BY: FABIAN, HEATHER FAITH A.

CRIMINALISTICS
1. FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY
2. LIE DETECTION TECHNIQUES
3. QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EXAMINATION
4. PERSONAL IDENTIFICATION TECHNIQUES
5. FORENSIC BALLISTICS
6. FORENSIC CHEMISTRY AND TOXICOLOGY

FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY
DEFINITION OF TERMS

1. Absorption - Refers to the taking in of light by the material. Following the law of conservation of
energy, such light taken in is not lost but merely transformed into heat.
2. achromatic lens - A lens defect which is the inability to focus both horizontal and vertical plane at
the same time or lines running in different directions.
3. AGITATION – the process of keeping a photographic chemical solution in motion so fresh solution
will contact the emulsion of the film or paper at regular intervals throughout the developing and
fixing process. The purpose of which is to keep dirt from settling down on the paper.
4. Alhazen - Observed sometimes in tenth century that light passing through a small round hole,
perhaps in a tent flap or wall, would create an image of the outdoor scene on an interior wall or
screen.
5. Anti Halation Backing = is the one designed to hold back the light and prevents halation.
6. Anti-staining agent -The acetic acid which neutralizes the alkali in the developer carried over that
will prevent the weakening of the fixing solution and the staining of the image produce.
7. APERTURE – The hole through which the light enters a camera. A diaphragm controls the size of
the aperture.
8. ARTIFICIAL LIGHT – It refers to those lights, which are man-made.It refers to the man-made
sources of light which is used or utilized for indoor photography to augment the adverse lighting
condition.
9. ASA – The abbreviation for American Standard Association. This is expressed arithmetical value
system.
10. Astigmatism – A lens which is partly corrected for chromatic aberration.
11. Black length - Refers to the absence of all colors of the spectrum.
12. blurred in appearance - It is important to have the lens at the right distance from the film otherwise
the image of an object point will be seen as a circle.
13. Box camera -A light-tight container or box equipped with simple lens, a shutter, and an arrangement
for holding film and provided with a viewfinder.
14. Bright light - A natural light in which objects in open space casts a deep and uniform shadow.
15. BURNING – A printing technique used to darken areas of a print by selectively adding more light
after the initial exposure. A printing technique of decreasing the amount of exposure received by a
part of the print in order to lighten that part of the image.
16. Cable release - This is attached to the shutter to prevent accidental movement of the camera during
the exposure is made.
17. Camera = a light tight box designed to block unwanted or unnecessary light from reaching the
sensitized material.
18. Camera grip - A device used to hold firmly the camera so as to prevent the vibration or movement
of the camera during the exposure period.
19. CAMERA LENS -is the medium or system which converges or diverge rays of light passing
through it to form an image/s.
20. CAMERA OBSCURA - obscura means dark or darkened chamber room, is an optical device that
projects an image of its surroundings on a screen. It is used in drawing and for entertainment and was
one of the inventions that led to photography. The camera obscura is the forerunner to the
photographic camera.
21. Central shutter - A type of shutter that is usually located between the elements of the lens, made of
metal leaves and its action starts from the center toward the side, then closes back to the center.
22. Chemical - Recoding the image that has been optically crated.
23. Chemical Process = is the process necessary for reducing silver halides into a form so as a latent
image and a positive image be made resulting to what we called Photograph.
24. Chromatic aberration - Refers to the lack of ability to focus the different colors of light on film at
the same time.

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25. Chromatic difference of magnification - The inability of the lens to produce image sizes of objects
with different colors.
26. Close-up View - Is the taking of individual photograph of the evidence at the scene of the crime. It is
design to show the details of the crime.
27. COLLODION -process is an early method for producing glass negatives. The procedure began with
the use of a sticky substance that could hold the silver that produces a photographic image.
28. COLOR FILM -is more complex and consists of three layers of light-sensitive emulsion with layer
sensitive to a particular color – red, green, or blue. During exposure, blue light from a subject will
affect the silver halide crystals in the blue-sensitive layer of the film and so on.
29. Color Filter - These are used to control the relative tone values in which colors are rendered by the
photographic process, to lighten or darkened particular colors or to obtain color separation records
for color photography works.
30. Coma - (Also known as lateral aberration) - Inability of the lens to focus light that travels straight or
lateral, thus making it blurred while the light reaching the lens oblique is the one the is transmitted
sharp.
31. COMPACT CAMERA – A small, highly automated camera with a non-interchangeable lens, and a
direct-vision viewfinder.Compact cameras are sometimes called or known as “direct vision” camera,
because the subject is viewed directly through the lens in the viewfinder (rather than through a mirror
system that transfers the image from the picture-taking lens to the viewfinder window).
32. Contact printer -A wood or metal box, including a light and a switch by which the exposure time is
controlled.
33. Convex - kind of lens causes light rays to converge, or come together, and is called a positive lens?
A positive lens focuses light form a distant source into visible image that appears on the opposite
side of the lens to the object. 
34. Court exhibits - In police photography it can be use as demonstration enlargements, individual
photos, projection slides, motion pictures during court exhibits.
35. CROPPING – It is a selective enlarging of an image so that unwanted parts of the subject are not
recorded on the printing paper. A method of trimming or cutting away the unnecessary portions of a
print in order to improve composition.
36. Curvature of Field = the relation of the images of the different point are incorrect with respect to
one another.
37. DEPTH OF FIELD- is the distance measured from the nearest to the farthest object in apparent
sharp focus when the lens is set or focused at particular distance.
38. DEPTH OF FOCUS – It refers to the distance that a camera back can racked back and forth while
preserving satisfactory image detail in focal plane for a given object pointt.
39. Diaphragm - changes the size of the aperture of the lens and regulates the amount of light reaching
the film.
40. Diffraction - The bending of light around an object gives rise to the phenomenon. This phenomenon
is responsible for the partial illumination of object parts not directly in the path of the light. 
41. DIGITAL CAMERA – A camera that changes visual data into electronic digital information, which
then can be viewed or manipulated on a computer.
42. DIN – The abbreviation for Deutsche Industrie Norm, the European Film Rating System superseded
the ISO System. This is expressed in logarithmic value system or logarithm numbers
43. Distortion = Is a defect in shape not in sharpness. It can either be Pincushion distortion (curving
inward) or Barrel (curving outward).
44. Dull Sunlight - The sun is totally covered by thick clouds. No shadow is cast to the uniform
illumination of lights all around the subjects in open space.
45. Eastman Kodak - Made a color subtractive process called Kodachrome.
46. Electronic Flash = produces light by an instantaneous electrical in charges between two electrodes
in a gas filled glass bulbs. The electrical energy for the discharge is kept in capacitor or condenser. It
usually ranges from 1/300 second and 1/5000 second, and because of this, subject in fast motion can
be arrested or stopped in the photographs.
47. Emulsion = is that part of the film or photographic paper which contains the silver grains which is
the one sensitive to light. In a colored film this emulsion surface can be composed of three layers
(Blue, Green and Red) with filters intervening.
48. EXPOSURE - total amount of light allowed to fall on the photographic medium during the process
the of taking photograph.
49. Extreme Close-up View - Commonly designed in laboratory photographing using some
magnification such as Photomacrography and photomicrography.
50. FILM – In infrared photography, one must use an infra-red film. Infrared films come in the form of
35mm cartridges. There are infrared black and white films and there are also infrared color films.

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 These color film comes in color reversal process and not in the negative color process. Example:
Kodachrome, Ectachrome, etc.
51. FILM ADVANCER – A part of the camera that advances the film one frame each time the shutter is
released.
52. FILM BASE – The transparent material on which an emulsion is coated.
53. FILM HOLDER – An essential part of a camera which is designed to hold the film in place at the
back of the camera so that the image produced by the lens will be sharp over the whole picture area.
54. FILM PROCESSING – It refers to a series of chemical reactions.Film processing is the most
crucial part in the preparation of photograph. Once the film is destroyed during development
process, everything is ruined and no positive print can be produce.
55. FILM SPEED –A Scale used to indicate the sensitivity of film to light. All films have different
speed sensitivity to light.
56. FILTER – For infrared photography, one can use a red filter such as wratten A or F. However, red
filter of this type transmit a little visible light in the extreme red range and therefore they are not
always completely satisfactory. Oddly enough though, an infrared photograph made with these types
of filters. The wratten 87, which is completely opaque when held up against the light, will produce
the best results with infrared film in legal work.
57. Fixation = Is the process by which all unexposed silver halides are dissolved or removed from the
emulsion surface and making the image more permanent.
58. Flares = condition of the lens producing multiple images.
59. Flash bulb = are chemical lamps, as it generate lights by the rapid combination of metal in oxygen.
The bulb can be used only once as the bulb is busted when fired electrically. There are thin filaments
inside the bulb with two electrical contacts. When the current flows through the filament, it becomes
incandescent and ignites the explosive primer that ignites the aluminum foil that burns, giving flash
of tense light.
60. Flourescent Lamp = are tube lamps in which the walls are coated with fluorescent powders with
both ends is mounted with a holder that serves as the reflector. This is commonly used by everybody
more than it is used in photographing.
61. Focal Length – is the distance measured from the optical center of the lens is set to focus at infinite
position.
62. FOCAL POINT – It refers to the point of convergence.It is the point where the light rays converge
when the lens is focused at infinity.A point of light on the optical axis where all rays of light
emanating from a given subject converge and come into sharp focus.
63. Focusing - The process of changing the distance between the centers of the lens to the focal plane. It
is the technique of adjusting the focal length to get the sharp image of the object or scene to be
photographed.
64. FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY - sometimes referred to as police photography, forensic imaging or
crime scene photography. - is the art of producing an accurate reproduction f a crime scene or an
accident using photography for the benefit of a court or to aid in an investigation. - the art or science
of photographically documenting a crime scene and evidence for laboratory examination and
analysis for purposes of court trial.
65. FREDERICK SCOTT ARCHER - In March 1851, he invented a wet-plate collodion photography
or wet-plate process now known as Archerotype, by which finely detailed glass negatives were
produced.
66. General View - taking an over-all view of the scene of the crime. It shows direction and location of
the crime scene.
67. GLOSSY PAPER (SMOOTH) – Glossy surfaces give maximum detail and brilliance.Smooth
papers are recommended for small prints that require good definition.The smooth photographic paper
is necessary for law enforcement photography.
68. GRAIN – The particles of silver compounds that form an image on photographic film and paper.
69. GRAININESS – The term used to describe the visual appearance of the clumps of light-sensitive
material making up the film emulsion sometimes seen on prints.
70. Hazy Sunlight - The sun is covered by thin cloud and the shadow appears bluish because of the
decrease of light falling on.
71. HELIOGRAPHY – A forerunner to the earliest photographic process, invented by Niepce in 1822.
It entails using bitumen, a material that hardens and becomes insoluble in light. He hoped to use this
process to transfer images to be printed on a press.
72. HOT SHOE – The slot with electrical contacts on top of a camera where a flash mounts. Electrical
contacts in the base of the shoe trigger the flash to fire when the camera shutter is open.
73. Incandescent bulb = are bulb with a wire filament connecting two wires which sustain the electrical
charge that produces the light. Everybody likewise commonly uses this although it is more expensive
in terms of electrical consumptions.

