systems gradually became practically unusable due to the large
number of registered persons, the evaluation time of individual dactyloscopic
traces was unbearably long.
Another disadvantage was the subjective evaluation, which to a large extent

contributed to the low yield of these collections, and that some prints
(literature reported up to tens of percent) could not be unambiguously
classified according to the criteria and all had to be searched. In countries
with large dactyloscopic records, the use of punched labels facilitated the
search. With the further development of computer technology, automated
dactyloscopic systems were constructed, which enable a very fast search for
the most similar registered fingerprints on a trace secured at the crime scene.
The main advantage of these systems is speed. Individual identification for
the purposes of evidence is always a matter for the expert, computer systems
do not have the primary role of identification, but elimination, is to offer the
operator some of the most probable fingerprints, in which the same is then
Dactyloscopy 117
searched. In 1975, the use of the Automated Fingerprint Identification

System (AFIS) began in the USA. At the end of the eighties, the first
experiments with computer technology appeared in this area and in the
country. In 1994, AFIS was installed at the Criminalistics Institute in
Prague. It is currently saturated with more than 600,000 cards.
Other questions related to dactyloscopy

Although dactyloscopy has already celebrated 100 years of success, some
questions remain unanswered:
x Problems of visualization of latent dactyloscopic traces on the skin

of living persons or corpses - it has been experimentally proven that
it is possible to visualize latent dactyloscopic traces on the skin of
corpses and living persons, unfortunately to date there is no
universally acceptable method.
x Composition of chemicals suitable for later DNA analyzes -
advances in forensic genetics allow the use of fewer and fewer
biological materials to identify people by DNA, unfortunately most
chemicals for visualizing latent fingerprints cause denaturation of its
material nature and thus prevent later DNA analysis.
x Systematic testing of new methods for visualization of latent
dactyloscopic traces.
x Characterization of the support - currently there is no simple method
that would allow to characterize the surface properties of the support
and its porosity, which would allow a better estimation of a suitable
means of visibility.
x Sweat composition.
x Age of dactyloscopic traces - the moment of origin of the
dactyloscopic trace has its tactical value, unfortunately currently
there are no known methods that would allow this finding.
x Sequence of origin - a method that allows to distinguish (possibly
gradually make visible) several overlapping tracks could provide
additional information.
x Counterfeiting of dactyloscopic traces and their detection - at present
there is no consensus on the risk of transmission of latent
dactyloscopic traces or their creation (for example by means of
castings) and the possibility of their detection. This issue will
become increasingly topical, especially in connection with the
increasing penetration of biometric methods into all areas
118 Chapter Three
(identification of persons, securing classified information and

electronic transactions, etc.).
x Number of markers necessary for individual identification - issues
addressed especially in the USA for the last thirty years. In 1973,
after three years of research, the International Association for
Identification (IAI) stated: "There is no yardstick for deciding on the
minimum number of markers that must be present on two
fingerprints in order to establish a match - necessary to establish
individual identification." The final decision is therefore up to the
person making the comparison. This issue was reopened at an
international conference in Israel (1995), known as the "Ne'urim
Declaration", which merely repeated the IAI's 1973 conclusions.
However, the question of uniqueness is far from over; most recently
in 1999 (United States, v. Byron C. Mitchell, Pennsylvania). In this
case, the defense stated that dactyloscopic traces had never been
demonstrated to be unique in the sense of the definition of "Daubert"
(the Daubert case - a decision of the US Supreme Court on the
admissibility of forensic methods). After four days of hearing the
defense and government experts, the court ruled that the fingerprints
were unique and permanent.
Figure 3-1. Comparison of the secured track and the captured fingerprint
Dactyloscopy 119
Figure 3-2. Ridge characteristics

(https://mrsblackmonsscienceblackboard.weebly.com/fingerprints.html)
Figure 3-3. Visibility of the dactyloscopic trace with finely ground ferric oxide
120 Chapter Three
Figure 3-4. Visibility of the dactyloscopic trace by reaction with ninhydride and by
iodine vapor
Figure 3-5. Papilary lines

Dactyloscopy 121
3.3 Physics behind dactyloscopy

3.3.1 Optics
A compound microscope has two (or more) lenses: the ocular lens
(eyepiece) atop the body tube and the objective lens at the bottom of the
tube. The magnification can be changed by using a different objective lens.
A compound microscope
Figure 3-6. A compound microscope

122 Chapter Three
The objective has a short focal length, it is placed close to the object being
examined. The objective lens produces a real, inverted image of the object
0 at I1. This is then viewed by the eye lens, and this gives a final virtual
image at I. The magnifying power M of the instrument is given by the
formula:
஽ ௩
Magnifying power M = ቀ – 1 ቁ ቀ െ 1ቁ
௙೐ ௙೚
where fe is the focal length of the eye lens, fo that of the objective lens and v
the distance of I1 from the objective lens.
Figure 3-7. Running rays

(https://www.schoolphysics.co.uk/age16-
19/Optics/Optical%20instruments/text/Microscope_/index.html)
The magnifying power can be calculated also by the formula
M = mo x me
where mo and me are the magnifications of the objective lens, and eyepiece,
lens respectively.
Dactyloscopy 123
When viewing with two eyes, a single objective is employed in a binocular

tube fitted with a matched pair of eyepieces. A beam splitting prism is used
to divide the light beam from the image formed by the objective to each eye.
When using the microscope, there are some geometric limitations resulting
from the laws of geometric optics.
1. Resolution – the smallest distance at which two points can be seen

as separate when viewed through the microscope
2. Resolving power of the microscope = O /2 n sin D
Comparative microscope see Fig. 3-8:
Figure 3-8. Comparative microscope for forensics (http://www.mikro.cz/forenzni-

komparacni-mikroskopy)
124 Chapter Three
Figure 3-9. Ken – a – vision comparative microscope
A comparison microscope is an instrument used to compare two samples.

The comparison microscope consists of two microscopes connected by an
optical bridge, so the image in the eyepiece is divided into two parts, where
you can see two separate objects that can be compared. Comparing images
is simplified and the observer does not have to rely on his memory.
Dactyloscopy 125
Figure 3-10. Comparison microscope – image

Tamasflex. Comparison microscope. Wikipedia: the free encyclopedia [online].
San Francisco (CA): Wikimedia Foundation, 2010 [cit. 2015-07-15].
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5d/ComparisonMicroscope.pn
g?uselang=cs
The inventor of the comparative microscope was the chemist Philip

O. Gravelle, who was involved in the identification of the bullets. He
worked with Calvin Gohhard.
The T-19241C-230 comparison microscope is frequently used in forensic

science. The microscope has two types of light according to its intensity.
The more intensive can be used for microorganism imaging. I tis possible
to display one field separately or both fields at once. The magnification of
the microscope is 20-400times.
126 Chapter Three
3.3.2 Molecular physics – adhesion and cohesion

Adhesion arises from the action of attractive forces that act between the
particles located in the surface layer of various substances. If the two
substances are water and the solid that the water wets, it is the so-called
wettability (adhesion of the liquid). The force of wettability is the adhesive
force. The adhesive force arises from the contact surface and the
unevenness’s of both materials. A unique theory of adhesion does not exist.
Basic theories or mechanisms of adhesion can be divided into the following

groups:
x Mechanical adhesion (e.g., Velcro, textile adhesives, sewing – the

basis, blocking of surfaces, when cavities and gaps are filled when
approaching surfaces)
x Chemical adhesion (mediated by chemical bonding – covalent, ionic,
or hydrogen bonding. For the formation of bonding, the two surfaces
must be very close to each other (one nanometer), the bond is brittle.
x Dispersion (van der Waals bonding)
x Electrostatic adhesion (by the action of electrostatic forces touching
the surface creates an analogy of a capacitor)
x Diffusion (the connection is due to the diffusion of both materials,
e.g. polymers)
Practical example:
Measurement of adhesive forces between a glass plate and water molecules

in a surface layer:
A glass plate is hung on a load cell and is placed on the water surface (the
water is in a baker). Using the load cell, we are lifting the plate vertically
upwards. By applying a force that is greater than the gravitational force of
the plate, it is possible to “tear” the plate from the liquid surface. The
underside of the plate is wet, it means that the water has turned off from the
water and not from the glass.
Dactyloscopy 127
Figure 3-11. Measurement of adhesion forces http://pokusy.upol.cz/skolni-

pokusy/molekulova-fyzika-a-termika/kineticka-teorie-latek/prilnavost-27/
In practice, the problem of adhesion between car tires and road surface (or
locomotive wheels and rails), is solved, so as in medicine, dentistry (denture
attachment), construction, etc. Road grip depends on the quality of its
surface and the surface of the tires. The highest adhesion occurs in the case
of dry roads, the coefficient of adhesion is 0.6 – 1. Adhesion is affected by
the temperature and structure of the tire surface. The coefficient of adhesion
can then be more than doubled (see Formula 1 races – the warm-up lap).
Cohesion arises from the existence of attractive forces (so-called cohesive

forces) by which the particles of a substance act on each other. Cohesion
occurs only in solids and liquids.
All molecules in the surface layer with a depth of 10-9 m act on the whole
liquid with a pressure called cohesive pressure. For water, the magnitude of
the cohesive pressure is of the order of 109 Pa. Compared to the external
128 Chapter Three
pressure that can be applied to the liquid, this pressure is many times higher.
This is also the explanation for the low compressibility of liquids.
Surface layer of a liquid
Molecular forces perpendicular to the surface of the liquid cause cohesive

pressure. Molecular forces parallel to the surface of the liquid cause the
liquid to try to change its surface – the so-called surface tension.
Surface tension is expressed by the force acting in the direction of the

tangent to the surface per length unit.
Figure 3-12. Molecular forces

ௗி
Surface tension ߪ = , where dF is the increase in cohesive force acting
ௗ௟
in the direction of the tangent to the liquid surface, dl is the length element.
The unit of surface tension is Nm-1.
Let us study the contact of a liquid with a solid wall. There is an interaction
of the attractive force between the liquid molecules (cohesive force) and
between the surface molecules of the liquid and the wall (adhesion), which
represents the mutual adhesion of two different substances (their surfaces).
Two cases can occur:
1. Non-sticking liquid – adhesion is less than cohesion – the liquid does

not wet the walls of the container, we observe the phenomenon
depression
2. Adhering, wetting liquid – adhesion is greater than cohesion, we
observe the phenomenon elevation.
Dactyloscopy 129
The surface tension decreases with temperature.
Phenomena at the interface of three surfaces
The liquid in the container represents the contact of three surfaces – the
liquid, the walls of the container (solid), and the air (or steam).
At a point A on the vessel wall, three surface layers meet: a liquid-solid

layer, an air-solid layer, and an air-liquid layer. This corresponds to three
surface tensions: V12 between air and liquid, V13 between air and solid, V23
between liquid and solid. In general, these surface tensions are not in
equilibrium. At the wall of the vessel, the molecules can only move along
this wall, so the equilibrium occurs when the components of surface tension
parallel to the wall are compensated for each other. The following cases
occur:
Figure 3-12. Surface tension – forces

https://physics.mff.cuni.cz/kfpp/skripta/kurz_fyziky_pro_DS/display.php/molekul/
9_4
a) If V13 ! V23, the molecules of the liquid move upwards along the wall
of the container and the surface of the liquid forms an angle G, the so-called
extreme angle
The equilibrium requirement

130 Chapter Three
ߪଵଷ = ߪଶଷ + ߪଵଶ cos ߜ
For the value of the extreme angle 0 G S/2 the unevenness characterizes
the case of perfect wetting of a solid body by a liquid and the elevation
occurs. E.g., perfectly wets the clean glass surface with water or alcohol.
Figure 3-13. Liquid wetting the solid body
b) If V23 ! V13, the molecules move down along the wall of the container.
The liquid forms an obtuse angle with the wall of the container and for the
value S/2 G S there is a case when the liquid does not wet the solid body
– depression (e.g., glass-mercury).
Dactyloscopy 131
Figure 3-14. A liquid that does not wet the solid body
In the case of a drop of liquid on the surface of a solid body, a similar

situation occurs.
132 Chapter Three
Figure 3-15. A drop of liquid
The equilibrium is ߪଵଷ = ߪଶଷ + ߪଵଶ cos ߜ. If V13 ! V23 + V12 (G = 0), the
droplet spreads over the surface of the solid until a monomolecular layer is
formed. I tis a perfect wetting of the solid body with a liquid. If the angle G
is sharp, then an imperfect wetting occurs; if the angle G is obtuse, tension
V23 and the projection of tension V12 cosG tend to give the drop a spherical
shape. For the equilibrium is V13 V23+ V12 cosG . An extreme case can
occur for small mercury droplets, when G = S and cos S = -1.
A drop of liquid may be found on the surface of another liquid if the liquids
do not mix with each other (e.g., a drop of oil with water).
Figure 3-16. Surface tension of a liquid drop on another liquid