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74. Infra-red (Beyond the Red) - Considered as the photographic rays with the longest wavelength
ranging from 700 to 1000 millimicrons. It is designed to take photograph of over-written documents,
obliterated writing, and charred documents or for black out photography. It is sometimes referred to
as heat rays).
75. INFRARED CAMERA – A camera with detectors that respond to infrared energy radiated by any
heat.
76. INFRARED RAYS – These are radiations having a wavelength between 700-1,000 millimicrons or
nanometer.
77. Invisible Light - lights in which their wavelength are either too short or too long to excite the retina
of the human eye i.e. X-ray, Ultrat-violet and Infra-red lights.
78. ISO – An abbreviation for International Standards Organization.An internationally agreed system of
rating the speed or sensitivity of film to light, replacing the ASA system. This is a combination of
ASA and DIN rating system. A combination of logarithm and arithmetical value.
79. JOSEPH NICEPHORE NIEPCE - it was niepce, in the 1820s, who was actually the first to
capture and reproduce lasting images. He called his process “Heliography” meaning “writing of the
sun’’.
80. LATENT IMAGE – The invisible image on a photographic film or paper. The latent image must be
developed before it can be seen.
81. Law of Refraction - When the material in the path of the light is transparent a change in the
direction of the light occurs.
82. Law Reflection - Refers to the rebounding or deflection of light. The angle of reflection depends
upon the angle of the light striking the material, which is referred to as the angle of incidence.
83. Lens – designed to collect or to focus the reflected light from an object to form an image on the film.
84. LENS ABERRATION– The failure of the reflected or refracted light to give a point image of a
point source, due either to the geometry of spherical surfaces of mirror or lenses.
85. Lens Aperture = the ratio between the diameter of the whole lens in relation to the focal length of
the lens. It is the light gathering power of the lens. Otherwise known as lens opening or relative
aperture and it is expressed in F-number.
86. Lens board - It is a square of metal or small panel upon which the lens barrel containing the
diaphragm and lens elements are threaded.
87. Lens diaphragm - It controls the amount of light that passes through the lens.
88. lens shades - They are generally sections of tubular plastic of aluminum, which are attached to the
forward end of a lens barrel for purpose of preventing stray light striking the lens causing "flares" or
"ghosts" on the negative.
89. Lever type shutter - Refers to a plane blade on the end of a handle that covers the entire lens quiten
tightly; excluding all light.
90. Light -A form of energy and that energy and that energy is electromagnetic in nature it.
91. light filters - Refers to photographic accompaniments which screen or filter part of the light rays
passing through it.
92. Light meter - A device use in determining the intensity of light that strike the subjects and affect the
film.
93. light sensitivity -It is also known as the speed of the film.
94. LIGHT-TIGHT BOX - The frame of the camera in which all other parts are mounted. An
enclosure, which would prevent light from exposing the sensitized material inside the camera.
95. Louis Desirie Blanquart - Introduced a printing paper coated with albumen to achieve a glossy
surface.
96. LOUIS JACQUES MANDE DAGUERRE - made a public demonstration in Paris.
“Daguerreotype” in collaboration with Joseph Nicephore Niepce. The “Daguerreotype” formed an
image directly on the silver surface of a metal plate.
97. MACRO LENS - The camera lens that is capable of taking photograph of extreme close-up shots
without the need of close-up attachment.
98. Macrophotography = used synonymously with photomacrogaphy.
99. Maddox - developed a dry plate photography eclipsing Daguerre's wet plate on tin method. This
made practical the photography of inmates for prison records.
100. Medium View - Is the taking of the photograph of the scene of the crime by dividing it into section.
This view will best view the nature of the crime.
101. Microphotography = is the process of reducing into a small strip of film a scenario. It is first used
in filmmaking.
102. Millimeters - The lens is as important a part of a camera as the body. Lenses are referred to in
generic terms as wide-angle, normal, and telephoto.
103. MUG-SHOT OR MUG PHOTOGRAPHYTHE- process of taking photographs of the suspect in
full length, right and left side views, two quarter views and unidentified cadavers to include marks on

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 the victim’s body especially tattoo/scar for identification. It is also defined as identification
photography
104. NATURAL LIGHT – It refers to the daylight coming from the sun, which is in general utilized for
outdoor photography.
105. Negative - It is an exposed film, being a reverse of the original object.
106. Negative lens - Refers to a concave lens, which is characterized by the fact that it is thinner on the
middle than the edge and formed a virtual image on the same side of the lens.
107. Normal lens - A lens with a focal length of approximately equal or more but not more than twice the
diagonal of its negative material.
108. Odelbercht - First advocate the use of photography for the identification of criminals and the
documentation of evidence and crime scene.
109. Optical - Catching light, controlling its intensity, and directing it.
110. OVERLAPPING METHOD – A photographic method of taking a series of photographs in a
circular or clockwise direction, overlapping each other slightly to show the entire crime scene.
111. Personal Identification - Personal Identification is considered to be the first application of
photography is police work. Alphonse Bertillion was the first police who utilized photography in
police work as a supplementary identification in his Anthropometry system.
112. Photoflood lamp= is likewise known as Reflectorized light or Spot light. It is a light with a reflector
at the back which focus the light to the object the common wattages of this lamp is 500 watts.
113. PHOTOGRAPH - is an image created by light falling on a light-sensitive surface usually
photographic film or electronic imager. a mechanical result of photography.
114. PHOTOGRAPHIC EMULSION - is a light sensitive colloid such as gelatin, coated into a
substance. In silver gelatin photography, the emulsion consists of silver halide crystals suspended in
gelatin and the substance may be glass, plastic film, paper or fabric.
115. Photographic exposure - It is defined as the product of illumination and time. The unit of it is
usually in meter candle second which is equivalent to exposure produced by a light source of one
candlepower, in the second at a distance of one meter from the surface of the sensitive material.
116. Photographic Paper- It is that sensitized material that will record the visible image in the final
development and become the photograph.
117. Photographic positive - It is a print produced by passing light through the negative, generally into
photographic paper.
118. PHOTOGRAPHY - is the art, science and practice of creating durable images by recording light.
The word photography was derived from the Greek word "phos" - light and "graphe" - drawing.
119. PHOTOMACROGRAPHY - The process of obtaining magnified photograph of a small object
without the use of a microscope using a short macro lens or close up attachments.
120. PHOTOMICROGRAPHY - It is the process of obtaining photographic magnification of minute
objects by using a camera attached to a compound microscope.
121. Pinhole camera - The simplest camera. which consists of a box with a small hole in one of its sides.
122. POLAROID CAMERA OR INSTANT-PRINT CAMERA – This type of camera can produce a
black and white or colored print in less than a minute after the picture has been snapped.
123. POLICE PHOTOGRAPHY - It is an art or science which deals with the study of the principles of
photography, the reproduction of photographic evidence, and its application to police work.
124. POSITIVE OR CONVERGING LENS - If the lens is biconvex or plano-convex, a collimated or
parallel beam of light traveling parallel to the lens axis and passing through the lens will be
converged (or   focused  ) to a spot on the axis, at a certain distance behind the lens (known as the
focal length ).
125. PROGRESSIVE METHOD – A photographic method of taking a crime scene photographs starting
from a fixed point, photographing each piece of evidence as the photographer moves toward it, and
progressively gets closer. (from general to specific).
126. PROJECTION PRINTING – A print made in an enlarger or a method of making prints by
projecting the image of the negative on a suitable easel for holding the sensitive paper.
127. RED EYE EFFECT - is the common appearance of red pupils in color photographs of eyes. It
occurs when using a photographic flash very close to the camera lens in ambient low light.
128. Sensitized material = composed of a highly sensitized chemical compound which is capable of
being transformed into an image through the action of light and with some chemical processes.
( Film and Photo Paper).
129. SHUTTER – The device that regulates the amount of time that light reaches the film.The
mechanism that opens and closes to allow light into the camera. Shutter opens and closes for a
certain timed interval that are called shutter speed.
130. SHUTTER RELEASE BUTTON – A button used to open the shutter during exposure.

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131. Shutter speed = is that part of the camera which regulates the time exposure of the film thus,
affecting the amount of light reaching the sensitized material. It is usually expressed in a fraction of a
second.
132. Shutter speed dial - part of the camera controls the opening and closing of the shutter, regulates the
quantity of light that reaches and affects the sensitized material, a dial which sets the length of time
in which the light is allowed to enter the camera.
133. SINGLE LENS REFLEX (SLR) CAMERA – A type of camera that allows the photographer to
view the subject through the actual lens, via a mirror that moves out of the way when the picture is
taken. SLR is the ideal type of camera available for police photography due to its versatility,
compactness, and interchangeability of camera lens.
134. SIR JOHN HERSCHEL - made the word photography known to the world in a lecture before the
royal society of London on 1839.
135. SPHERICAL ABERRATION - When light passing through near the central part of a converging
lens is bended more sharply than those rays falling in the edge, thus the rays coming from the edges
are focused on a plane nearer the lens than those coming from the central part.
136. SPY CAMERA – It usually refers to a camera disguised as a matchbox, card case, pocket watch, or
other small item and used surreptitiously.
137. Stop bath = normally composed of water with little amount of dilute acetic acid that serves as a
means to prevent contamination between the developer and the acid fixer.
138. Telephotography = Is the process of taking photograph of a far object with the aid of a long focus
and Telephoto lens.
139. transparent object - Mediums that merely slow down the speed of light but allow to pass freely in
other respects, transmit 90% or more of the incident light.
140. TWIN LENS REFLEX (TLR) CAMERA - A camera that uses two lenses of the same focal length
– one on top for viewing and focusing the image, and one on the bottom for taking the picture.
141. ULTRA-VIOLET PHOTOGRAPHY – The process of photographing unseen object with the
use of ultraviolet rays and filters.The process of taking photograph using ultra-violet rays or more
specifically light energies with a wavelength of 300-400 nanometer of the electromagnetic spectrum.
142. Velox paper - paper made by Kodak that offers six degrees of contrast and glossy surface.
143. VIEW CAMERA – A large-format camera, using individual pieces of 5x4 inch (12.7 x 10cm) film
or larger (5x7, 8x10, 11x14), with a lens panel mounted on a flexible bellows and a ground-glass
screen at the image plane for viewing and focusing.
144. View finder – designed to determine the field of view of the camera or the extent of the coverage of
the given lens
145. Visible Light - Is the type of light that produces different sensation when reach the human eye. It is
the type of light, which is capable of exciting the retina of the human eye.
146. VISIBLE RAYS – These are radiations having a wavelength between 400-700 miliimicrons or
nanometer. The portion of the electromagnetic spectrum that affects the human sense of sight.
147. WETTING AGENT – chemical that weakens the surface tension of water, and so reduces the risk
of drying marks on film.
148. WILLIAM HENRY FOX TALBOT - explained a process hea had invented (calotype) at a Royal
Society of London.The “Calotype” used paper with its surface fibers impregnated with light sensitive
compounds.
149. X-ray - Light with the wavelength between .01 to 30 millimicrons. It is produced by passing an
electric current through a special type of vacuum tube. It was incidentally discovered by Conrad
Welhelm Roentgen. This type of light works in the principle of shadow photography.
150. X-RAY PHOTOGRAPHY - The process of taking photographs with the use of x-rays.

LIE DETECTION TECHNIQUES

DEFINITION OF TERMS

1. ANXIETY - A state of mental uneasiness or concern. Abnormal apprehension or fear, often

accompanied by psychological signs, behavior symptoms or doubt concerning the nature and reality
of a threat; real or imagined.
2. APNEA - The transient cessation of breathing which follows forced
breathing. On a polygraph chart, apnea is generally represented by
a blocking pattern in the pneumograph tracing.
3. APPLIED STIMULUS - An intentionally applied external stimulus,
normally in the form of a question, directed to a person undergoing

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 a polygraph examination. An applied stimulus may be employed for the purpose of demonstrating a
person’s response capabilities at the time the stimulus is applied.
4. AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM - That part of the peripheral nervous system consisting of the
sympathetic and the parasympathetic nervous system.
5. AXON - The central core which forms the essential conducting part of
a nerve fiber. An extension from and a part of the cytoplasm of some
nerve cells.
6. Ayur Vida: A Hindu book of science and health around 500 B.C. considered as an earliest known
reference to a method of detecting deception
7. BACKSTER ZONE COMPARISON TECHNIQUE - a polygraph technique which primarily
involved an alteration of the Reid question sequencing.
8. Behavior Symptoms - Those subjectively observable non-verbal manifestations of a person at the
time of an applied stimulus which may or may not be indicative of that person’s veracity.
9. Benign or White Lie – used to maintain harmony of friendship, harmony of the home or office.
10. BLACK LIE- is a kind of lie used by a person to deceive others.
11. BLOOD PRESSURE – refers to the pressure of circulating blood against the walls of the arteries, it
is an important diagnosis index, especially of circulating function
12. BLOOD PRESSURE CUFF ASSEMBLY- part of the cardio component attached on the right arm
of the subject.
13. Cardio sphygmomanometer -  An in-line pressure dial in a closed air pressurized circuit capable of
representing the pressure in that circuit in units of millimeters of mercury.
14. CARDIOSPYGMOGRAPH- a device which consist of blood pressure cuff and rubber pump and is
fastened around the subject’s right arm. It records the changes in pulse rate and blood pressure.
15. Central Nervous System (CNS). It is referred to as "central" because it combines information from
the entire body and coordinates activity across the whole organism
16. Cesare Lombroso - he invented in 1895 a device to measure changers in blood pressure for police
case.
17. Chart drive roller lever – lifts chart drive roller for paper changes.
18. Chart Identification - Any information placed on a Polygram which identified the person examined,
the polygraphist conducting the examination as well as any other data, time and place of the
examination, including the signature of the examinee, if obtainable.
19. CHART INTERPRETATION - The process if reading and deciphering the meaning of graphical
response of the subject based on the chart tracings
20. Chart making- It is the process of using signs or symbols either standard or customized on the
polygraph chart to denote the subject reactions and other circumstances that occurs during the actual
polygraph test
21. CHART OR POLYGRAMS- refers to the composite record of the pneumograph, galvanograph, and
cardiosphygmograph tracing recorded from one series of questions.
22. CHART PROBING - Refers to the process of showing the polygram to the subject and providing a
brief explanation on the dissimilarities or responses with the objective of determining the true cause
of recorded responses and to clarify confusion or misunderstanding that might have been caused by
vague questions
23. Chart - The graphic recorded representations of a person’s psychophysiological responses to a set of
carefully controlled stimuli presented to him in the form of a valid and reliable question
structure.
24. Computerized Voice Stress Analyzer-. Manufactured by the National Institute of Truth Verification
is the latest in a series of instruments known to detect deception in voice responses
25. CONFESSION- is the voluntary statement made by a person and given to proper authorities herein
he acknowledged himself to be guilty of an offense and discloses circumstances of his felonious act
of the share and participation which he had in it.
26. CONTROL QUESTIONS- these are answerable by NO and it is designed to produce a response
from an innocent subject.
27. Control Stimulation Test - A modified peak of tension test used to relax the non-deceptive
examinee and stimulate the deceptive examinee by empirical evidence of the effectiveness of the
polygraph technique.
28. Cuff – pneumatic connection for cardio channel subject cufftubing

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29. Current Exclusive Control Question. It is not separated from relevant issue with the use of a time
bar
30. DECEPTION- is an act of deceiving or misleading usually accomplished by lying.
31. DENDRITES - An extension or process of a neuron which serves to conduct impulses toward the
cell body.
32. DI- Deception Indicated. The examinee is not telling the truth.
33. DICROTIC NOTCH - graphic representation within the cardio tracing on a polygraph chart caused
by a backward surge of blood against the
semi-lunar valve in the left ventricle of the heart.
34. Direct Denial – this is direct denial of the act in question that creates an emotional sense of
disturbances.
35. DISTORTION - change in polygraph tracings caused by artifact stimulus. A disturbance of normal
polygraph tracings not attributable to an intended stimulus within a test structure.
36. DYSPENA - Abnormal breathing characterized by either labored breathing, shortness of breath,
suppression or serrated exhalation.
37. EFFERENT NERVE FIBERS - Those neural fibers which carry impulses away from the central
nervous system.
38. EGO DEFENSE MECHANISM - Those psychological defenses used by a person to shield himself
against that which he perceives to represent a threat to his immediate well-being.
39. Electrodermal Response - human body phenomenon in which the body, mainly the skin,
involuntarily changes resistance electrically upon the application of certain external stimuli.
40. ENDOCRINE GLANDS - Those ductless glands which discharge their secretions directly into the
blood stream. In general, the endocrine glands coordinate and control body activities at a slower rate
than the nervous system and thus promote long term adjustments.
41. ENVELOPING QUESTION - A question used at the beginning and end of a searching peak of
tension test which deals with an issue or subject which is beyond the realm of possibility of the
information being sought.
42. Ethnological Liar – a person who was trained not to be a squeaker.
43. EUPNEA - Regular or normal breathing.
44. Evidence Connecting Question. It is designed to stimulate the guilty subject and focus his attention
on probability of incriminating proof that would tend to establish his guilt
45. EXAMINEE - An individual who has volunteered for and undergoes a polygraph examination.
46. EXAMINER- the expert in polygraph science who uses polygraph to verify truthfulness of a
subject’s statement or testimony; also known as Forensic Psychophysiologists (FP), polygraphist, lie
detector specialist
47. EXPERT OPINION - A statement reflecting the results of the evaluation of a polygraph chart.
48. EXTRASYSTOLE - A premature contraction of the heart which is independent of the normal
rhythm and which arises in response to an impulse in some part of the heart other than the sino-
auricular node, or from some abnormal stimulus. An extra systole appears in the cardio tracing of a
polygraph chart as a break in the normal rhythm of the heart.
49. Fabrication - misrepresentation of truth
50. FIGHT OR FLIGHT SYNDROME - The activation of involuntary sympathetic neural activity
upon conscious recognition of a threat to the immediate well-being of an organism. A group of neural
symptoms which enable an organism to cope with a stressful or threatening situation by taking that
organism from a normal relaxed state to an emergency state of preparedness for the sake of survival.
51. FORENSIC PSYCHOPHYSIOLOGY -  Modern term for polygraph examination.
52. GALVANOGRAPH- a component part of a polygraph machine that is used to record the subjects
skin resistance to a small amount of electricity. It is made up of electrodes attached to the finger of
the left hand, or to the index and ring finger of the left hand or to the palmar or dorsal surface of the
left hand.
53. GALVANOMETER - measures the small differences in electrical resistance and any shifts in a
subject’s anxiety.
54. GENERAL QUESTION TEST-consists of a series of irrelevant and relevant questions ask in a
planned manner.
55. GUILT COMPLEX - A group of associated ideas or attitudes which have a common emotional tone
of feelings of universal responsibility. These ideas or attitudes may be conscious or unconscious;
however, they may significantly influence an individual’s behavior orpsychophysiological responses
when confronted with an accusation.
56. HEREDITY- is the transmission of mental and physical traits from parents to offspring.

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57. HIGH POINT – called “systole” at which the heart contracts to empty its blood into the circulation.
58. Hot Oil Ordeal (India). Oil is heated, and the accused places his hands into it.
59. Hypnosis - alteration of consciousness and concentration, subject manifest heightened suggestibility,
not admissible in court.
60. Hypothalamus - That portion of the brain which contains centers for the regulation of body
temperatures, sleep and water balance.
61. INCONCLUSIVE- when the polygraph examiner is unable to make a determination.
62. INSTRUMENTATION- the stage of polygraph examination whereby polygraph instrument is
actually used while asking questions to the subject.
63. Integrative- integrating or processing that information;
64. IRRELEVANT QUESTIONS-are those query that do not relate to the matter under investigation
and deals with a known fact which the subject cannot lie.
65. Jocose Lie - meant to be jest, teasing and sarcasm
66. John Augustus Larson - a medical student at the University of California at Berkeley, invented the
polygraph in 1921.The device record both blood pressure and galvanic skin response. Further work
on this device was done by Leonarde Keeler.
67. John Reid - In 1948, developed a device which recorded muscular activity accompanying changes in
blood pressure. He claimed greater accuracy could be obtained by making the recordings
simultaneously with standard blood pressure, pulse, and respiration recordings
68. Knowledge Question. It is designed to probe whether the subject possesses information regarding the
identity of the offender or as to the location of evidence or other secondary elements or facts of the
case under investigation
69. KYMOGRAPH- is a motorized component of the polygraph machine that pull or drive the chart
paper under the recording pen at the rate of 6 to 12 inches per minute.
70. Leonarde Keeler - was the co-inventor of the polygraph. He developed the so called cardio-pneumo
psychogram capable of detecting deception and worked on to produce the modern polygraph.
71. LIE - is an intentionally false statement to a person or group made by another person or group who
knows it is not wholly the truth.
72. LIE DETECTOR MACHINE-is a device or instrument that helps determine whether the person is
telling a lie or the truth.
73. Lie of Exaggeration – a lie often used to exaggerate things for the hope of obtaining some
advantage.
74. Lie of Fabrication – this is the most difficult type of lie that the subject could be used in an
interview.
75. Lie of Minimization – the type of lie in individual will accept that something has occurred but do
wnplays the implication.
76. Lie of Omission – this is the type of lie that people usually used because it is simple to tell.
77. Lie to Children - to gain acceptance to children
78. LOW POINT – called “diastole” at which the heart relaxes to FN with blood returned by the
circulation.
79. LYING- is the, with conveying or uttering of the falsehood or misleading impression the intention of
affecting wrongfully the acts, opinion or affection to another.
80. Malicious Lie – a chronic lie purely used to mislead justice, a pure dishonesty to destroy justice
81. Mechanical cardio switch – disengages mechanical cardio module from pneumatic system for low
pressure electronic cardio operation
82. MEDULA OBLONGATA - The lowest or hindmost part of the brain continuous with the spinal
cord. Contains centers of respiratory, cardio inhibitory, cardio acceleratory, vasoconstrictor,
vasodilator, swallowing, salivary and vomiting.
83. MIDBRAIN - The middle segment of the brain containing the centers for certain visual and auditory
reflexes.
84. NAME TEST - A controlled peak of tension test utilized to establish an examinee’s response
capability to a known lie in which the name of a person upon whom the examinee places emotional
significance is used as a known peak of tension.
85. NDI- No Deception Indicated. The examinee is telling the truth.
86. NERVES - Those strands of tissue which specialize in the transmission of impulses to and from the
brain and spinal cord and all parts of the body.
87. Neurons -basic unit of the nervous system