Dactyloscopy 133
The component V13 tries to expand the drop and reduce the surface of the
liquid (3), on the contrary components V12, V23 try to withdraw the drop and
reduce its total surface. In order for the drop to maintain its shape, the
requirement must be met
V13 = V12 + V23
If V13 ! V12 + V23 the droplet spreads over the surface of the liquid and forms
a thin or monomolecular layer on the surface of the liquid (3).
Capillarity
Very closely related to the wettability are capillary phenomena. If we

immerse a tube with a very small cross-section (capillary) in a liquid, then
when the liquid comes into contact with a solid body, the surface of the
liquid curves. A meniscus is formed in the capillary, which can be
considered as part of a spherical surface with a radius R. When the capillary
is immersed in a liquid that does not wet the walls of the capillary, a drop
of liquid occurs, and the meniscus is convex.
134 Chapter Three
Figure 3-17. Capillary elevation and depression
When the liquid wets the surface of the capillary, the liquid in the capillary
rises to a certain height and the meniscus is hollow. Due to the capillary
pressure when the surface of the liquid is curved, two cases can occur:
Dactyloscopy 135
In the case of a non-wetting liquid, the capillary pressure is positive and

causes an increase in the pressure in the liquid. The liquid in the capillary
drops below the level of the surrounding liquid. The so-called capillary
depression occurs. In the case of a wetting liquid, the capillary pressure is
negative and causes a decrease in the pressure in the liquid. The liquid in
the capillary rises higher than the level of the surrounding liquid and the so-
called capillary elevation occurs. The liquid in the capillary rises to a height
h at which the hydrostatic pressure of the liquid column is in equilibrium
with the capillary pressure. The following applies
2ߪ
= ݄ߩ݃
ܴ
where U is the density of the liquid, R is the radius of curvature of the
meniscus, g is the gravitational acceleration. From here, the height of the
liquid column in the capillary can be expressed as
ଶఙ
݄= .
ோఘ௚
௥
From Fig. 3-17follows ܴ = and therefore for the height of the ascent
ୡ୭ୱ ణ
we can write
ଶఙ ୡ୭ୱ ణ
݄= .
௥ఘ௚
It is obvious that the height of the liquid ascent in the capillary is inversely
proportional to the radius of the capillary r. However, since the surface
tension of the liquid depends on the temperature and decreases faster than
the density of the liquid with increasing temperature, it also the capillary
elevation, resp. depression decreases depending on the temperature.
Capillarity plays an important role in nature science and technology

(penetration of water into the roots of plants, separation of ore from rock,
absorption of sweat by functional laundry, etc.)
.
136 Chapter Three
Figure 3-18. Adhesion of dactyloscopic powder to a dactyloscopic brush
Figure 3-19. Adhesion of dactyloscopic powder to the solid surface

Dactyloscopy 137
Figure 3-20. Adhesion of dactyloscopic powder to a surface with a dactyloscopic

trace
CHAPTER FOUR
FORENSIC BALLISTICS
4.1 Forensic ballistics as a scientific discipline

Forensic ballistics is a branch of science that studies the movement of a
projectile in a weapon and the further movement of the projectile outside
the weapon, until hitting the target. In addition, it deals with some other
issues, in particular the assessment of weapons and ammunition in relation
to their functionality and the investigation of postfire fumes. In solving its
specific questions, forensic ballistics applies and creatively reworks the
knowledge of military technical science in the issues of the mechanism of
ballistic footprints, their form, and distribution. Of course, to cover all
phenomena of criminalistic significance, criminological ballistics has
required a substantial expansion compared to military ballistics, and at the
same time the range of issues it examines has changed. Unlike military
ballistics, which solves tasks related to the destruction of a given target, the
accuracy of firing, and reliability of weapons, the main task of forensic
ballistics is to identify the weapon according to the traces found in
connection with a specific forensically relevant event. In addition, it also
solves the issues of determining the shooter's location, shooting distance,
weapon functionality, and other issues.
Forensic ballistics is a scientific discipline that examines weapons,

ammunition and its components, by-products of firing objects with
traces of impact or effect of missiles, internal, transitional and external
ballistics to determine group affiliation and perform individual
identification under the current clarification of the causes and
conditions under which the object was fired and damaged by gunfire.
By forensic ballistics we mean:
1. The science of firearms of all kinds and types.

2. The science of ammunition and its components.
3. Identification of weapons by fired cartridge cases and projectiles and
Forensic Ballistics 139
by-products of the shot.

4. The science of objects damaged by firing and the effects of missiles.
5. The science of internal, transitional, and external ballistics with
application for forensic needs.
The aim of professional research in the field of forensic ballistics is

primarily to identify the weapon from which the projectile or cartridge was
fired, to check the functionality of the weapon or ammunition, and to assess
the distance and effects of firing on a particular object. The objects of
forensic ballistics research are:
x Especially small arms firearms of all kinds and types. To a much

lesser extent, gas weapons and, exceptionally, mechanical weapons
are the object of research.
x Ammunition of all kinds and its individual components, cartridges,
bullets, and cartridges as the main products of the shot, by-products
of the shot as burned and unburned grains of gunpowder, smoke,
flame and burn.
x Items with traces of the impact and effect of bullets.
One of the important fundamental issues that criminological ballistics deals

with is the question of the mechanism of criminological traces during the
actual course of the shot and after leaving the projectile from the weapon.
From this point of view, ballistics is divided into:
a) Internal ballistics - the doctrine of the laws by which the projectile

is guided in its movement in the main weapon from the moment of
initiation of the shot (ignition of the powder charge in the cartridge
case or the provision of mechanical energy by another impulse) until
the moment it leaves the barrel at a certain initial speed; internal
ballistics is hardly concerned with mechanical weapons,
b) Transitional ballistics - dealing with the study of the movement of
the projectile immediately before the barrel, i.e. from the moment
when the bottom of the projectile leaves the muzzle of the barrel and
dust gases or air or carbon dioxide (used in gas weapons) still
precede the projectile. This is a very limited section of the flight path
of the projectile, its length is about 10-20% of the caliber of the
weapon. The velocity of the projectile will increase by 1-2% for
firearms at the end of transitional ballistics, and even less for other
weapons,
c) External ballistics - it is the part of ballistics that examines the
movement of the projectile after leaving the barrel in the outer space.
140 Chapter Four
The result of solving the issue of external ballistics is the

determination of the elements of the trajectory of a single or mass
projectile (usually shots fired from a shotgun), especially its range
and effective range, flight time, can’t and instantaneous speed and
energy at certain points,
d) Terminal ballistics - dealing with the study of movement and effects
in the target (a special branch of terminal ballistics is wounded
ballistics).
Firearms are those weapons that are used to destroy a target at a distance
by a projectile, which is set in motion by the immediate release of
accumulated energy. The energy is used both to transport the projectile to
the target and to destroy the target itself. According to the type of energy
that was given to the projectile, we distinguish firearms into:
1. Mechanical weapons that usually use mechanical energy to fire

(rubber, slingshot, bow, crossbow).
2. Gas weapons that use the pneumatic energy of air or other
mechanically compressed gas to fire a projectile. The air can be
precompressed in the pressure chamber or is compressed by a piston
at the moment of firing (air rifle, gas gun, windbreakers).
3. Firearms in which the projectile is set in motion by the immediate
release of the chemical energy of the gunpowder, or only match the
composition itself. This is the most frequent type of weapon that
forensic ballistics deals with.
According to the controllability when shooting, all types of firearms can be

divided into:
1. Small arms that can be operated with one or two hands. Small arms
are divided into short and long. These weapons make up the
dominant proportion of the weapons that forensic ballistics deals
with. Mechanical weapons, as already mentioned, are of marginal
importance.
2. Mounted weapons, which we hardly encounter in forensic ballistics
(e.g., heavy machine guns, mortars, cannons, etc.).
For practical reasons, firearms can be divided according to their purpose

into:
1. Civil - hunting, sports, defense.

2. Military.
3. Special - signal, insidious, alarm, home-made, industrial.
However, this division is not of greater criminalistic significance - it is not

decisive what kind of weapons, crime, or other forensically relevant events
were committed.
According to the bore, we can further divide small arms into weapons:
1. With a grooved or polygonal bore, which includes single-shot

weapons.
2. With a smooth bore, which includes all weapons with mass bullet.
3. Combined, which are weapons having at least one barrel with a
smooth bore and one barrel with a grooved bore (often hunting
weapons).
Firearms can be further divided according to the type of ammunition used

into:
1. Firearms with a single projectile.

2. Firearms for mass bullet (shots).
Firearms can also be divided according to the number of mains into:
1. Single barrel.
2. Multi-barrel.
The degree of automation of the mechanism and construction of the weapon

allows the division of firearms into:
1. One-shot.
2. Repetitive.
3. Self-charging (semi-automatic).
4. Automatic.
It follows from the above division of firearms that a firearm is a modified

object that allows the ignition and burning of a powder charge while
generating a sufficient amount of gas, the pressure of which is used to
transport the projectile to the target (and its subsequent destruction). One
of the basic parts of any firearm is a barrel that meets the above conditions.
It follows that from a forensic and technical point of view, a firearm does
not always have to be only a classic weapon, but also only an adapted iron
pipe, as is the case in some cases of home-made weapons, which can be
142 Chapter Four
encountered quite often in forensic ballistic research. As already mentioned,
forensic ballistics, due to the nature of the use of weapons, mostly deals with
the study of small arms. A single charge is used to fire current firearms. The
single charge consists of a cartridge case, powder charge, projectile, and
match. From a forensic technical point of view, under the firearm for small
arms firearms, we mean rounds from the smallest caliber of 4 mm for target
shooting to the most powerful rounds of 15.2 mm caliber intended for
shooting from tropical rifles.
The external dimensions of the shotgun charge correspond to the

dimensions of the charge chamber. Depending on the application, it can be
filled with either a mass or a single (but special) projectile. The cartridge
case usually consists of a paper or plastic cartridge case, a metal bottom,
and a powder quiver. The lower end of the cartridge case is closed by a
bottom which is reinforced with metal fittings. A bed is created in the
middle of the fitting for match setting. The caliber of the hub and the
manufacturer's trademark are usually embossed on the lower part of the
fitting. The dust quiver forms a stop for settling stoppers, supported by a
dust disc and delimits the space for dust filling. For some species, a quiver
is not used and the plug hits the dust directly.
The bulk projectile consists of shots, which are made of almost pure
metallurgical lead. To increase the hardness, antimony is added to the lead
in an amount of 1 to 4%. Shots made of a lead-antimony alloy are called
hard, shots made only of lead are called soft, and their main disadvantage is
their high deformability.
Single projectile round - used exclusively in weapons with a grooved bore.

According to the location of the match composition, they are divided into:
a) Ammunition with central ignition

b) Ammunition with edge ignition
c) Ammunition with needle (pin) ignition
In the case of a cartridge with a central ignition, the bottom of the cartridge
case is provided with a bed for a match, the cartridges with an edge ignition
have a match composition located in their hollow edge. For a cartridge case
with edge ignition, the diameter of the bottom is larger than the diameter of
the cartridge case. The cartridge case with a central ignition has a
circumferential groove (recess) at the bottom of the extractor claw. Needle-
fired cartridges are structurally obsolete and almost nonproduction. These
ammunitions (unlike the two previous groups) must be placed in the weapon
in only one possible position, otherwise they cannot be initiated.
The shape of the cartridge case can be cylindrical, but less often conical,
another shape is called bottled according to the fact that the cylindrical parts
are provided with a neck. The cone to which the neck of the bottle cartridge
is connected is called the abutment cone, the part between the abutment cone
and the groove, or the edge is the shell of the cartridge case. In the case of
cartridges without a neck, the casing of the cartridge case is the part between
the groove or edge and its end, the so-called mouth.
Bullets - at the time of using black gunpowder, the bullets were made of
one piece of lead. The boreholes of the weapons were provided with a large
number of grooves with considerable depth to ensure proper guidance of the
soft lead bullet in the barrel (compact bullets). Smokeless powder allowed
a higher initial velocity of the projectile than a less powerful black powder
could give. The soft lead projectile did not withstand higher speeds, and
therefore had to be fitted with a protective shell made of a stronger material,
thus creating a shell projectile. The shell of the projectile is made of either
brass, copper, and more recently deep-drawn steel. According to the
construction, shell projectiles can be divided into all-shell, half-shell,
fragmentation, and special.
The all-shell projectile is covered over the entire surface with a shell. This
gives the projectile considerable resistance to penetration by the opposing
material of the target, whereby the projectile obtains very good penetrating
effects.
The half-shell projectile has the front part of the core exposed. This provides
a prerequisite for easy deformation of the front of the projectile. The greater
deformability of the projectile will cause a better transfer from energy of the
projectile to the living target.
The fragmentation projectiles have an even greater ability to deform, which

have an expansion cavity formed in the front part, helping to deform
(destroy) the projectile when hitting the target. The expansion cavity
impairs the ballistic properties of the fragmentation projectile. After hitting
the target, the projectile is destroyed and dismantled.
Special missiles are used for various purposes and their construction is
chosen due to the special use, they are, e.g., gas missiles, zinc missiles for
slaughter, ammunition, missiles of military signal ammunition, some types
of hunting ammunition (e.g., missiles for blasting harmful defense,
144 Chapter Four
explosive missiles), etc.
The principle and essence of ballistic traces can be easily explained if we

consider for this purpose the functional components of the weapon as
general tools that, in contact with the material of the charge, create traces
on its surface. The mechanism of formation of these traces is the same as
for mechanoscopic traces.
The principles for identifying weapons by cartridge and projectile are the
same as the principles for identifying any instrument by its traces. In
essence, it is a depiction of the typical and specific features of the individual
functional components of the weapon in the relatively softer material of the
cartridge case and projectile, with which they come into contact with each
other during the shot. Properties of objects - individual parts of the weapon,
which are displayed in its track and which are used for identification
research, are called identification marks. Their essence lies in their
originality, which is reflected in their rare occurrence in their specificity for
a given part of the weapon in the fact that there is a possibility of finding
and comparing them. Another feature of their essence is that they are
relatively stable and can be used for comparative identification research
even several years apart.
The determination of group affiliation is performed in cases where the used

weapon is not available. According to the cartridge case and projectiles
secured at the crime scene, general features common to a particular type or
group of weapons and typical of that type or group of weapons are examined
and evaluated to facilitate the search for the weapon used in committing a
crime.
The basic method of weapon identification is to compare individual

identification marks on cartridges from the crime scene with marks on
cartridges obtained by experimental firing of a suspicious weapon.
Individual identification is performed by microscopic comparison on a
comparison microscope. The results of the research are documented
photographically by macrophotography and microphotography.
The identification of the weapon according to the projectiles fired (we mean
a single projectile) is performed by mutual comparison of the identification
features of the borehole, mainly on the projectile from the crime scene with
the projectile experimentally fired from the suspect weapon.
To obtain an experimental projectile with intact identification marks, it is

fired into special projectile traps (in the country with a sufficiently thick
layer of cotton wool, abroad also with water traps). The actual identification
examination is performed by microscopic comparison, which compares the
traces of the borehole fields, mainly on the projectiles fired. Another method
of comparing two missiles is to compare photographs of optically developed
missile shells, taken, for example, on a device such as a projectile or more
modern on the already mentioned LUCIA system.
The identification of the weapon according to the projectiles fired depends

on the technical quality of the specific features of the field tracks and
grooves that appeared on the surface of the projectile as it passed through
the bore of the barrel. The caliber of a single projectile is usually smaller
than the diameter of the bore mainly in the grooves, and larger than the
diameter of the bore in the field. Therefore, the bore fields are cut on their
surface into the shell of the projectile, forming a set of coiled tracks in the
direction of the groove thread. Due to the production tolerances in the
diameter of the bore in the grooves as well as the tolerance in the caliber of
the projectiles, the entire bore can be displayed mainly in the shell of the
projectile. In other cases, the bore of the barrel is not completely displayed.
However, because the bullet in most cases closely fills the bore of the barrel,
in the relatively soft shell of the bullet accurately displays a unique micro
relief of the bore formed by a series of very fine protrusions and depressions.
In the vast majority of cases, the traces of the fields on the projectile are
deflected from the projectile axis by the same angle as the pitch of the thread
in the grooves. When the projectile passes through the bore, especially at
high speeds and under the action of large internal forces, the projectile does
not move evenly through the bore, but its movement shows certain
irregularities, which affect the formation of tracks. This is reflected in the
fact that the angle of pitch of the field tracks or grooves on the projectile
differs from the actual pitch of the thread of the grooved barrel.
The final identification marks on the projectile arise only at the mouth of
the bore of the barrel and their quality and quantity are affected by the
shooting conditions, such as projectile speed, bore cleanliness, degree of
corrosion, etc. Quality identification marks on the projectile arise if the
weapon is carefully maintained and the movement of the projectile in the
barrel is relatively slow.
Ammunition is also examined for its ability to fire, and what is the effect of
ammunition (projectiles) on hitting the target, e.g., to determine whether the
weapon (taking into account the ammunition used and, if applicable, the
shooting distance) can seriously injure or kill a person. By measurement or
146 Chapter Four
calculation, it is necessary to determine the impact velocity of the projectile

at the point of anticipated impact (or already at the muzzle of the barrel),
corresponding to the kinetic energy and load energy of the projectile cross-
section. It was experimentally found that a projectile with an energy load of
the cross-section (i.e., the ratio of kinetic energy to cross-sectional area of
the projectile) greater than 50 J·cm-2 can cause death to a person (applied to
projectile caliber 3 - 18 mm). In the range of 5 - 50 J·cm-2, such a
consequence can be caused practically only by eye contact.
4.2 Physics behind the ballistic

Energy
Energy is a physical quantity that characterizes the form of motion (motion
of matter). A single mass point (particle) has a mechanical energy if it
moves with respect to a certain frame of reference (kinetic energy) or is
located in the force field of other bodies (potential energy). It applies in all
mechanical processes the potential energy changes into kinetic energy and
vice versa, while the total energy of the isolated system bodies is constant
throughout the process – the law of conservation of mechanical energy.
Kinetic energy
Kinetic energy is a physical quantity that characterizes the state of

movement of the particle. The kinetic energy of a particle in a given
reference frame is one-half its mass m multiplied by the square of its speed
v measured in that reference frame
1
‫ܧ‬௞ = ݉‫ ݒ‬ଶ
2
The unit is the newton-meter (Nm). It is named joule (J).
1 J = 1 kgm2s-2
Kinetic energy is related to the work done by the forces acting on a particle.
The force changes the velocity of the particle. This is the statement of the
work-energy theorem for a particle – the work done on a particle equals the
change of its kinetic energy:
ଵ ଵ
‫ܧ‬୩ଵ = ݉‫ݒ‬଴ଶ , ‫࢑ܧ‬૛ = ݉‫ ݒ‬ଶ
ଶ ଶ
ܹ = ο‫ܧ‬୩ = ‫ܧ‬୩ଶ െ ‫ܧ‬୩ଵ
In physics, work is defined as the force acting through the displacement 'x:
In one-dimensional motion, the work is done by a constant force with the
component Fx on a particle that undergoes a displacement 'x is the product
of the force and displacement
ܹ = ‫ ܨ‬ή ‫ ݏ‬ή cos ߙ
where D is the angle between ‫ܨ‬Ԧ and ‫ݏ‬Ԧ.
If ‫ܨ‬Ԧ A ‫ݒ‬Ԧ, then W = 0.
Work of variable force

If the force acting on a body moves along a curve, and, moreover, this force
is different in different places (it is a function of the path s), then the work
that this force does on a certain section of the path (e.g., A, B) is given by
ܹ = ‫ܨ‬ଵ ܿ‫ߙ ݏ݋‬ଵ ο‫ݏ‬ଵ + ‫ܨ‬ଶ ܿ‫ߙ ݏ݋‬ଶ ο‫ݏ‬ଶ + ‫ ڮ‬+ ‫ܨ‬௡ ܿ‫ߙ ݏ݋‬௡ ο‫ݏ‬௡
If the section of the trajectory between the points A, B is divided into many
small sections, the resulting work will be equal to the sum of all elementary
works. We can write
௦మ
ܹ = න ‫ߙ ݏ݋ܿ ݏ݀ܨ‬
௦భ
௥
If the forces are conservative, then ܹ = ‫׬‬௥ మ ‫ܨ‬Ԧ ή d‫ݎ‬Ԧ , where d‫ݎ‬Ԧ is the
భ
displacement of the body.
Conservative forces are, for example, the force due to gravity, or the
strength of elasticity.
Proof of the connection between the change of kinetic energy and work
A mass point of mass m is moved by the action of a force of magnitude F(x),

which acts in the direction of the x-axis, from the initial position x1 to the
final position x2. This force will do the work
148 Chapter Four
௫మ ௫మ
ܹ = න ‫ܨ‬ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ݀‫ = ݔ‬න ݉ܽ݀‫ݔ‬
௫భ ௫భ
(application of the 2nd Newton´s law)
We can write
݀‫ݒ‬
݉‫݉ = ݔ݀ݏ‬ ݀‫ݔ‬
݀‫ݐ‬
݀‫ݒ‬ ݀‫ݔ݀ ݒ‬ ݀‫ݒ‬
= = ‫ݒ‬
݀‫ݐ‬ ݀‫ݐ݀ ݔ‬ ݀‫ݔ‬
݀‫ݒ‬
݉ܽ݀‫݉ = ݔ‬ ‫ݒ݀ݒ݉ = ݔ݀ݒ‬
݀‫ݔ‬
௩మ
1 1
ܹ = න ݉‫= ݒ݀ݒ‬ ݉‫ݒ‬ଶଶ െ ݉‫ݒ‬ଵଶ
2 2
௩భ
Work in the gravitational field
If we lift a body in a gravitational field, positive work is done. But the object
does not gain kinetic energy. When lifted, the object acquires energy that
depends on its position relative to the Earth – so called potential energy.
Let’s have a particle of mass m, that is moving from the point A1 into the
point A2 along the curve k in the gravity field of the Earth. The force of
gravity ‫ܨ‬Ԧீ = ݉݃Ԧ is constantly acting on the particle.
(Other forces are acting here – air resistance, influence of other particles
etc.)
The work done by the force ‫ܨ‬Ԧீ , is given
ܹୋ = ݉݃ሺ݄ଵ െ ݄ଶ ሻ
where h1, h2 are the heights of the points A1, A2 above an arbitrarily chosen
horizontal plane H. The positional energy in the Earth´s gravitational field
is
‫ܧ‬୮ = ݄݉݃
i.e., when h = 0 then Ep = 0. The H plane is the level of zero gravitational

energy.
Conservation of mechanical energy

The mechanical energy of an isolated system (body) remains constant in
time if the system is free of no-conservative forces, friction etc. The work
done by the conservative force is independent on the path. Energy cannot
be created or destroyed in an isolated system; energy can be only converted
to another form of energy.
‫ܧ = ܧ‬୮ + ‫ܧ‬୩
ο‫ = ܧ‬ο‫ܧ‬୩ + ο‫ܧ‬୮ = 0
Consider a body in an isolated system that has a certain potential energy.