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88. NEUTRAL QUESTION - A question which does not pertain to the issue under investigation the
answer to which recognized as universally correct by both the examinee and the polygraphist. A
neutral question is intended to elicit a minimal response from the examinee and provide the
polygraphist with a valid graphic representation of the examinee’s non-stress response patterns.
89. Noble Lie - to maintain law and order
90. Non-current exclusive Control Question (BCQ). Separated in time from the relevant issue with the
use of a time bar
91. NORMAL RESPONSE- a tracing on the chart wherein the subject answered the irrelevant
questions.
92. NORMAL TRACING- a tracing of the subject which produced when no irrelevant question was
asked.
93. Occupational Liar – is someone who has lied for years.
94. ohmmeter - is an electrical instrument that measures electrical resistance, the opposition to an
electric current.
95. Ordeal of Balance (India). The accused fasts the entire day and is then bathed in sacred water
96. Ordeal of Cofha (India). The accused drinks draughts of water in which images if deities have been
washed. Illness within 2 weeks is a sign of guilt
97. Ordeal of Fire (India). The accused is compelled to walk barefoot across the flames. If he is unhurt,
he is innocent, if burned he is guilty
98. Ordeal of the Cornsnaed. It was used by the Roman Catholic priests during the Inquisition to detect
the guilt of a member of the priesthood
99. Ordeal of Water (India). The accused is placed in water up to his navel. Hindu instructions take care
to say of the water that “no ravenous animal be in it.
100. OUTSIDE ISSUE - A circumstance unrelated to the primary issue which poses a greater threat
to the immediate well-being of the examinee than does the primary relevant issue.
101. PADDING QUESTIONS - Those questions placed before and after the known relevant question
in a known peak of tension test.
102. Panic Liar – a person who lies in order to avoid the consequences of confession.
103. Paper tear bar – provides cutting edge for convenient removal of charts.
104. PARASYSMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM - That part of the autonomic nervous system
which tends to induce secretion, to increase the tone and contractibility of smooth muscle and to
channel the dilation of blood vessels.
105. Pathological Liar – a person who cannot distinguish what is right from wrong.
106. Pen lifter – raises or lowers pens to 3 positions.
107. PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM - That portion of the nervous system lying outside the
central nervous system.
108. PLETHSYSMOGRAPH - The tracing on a polygraph chart made by a pen moved by a photo-
optical system controlled by an examinee’s psychophysiological responses to controlled stimuli.
109. Pneumo 1 – pneumatic connection for upper (thoracic)
110. Pneumo 2 – pneumatic connection for lower (abdominal)
111. Pneumo Tracings- the recorded responses of the subject as detected by the convoluted rubber
tubes.
112. PNEUMOGRAPH — breathing/recording, from the Greek word "Pneuma" – air or breath and
"Grapho" - write or record, a device that recorded a subject's breathing patterns.
113. POLYGRAM - One or more polygraph charts. The cumulative recorded representations of an
examinee’s psychophysiological responses to a set of controlled stimuli presented to him in the form
of a properly constructed question technique upon which an expert opinion is formed.
114. POLYGRAPH CHART - is one continuous set of test questions recorded on paper by the
polygraph instrument.
115. POLYGRAPH EXAMINATION - The entire environment within which a qualified
polygraphist renders an expert opinion as to the veracity of an examinee’s statements concerning the
primary issue of the matter under investigation.
116. POLYGRAPH EXAMINER - interpret the charts generated by the polygraph machine.
Polygraph came from the Greek word "polys" - many writings and "grapho" write.
117. Polygraph- is an instrument that simultaneously records changes in physiological processes such
as heartbeat, blood pressure, respiration and electrical resistance (galvanic skin response or GSR

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118. POLYGRAPH ROOM- sometimes referred to as interrogation room, the sound proofed room
where the subject is being questioned. 13. PRE-TEST INTERVIEW- the first official stage of
polygraph examination.
119. POLYGRAPH TEST- the specific part of the preliminary examination that transpires from the
moment the chart drive (kymograph) is turned on until it is turned off.
120. POLYGRAPHIST - An individual who, by virtue of his education, training and experience, is
capable of conducting a valid and reliable polygraph examination for the purpose of determining
whether or not an examinee honestly believes that his own statements and answers concerning a
questioned issue are in fact truthful.
121. POLYSCORE - a software program which used a sophisticated mathematical algorithm to
analyze the polygraph data and to estimate a probability or degree of deception or truthfulness in a
subject.
122. PONS - A band of nerve fibers in the brain connecting the lobes of the cerebellum, the medulla
and the cerebrum.
123. POST TEST QUESTIONING- the questioning that concludes the PVE, either in the form of
post-test interview or post-test questioning.
124. PSYCHOGALVANIC SKIN RESPONSE - The recordable changes of body tissue polarization
(neural discharge), sweat gland activity or circulatory variations which occur as the result of work,
emotion or a combination of either. In polygraphy, these changes are recorded on a polygraph chart
by a pen attached to a galvanometer driven by the variations of electrical conductivity introduced into
a Wheatstone Bridge by the body tissues of an examiner.
125. PSYCHOGALVANOMETER — a component that measured changes in a subject's galvanic
skin resistance during questioning, and in doing so, thus signaling the birth of the polygraph as we
know it today.
126. Psychopathic – this type of liar has no conscience.
127. PSYCHOSIS - A form of sever personality disorder involving loss of contact with reality,
generally characterized by delusions and hallucinations.
128. pulse - represents the tactile arterial palpitation of the heartbeat by trained fingertips. It can also
be measured by listening to the heart directly using a stethoscope.
129. RECEPTORS - Those specialized cells sensitive to incoming stimuli.
130. Red Hot Iron Ordeal (India). Metal, in the form of an iron ball or the head of a lance, is heated
red hot iron placed on the hands of the accused
131. Red Lie - communist propaganda. this lie is common to communist countries.
132. REFLEX ACTION - The cumulative product of stimulus, receptor, afferent nerve, connecting
neuron, efferent nerve and effector action. A simple reflex arcs.
133. RELEVANT QUESTIONS-are direct query having precise and specific relation with the felony.
It is designed to produce emotional response in the subject’s trying to craft deceptive statements. It is
answerable by NO.
134. RESIDUAL AIR - That volume of air which remains in the lungs after the deepest possible
exhalation.
135. RESPONSE- refers to any inhibition or activity of previous motion of an organism or of effector
organ or part of the organism resulting from stimulation or suggestion. Specific Response-is any
variation or deviation from the normal tracing of the subject.
136. SACRIFICE RELEVANT QUESTION - A question used in the Zone comparison Test
designed for the intended to dissipate initial tension anticipated by an examinee in response to the
target issue.
137. SENSOR - Any attachment made to the human body for the purpose of measuring and/or
recording a psychophysiological response during a polygraph test.
138. skin conductivity - also known as Galvanic sin response - is a method of measuring the electrical
conductance of the skin which varies with its moisture level.
139. Somatic Nervous System. It is responsible for nearly all voluntary muscle movement.
140. SPECIFIC RESPONSE- any deviation or change from the subject’s normal tracing.
141. SPECIFIC STIMULUS- a well phrased question that is designed to cause a response from a
subject.
142. SPHYGMOMANOMETER - or blood pressure meter (also referred to as a sphygmometer) is a
device used to measure blood pressure composed of an inflatable cuff to restrict blood flow, and a
mercury or mechanical manometer to measure the pressure.

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143. SPOT ANALYSIS TECHNIQUE - A system of chart interpretation whereby analysis of
response capability may be made at each location on a polygraph chart wherein a relevant question is
either preceded by or followed by a control question.
144. stimuli - is applied to sensory receptor, it influences a reflex via stimulus transduction.
145. SUBJECT- the person to be examined, usually a suspected criminal also called examinee.
146. SYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM - That part of the autonomic nervous system which
tends to depress secretion, decrease the tone and contractibility of muscle not under direct voluntary
control, and cause the contraction of blood vessels.
147. SYMPTOMATIC QUESTION - A question contained within a structured question technique
which is designed to identify the presence of an outside issue upon which a person may be focusing
during the course of a polygraph examination.
148. SYNAPSIS - The chemical junctions where nerve impulses pass from one neuron to another.
149. Trial by Combat - This method had several forms, most commonly the duel wherein two
adversaries faced off in physical combat
150. Word Association Test (wat) - The basic practice is to present orally or visually, a group of
words, each word sufficiently separated in time from the others so that the subject responses to it.
QUESTIONED DOCUMENTS EXAMINATION
DEFINITION OF TERMS

1. ABSENCE OF SPONTANEITY – the lack of smoothness of letters

2. ALIGNMENT DEFECT – the presence of twisted letters, horizontal and vertical mal-alignment,
which can be corrected by special adjustments to the type bar
3. Alteration- refers to any form of changes be it an addition or a deletion to the original contents of a
document.
4. ALTERED DOCUMENT - a document that contains a change either as an addition or a deletion.
5. Ambidextrous – a term that refers the situation when a person is able to use the right and the left
hand with equal skills in writing
6. ANARCHRONISM – refers to the situation where the forger has trouble in matching the paper, ink
or writing materials to the exact date it was supposed to have been written.
7. ARCADE – refers to the inside curve portion of selected characters.
8. ASCENDER LINE – refers to the line on top of a capital letter
9. ASSISTED WRITING - the result of a guided hand, produced by the cooperation of the two minds
and two hands of two persons.
10. BALL PEN – came from the Latin term “Penna” meaning feather. This refers to a writing instrument
with ball rotating at its nib purposely to equally spread its ink to the writing material.
11. BALL POINT PEN - a writing instrument having as its marking tip a small, freely rotating ball
bearing that rolls the ink into the paper. Many of these pens use highly viscous, non-aqueous ink but
in recent years construction of some pens have been adopted to use water-based inks.
12. BASELINE - the ruled or imaginary line upon which the writing rests.
13. BIBLIOTICS is the study of documents and writing materials to determine their genuineness or
authorship.
14. Blank Papers- A sheet of paper which contains no visible or readily visible writing. At times it might
only contains certain depressed mark or latent writing that can be made legible with proper treatment.
15. Blunt ending - the effect produces on commencement and terminal strokes of letters, both upper and
lower case, by the application of the writing instrument to the paper prior to the beginning of any
horizontal movement.
16. BODY - The main portion of the letter, minus the initial strokes, terminal strokes and diacritic in any
letter.
17. BRACKET – is a form of letter beautification that is usually found in aesthetically printing
characters.
18. BRANCHING STROKE / JUNCTION CONNECTION – refers to the stroke which connects the
arch to the down stroke of a letter.
19. BUCKLE / BUCKLE KNOT - a loop made as a flourish which is added to the letters, as in small
letters "k, b & p or in capital letters "A", "K.”
20. Burring - a division of a written line into two or more, more or less equal portions by a non-linked
area generally running parallel to the direction of line generation but moving away from the radius of
a curving stroke. Sometimes referred to as splitting.
21. CACOGRAPHY – came from Greek word “kakkographia” which means “ugly writing.”