We release this body, it starts to move, and thus its potential energy also
starts to decrease. Thus, we can write
d‫ݒ‬
െd‫ܧ‬୮ = ‫ܨ‬d‫ܽ݉ = ݏ‬d‫݉ = ݏ‬ d‫ݏ‬
d‫ݐ‬
d‫ݒ = ݏ‬d‫ݐ‬
and
d‫ݒ‬ 1
െd‫ܧ‬୮ = ݉ ‫ ݒ‬d‫ݒ݉ = ݐ‬d‫ = ݒ‬d ൬ ݉‫ ݒ‬ଶ ൰
d‫ݐ‬ 2
So d(Ek + Ep) = 0, i.e. Ek + Ep = const.
If the mechanical energy of the body (or the system) is preserved, we can
compare the sum of the total kinetic and potential energy at different
moments. It is not necessarily to consider the motion of the body (or of the
system) in the interval between these moments and calculate the work of
interaction forces of system particles.
Projectile energy
In ballistics, we apply the calculation of energy in the case of determining
the energy of the projectile impact related to the cross-sectional area of the
150 Chapter Four
projectile. It is the so called energy load of the projectile cross section. The
greater this energy, the greater the force action on the material. It is also
easier to overcome the resistance force (penetration below the surface of the
material). E.g., a pressure greater than 100 kPa·cm-2 be applied to penetrate
the projectile through the skin.
ி
Pressure is a scalar physical quantity, defined by the relation ‫ = ݌‬, where
ௌ
F is the magnitude of the force acting perpendicular to a surface of size S.
The basic unit of pressure is 1 Pa (Pascal).
According to the formula for the calculation of kinetic energy, the energy
of a projectile depends mainly on its velocity and its mass. This energy
refers to the area corresponding to the cross section of the projectile. A
small-caliber projectile that has a small cross section should therefore
develop a higher energy load for a given amount of inertial (kinetic) energy.
However, this is generally not the case. The cross-sectional load is

determined on the basis of the following relationship: the mass of the
projectile m a d3, cross-section S a d2, and the cross-sectional load m/S. This
ration is decisive for the properties of the projectile.
Compare: the volume of a cube with edge size a: V = a a a, the size of the
area of this cube S = 6aa. If we increase the length of the edge to 2a, the
volume is equal to 8times the original volume, cube area 4times. For 3a we
have 27·V and 9·S. The ratios V : S are gradual a, 2a, 3a etc. As the body
dimensions increase, the volume-to-surface ratio increases linearly.
For the movement of the projectile it follows that small-caliber projectiles,

even at high initial velocities due to the small cross-sectional load, quickly
lose velocity (due to air resistance, wind etc.), and thus penetration.
http://www.militaria.cz/cz/clanky/vojenska-technika/mytus-jmenem-
kwk.html
Forces acting on a single mass point in the Earth´s gravitational

field
The basic forces acting on a moving mass point are the gravitational force
and the resistive force. Let us study the motion of a mass point in the Earth´s
gravitational field, which will be affected only by gravity. We solve the
following equations of motion:
The movement takes place in the direction of the y-axis:
d‫୷ݒ‬ dଶ ‫ݕ‬
‫݉ = ୷ܽ݉ = ୷ܨ‬ = ݉ ଶ = െ݉݃
d‫ݐ‬ d‫ݐ‬
dଶ ‫ݕ‬
= െ݃
d‫ ݐ‬ଶ
d‫ݕ‬ d‫ݒ‬
=‫ݒ‬ = െ݃
d‫ݐ‬ d‫ݐ‬
Solution of this equation
v = -gt + k1
We determine the integration constant k1 using the initial conditions:
t = 0, v = vo v = -gt + vo
After inductance and further integration, we have:

d‫ݕ‬ 1
= െ݃‫ ݐ‬+ ‫ݒ‬଴ ‫ = ݕ‬െ ݃‫ ݐ‬ଶ + ‫ݒ‬଴ ‫ ݐ‬+ ݇ଶ
d‫ݐ‬ 2
We determine the integration constant k2 using the initial conditions: t = 0,
yo = k2.
The resulting equation for the motion of a mass point in the Earth´s gravity
field is
1
‫ = ݕ‬െ ݃‫ ݐ‬ଶ + ‫ݒ‬଴ ‫ ݐ‬+ ‫ݕ‬଴
2
Resistive force:
ଵ
‫ܨ‬௢ = ‫ ݒߩܵܥ‬ଶ ,
ଶ
where m is the mass of the object, C is the coefficient of air resistance (its
value depends on the shape of the object, in ballistics it is the shape of the
projectile – drag coefficient), S is the cross-sectional area of the object, U is
the density of air, v is the velocity of the object.
152 Chapter Four
Air density
The air density changes with the altitude and is temperature dependent. If
we consider air as an ideal gas, the equation of state of an ideal gas can be
used to describe air properties.
We can write the Boyle-Marriote law (isothermal process) using pressure

௣ ௣
and density, then = ݇‫ݐݏ݊݋‬, ߩ = ߩ௢ ೌ , where U is the air density at a
ఘ ௣ೌ೚
given altitude, Uo is the air density on the surface of the Earth, pa is the
atmospheric pressure at a given altitude and pao is the pressure on the surface
of the Earth.
After substituting this relationship into the expression for calculating the
change in air pressure written as dpa = Ugdy and integrating this equation,
we obtain the barometric formula
‫݌‬௔௢ ݁ ିఘ೚௚௛Τ௣ೌ೚
This equation assumes that the air temperature is constant. However, this is
not true, the temperature changes with altitude. The values of air pressure
depending on the temperature can be found in meteorological tables. From
the barometric equation it is possible to derive a relation about the
dependence of air density according to the altitude.
ߩ = ߩ௢ ݁ ିఘ೚௚௛Τ௣ೌ೚
It can be seen that the air pressure depends on the altitude, the magnitude of
the gravitational acceleration, the temperature, the density of the
atmosphere in a given place. Therefore, the so - called normal air pressure
(normal atmospheric pressure) pn (also po) is introduced as the average value
of air pressure at sea level at 45o at a temperature of 15 oC and gravitational
acceleration gn = 9.80665 ms-2. It is defined by the exact value pn = 101 325
Pa = 1013.25 hPa.
In general, air density is given as the ratio of the weight of air and the
volume occupied by the air. It is usually expressed in kgm-3. The air density
at a temperature of 0oC and a pressure of 1013.27 hPa is 1.293 kgm-3. If we
compare humid and dry air, then under otherwise the same conditions, the
density of humid air is always greater than the density of dry air. At constant
pressure, the air density is inversely proportional to the air temperature.
The non-uniform distribution of atmospheric pressure gives rise to a

horizontal air flow – wind (horizontal component of the pressure gradient
force). The air flow is also influenced by the Earth´s rotation – Coriolis
force, friction, centrifugal force. Friction is applied in the boundary layer of
the atmosphere – due to friction, the wind speed decreases and the wind
direction turns (the Coriolis force decreases). Wind rotation (on the side of
lower atmospheric pressure) is about 30° in our conditions.
Coriolis force
Apparent, inertial force, the so-called Coriolis force, acts on bodies that
move in a rotating non-inertial frame of reference. The force is
perpendicular to the axis connecting the body to the center of rotation. This
causes the body to deviate both sideways and in height. The trajectory of
the body rotates against the direction of rotation of the object – it depends
on the direction of movement of the object relative to the center of rotation.
On Earth, in the northern hemisphere, the trajectory of the object, which
moves in the direction of the meridians, turns to the right. In the case of an
oblique throw of an object in the gravity field of the Earth (ballistics), the
deviation depends on the position on the Earth (latitude), the speed of
movement of the object, and the initial angle of the throw.
Figure 4-1. Coriolis force (https://windy.app/blog/what-is-the-coriolis-force-

simple-explanation.html)
We write the relation for the calculation of the Coriolis force in the form
‫ܨ‬Ԧେ = െ2݉߱
ሬԦ ൈ ‫ݒ‬Ԧ,
154 Chapter Four
where m is the mass of the object, ߱ ሬԦ is the angular velocity vector, ‫ݒ‬Ԧ is the
velocity vector of the object in a given non-inertial frame of reference. The
symbol „u“ denotes the vector product of both vectors, which implies that
the magnitude of the Coriolis force can be determined
by the relation ‫ܨ‬஼ = െ2݉‫߱ݒ‬sin ߠ, where ߠ denotes the angle between the
two vectors.
Further reading: http://fyzweb.cz/materialy/srazky_a_rotace/k27.php.
The action of the Coriolis force is manifested, for example, in meteorology,

in the case of ballistics in the calculation of the trajectory of missiles with a
long range.
See – World War I and so-called Paris Cannon
http://www.guns-info.cz/modules.php?name=News&file=article
&sid=2399)
Magnus effect
As early as in the 17th century it was observed that the fired cannon ball
deviated from the direction of flight. This phenomenon occurs when air
rotates around the rotating object due to friction. When flowing around the
object, a lateral force acts on the object, which arises due to the pressure
difference on one and the other side of the object. Along with the rotating
object, the so-called boundary layer of air also rotates. Because the law of
conservation of energy applies, which can be expressed for fluid (air) using
Bernoulli´s equation, there is a change in pressure – on one side of the object
a negative pressure (air flow accelerates), on the other overpressure (air flow
slows down). The pressure difference gives rise to a force that curves the
trajectory of this object. Relation for calculating the magnitude of the
Magnus force for a cylinder of radius r is
‫ = ܨ‬2ߨߩ‫ ݎ߱ݒ‬ଶ .
For the case of a rotating sphere, the relation for calculating the Magnus
force takes shape
ଷ
‫ = ܨ‬2ߩ‫ݒ‬
ሬሬሬԦ ሬሬሬԦ × ߱
ሬԦ ߨܴଷ .
ସ
ሬሬሬሬሬԦ
Figure 4-2. Air flow around the ball – force ‫ܨ‬ ெ goes from the area of lower
pressure to the area of higher pressure (Reichl - Encyklopedie fyziky)
Bernoulli´s equation
Bernoulli´s equation is a statement about the conservation of mechanical
energy in a system. It is valid for an ideal fluid – for steady, incompressible,
no viscous and irrational flow:
ଵ
‫݌‬+ ߩ‫ ݒ‬ଶ + ݄ߩ݃ = ܿ‫ݐݏ݊݋‬,
ଶ
ଵ
where p is the static pressure, ߩ‫ ݒ‬ଶ represents the dynamic pressure (it
ଶ
corresponds to kinetic energy), and the product hUg is the hydrostatic
pressure (h is the height above the Earth, U is the density of the fluid). If the
fluid flows through a tube that is horizontal, then h = 0 and the hydrostatic
pressure expression term falls out of the equation (it is zero).
Projectile motion
Projectile motion is a two-dimensional motion of a particle thrown
obliquely into the air.
156 Chapter Four
The motion is one of constant acceleration ݃Ԧ, ay = - g. The initial velocity

‫ݒ‬଴ the horizontal component is vx = vx0 + axt = v0 cos4, the vertical
is ሬሬሬሬԦ,
velocity (that of free fall) is
‫୷ݒ = ୷ݒ‬଴ + ܽ୷ ‫ݒ = ݐ‬଴ sin 4 െ ݃‫ݐ‬
The magnitude of resultant velocity vector at any instant is ‫ = ݒ‬ඥ‫ݒ‬௫ଶ + ‫ݒ‬௬ଶ .
The range of the projectile (in general)

‫ݒ‬cos ߠ
݀= ቀ‫ݒ‬sin ߠ + ඥሺ‫ݒ‬sin ߠሻଶ + 2݃‫ݕ‬௢ ቁ
݃
In the case of initial conditions, where the initial height of the projectile is
zero and the surface is horizontal, the flight duration can be calculated using
the relation
‫ ݒ‬ଶ sinሺ2ߠሻ
݀=
݃
It follows from the given formula that the maximum flight range is reached
௩మ
for an elevation angle of 45°. This length is then equal to ݀ = .
௚
Flight time in general
݀ ‫ ߠ ݊݅ݏݒ‬+ ඥሺ‫ߠ ݊݅ݏݒ‬ሻଶ + 2݃‫ݕ‬௢

‫=ݐ‬ =
‫ߠ ݏ݋ܿݒ‬ ݃
ξଶ௩
For initial conditions, zero initial height and angle 45° we have ‫= ݐ‬ .
௚
If we want to calculate the elevation angle needed to reach the flight length
d, we can write
݃݀
‫݊݅ݏ‬ሺ2ߠሻ =
‫ݒ‬ଶ
1 ݃݀
ߠ = ܽ‫ ݊݅ݏܿݎ‬൬ ଶ ൰
2 ‫ݒ‬
if the initial velocity v of the particle is known.
Body height at distance x
݃‫ ݔ‬ଶ
‫ݕ = ݕ‬௢ + ‫ ߠ݃ݐݔ‬െ
2ሺ‫ݒ‬cosߠሻଶ
And the corresponding magnitude of the velocity at this point
௚௫ ଶ
|‫ = |ݒ‬ට‫ ݒ‬ଶ െ 2݃‫ ߠ݃ݐݔ‬+ ቀ ቁ .
௩௖௢௦ఏ
The magnitude of the resultant velocity vector is
|‫ = |ݒ‬ඥ‫ݒ‬௫ଶ + ‫ݒ‬௬ଶ ,
where
௫
‫ݒ‬௫ = ‫ ݒ‬cos ߠ, ‫ݒ‬௬ = ‫ ݒ‬sin ߠ െ ݃‫ݐ‬, ‫= ݐ‬
௩ୡ୭ୱ ఏ
and
௚௫
‫ ݒ = ୷ݒ‬sinߠ െ .
௩ ୡ୭ୱఏ
݃‫ ݔ‬ଶ
|‫ = |ݒ‬ඨሺ‫ ݒ‬cos ߠሻଶ + ቀ‫ ݒ‬sin ߠ െ ቁ
‫ ݒ‬cos ߠ
To reach a point with coordinates >x,y@ under given conditions, it is

necessary to choose an elevation angle of magnitude
‫ ݒ‬ଶ ± ඥ‫ ݒ‬ସ െ ݃ሺ݃‫ ݔ‬ଶ + 2‫ ݒݕ‬ଶ ሻ

ߠ = arctg ൭ ൱
݃‫ݔ‬
Solving the equation of motion of a thrown object (projectile) with the

calculation of the resistance force (air resistance) is a complex tasks.
Approximately, it can be solved using the following reasoning. We assume
that the resistive force is proportional to v2, we use Newton´s formula in the
form to express it
ଵ ௩మ
‫ = ܨ‬െ ‫ ݒܵߩܥ‬ଶ = െ݉݃ ,
ଶ ௞మ
158 Chapter Four
ଶ௠௚
where the symbol k is written as ݇ = ට . We will use this shape when
஼ௌఘ
solving the equation of motion (excluding rotation) using the 2nd law of
motion:
ୢమ ௫
݉ = ‫ܨ‬cos ߠ,
ୢ௧ మ
dଶ ‫ݕ‬
݉ = ‫ܨ‬sin ߠ െ ݉݃
݀‫ ݐ‬ଶ
If we denote the elementary length of the ballistic curve ds, the angle of the
throw can be expressed as
d‫ݔ‬ d‫ݕ‬
cos ߠ = , sin ߠ =
d‫ݏ‬ d‫ݏ‬
We obtain
ୢమ ௫ ௩ మ ୢ௫ ୢమ ௬ ௩ మ ୢ௬
= െ݃ , = െ݃ ቀ െ 1ቁ.
ୢ௧ మ ௞ మ ୢ௦ ୢ௧ మ ௞ మ ୢ௦
If the angle ߠ is small and the arc s can be replaced by the lenght x, the
solution of the given equations is in the form
௞మ ௞మ మ ൯௫
‫ݔ = ݕ‬tgߠ + ቂ‫ ݔ‬െ ൫݁ ൫ଶ௚/௞ െ 1൯ቃ.
ଶ௩೚మ ୡ୭ୱమ ఏ ଶ௚
This is the equation of a ballistic curve. If the air resistance is neglected

(݇ ଶ ՜ f), the equation passes into the equation of the parabola. This
solution does not include: the effect of rotation, Coriolis force, Magnus
effect, the effect of air density.
One of the computer programs can be used to calculate the ballistic curve,
e.g. http://www.balistika.cz/vnejsi_program.html.
APPENDIX
MATHEMATICS
Differential and vector calculus

Differential calculus
The ancient Greek mathematicians Eukleides of Alexandria, Archimedes of
Syracuse and Apollonios of Perga solved some specific problems of
differential calculus with specific methods. Many mathematicians in the
16th - 17th century systematically dealt with the issue of general methods
for solving problems of this type, especially the determination of the tangent
at any point of the plane curve, and relevant physical problems (determining
the instantaneous velocity of a rectilinear motion of a material point and
extremal problems). Let us mention, for example, the Italian physicist,
mathematician and astronomer Galileo Galilei, the German mathematician,
physicist and astronomer Johannes Kepler, Dutch mathematician, physicist
and astronomer Christian Huygens, but also French mathematicians René
Descartes and Pierre de Fermat.
Isaac Newton was the first to lay the foundations of differential calculus. In
his work "Method of Fluxes and Infinite Series", which he wrote in the years
1670–1671, he is based on the kinematic concept of the plane curve k as a
trajectory of a continuously moving point. According to Descartes' ideas of
analytic geometry, it assigns to this point in each (general) position its
Cartesian coordinates [x; y], where y = f (x) from the equation of the curve
k.
Newton called the variables x, y fluents, i.e., "flowing quantities". He

considered them dependent on time t as auxiliary variables. He denoted by
o infinitely small increments of the variable t. The rates of change (increase
or decrease) of fluents relative to the variable (time) t were denoted by
௫ሺ௧ା௢ሻି௫ሺ௧ሻ ௬ ሺ௧ା௢ሻି௬ሺ௧ሻ
‫ݔ‬ሶ = , ‫ݕ‬ሶ =
௢ ௢
160 Appendix
Newton expressed infinitely small (infinitesimal) increments of fluents by

the expressions ‫݋ݔ‬ሶ, ‫݋ݕ‬ሶ and called them moments of fluxes. In Newton’s
symbolism, an expression
௬ሶ ௙ሺ௫ା ௫ሶ ௢ሻି௙ሺ௫ሻ
=
௫ሶ ௫ሶ ௢
represented a slope of the tangent Ĳ to the curve k at the point [x; y] and
‫ = ݒ‬ට‫ ݔ‬ଶሶ + ‫ ݕ‬ଶሶ
expressed the magnitude of the instantaneous velocity of the point [x; y],
which moves along the curve k at time t, see Fig. A-1
Figure A-1. Magnitude of the instantaneous velocity of the point [x; y], which
moves along the curve k at time t
Newton called the basic task of mathematical analysis (infinitesimal

calculus) the following problem: The relation between fluents x, y is given,
i.e. the equation of the plane curve
k: y = f (x)
௬ሶ
Find the relationship between the respective fluxes ‫ݔ‬ሶ , ‫ݕ‬ሶ , i.e., the ratio . If
௫ሶ
we convert this to a physical problem, we can express that as follows: The
trajectory of a motion of a mass point is given as a dependence of its position
on time t. Find its instantaneous velocity at any moment.
Independently of Newton and only a few years later, G. W. Leibniz also laid
the foundations of differential calculus. Leibniz labeled infinitesimal
Forensics and Physics 161
(infinitesimal) increments of the variables x, y with the symbols dx, dy and

called them differentials.
Although he did not define them exactly, what he understood by them

follows from the fact that he calculates dy according to the formula
dy = f(x + dx) – f(x)
where in the expression f(x + dx) he neglects infinitesimal quantities of 2nd

and higher orders. Furthermore, based on the ideas of B. Pascal from 1659,
he introduced the concept of a characteristic triangle, and was the first to
choose for it an infinitesimal right triangle with perpendiculars of lengths
dx, dy and a hypotenuse of length
d‫ = ݏ‬ඥd‫ ݔ‬ଶ + d‫ ݕ‬ଶ
He further defined and used the differential ratio
d‫ݕ‬ ݂ሺ‫ ݔ‬+ d‫ݔ‬ሻ െ ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ

=
d‫ݔ‬ d‫ݔ‬
expressing the slope of the tangent Ĳ to the curve k at the point P [x; y].
The basic concept of differential calculus is the concept of derivative.

Derivatives describe the rate of rise or fall of a function at a given point, and
thus determine how steep the function is in the neighborhood of a given
point. To better understand this concept, we can approach the situation with
the following physical problem of determining the instantaneous velocity:
Problem: Determine the magnitude of the instantaneous velocity in non-

linear motion of a mass point at time to, given the functional dependence of
its path s on the time t: s = s(t).
Solution: The average velocity vp of a mass point movement in an interval

‫ݐۃ‬଴ ; ‫ ۄݐ‬is
ο‫ݏ‬
‫ݒ‬௣ =
ο‫ݐ‬
where ο‫ ݐ = ݐ‬െ ‫ݐ‬଴ and ο‫ݏ = ݏ‬ሺ‫ݐ‬଴ + ο‫ݐ‬ሻ െ ‫ݐ(ݏ‬଴ ).
Its instantaneous speed in time ‫ݐ‬଴ is

162 Appendix
ο‫ݏ‬
‫ݐ(ݒ‬଴ ) = lim ‫ݒ‬୮ = lim
ο௧՜଴ ο௧՜଴ ο‫ݐ‬
thus
‫ݐ(ݏ‬଴ + ο‫ )ݐ‬െ ‫ݐ(ݏ‬଴ )

‫ݐ(ݒ‬଴ ) = lim
ο௧՜଴ ο‫ݐ‬
The given problem is an interpretation of the limit of the differential ratio
of the function
f: y = f(x)
at the point xo, i. e.

ο௬
for ¨x ĺ 0.
ο௫
Due to its considerable importance and frequent use, it was given a special
name for the derivative of the function f at the point xo.
Definition: If there exists a limit of the differential ratio

ο௬ ο௬
= for ݄ ՜ 0,
ο௫ ௛
then this limit is called the derivative of the function f at the point x0 and
is denoted by ݂ ´ (‫ݔ‬଴ ). The definition relation for the derivative ݂ ´ (‫ݔ‬଴ ) can
be written in the following equivalent forms:
௙(௫బ ା௛)ି௙(௫బ ) ௙(௫)ି௙(௫బ )
݂ ´ (‫ݔ‬଴ ) = lim or ݂ ´ (‫ݔ‬଴ ) = lim
௛՜଴ ௛ ௫՜௫బ ௫ି௫బ
If the limit in these relations is proper, the number ݂ ´ (‫ݔ‬଴ ) is called proper
derivative of the function f at the point x0. If this limit is an improper
number, ݂ ´ (‫ݔ‬଴ ) is called the improper derivative of the function f at the
point x0.
In a similar way, one-sided derivatives of the function f are defined at the

point x0, (right derivative ݂ା´ (‫ݔ‬଴ ) and left derivative ݂ି´ (‫ݔ‬଴ )):
݂(‫ݔ‬଴ + ݄) െ ݂(‫ݔ‬଴ ) ݂(‫ )ݔ‬െ ݂(‫ݔ‬଴ )

݂±´ (‫ݔ‬଴ ) = lim = lim
௛՜଴± ݄ ௫՜௫బ± ‫ ݔ‬െ ‫ݔ‬଴
Geometric meaning of the derivative of the function at the point:
It follows from the definition of the derivative of the function f at the point
x0 that the function f has its proper derivative ݂ ´ (‫ݔ‬଴ ) at the point x0 if and
only if the graph of the function f at the point ܲ଴ ሾ‫ݔ‬଴ ; ݂(‫ݔ‬଴ )ሿ has a tangent t
with the slope ݇௧ = ݂ ´ (‫ݔ‬଴ ). The equation of the tangent t is
‫ݔ(݂ = ݕ‬଴ ) + ݂ ´ (‫ݔ‬଴ ) (‫ ݔ‬െ ‫ݔ‬଴ )
The normal n (i.e., the line perpendicular to the tangent t) at point ܲ଴ has the
slope kn; where
kn kt = - 1,
so the equation of the normal to the graph of the function at a given point is
ଵ
‫ݔ(݂ = ݕ‬଴ ) െ (‫ ݔ‬െ ‫ݔ‬଴ ), if ݂ ´ (‫ݔ‬଴ ) ് 0
௙´ (௫బ )
and x = x0, if ݂ ´ (‫ݔ‬଴ ) = 0.
Figure A-2. Geometric meaning of the derivative