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22. CALLIGRAPHY – came from Greek term kalligraphia which means “beautiful writing.”
Kalligraphia came from kallos = "beauty" and graphein = "write
23. CARELESS SCRIBBLE – are signatures which cannot be read. It could be a symbol, composed
lines or writings that represents the person’s name or personality.
24. Characteristics- refers to any property or mark which serves a distinguishing trait and in questioned
document examination it is commonly referred to as Identifying Details. There are two groups of
characteristics, class and individual.
25. CLASS / GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS – refers to the general design of letters and figures
that can be found to handwritings people who learned the same type of writing systems.
26. CLOGGED TYPEFACE – refers to the dirty typefaces that may alter the formation or design of
letters.
27. Collation- As used in this text, refers to critical comparison of two or more specimen or side by side
examination.
28. COLLECTED STANDARDS - a sample of writing made during the normal course of business or
social activity not necessarily related to the matter in dispute.
29. COMMERCIAL DOCUMENTS are documents that are regulated by the Code of Commerce and
mercantile law
30. COMMON / USUAL - this characteristic can be found in a group of writers who studied the same
system of writing
31. Comparison- Is the act of setting two or more specimen/items side by side to weigh their identifying
qualities. It infers not only a visual but also the mental act in which the elements of one item are
related to the counterparts of the other.
32. CONCEALED VALUE – the domination value that is super imposed on the smaller version portrait
in the upper left side of the bank note
33. Connecting stroke - an expression commonly used to refer to the fusion of the terminal stroke of one
lower case cursive letter and the initial stroke of another having no identifiable or describable entity
of its own.
34. COUNTER – the space inside the loops of selected letters.
35. Counterfeiting is the making or copying of something, especially money, in order to defraud or
deceive another
36. CROSS BAR – refers to the horizontal stroke to complete letters t, and H.
37. CURSIVE - a form of continuous writing in which letters are connected to one another and designed
according to some commercial system; the most common allograph of a grapheme.
38. Decipherment- refers to the process of making clear or out of what is otherwise illegible or what has
been effaced.
39. DESCENDER LINE – refers to the line that is found below just below the baseline
40. DIACRITICS – refer to the "t" crossing and dots of the letter "i" & "j". These are elements added to
complete certain letters. It could also be a mark above or below a printed letter that indicates a change
in the way it is to be pronounced or stressed. Acute and grave accents, tilde (~), and cedillas (ç an ş)
are examples of diacritics.
41. DISGUISED WRITING - a deliberate attempt to alter handwriting in hopes of hiding one's identity.
42. DISPUTED DOCUMENT - a term suggesting that there is an argument or controversy over a
document. Disputed document and Questioned document can be used interchangeably to signify a
document that is under special scrutiny.
43. Document- any material that contains marks, symbols, or signs either visible, partially visible, or
invisible that may ultimately convey a meaning or message to someone.
44. DOCUMENT EXAMINER - an individual who scientifically studies the details and elements of
documents in order to identify their source or to discover other facts concerning them. Documents
examiners are often referred to as handwriting identification experts.
45. Documentation - written notes, audio/video tapes, printed forms, sketches, or photographs that form
a detailed record of the scene, evidence recovered, and actions taken during the search of the crime
scene.
46. DROP CAP – an oversized capital letter used to start a paragraph.
47. Efface- refers to the act of rubbing out or erasing or removing something from the document. It is
also called as Erasure, which can be accomplished either mechanically or chemically.
48. ENDING / TERMINAL STROKE - any ending stroke of a letter.
49. Engraving is a process by which the lines to be printed are cut into pieces of metal by hand or with a
machine

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50. ERASURE - the removal of writing, typewriting, or printing from a document. It may be
accomplished by either of two means, a chemical eradication in which the writing is removed or
bleached by chemical agents (liquid ink eradicator, abrasive erasure in which the writing is effaced by
rubbing with a rubber eraser) or scratching out with a knife.
51. Exemplars- refers to specimen standards or disputed document which has been used for comparison.
52. Exhibit- is the term use when referring to the specimen standards or questioned which is presented to
court as evidence.
53. Expert Witness- It is a legal term used to describe a witness who by reason of his special technical
training or experience is permitted to express an opinion regarding the issue, or a certain aspect of the
issue, that is involved in a lawsuit.
54. EYELET / EYELOOP - a small loop or curve formed inside the letters. This may occur inside the
oval of the letters "a, d, o"; the small loop form by stroke that extend in divergent direction as in small
letters.
55. FLOURISH – a non-structural embellishment (beautification) added to a letter.
56. FOOT / FEET – the lower part of the letter which rest on the base line. The small letter "m" has
three feet, and the small letter "n" has two feet.
57. Forgery- It refers to the act of simulating or copying or tracing somebody’s signature without the
permission of the later, for profit. It is also defined as the act of falsifying and counterfeiting of
treasury or bank notes, paper bills or any instruments payable to the bearer or order.
58. FORGERY SPECIALIST is a person who analyses altered, obliterated, changed, or doctored
documents and photos using infrared lighting, expensive spectography equipment, or digital
enhancement techniques.
59. FORMAL / CONVENTIONAL / COPYBOOK FORM – done by writing the full name which is
readable. Others make use of this kind to acknowledge important documents, regardless of its design
or kind.
60. FRAUD INVESTIGATOR is a person who focuses on the money trail and criminal intent of the
person using the document being questioned.
61. FRAUDULENT SIGNATURE - a forged signature. It involves the writing of a name as signature
by someone other than the person without his/her permission, often with some degree of imitation.
62. FREEHAND SIMULATION - a fraudulent signature that is produced by copying or imitating the
style and size of genuine signature without the use of physical aids or involving a tracing process.
63. GENUINE SIGNATURE – refers to “original” signatures executed by the writer in any document as
a sign of acknowledgment.
64. Graphologist or Grapho-analyst examines handwritings and tells the personality of a person based
from handwriting characteristics.
65. GRAPHOLOGY is the study and analysis of handwriting to assess the writer's traits or personality.
66. GUIDED SIGNATURE – refers to signatures executed while the writer’s hand on arm is steadied in
any way.
67. HABIT - any repeated elements or details, which may serve to individualize writing. It is how a
certain letter is written repeatedly.
68. HANDWRITING is the result of a very complicated series of acts treated as a whole, a combination
of certain forms of visible mental and muscular habits acquired by long painstaking effort.
69. HESITATIONS – evidenced by unnatural spread of ink in one part of a written character due to the
stoppage of the pen of the writer.
70. HIATUS or PEN JUMP - a gap occurring between a continuous stroke without lifting the pen. Such
as occurrence usually occurs due to speed; may be regarded also as a special form of pen lift
distinguish in a ball gaps in that of perceptible gaps and appear in the writing.
71. Holographic Document- Any document which is completely written and signed by one person.
Derived from the Latin word “holo” which means “hand” and “graph” which means “writing”.
72. HOOK - It is a minute curve or an ankle which often occurs at the beginning or ending of strokes.
The terminal curves of the letters "a", "d", "n", "m", "p", "u", is the hook. In small letter "w" the
initial curve is the hook.
73. HUMP – the top outside portion of letters m, n, & h the rounded outside or top of the bend stroke or
curve in small letter.
74. INDENTED WRITING - writing impressed into the surface of a page of paper of pressure exerted
upon the writing instrument when used on a previous page.
75. INDIVIDUAL / PERSONAL CHARACTERISTICS – refers to the personal design of letters and
figures by a person that cannot be found to others’ handwriting.

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76. INFORMAL / CURSORY – May be done by writing the first name, surname or the initials in a
signature.
77. INFRARED EXAMINATION - the examination of documents employing invisible radiation
beyond the red portion of the visible spectrum. Infrared radiation can be recorded on specially
sensitized photographic emulsions or it can be converted by means of an electronic viewing device
into visible light for an on the scene study of the evidence.
78. INK - is any liquid or viscous pigmented substance used for writing, printing, or drawing.
79. Insertion - the addition of writing and other material within a document such as between lines and
paragraphs or the addition of whole pages to a document.
80. INTERCALATION – the act of inserting words or group of words and figures in a line or along the
line in a text of a document.
81. INTERLINEATION – the act of inserting words or group of words, figures between lines in a text
or document. It came from the Latin term linea (insert line or text).
82. LIGATURE – refers to characters that combine or connect. For instance, letter A combines with E,
following (ff); street (st.). Ligature can be standard and personalized. A writer can be known based on
personalized ligature.
83. LOOP - An oblong curve such as found on the small letter "f", "g", "l” and letters stroke “f". A loop
may be blind or open. A blind loop is usually the result of the ink having filled the open space.
84. LOOSE WRITING – refers to writings which unusually extended where letters are written to
deliberately change their handwriting
85. MAINPRINT - Can be felt by our fingers due to its embossed effect.
86. MAJUSCULE - a capitalized letter or letter which is printed in block form (uppercase letter).
87. MANUAL TYPEWRITER - a machine whose operation depends solely upon the mechanical action
set in motion by striking a letter or character key.
88. MANUSCRIPT WRITING - a disconnected form of script or semi-script writing. This type of
writing is taught to young children in elementary schools as the first step in learning how to write.
89. METTALIC THREAD – the threadlike in a bill
90. MINUSCULE - a small letter (or lowercase letter).
91. Model Signature- a genuine signature which has been used in preparing simulated or traced forgery.
Also known as model.
92. MOVEMENT - an important element in handwriting. It embraces all the factors related to the
motion of the writing instrument, skills, speed, freedom, hesitation, rhythm, emphasis, tremor, and the
like. The manner in which the writing instrument i moved.
93. NATURAL WRITING - any specimen of writing executed normally without an attempt to control
or alter its identifying habits and its usual quality of execution. It is the typical writing of an
individual.
94. NIB – refers to the pen point.
95. OBLIQUE LIGHTING EXAMINATION - an examination with the illumination so controlled that
it grazes or strikes the surface of the document from one side at a very low angle, also referred to as
side light examination.
96. OBLITERATION – is the act of blotting out and smearing over a letter, a word or a phrase found on
a document.
97. OFFICIAL DOCUMENTS –are instrument issued by the government or its agents or its officers
having the authority to do so and the offices, which in accordance with their creation, they are
authorized to issue and be issued in the performance of their duties
98. PALEOGRAPHY - is the study of ancient writing that is concerned with inscription on stone, clay
tablets, bone, metal, bamboo strips and other surfaces. This came from the Greek term “Palaios”
which means Old Writings.
99. PAPER AND INK SPECIALIST refers to a person who has expertise on date, type, source, and/or
catalogue various types of paper watermarks, ink, printing/copy/fax machines computer cartridges,
etc. using chemical methods.
100. PAPERS are sheets of interlaced fibers - usually cellulose fibers from plants, but sometimes from
cloth rags or other fibrous materials, that is formed by pulping the fibers and causing to felt, or mat, to
form a solid surface
101. PATCHING – the act of going back over a defective written character (discussed earlier)
102. PEN – general term for ink-refilled writing instruments.
103. PEN ANGLE – refers to the angle at which the nib meets the paper relative to the baseline.
104. PEN LIFT - an interruption in a stroke caused by removing the writing instrument from the
paper.