(https://is.muni.cz/el/1431/podzim2012/C1480/um/web/ch02_s02_s01_s01.html)
If the function f is continuous at the point x0 and has an improper derivative

in it, i. e. ݂ ´ (‫ݔ‬଴ ) = ±λ, then the tangent t to the graph of the function f at
the point ܲ଴ ሾ‫ݔ‬଴ ; ݂(‫ݔ‬଴ )ሿ is parallel to the y-axis. The equation of the tangent
t is x = x0 and the equation of the normal n is y = f (x0).
164 Appendix
ܽ) ݂ ´ (‫ݔ‬଴ ) ് 0, ݂ ´ (‫ݔ‬଴ ) ‫ܴ א‬ ܾ) ݂ ´ (‫ݔ‬଴ ) = 0 ܿ) ݂ ´ (‫ݔ‬଴ ) = +λ
Figure A-3. Tangent and normal of the graph of the function

(http://cgi.math.muni.cz/kriz/analyza/kap5.html)
Physical meaning of the derivative of a function at a point:
In physical problems, the functional variable (argument of functions) is

often time t. In the case of non-uniform rectilinear motion of a mass point,
its path is a function of time t, i. e. s = s(t) and the instantaneous velocity at
time t0 is
d‫ݏ‬
‫ݐ(ݒ‬଴ ) = (‫) ݐ‬
d‫ ݐ‬଴
This can be generalized: If the scalar physical quantity u is a function of
time t, i. e. u = u(t), then its derivative according to t at time t0 represents
the instantaneous amount of change of quantity u at time t0.
Theorems about proper derivatives of a function in a point
Theorem about the relationship between derivative and continuity of a

function at a given point:
If the function f at its point x0 has a proper derivative, then it is continuous

at this point. (The continuity of a function at a point is a necessary condition
for the existence of a proper derivative of a function at that point). It is
important to note that this theorem holds only to the proper derivatives of
the function.
The reverse theorem does not hold: A function can be continuous at x0, but
it does not have to have its proper derivative in it. (The continuity condition
of a function at point x0 is not sufficient for the existence of the proper
derivative of the function ݂ ´ (‫ݔ‬଴ )).
If we consider the function f: y = | x |, then it is continuous at the point x0 =

0, but its one-sided derivatives at this point are different:
݂ା´ (0) = 1, ݂ି´ (0) = െ1
therefore, there is no derivative ݂ ´ (0).
Theorems about derivatives of sum, difference, product and division of

functions:
If the functions f(x), g(x) have derivatives ݂ ´ (‫ݔ‬଴ ), ݃´ (‫ݔ‬଴ ), at the point x0,
then the functions ݂(‫ )ݔ‬± ݃(‫)ݔ‬, ݂ܿ(‫( )ݔ‬for ܿ ‫)ܴ א‬, ݂(‫)ݔ‬. ݃(‫ )ݔ‬and for
௙(௫)
݃(‫ݔ‬଴ ) ് 0 also the functions have also derivatives and the following
௚(௫)
rules of derivation hold to them:
´
൫݂ܿ(‫)ݔ‬൯௫ୀ௫ = ݂ܿ´(‫ݔ‬௢ ),
೚
´
൫݂(‫ )ݔ‬± ݃(‫)ݔ‬൯௫ୀ௫ = f´(xo) ± g´(xo)
೚
´
൫݂(‫ )ݔ‬ή ݃(‫)ݔ‬൯௫ୀ௫ = f´(xo) g(xo) + f(xo) g´(xo)
೚
If ݃(‫ݔ‬௢ ) ് 0, then
´
݂(‫)ݔ‬ ݂´(‫ݔ‬௢ )݃(‫ݔ‬௢ ) െ ݂(‫ݔ‬௢ )݃´(‫ݔ‬௢ )
ቆ ቇ =
݃(‫)ݔ‬ ݃ଶ (‫ݔ‬௢ )
Theorem on the derivation of a compound function:
If a function g: u = g(x) has a derivative ݃´ (‫ݔ‬଴ ) at point x0 and the function

f: y = f(u) has a derivative ݂ ´ (‫ݑ‬଴ ) at point u0 = g(x0), then a compound
function
h: y = h(x) = f(g(x))
has a derivative
h´(x0) = f´(u0) g´(x0)
at point x0. Symbolically, this formula is expressed in the form:

ୢ௬ ୢ௬ ୢ௨
= . ,
ୢ௫ ୢ௨ ୢ௫
166 Appendix
which is called a chain rule. It means that a derivation of a compound

function y = f(g(x)), where f: y = f(u), g: u = g(x) is calculated as a product
of the derivative of its external component (external function) f according
to the variable u in point g(x0) and of the derivative of its internal component
(internal function) g according to the variable x in point x0.
If a function f has a proper derivative
݂ ´ (‫ )ݔ‬for all ‫ܦ א ݔ‬൫݂ ´ ൯ ‫)݂(ܦ ؿ‬
then
f´: y = f´(x), ‫ܦ א ݔ‬൫݂ ´ ൯
is a new function called the derivative of the function f on the set ‫ܦ‬൫݂ ´ ൯.
If (ܽ, ܾ) ‫)´݂(ܦ ؿ‬, we say that the function f has a derivative on an open
interval (ܽ, ܾ). By using one-sided derivatives, this definition can be
extended to a closed interval ‫ܽۃ‬, ܾ‫ۄ‬, possibly at semi-closed intervals
(ܽ, ܾۧ and ‫ܽۦ‬, ܾ).
The function f´ can also have a derivative at some point x0, which we call
the second derivative of the function f at point x0 and we denote by f´´ (x0).
The second proper derivative
f´´: y = f´´ (x), ‫ܦ א ݔ‬൫݂ ´´ ൯ ‫)´݂(ܦ ؿ‬,
represents a function on a set ‫ܦ‬൫݂ ´´ ൯. Similarly, higher order derivatives can

be defined.
Theorems on the mean value of differential calculus:
The following sentences provide an important theoretical basis for

investigating the course of functions. We will deal with the investigation of
the function properties using derivatives.
Fermat's theorem: If the function f acquires at a point c its highest values

(maximum), or the smallest values (minimum) on the interval (ܽ, ܾ) ‫ؿ‬
‫ )݂(ܦ‬and has a derivative at this point f´(c), then f´(c) = 0.
Rolle's theorem: If the function f continuous on a closed interval ‫ܽۃ‬, ܾ‫ ۄ‬has

at each inner point ‫ܽ( א ݔ‬, ܾ) the derivative f´(x) (proper or not) and f(a) =
f(b), then there is at least one point ܿ ‫ܽ( א‬, ܾ) such that f´(c) = 0.
Geometric interpretation of Rolle's theorem:
If the assumptions of Rolle's theorem are fulfilled, there is at least one point
ܶሾܿ, ݂(ܿ)ሿ, in which the tangent t to the function graph f is parallel to the
axis x (Fig. A-4)
Figure A-4. Geometric interpretation of Rolle's theorem

(https://math.fel.cvut.cz/mt/txtc/2/txc3ca2a.htm)
Lagrange‘s mean value theorem:
If the function f continuous on a closed interval ‫ܽۃ‬, ܾ‫ ۄ‬has at each inner point
‫ܽ( א ݔ‬, ܾ) the derivative f´(x) (proper or not), then there is at least one point
ܿ ‫ܽ( א‬, ܾ) such that
݂(ܾ) െ ݂(ܽ)
݂ ´ (ܿ) =
ܾെܽ
Geometric interpretation of the Lagrange’s mean value theorem:
If the assumptions of the Lagrange theorem are satisfied, there is at least

one point ܶሾܿ, ݂(ܿ)ሿ, in which the tangent t is parallel to the line AB, where
‫ܣ‬ሾܽ, ݂(ܽ)ሿ, ‫ܤ‬ሾܾ, ݂(ܾ)ሿ, whose slope is
݂(ܾ) െ ݂(ܽ)
݂ ´ = ݇ = ‫= ߙ ݃ݐ‬
ܾെܽ
168 Appendix
Figure A-5. Geometric interpretation of the Lagrange’s theorem

(https://math.fel.cvut.cz/mt/txtc/2/txc3ca2a.htm)
It is worth noting that Lagrange's mean value theorem was proved in 1797
by the French mathematician Joseph-Louis Lagrange. Rolle's theorem was
proved in 1691 by the French mathematician Michel Rolle, especially for
polynomial functions.
Physical meaning of Lagrange's theorem:
If a quantity changes over time in a "smooth way", then at some point the
instantaneous rate of change must be equal to the average rate.
Physical meaning of Rolle's theorem:
If a quantity changes over time in a "smooth way" so that it has the same
magnitude at the beginning and end of the process, then at some point the
instantaneous rate of change must be zero.
Investigation of function properties using derivatives:
The following theorem states the necessary and sufficient conditions for the
monotonicity of the function f on the interval J.
Let the function f have the derivative f´ on the open interval J. Then
1. The function f is non-decreasing (non-increasing) on J if and only if for

each ‫ܬ א ݔ‬
݂ ´ (‫ )ݔ‬൒ 0 ( ݂ ´ (‫ )ݔ‬൑ 0).
2. The function f is increasing (decreasing) on J if and only if for each ‫ܬ א ݔ‬
݂ ´ (‫ )ݔ‬൒ 0 ( ݂ ´ (‫ )ݔ‬൑ 0).

In practice, however, we often suffice with its following consequence,

which expresses simple sufficient conditions of pure monotonicity of the
function f.
Theorem on sufficient conditions for pure monotonicity of a function:
Let the function f have the derivative f´ on the open interval J. Then
a) If the function ݂ ´ (‫ > )ݔ‬0 for each ‫ܬ א ݔ‬, function f is increasing on J.
b) If the function ݂ ´ (‫ < )ݔ‬0 for each ‫ܬ א ݔ‬, function f is decreasing on J.
Problem: Determine the monotonicity intervals of the function ݂: ‫= ݕ‬

‫ ݔ‬ଷ െ 3‫ݔ‬.
Solution: To derive a function f, we get ‫ = ´ ݕ‬3‫ ݔ‬ଶ െ 3. We will now solve

the inequality ݂ ´ (‫ > )ݔ‬0, that is 3‫ ݔ‬ଶ െ 3 > 0. Consequently we get
‫ ݔ‬ଶ െ 1 > 0 ฻ |‫ > |ݔ‬1 ฻ ‫( א ݔ‬െλ; െ1) ‫( ׫‬1; +λ)
Function f it is therefore increasing on intervals (െλ; െ1) and (1; +λ).

Due to the continuity of the function in the set of all real numbers, it is
increasing even on intervals (െλ; െ1ۧ, ‫ۦ‬1; +λ).
Similarly, ݂ ´ (‫ < )ݔ‬0 yields 3‫ ݔ‬ଶ െ 3 < 0 and
‫ ݔ‬ଶ െ 1 < 0 ฻ |‫ < |ݔ‬1 ฻ ‫( א ݔ‬െ1; 1).
Function f is decreasing on the interval (െ1; 1). Due to the continuity of the
function on R is also decreasing on the interval ‫ۃ‬െ1; 1‫ۄ‬.
In mathematical analysis, extreme function values of local and global type

are distinguished and investigated: Local extremes of a function f are
understood to be the largest, resp. the smallest values of the function f in
some (unspecified) surroundings of the assessed point of the definition field
D (f). They are local properties of the function f. Global extremes of
function f means the extreme values (maxima, minima) of the function f on
a certain (predetermined) set M, especially on M = D (f). They are global
properties of the function f on the set M.
Local extremes are defined as follows:

170 Appendix
We say that the function f has a local maximum at the point x0 (local
minimum) if there is a neighborhood of the point ܷ(‫ݔ‬଴ ) so that for each
‫ݔ(ܷ א ݔ‬଴ )
݂(‫ )ݔ‬൒ ݂(‫ݔ‬଴ ) (݂(‫ )ݔ‬൑ ݂(‫ݔ‬଴ )),
strict local maximum (strict local minimum), if there exists a

neighborhood ܷ(‫ݔ‬଴ ) such that for each ܷ(‫ݔ‬଴ ) െ ሼ‫ݔ‬଴ ሽ
݂(‫ݔ(݂ < )ݔ‬଴ ) (݂(‫ݔ(݂ > )ݔ‬଴ )).
Figure A-6. Local and global extremes of function
If we investigate local extrema of functions using their derivatives, it is

necessary to use the following theorems:
Theorem on the necessary condition of the existence of a local extreme

of a function at the point where the function has a derivative:
If the function f has a local extreme at the point x0 and if there exists a
derivative f´´ (x0) at this point, then
݂´(‫ݔ‬଴ ) = 0
The given theorem is a direct consequence of Fermat's theorem. However,

the reverse sentence does not hold.
Example:
Consider the function f: y = x3, which has the derivative f´´ (0) = 0 at the
point x0 = 0 but has no local extreme at this point (it is increasing in the
whole domain D(f)).
Example: The function f: y = sin x has the derivative f´ (x) = cos x at each
ଵ
point of the interval ‫ۃ‬0; 2ߨ‫ۄ‬. At the point ‫ݔ‬ଵ = ߨ it has a local maximum
ଶ
ଷ
and at the point ‫ݔ‬ଶ = ߨ it has a local minimum. For the derivative at these
ଶ
points we get:
1 1
݂ ´ ൬ ߨ൰ = cos ߨ = 0
2 2
and similarly
3 3
݂ ´ ൬ ߨ൰ = cos ߨ = 0
2 2
Remark: The function does not have to have extremes, even if it is bounded.
௫మ
An example of such a function is a function ݂: ‫= ݕ‬ . This function is
௫ మ ାଵ
௫మ
bounded for every ‫ܴ א ݔ‬: 0 ൑ మ < 1, but has no maximum at any point
௫ ାଵ
in its domain ‫ܴ = )݂(ܦ‬. It has only a local minimum at x0 = 0.
Important points in the investigation of the course of the function are

stationary points of the function f. These are such points ‫ݔ‬௞ ‫)݂(ܦ א‬, in
which f´´ (xk) = 0. It does not necessarily follow that the function has a local
extreme at point x0. Nevertheless, determining the 1st derivative of a
function will be the first step to finding local extrema. Useful sufficient
conditions are given in the following two sentences:
Theorem on sufficient conditions for the existence of local extrema of a

function expressed by its first derivative:
Let the function f be continuous at x0 and have its proper derivative f´ (x) at
some neighborhood ܷ(‫ݔ‬଴ ) for all ‫ݔ ് ݔ‬଴ . If at point x0 the signs of the
derivative f´(x) change from f´(x) > 0 for x < x0 to f´(x) <0 for ‫ݔ > ݔ‬଴ , then
the function f has a strict local maximum at point x0. If at point x0 the sign
of the derivative f´(x) changes from f´(x) <0 for ‫ݔ < ݔ‬଴ to f´(x) >0 for ‫> ݔ‬
‫ݔ‬଴ , then the function f has a strict local minimum at point x0.
Theorem on sufficient conditions for the existence of local extrema of a

function expressed by its second derivative:
Let ݂ ´ (‫ݔ‬଴ ) = 0 and ݂ ´´ (‫ݔ‬଴ ) ് 0. If ݂ ´´ (‫ݔ‬଴ ) > 0, then the function f at point
x0 has a strict local minimum. If ݂ ´´ (‫ݔ‬଴ ) < 0, then the function f at point x0
has a strict local maximum.
172 Appendix
Problem: Determine all local extrema of the function ݂: ‫ ݔ = ݕ‬ଶ , ‫ܴ א ݔ‬.
Solution: We start from the first derivative of the function f,
݂ ´ (‫ = )ݔ‬2‫ݔ‬, ݂ ´´ (‫ = )ݔ‬2,
and therefore, for x = 0
݂ ´ (0) = 0, ݂ ´´ (0) = 2 > 0
Thus ݂: ‫ ݔ = ݕ‬ଶ has a strict local minimum at x = 0. The function does not
have other local extremes.
Differential calculus can be used especially in physical applications such as

kinematics. According to the shape of the trajectory, we divide the motion
of the mass point into rectilinear and curvilinear. According to the size of
the speed, we divide the movement into even and non-uniform. A special
case of uneven movement is uniformly accelerated or uniformly decelerated
movement.
Problem: For the path along which a mass point moves, ‫ = )ݐ(ݏ‬0,5 ‫ ݐ‬+
0,6‫ ݐ‬ଶ . Determine:
a) the average velocity reached by the mass point from the 2nd second of
the motion to the 4th second of the rectilinear motion;
b) instantaneous velocity at time ‫ = ݐ‬2‫ݏ‬.
Solution:
a) for times ‫ݐ‬଴ = 2 s; ‫ = ݐ‬4 s we can calculate the path that the mass point
travels during that time:
‫ݐ(ݏ‬଴ ) = ‫( ݏ‬2) = (0.5 ή 2 + 0.6 ή 2ଶ ) m = 3. 4 m
‫( ݏ = )ݐ(ݏ‬4) = (0.5 ή 4 + 0.6 ή 4ଶ ) m = 11. 6 m

௦ି ௦బ
We calculate the average velocity according to the relation ‫ݒ‬୮ = , thus:
௧ି ௧బ
11. 6 െ 3. 4
‫ݒ‬୮ = m ή s ିଵ = 4. 1 m ή s ିଵ
4െ2
We calculate the instantaneous velocity by deriving the path according to
the variable t, i.e.
‫( = )ݐ( ´ ݏ = )ݐ(ݒ‬0. 5 ‫ ݐ‬+ 0. 6‫ ݐ‬ଶ )´ = 0. 5 + 1. 2‫ݐ‬
Now we substitute the time ‫ݐ‬଴ = 2 s into the relation for velocity, we get
‫(ݒ‬2) = (0.5 + 1. 2 ή 2) m ή s ିଵ = 2. 9 m ή s ିଵ
Problem: Determine the acceleration at times ‫ݐ‬଴ = 0 s; ‫ݐ‬ଵ = 1 s; ‫ݐ‬ଶ =

2 s; ‫ݐ‬ଷ = 3 s, if ‫ = )ݐ(ݒ‬3 ‫ ݐ‬ଶ + 8 ‫ ݐ‬െ 2 holds for velocity.
Solution: The magnitude of the instantaneous acceleration a at time t is

calculated according to the relation ܽ(‫)ݐ( ´´ ݏ = )ݐ( ´ ݒ = )ݐ‬.
So ܽ(‫( = )ݐ( ´ ݒ = )ݐ‬3‫ ݐ‬ଶ + 8‫ ݐ‬െ 2)´ = 6‫ ݐ‬+ 8.
Then we calculate the value of the derivative of the function at a given

point:ܽ(0) = (6 ή 0 + 8)m ή s ିଶ = 8 m ή s ିଶ ; ܽ(1) = (6 ή 1 + 8) m ή
s ିଶ = 14 m ή s ିଶ ; ܽ(2) = (6 ή 2 + 8)m ή s ିଶ = 20 m ή s ିଶ ; ܽ(3) = (6 ή
3 + 8)m ή s ିଶ = 26 m ή s ିଶ ;
Vector calculus
The physical concept of vectors has an ancient origin in the idea of force as
a physical quantity of vector character. By the 4th century BC, Aristotle
already had an intuitive idea of the rule of vector composition of forces. It
was not until the 16th century that Simon Stevin, a Dutch military engineer,
mathematician and physicist, began using it. For the first time, he worked
with forces systematically as with vectors, which he represented with arrow
lines. A little later, an explicit formulation of the rule on vector composition
of forces can be found in the Italian astronomer and mathematician Galileo
Galilei. However, the foundations of vector algebra in the plane were laid
only at the end of the 18th century and the beginning of the 19th century in
connection with the geometric interpretation of complex numbers.
The Irish mathematician W. R. Hamilton, who in 1843 introduced the term

scalar quantity (scalar), and in 1845 the term vector quantity (vector),
deserved a generalized view of vector calculus. Hamilton not only
developed the theory of quaternions but arrived at the basics of vector
calculus in plane and space. He understood vectors as ordered pairs, resp.
triples of real numbers. At the same time, he introduced the concepts of
scalar and vector product of vectors.
174 Appendix
The axiomatic introduction of the term vector was credited in 1888 by the
Italian mathematician Giuseppe Peano. G. Peano gave the basics of the
theory of vector space, including the axiomatic definition of real vector
space.
Definition: By vector space (linear space) we mean the set M whose

elements are called vectors, and on which vector operations of addition and
multiplying vectors by real numbers are defined. The following axioms are
satisfied:
1) ‫ݑ ׊‬, ‫ܯ א ݒ‬: ‫ ݑ‬+ ‫ ݒ = ݒ‬+ ‫ݑ‬,
2) ‫ݑ ׊‬, ‫ݒ‬, ‫ܯ א ݓ‬: (‫ ݑ‬+ ‫ )ݒ‬+ ‫ ݑ = ݓ‬+ (‫ ݒ‬+ ‫)ݓ‬,
3) ‫ܯ א ݋ ׌‬, ‫ܯ א ݑ ׊‬: ‫ ݑ‬+ ‫ݑ = ݋‬,
4) ‫ܯ א ݑ ׊‬, ‫ ׌‬െ ‫ܯ א ݑ‬: ‫ ݑ‬+ (െ ‫ = )ݑ‬0,
5) ‫ܯ א ݑ ׊‬, ‫ܴ א ܽ ׊‬: ܽ (‫ ݑ‬+ ‫ ݑܽ = )ݒ‬+ ܽ‫ݒ‬,
6)‫ܯ א ݑ ׊‬, ܽ, ܾ ‫ܴ א‬: (ܽ + ܾ)‫ ݑܽ = ݑ‬+ ܾ‫ݒ‬,
7) ‫ܯ א ݑ׊‬, ܽ, ܾ ‫ܴ א‬: ܽ(ܾ‫ݑ)ܾܽ( = )ݑ‬,
8) ‫ܯ א ݑ ׊‬: 1‫ݑ = ݑ‬.
Many important physical quantities are given not only by a certain size, but
also by the direction of action in space. Such quantities, e.g. speed, force,
are called vector physical quantities. So-called oriented lines are used for
their graphical representation. An oriented line is a line that has a specified
start and end point, i.e., its two extreme points determine an ordered pair
of points.
Figure A-7. Oriented line

Most vector physical quantities are bound to a given point in space, which
is usually called their point of action. Oriented lines, see Fig. A-7., that
graphically represent them have a starting point at this point, i.e. they are
bound to this point. If we then introduce for them the operation of addition
and multiplication by real numbers in accordance with these operations for
bound physical vectors, we get a physical model of the so-called bound
geometric vectors, see Fig. A-8.
Figure A-8. Bound geometric vectors
The sum of bound geometric vectors u = PA and v = PB (where u o, v

o) is the bound geometric vector u + v = PC, which we construct for
vectors u, v not lying in one line as the diagonal of the vector parallelogram
according to Fig. A-9 and for vectors u, v lying in one line according to Fig.
A-10 in the same orientation, or according to Fig. A-11 in the non-matching
orientation.
Figure A-9. Non-collinear vectors

176 Appendix
Figure A-10. Collinear vectors (same oriented)
Figure A-11. Collinear vectors (not same oriented)
It is further defined for ݇ ‫ ܴ א‬k-multiple of the bound geometric vector u

= PA is a bound geometric vector ݇u = PA´ of size |࢛݇| = |݇||‫|´ۯ۾| = |ܝ‬,
which has a concordant direction with the vector u, if ݇ > 0 Fig. A-12a, a
non-concordant direction than the vector u if ݇ < 0 Fig. A-12b and is zero
if ݇ = 0.
݇>0 ݇<0
(a) (b)
Figure A-12. Multiple of the bound geometric vector a) concordant direction b)

non concordant direction
A special case of bound geometric vectors are radius vectors of points X

of the plane, resp. space, i.e., such bounded geometric vectors rX = OX, for
which the starting point O is usually the beginning of the Cartesian
coordinate system Oxy, resp. Oxyz.
In special cases, in physics we encounter the so-called free physical

vectors, i.e., vector quantities, the field of which can be chosen arbitrarily.
Thus, when graphically represented by oriented lines of a given size and a
given oriented direction, any point of space can be taken as their starting
point. The procedure is similar in geometry in the case of translation or in
analytical geometry.
In all these cases, it is appropriate to consider the sets of all oriented lines
of a given size and given directions of the Fig. A-13. If we define an addition
operation and a real number multiplication operation for the elements of
these sets, then these sets of oriented lines of a given size and direction are
called free geometric vectors. In particular, all zero-oriented lines
represent a zero free vector, denoted by o. Each oriented line, which is an
element of a free geometric vector, is called the location of the free vector.
It is obvious that any free vector is unambiguously determined by any of its
locations.
Figure A-13. Free geometric vectors
Operations with free geometric vectors can be defined geometrically only

by their location. The results of the operations do not depend on which
vector locations we use. This property follows from the theorem: If two
oriented lines AB and CD are located by the same free vector, there is
exactly one displacement, resp. an identity that displays points A to C and
point B to D. If we select locations with the same starting point when
defining operations with free vectors, the corresponding operations with
vectors bound to this starting point can be used for them.
The sum of free vectors u, v, whose locations with a common starting point
A are oriented lines AB, AD (u = AB, v = AD), is a vector denoted u + v,
one location of which is oriented line AB + AD = AC. Fig. A-14.
178 Appendix
Figure A-14. The sum of free vectors
The opposite vector to the free vector u, whose one location is the oriented
line AB, is called the free vector -u, whose one location is the oriented line
-AB = BA.
The difference of free vectors u, v is the vector u - v, for which u-v = u +