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105. PENCIL – a writing material that has lead that is composed of graphite and clay and located in
the central part. T
106. PERJURY It is the willful and corrupt assertion of falsehood under oath or affirmation
administered by authority of law on a material matter.
107. PERMANENT - this characteristic can be found always in handwriting of a person.
108. PRIVATE DOCUMENTS are deeds or instruments executed by a private person without the
intervention of a notary public or other persons legally authorized, and which proves same disposition
or agreement as evidenced or set forth therein
109. PUBLIC DOCUMENTS are those documents that are notarized by a notary public or competent
public official with solemnities required by law
110. QUESTIONED DOCUMENT - is any document in which contents appearing therein are
questionable, seemingly untrue, or contested either in whole or in part with respect to their
authenticity, identity or origin.
111. QUILL PEN - writing instrument made from a feather with a sharpened tip, which is dipped in
ink.
112. REQUESTED/ DICTATED STANDARDS are signatures or handwritings (or hand printings)
written by an individual upon request for the purpose of comparison with other handwriting. This is
known in its Latin term as “post litem motan” Standards
113. Restoration- it refers to the process by which an erased writing is developed or brought out again
on the surface of the document itself.
114. RESTRAINED WRITING – refers to the style of writing where letters are compressed and
lacks freedom between letters.
115. RETOUCHING - going back over a written line to correct a defect or improve its appearance,
synonymous with patching.

116. RETRACING - any stroke that goes back over another writing stroke.
117. RHYTHM - the element of the writing movement marked by regular or periodic recurrences. It
may be classed as smooth, intermittent, or jerky in its quality.
118. Safety Paper- Refers to a document which is treated in such way as to minimize changes of
forgery by erasure.
119. SCANNED SIGNATURE – is an electronically prepared signature that may also be used as
esignature.
120. SCRIPT (also known as manuscript or functional writing) - is any disconnected style of writing
or junction broken. T
121. SERIF – a small stroke that begins or ends a letter.
122. SHADING - a widening of the ink stroke due to added pressure on a flexible pen point or to the
use of the stub pen.
123. SHOULDERS – the two side out portion of the top curve of selected letters such as but not
limited to letters m, n, and h.
124. SIGNATORY - a signer with another or others. A person whose name is being inscribe on a
document who requires assistance in doing so.
125. SIGNATURE - the name of a person or mark representing it as written by himself/herself.
126. Significant Writing Habits- refers to characteristics of writing which is sufficiently unique and
well-fixed to serve as a strong basis for the identity or non-identity of the writing.
127. SIMPLE FORGERY (SPURIOUS SIGNATURE) – the forger simply signs the name of other
person without having knowledge on the design or style of the genuine signature
128. SIMULATED FORGERY – the process of copying or imitating a genuine signature.
129. SLANT – refers to the slope of a letter. The 3 kinds are slant to the right, left and vertical slant.
130. SLANT LINE – refers to the guideline showing the correct slant.
131. STAMPED SIGNATURE – this refers to the signature that was skillfully prepared as an
imitation of the original signature, usually impressed on rubber stamp or similar items.
132. Standards- Are the condensed and compact set of authentic specimens which, if adequate and
proper, should contain a true cross-section of the material from a known source. They are design to be
used for comparison and identification of document.
133. STARTING / INITIAL STROKE – any beginning stroke of any letter. This is sometimes called
BEARD as initial up stroke. .
134. STEM (Also known as Staff, Trunk, or Stalk) – the foundation of every character.
135. STROKE refers to lines that form a character.

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136. SUBSTITUTION – is the act of putting some writings or entries in a document in place of
another, or take the place of another. It came from Latin word substituere (set up under).
137. SYLLABARY SYSTEM – A system of writing which was developed by a Japanese Cherokee
138. THUMB PRINT – may be used as substitute to signature for illiterate persons or to those literate
but are incapable of writing their signature.
139. TRACED FORGERY - any fraudulent signature executed by actually following the outline of a
genuine signature with a writing instrument.
140. TRANSITORY DEFECT – refers to the condition of a typewriter which has dirty typefaces,
and clogged parts that may affect the quality of the characters printed.
141. TREMOR - a writing weakness portrayed by irregular shaky strokes that is found in handwriting
of a person.
142. TYPEFACE DEFECT – refers to the actual damage, usually a break to the typeface of a
typewriter.
143. TYPEWRITER - A machine designed to print or impress type characters on paper, as a speedier
and more legible substitute for handwriting
144. TYPEWRITING ANALYST is a person who is expert on the origin, make and model of
typewriters and documents produced from it.
145. WAISTLINE – refers to the guideline showing the correct position for the upper boundary of the
x-height.
146. Watermark- a translucent design impressed in certain papers during the course of their
manufacture. This is accomplished by passing a wet map of fibers across a dandy roll, which is a
metal cylinder containing patches of specific pattern designs. The design patches are generally of two
types, wire or screen.
147. Writing Habits- refers to any repeated elements or details which may serve to individualize
writing.
148. Writing- it is the result of a very complicated series of acts being as a whole or a combination of
certain forms of visible mental and muscular habits acquired by long continued painstaking effort.
149. WRITING MATERIALS are used primarily for writing or recording such as papers, cardboard,
board papers, Morocco paper, etc.
150. X-HEIGHT – refers to the height of the letter between the baseline and the waistline. It also
refers to the height of the lowercase letters particularly the vowels.

PERSONAL IDENTIFICATION TECHNIQUES

DEFINITION OF TERMS

1. ACCIDENTAL WHORL – A fingerprint pattern that is a combination of two different types of

patterns, with the exception of plain arch, with two or more deltas. It maybe a combination of a loop
and a tented arch, a loop and a whorl or a whorl and a tented arch.

2. Adhesive lifter - any of a variety of adhesive coated materials or tapes used to lift fingerprints or
footwear impressions. They are primarily used to lift powdered impressions from non-porous
surfaces.
3. AFIS - (automated fingerprint identification system) enables computers to make rapid and accurate
comparisons between fingerprints and the vast number of fingerprints in police records.

4. AN EXPERT - A person who has special and competent knowledge of a subject, and who obtain this
knowledge either through study or through experience.
5. ANALYSIS – The unknown area of friction ridge structure (latent prints) must be examined. The
specific area of finger, palm or sole of the foot suspected of making the impression is determined.
The clarity of the impression and the variety of details present are established.

6. Angle - results from two or more ridges converging with one another at a point.

7. APPEAEANCE OF FORMULA -The classification formula when written on the card, has the
general appearance of an algebraic fraction.
8. APPENDAGE – A short ridge on top or summit of a recurving ridge usually at right angle.

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9. Arch - the ridges enter from one side of the finger, rise in the center forming an arc and then exit the
other side of the finger
10. BASAL LAYER- The deepest layer of the epidermis and is the generating layer in the skin.
11. BIFURCATION OR BIFURCATING RIDGE – Is a single ridge which splits into two ridges
forming a Y shape structure.

12. BLOCKING OUT - The placing on a fingerprint card the results of the interpretation of all the ten
patterns, by letters, symbols, or numbers required for each of the rolled prints.
13. Bridges - A connecting friction ridge between parallel running ridges, generally right angles.
14. CARPAL DELTA ZONE - this is the area about the center palm, down near the wrist where a delta
is frequently present. For latent impression investigation, this may appear on windowsills and
counter or tabletops when the suspect requires support for climbing.
15. CATCH OR IDENTIFICATION - the location or finding of a previously filed duplicate record card
of the subject.
16. CENTRAL POCKET LOOP WHORL - A fingerprint pattern which form the most part of a loop,
which has a small whorl inside a loop.

17. CHIROSCOPY – The science of palm print identification.

18. CLASSIFICATION FORMULA - The classification formula is the result of combining all patterns
of the fingerprints and recording them, in a specific order and manner, at the top right of the
fingerprint card. Therefore, the classification formula represents the patterns for all the ten fingers of
both hands combined.
19. CLOSED DELTA: The delta is formed when a single ridge forks in to two arms, opens out and tries
to enclose the core area.
20. COINCIDENT SEQUENCE: This occurs when the same friction ridge characteristics are in the
same relative position with the same intervening friction ridge count, in sufficient quantity and
allowing for explainable differences in both impressions.

21. COMPARISON – The friction ridge structure is then compared to the exemplars.

22. COMPONENTS OF FORMULA - Like the fraction, the classification formula has two parts; a
Numerator, written above the line; and a Denominator, written below the line.
23. COMPOSITE PATTERN - It is a combination of two patterns in one, with two deltas and two core,
like double loop whorl and central pocket loop whorl.
24. CONTAMINATION: The undesirable introduction of substances or trace material; for fingerprint
examination is the disruption of the true image of a mark from a secondary (physical) matrix source,
for example blood, grease etc.

25. CONVERGING RIDGE – Two or more lines forming an angle. A ridge whose close end is angular
and serve as a point of convergence pointed and abrupt.

26. Core - also called the heart or inner terminus, usually found at the center of the innermost recurve.
27. CREASE: A linear depression on the surface of the hand or foot. These may be grooves at the joints
of the phalanges, at the junction of the digits and across the palmar and plantar surfaces that allow
flexion. The flow and the appearance of the creases can be useful for orientating a mark.
28. CROSS HATCHING: A term that describes the crease pattern that is generally found in the thenar
area of the palm. These creases intersect other creases running in a perpendicular direction, giving a
„grid‟ like appearance.
29. CROSSOVER: Is a connecting friction ridge made up of two bifurcations.
30. Cyanoacrylate fuming - important method for the visualization of latent fingerprints. Also called
"super glue fuming".