(- v).
The product of the real number k of a free vector u (k-times the free
vector u), one location of which is the oriented line AB (i.e., the vector u =
AB), is called the free vector denoted k ή u (resp. ku), one location of which
is oriented line k ήAB (i.e., vector k ή u = k ήAB)
Coordinates of vectors in the plane and in space
In order to introduce the coordinates of the vector u in the plane and space,
we must use the following two sentences:
If the Cartesian coordinate system Oxy with unit vectors of coordinate axes
i, j is chosen in the plane, then each vector u in the plane can be expressed
in the form
࢛ = ‫ݑ‬ଵ ࢏ + ‫ݑ‬ଶ ࢐, where ‫ݑ‬ଵ , ‫ݑ‬ଶ ‫ܴ א‬. (‫)چ‬
If we choose the location of the vector u with the start point at the beginning
O and with the end point ‫ܯ‬ሾ݉ଵ ; ݉ଶ ሿ, then
‫ࡹࡻ = ࡹࡻ = ୑ܚ = ܝ‬ଵ + ࡻࡹଶ , where ࡻࡹଵ = mଵ ࢏, ࡻࡹଶ = mଶ ࢐.

The vector u can therefore be expressed in the form (‫)چ‬, where ‫ݑ‬ଵ = ݉ଵ ,
‫ ݑ‬ଶ = ݉ଶ .
If the Cartesian coordinate system Oxyz with unit vectors of coordinate axes
i, j, k, is chosen in space, then each vector u in space can be expressed in
the form
࢛ = ‫ݑ‬ଵ ࢏ + ‫ݑ‬ଶ ࢐ + ‫ݑ‬ଷ ࢑, where ‫ݑ‬ଵ , ‫ݑ‬ଶ , ‫ݑ‬ଷ ‫ܴ א‬.
This sentence would be verified in a similar way.
The unit coordinate vectors i, j in the plane and i, j, k, in space are chosen
perpendicular to each other. We say that bases (i, j) and (i, j, k) are
orthonormal bases of vector spaces V2 a V3, see Fig. A-15.
Figure A-15. Orthonormal bases of vector spaces
Scalar product of vectors
If a body travels the path s by the action of a constant force F, while the
force F makes a constant angle of Į with an oriented trajectory (oriented
line) ് ‫ ܗ‬, the mechanical work of the applied force is given by the relation
ܹ = ‫ ݏ ܨ‬cos ߙ.
It can be seen from it that only the component of the force F is applied in it,
which is its orthogonal projection into the vector s, i.e., ࡲ௦ = ‫ ܨ‬cos ߙ ࢙଴ ,
‫ܛ‬
where ‫ܛ‬଴ = is the unit vector. If 0° ൑ ߙ < 90° holds for the magnitude of
ୱ
the angle Į, cos ߙ > 0 and the work W is positive. In such cases, it is said
180 Appendix
that the body acting by the force F does the work. If ߙ = 90°, then cos ߙ =
0, and therefore W = 0, i.e., the force F does not work. It is useful to express
the work W in the form
W = F Â s,
where F Â s = F s cos Į is the so-called scalar product of vector quantities

F, s.
Based on this physical model, the scalar product of two vectors u, v is

defined:
The scalar product of the vectors u, v (denoted by u Â v) is a real number

assigned to the vectors u, v as follows:
If both vectors u, v are nonzero and the magnitude of the angle of the vectors
u, v is ĳ, then their scalar product u Â v is given by
‫ ܝ‬ή ‫ |ܞ| ڄ |ܝ| = ܞ‬cos ߶.
If at least one of the vectors u, v is zero, then their scalar product is equal to
zero, i.e. for u = o or v = o is u Â v = 0.
In general, for the scalar product of nonzero vectors u, v we consider a

vector
‫ܞ‬
‫ |ܝ| = ୴ܝ‬cos ߶ ‫ܞ‬଴ , where ‫ܞ‬଴ = |‫|ܞ‬
,
which we call the rectangular projection of the vector u into the vector
v. The real number |‫ |ܝ‬cos ) is often called by projecting the vector u into
the vector v.
a) |‫ |ܝ‬cos ߶ > 0 b) |‫ |ܝ‬cos ߶ < 0
c)
Figure A-16. The scalar product of the vectors u, v
The rectangular projection of a vector into a vector has basic properties: for
every three nonzero vectors u, v, w and every number ܿ ‫ ܴ א‬it holds
(‫ ܝ‬+ ‫ ୵ܝ = ୵)ܞ‬+ ‫ ୵ܞ‬, (࢛ܿ)୴ = c‫୴ܝ‬
Theorem on the basic properties of the scalar product of vectors also

holds:
For every three vectors u, v, w (in the plane or in space) and every real
number c it holds
‫ܝڄܞ=ܞڄܝ‬
(ܿ‫)ܞ ڄ ܝ( ܿ = ܞ ڄ )ܝ‬
‫ ܞ( ڄ ܝ‬+ ‫ ܞ ڄ ܝ = )ܟ‬+ ‫ܟ ڄ ܝ‬
In conclusion, it is worth mentioning that the use of vectors can also be

applied to harmonically time-varying quantities, i.e., quantities whose
functional dependence on time t is expressed by the sine function. At each
182 Appendix
time t, a certain radius vector (so-called time vector) is assigned to these

quantities, the initial value of which at time t = 0 is called the phasor.
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ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Renata Holubova
RNDr. Renata Holubova, CSc. (1959) Palacky University in Olomouc
graduate (MA: high school teacher - subjects mathematics – physics), PhD
dissertation in Physics of condensed matter and acoustics defended at the
Masaryk University in Brno. Currently working as a senior lecturer at the
Department of Experimental Physics at the Faculty of Science in Olomouc.
She is reading lectures in Thermodynamics, Didactics of Physics,
Environmental Physics, Theory and Practice of Simple Experiments,
Project based learning and teaching in Physics-Nature-Technique, Problems
in Teaching Physics, Solving Tasks in Physics. She was thesis supervisor
for more than 65 students.
Research interest: Inquiry based science education, constructivism, low cost

(simply) experiments in physics, motivation in science education,
thermodynamics. The research activities were covered and supported by
projects in the frame of the Operational Programme for Research and
Education and the Czech Science Foundation (GAýR) – Constructivism
and its application in integrated concept of science education, Improving
quality of science teacher training in European Cooperation, Modules as a
means of innovation in the integration of teaching modern physics and
chemistry. In international Comenius+ projects and Erasmus+ projects, she
is active as a co-researcher in projects Promote and Bridge2Teach.
R. Holubova is an author and co-author of secondary school physics

textbooks, university study texts, over 120 journal papers. She presents
regularly outcomes of the activities at conferences GIREP, The Learner, at
the Physics teachers´ invention fairs.
Further reading about interdisciplinary relations criminology and science:
x “Physics of non-Newtonian fluids and interdisciplinary relations

(biology and criminology).” Published 14 December 2017 • © 2017
IOP Publishing Ltd, Physics Education, Volume 53, Number 2.
x Holubova, R. and Straus, J. 2017. “Cross-Curricular Physics and

Criminology Relationship on Example of Handwriting.” US-China
Education Review A, July 2017, Vol. 7, No. 7, 323-335.
Jana Slezáková
RNDr. Jana Slezáková, Ph.D. (1972) graduated from the Faculty of Science
of Palacký University in Olomouc. She is currently an assistant professor at
this faculty and also teaches at the Grammar School. She is professionally
focused on the didactics of mathematics and the development of geometric
imagination of pupils aged 11-16. At the same time, she deals with the issue
of educational preparation of students of teaching science and mathematics
for secondary schools. She is the co-investigator of many projects focused
on the education of future mathematics teachers. She is the author of
publications and articles about geometric imagination.
JiĜí Straus
Prof. PhDr. JiĜí Straus, DrSc., is a leading European forensic scientist and
forensic biomechanics. He is the Vice-Dean for Research and Publications
of the Faculty of Legal and Administrative Studies and at the same time the
guarantor of the study program Criminalistics and Forensic Disciplines at
the University of Finance and Administration. He regularly co-organizes an
international scientific conference on Criminal Law and Criminalistics
Aspects of Evidence at the University. In the field of science, prof. Straus
focuses on the field of forensic biomechanics in crime detection, in which
he was appointed forensic expert.

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Forensics and Physics

Forensics and Physics

Renata Holubova, Jiří Straus

By Renata Holubova, Jiří Straus and Jana Slezáková

This book first published 2022

Cambridge Scholars Publishing

Lady Stephenson Library, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE6 2PA, UK

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

Copyright © 2022 by Renata Holubova, Jiří Straus and Jana Slezáková

ISBN (10): 1-5275-8407-0

List of Illustrations ................................................................................... vii

List of Tables .............................................................................................. x

Chapter One ................................................................................................ 1

Chapter Two ............................................................................................. 48

Chapter Three ......................................................................................... 107

Chapter Four ........................................................................................... 138

Appendix: Mathematics .......................................................................... 159

References .............................................................................................. 183

About the Authors .................................................................................. 188

Figure 1-1. Types of soles

Figure 2-9. Falling patterns intimated at various angles of jump at initial

Figure 3-15. A drop of liquid

Table 1-1. Linear regression relations

The presented publication entitled Forensics and Physics deals with

The appendix Differential and Vector Calculus is focused on physical

a) footprints of bare and worn feet,

a) Sole – can be monolithic, bloc or rolled (cut out), injection molded,

bollards give us the opportunity to distinguish new from old-repaired

Footwear footprints essentially provide the possibility of identification,

a) Men´s, women´s, or children´s footwear

Figure 1-2. Heels and sole

Group affiliation can be determined by comparison in the sole collection

Figure 1-3. Traces of vehicles

Traces of vehicles are created by direct contact of wheels, belts, or sliding

Specific features relating to a particular object are material sources for

1. Tires for bicycles, motorcycles, cars, tractors, etc.

Traces of wheel rims of agricultural and other machines occur infrequently.

1.1 Searching for and securing of trasological tracks

General principles of providing trasological tracks:

a) Completeness - we provide all known tracks at the crime scene, as

f) Priority of nondestructive securing methods - if it is possible to apply

The special principles of securing trasological tracks are:

a) If possible, we always ensure the track in nature.

Examination of bare feet and footwear footprints - a trasological track

When examining and evaluating bare feet, it is necessary to consider some

a) relativity of the dimensions of the bare foot;

possible to create a closer characteristic of the person who created the

Examining footwear tracks involves determining group affiliation in the

Figure 1-4. 3D trasological trace (Straus, Porada et al, 2004, p. 38)

In the process of determining the group affiliation of footwear, knowledge

Individual identification of footwear is based on the existence of specific

The forensic technical examination of footwear is an examination of the

Unevenness in the external construction of the shoe sole surface is caused

When evaluating the tracks of a locomotion trail (walking, running,

To evaluate the walking path, it is necessary to carefully measure and draw

a) length of the track (shoe or foot imprint);

According to research in recent years, the biomechanical content of

Examination of tire tracks and various tracks created by means of transport

The individual identification of wheeled vehicle tires depends on the

The wheelbase of cars is different. It is determined in feet by measuring the

The most important group identification feature is the wheelbase of the

In the case of reversing rotation, the wheelbase is determined by measuring

The individual identification of wheeled tires is based on the quantity and

Specific identification features arise by:

a) Men´s, women´s, or children´s footwear

1. Tires for bicycles, motorcycles, cars, tractors, etc.