31. DACTYL – Is a Latin term which mean finger or toe.

32. DACTYLOGRAPHY – Is the science of recording fingerprint for the purpose of identification.

33. Dactylomancy - the scientific study of fingerprint for the purposes of personality interpretation.

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34. DACTYLOSCOPY – Is the science of identification by means of fingerprints.

35. DELTA – Is a point on first ridge formation at or directly in front or near the center of the divergence
of the type lines.

36. DENOMINATOR FUNCTIION -The denominator governs the grouping and the sequence of all
fingerprint classification for the purpose of filling and searching.
37. Dermal Papillae - is the irregular pegs composed of delicate connective tissue protruding and
forming ridges of the skin on the fingers, palms, toes, and soles of the feet.

38. Dermis - inner layer (blood vessel, dermal papipllae, various glands and nerves)
39. DESIGNATION OF VALUE OF WHORLS -The designation of the value of whorls in a set of
prints id determined by which fingers and or thumbs have whorls.
40. DEVELOPED: When a latent mark is subjected to chemical and / or physical treatments and an
impression is made visible then the mark is said to have been developed.
41. DEVIATION: An interruption in the friction ridge path caused by a bifurcation or ridge ending.
42. DIGIT DETERMINATION: For marks suitable for comparison or search, the practitioner will
consider whether it is possible to determine from which finger or area of friction ridge detail the
mark originated.
43. DISAGREEMENT: Where the friction ridge flow between impressions differ, the ridge
characteristics and / or details do not appear in the same relative position, do not have the same
intervening ridge count and / or there may be differences that cannot be explained.
44. DISCREPANCY: The apparent presence of friction ridge detail in one impression that does not exist
in the corresponding area of another impression..
45. DISTAL: This refers to something that is the farthest away from the centre or point of attachment.
For example the distal flexures of the finger are the creases in the fingers furthest away from the
palm, between the top and middle phalanges of the finger.

46. DIVERGING RIDGE – Are two ridges running side by side and suddenly separating, one ridge
going one way and the other ridge going another way.

47. DIVISION -For pupose of classification and filing, All the types of patterns are divided into two (2)
groups, The Numerical and the Non-Numerical groups.
48. DNA profile - consists of a set of DNA identification characteristics that permit the DNA of one
person to be distinguishable from that of another person.

49. DOT OR SERIES OF DOTS – Fragmentary ridges formed by a dot or series of dots, which
resembles appoint.

50. DOUBLE LOOP WHORL – It is a fingerprint pattern which consists of two separate loop
formations with two separate and distinct set of shoulders with deltas.

51. Dr. Henry P. DeForrest - he accomplished the first fingerprint file established in the United States,
and the first use of fingerprinting by a U.S. government agency.
52. Dr. Nehemiah Grew - in 1684, he was the first European to publish friction ridge skin observations.
53. DUSTING / BRUSH ON / POWDER METHOD -This is done with the use of fingerprint brush and
powder by applying amount of powder that is lightly swept on the suspected area to little by little
reveal the print caused by the powder.
54. DYSPLASIA: A condition which arises because of problems in the genes that control the normal
development of the skin. The friction ridges have a fragmented (broken up) appearance; sometimes
referred to as Epidermal Dysplasia. EDGEOSCO

55. EDGEOSCOPY - The study of the characteristics formed by the sides or edges of the papillary
ridges as a means identification.
56. Edmond Locard - informally referred to as the Sherlock Holmes of France, he developed the
science of poroscopy, the study of fingerprint pores and the impressions produced by these pores. 
57. ELASTICITY: The ability of skin to stretch, compress, or distort and be able to return to its natural
appearance.

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58. ELIMINATION PRINTS: The controlled recording of friction ridge detail of person(s) known to
have had legitimate access to an object or location. See Control Prints, Known Prints, Ten Prints
59. ELONGATED WHORL: An elongated whorl has all the attributes of a whorl, but the ridge flow at
the centre is elliptical.

60. ENCLOSURE – Is a bifurcation which does not remain open but which the leg of the bifurcation,
after running along side by side for a short distance, came together again to form a single ridge once
more.  

61. ENDING RIDGE - A single friction ridge that terminates within the friction ridge structure

62. Enhance - to develop or to bring out from a latent form.

63. Enlargement - a print made from a smaller negative or slide through magnification
64. ENVELOPE-A single recurving ridge enclosing one or more rods or bars (short ridges).
65. Epidermis - outer layer (stratum corneum, stratum mucusum.
66. ETCHED MARKS: Certain constituents if sweat (or other contaminants that may be present on the
friction ridges) may chemically react with particular surfaces to produce a mark which is far more
durable than would normally be expected.

67. EVALUATION – Similarities or dissimilarities present in the ridge structure will each have specific
value toward establishing the individuality of the area of friction ridge structure.

68. Femur - the thighbone which can be measured and used as a guide to the height of the person to
whom it belongs.

69. FILING OUT - Entering on a fingerprint record card all known essential data about the subject,
except the fingerprints themselves.
70. FINAL CLASSIFICATION DEFINED - The exhibition in a numerical figure of the ridge count of
loop and/ or whorl from the two little fingers. The ridge count of the right little finger is the
numerator and the ridge count of the left little finger is the denominator. Arches are represented by a
dash (-).
71. FINGER MARK: An impression from the finger deposited under noncontrolled conditions -
72. FINGERPRINT – It is a reproduction on some smooth surfaces of the pattern or design formed by
the ridges of the inside of the end joint of fingers and thumb.

73. FINGERPRINT BRUSHES - must be carried in pairs of three. The fiberglass brushes are preferably
use by technicians. If magnetic powders are carried, use a magnetic device for application.
74. FINGERPRINT CLASSIFICATION INDEX - A series of guide cards having tabs which are the
various classification combinations.
75. FINGERPRINT INK -this is specially manufactured ink for purposes of taking fingerprint.
76. FINGERPRINT LIFTING TAPE - there must be sufficient supply of lifting tapes to be carried at all
times. There are three (3) kinds: frosted, rubber, and transparent.
77. Fingerprint pattern type - formed by a series of lines corresponding to ridges (hills) and grooves
(valleys) on the skin of the fingertip. There are eight basic types of fingerprint patterns.
78. Fingerprint powder - a powder (silver, gray, black, red, or fluorescent) dusted on a latent print with
a brush to enhance or bring out the ridge details of a print.
79. Fingerprint recognition/Fingerprint identification - refers to the automated method of verifying a
match between two human fingerprints.
80. Fingerprint - is an impression of the friction ridge of all or any part of the finger. Fingerprint ridges
are formed during the third to fourth month of fetal development.
81. Focal point - are found within most pattern areas, usually a delta and core.
82. Forensic odontology - the study of teeth, dentures, and bite marks for the purpose of obtaining
criminal evidence or identifying physical remains or the source of the bite wounds.
83. FRAGMENTED/BROKEN UP: The mark appears to be broken up due to either the surface it was
left on or the development process or a skin condition

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84. FRICTION RIDGES - Raised strips of the skin on the end joint of our fingers and thumbs by which
fingerprints are made; also called papillary or epidermal ridges.
85. Friction Skin - also called papillary skin, is the epidermal layer found on the ventral or lower
surface of the hands and feet covered with ridges and furrows.
86. Furrows - the depressed or canal-like structure/the white space between the ridges.
87. Gilbert Thompson - He used his thumb print on a document to prevent forgery. First known use of
fingerprints in the U.S.
88. Horizontal plane - is the ridge directly below an up thrusting or angular ridge in tented arch pattern,
the baseline ridge enters the pattern may rise slightly and exits on the opposite side from which it
enters.

89. HYPOTHENAR ZONE - this zone contains the large cushion area just below the base of the little
finger. This zone may contain a loop or a whorl type pattern or no pattern of all. There are ridges
present. Latent impression of this area is common on questioned documents or paper involved in
handwriting.
90. Impressed prints - also called plastic prints and are indentations left in soft pliable surfaces, such as
clay, wax, paint or another surface that will take the impression. They are visible and can be viewed
or photographed without development.

91. INK ROLLER - one of the inking devices required for spreading the ink on the glass.
92. INVISIBLE PRINTS (TRUE LATENT PRINTS) - are the most common type of chance
impressions.
93. KROMEKOTE LIFT METHOD - Provides the forensic science technician with an inexpensive and
practical technique for recovering latent fingerprints from human skin.The Kromekote Card is used
to lift latent print in 2-3 seconds. It is done by lifting from one side while pressing the other side.
94. Latent print - generally used to describe any type of print found at the scene of a crime or on
evidence associated with a crime. Latent prints are normally not visible. Some means of development
is generally required for their visualization.
95. Loop - the ridges enter from one side of a finger, form a curve and then exit on the same side.
96. MAJOR CLASSIFICATION DEFINED - The major classification represents only the thumb of each
hand. It is the ridge count of the loop and/ or the tracing of the whorl appearing in the thumb of each
hand. (If such whorl appears)
97. Minutiae - the characteristics that make each fingerprint capable of being differentiated from any
other print by a different area of friction skin. Comparison of latent prints with known prints begins
with the overall pattern. The ridge detail of fingerprints including the ends of the ridges, their
separations, and their relationships to one another constitute the bases for fingerprint comparison.

98. MR. JONES – The one who first taught fingerprint in the Philippine Constabulary sometime in the
year 1900.

99. NEO SPWA METHOD - This was invented by Nobuo Yamauchi, a Japanese Fingerprint Expert,
who authored a book entitled “Fingerprints Identifications.”
100.NINHYDRIN METHOD- It’s the Ninhydrin solution that is being used. This destroys writings on
absorbent materials like papers This is used to detect latent prints on absorbent materials, white
wood, blood stained fingerprint, paper wrapping of cigarette stick, etc.
101.NON-NUMERICAL - This compose of set of prints in which NO WHORLS are present.
102.NUMERATOR’S USE -The numerator following the sequence of the denominator, indicating the
subdivision within the group of the denominator.
103. NUMERICAL - the numerical groups is composed of prints containing Whorl Patterns.
104.Obstruction Ridge - short ridge found inside the recurve which blocks the inner line of flow
towards the core.

105.PARMAR ZONE - this is the area of the base of the fingers. Usually a broad delta is noticed at the
base of each finger. Patterns may appear between these deltas at the intervals between the interdigital
spaces.
106.PATTERN AREA - Is a part of fingerprint which lies within the area surrounded by the type lines.

107.PLAIN ARCH – It is a fingerprint pattern where the ridges enter on one side of the impression and
flow or tend to flow towards the other side with a rise at the center.

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108.PLAIN METHOD - The bulbs of the phalanges of the fingers and thumbs are pressed on the surface
of the paper or fingerprint card after pressing on the ink plate with printing ink.

109.PLAIN WHORL – It is a fingerprint pattern which has two deltas and at least one ridge making a
complete circuit, which maybe spiral, oval or any variant of a circle. Imaginary line is drawn
between the two deltas must touch or cross at least one circuiting ridge within the pattern area.

110.Plantar - pertaining to the sole of the foot.

111.PODOSCOPY – The science of footprint identification.

112.POROSCOPY – The science which deals with the study of the pores found on the papillary of
friction ridges of the skin for the purpose of identification.

113.POST- MORTEM FINGERPRINTING -The taking of fingerprints of a deceased person for

identification purposes.
114.PRINCIPLE OF INDIVIDUALITY – There are no two fingerprints that are exactly alike.

115.PRINCIPLE OF INFALLIBILITY – The fingerprint evidence is reliable.

116.PRINCIPLE OF PERMANENCY – The configuration and details of individual ridges remain

constant and unchanging.

117.PRINT / REAL IMPRESSION - impressions that was taken by the use of printing ink in the surface
of paper or cards.

118.RADIAL LOOP – A loop is radial when the opening end of the loop ridge points in the direction of
the thumb side of either the left or right hand.The loop is radial if the flow of ridges is towards the
radius bone or the thumb side of either left or right hand.

119.RECORDING -The placing of the fingerprints in their proper space on the card.
120.RECURVING RIDGE – Is a kind of ridge formation that curves back in the direction from which it
started. Sometimes referred as looping ridge.

121.RESTORATION METHOD - On a suspected area where latent print maybe impressed, ninhydrin
solutions maybe used to develop latent prints.
122.Ridge - the elevated or hill-like structure (the black lines with white dots)
123.RIDGE CHARACTERISTICS - Little details in the ridges of fingerprints patterns which are used in
comparing and identifying fingerprints
124.Ridge count - is the number of ridges intervening between the delta and the core.
125.RIDGE CROSSING - A point where two ridge units intersect

126.Ridge Destruction - ridge destruction of the friction skin can either be temporary or permanent.
Generally temporary destruction occur when only the epidermis layer of the friction skin has been
damaged while permanent damage can be injected to the friction skin due to the damage in the
dermis layer.
127.Ridge Dot (Island Ridge) - refers to a ridge formation in a form of a dot or period.
128.Ridge Formation - ridges start to form in the fingers and thumb during the 3rd to 4th month of fetus
life.
129.Ridgeology – describes the individualization process of any area of friction skin using allavailable
detail.
130.Rod (Bar) - a short or long ridge found inside the recurve directed towards the core.
131.ROLLED METHOD - The bulbs of the thumbs or other fingers are rolled on the surface of paper or
fingerprint card after being rolled in the ink pad with the printing ink.

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132.SEMI-VISIBLE PRINTS - are molded or plastic impressions. They are prints made in plastic
materials such as soap, melted candles, wax, tar, pitch, paraffin, putty, the adhesive gun on envelopes
and postage stamps, and the like.
133.SEQUENCING -The placing of a group of classified sets of prints in their correct filling order
before beginning to file or search them.
134.SHORT OR SERIES OF SHORT RIDGES – Fragmentary ridges formed by short or series of
short ridges.  BRIDGES - A connecting friction ridge between parallel running ridges, generally
right angles

135.SPRAY METHOD - The powder is put into an empty container specially designed for spraying.
Suspected areas where fingerprints are suspected to be present are sprayed to let latent print appear.
136.SPURS (HOOKS) - A bifurcation with one short ridge branching off a longer ridge.

137.SUB- SECONDARY CLASSIFICATION - Is the grouping of prints according to ridge count of

loops and ridge tracing of whorls.
138.Sufficient Recurve - a recurving ridge which is complete with its shoulder free from any appendage.
139.TENTED ARCH – Is a type of fingerprint pattern where majority of the ridges are forming an arch
and one or more of the ridges at the center shape a tent, a tent in outline giving an angle of 90
degrees or less or one with an angle of 45 degrees or more or a pattern similar to a loop, but lack at
least one requisite of a loop.

140.THE KEY CLASSIFICATION- The key classification represents the ridge count of the right first
loop appearing in a set of prints, beginning of the thumb of the right thumb but excluding the little
fingers.
141.THENAR ZONE -this is a large cushion area of the base of the thumb. Pattern of loop, whorl, or a
combination of them may appear. On some palms there is no pattern in this area, just the appearance
of more or less straight ridges. For the crime – scene investigator, latent impression of this area is
usually found on objects such as beer bottles, pipes used as weapons.
142.Tracings - are used to breakdown whorl patterns into smaller sub-groupings.
143.TRANSPLANT METHOD - The latent print is powdered and lifted ready to be pasted to a paper
with opposite color from that of the color of powder used.  The principle of contrast shall always
be applied.
144.Trifurcation - one single ridge splitting into three-pronged fork-shaped pattern.
145.TYPELINES – These are basic boundaries of all fingerprint patterns. They are formed with ridges
which run parallel, then diverge or separate tending to surround the pattern area.

146.ULNAR LOOP – A loop is ulnar when the opening end of the loop ridge points in the direction of
the little finger side of either the left or right hand. The loop is ulnar low of ridges is towards the ulna
bone or the little finger side of either left or right hand.

147.USE OF NUMERICAL VALUAE OF WHORLS - The numerical value of whorls in a set of prints
is given for the purpose of classification, filling, and subsequent searching.
148.VERIFICATION – The opinion of the forensic identification examiner must be verified by another
examiner.

149.VISIBLE PRINTS - are impressions made by fingers smeared with colored substance, such as blood,
ink, grease, dirt or paint.
150.Whorls - fingerprint pattern where the ridges turn through at least one complete circuit. Ridges form
circularly around a central point of the finger.

FORENSIC BALLISTICS
DEFINITION OF TERMS

1. Action - the action of the gun consists of all the moving parts that facilitate
the loading, firing, discharging of the empty case and unloading of the gun.

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2. ACTION, REVOLVER - a firearm, usually a handgun with a cylinder having several chambers so
arrange as to rotate around an axis and be discharge successively by the same firing mechanism.
3. Actuator - part of the firing mechanism in certain automatic firearms that slides forward and back in
preparing each cartridge to be fired.Also called trigger actuator.
4. Alexander John Forsyth – the first to conceive an idea of using a detonating compound for igniting
powder charge in small arms by percussion, and obtained a patent for this idea.
5. Ammunition – is a loaded shell for any firearm such as revolver, pistol and rifles.
6. Anvil marks - microscopic marks impressed on the  forward face of the rim of a rimfire cartridge
case as it is forced against the breech end of the barrel by the firing pin.These marks are characteristic
of the breech under the firing pin and have been used to identify firearm.
7. Apogee - the maximum altitude a projectile will reach when shot in the air.
8. Artillery – more than one inch bore diameter. Examples: Cannons, Mortars, etc.
9. Assault rifle - automatic weapon designed to be fired by one man.Ammunition is fed from a
magazine.
10. Automatic action - a firearm design that feeds cartridges,fires, and ejects cartridge cases as long as
the trigger is fully depressed and there are cartridges available in the feed system
11. AUTOMATIC - a firearm capable of ejecting a cartridge casing following discharge and reloading
the next cartridge from the magazine.
12. BALLISTICS - the study of a projectile in motion, following the projectile travel from primer
ignition to barrel exit, to target entry and until motion is stopped.
13. BALLISTICS, EXTERIOR - The study of the motion of the projectile after it leaves the barrel of the
firearm.
14. BALLISTICS, INTERIOR - the study of the motion of the projectile within the firearm from the
moment of ignition until it leaves the barrel.
15. BALLISTICS, TERMINAL - the study of the projectiles impact on the target.
16. Barium - alkaline earth metal with chemical symbol Ba, atomic number 56. Present as barium nitrate
in the primer.
17. Barium nitrate - a common oxidizer of the primer compound used in gun cartridges.
18. BARREL - that part of a firearm through which a projectile travel under the impetus of powder gases,
compressed air, or other like means, may be rifled or smooth
19. BERETTA - is an Italian firearms manufacturer. It is the oldest active firearms manufacturer in the
world.
20. Beveling - (external or internal) defects that occur when a projectile passes through a flat bone.The
perforation in the bone is typically larger and more cone shaped as the bullet passes from the entrance
through the bone to the exit.
21. Bipod - is an attachment for a weapon that creates a steady plane for whatever it may beattached. A
two-legged rest or stand as for rifle or machine gun.
22. BLACK POWDER - the earliest form of propellant. It is a mechanical mixture of potassium nitrate or
sodium nitrate, charcoal and sulfur.
23. Blasting cap - a small explosive charge triggered by lighting a safety fuse or applying an electric
current used to detonate high explosives.
24. Blunderbuss - is a muzzle-loading firearm with a short,large caliber barrel which is flared at the
muzzle and frequently throughout the entire bore and used with shot and other projectiles of relevant
quantity and/or caliber.
25. Bolt action - is a type of firearm action in which the weapons bolt is operated manually by opening
and closing of the breech (barrel) with a small handle most commonly placed on the right hand side
of the weapon for (right hand users).
26. Bore - the interior of a barrel, forward of the chamber.
27. BORE BRUSH - A brush usually having brass, nylon, or plastic bristles which is used to clean
deposits from the bore of a firearm.
28. BORE DIAMETER - in a rifled barrel, it is the minor diameter of a barrel which is the diameter of a
circle formed by the tops of the lands. In a shotgun, it is the interior dimensions of the barrel forward
of the chamber but before the choke.
29. BRASS - a slang term sometimes used for fired cartridge cases.
30. Breech - the part of the firearm at the rear of the bore into which the cartridge of propellant is
inserted.

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31. BREECH BLOCK - the locking and cartridge head-supporting mechanism of a firearm that does not
operate in line with the axis of the bore.
32. Breech face - that part of the breech block or breech bolt that is against the head of the cartridge case
or shot shell during firing.
33. Breechface Marks – occurs when shell is separated from the bullet, the shell will be push back to the
breechface leaving such marks.
34. Breech-loading weapon - is a firearm in which the cartridge or shell is inserted or loaded into a
chamber integral to the rear portion of a barrel.
35. Broach - rifling tool consisting of a series of circular cutting tools mounted on a long rod.The rifling
is cut in on pass of the broach through the gun barrel.
36. BUCKSHOT - lead pellet ranging in size from 0.20 in. to 0.36 in. diameter.
37. Bullet - is a projectile propelled by a firearm, sling, or air gun.
38. Bullet creep - the movement of a bullet out of the cartridge case due to the recoil of the firearm and
the inertia of the bullet.Also called bullet starting.Also known as popping.
39. BULLET JACKET - usually a metallic cover over the core.
40. Bullet lead - a standard lead bullet having a harder metal jacket over the nose formed from a lead
alloy,also known as metal-point bullet.This non spherical projectiles is for use in a rifled barrel.
41. Burr striations - a roughness or rough edge especially one left on metal in casting or cutting.A tool
or device that raises a burr.
42. BUTT - in handguns, the bottom part of the grip frame. In long guns, it is the rear of shoulder end of
the stock.
43. Caliber .50 – now, considered the most powerful handgun in the world. It replaced Magnum .44
44. Cannelure - a circumferential groove generally of a knurled or plain appearance in a bullet or the
head of a rimless cartridge case.
45. CARBINE - a rifle of short length and lightweight originally designed for mounted troops.
46. Cartridge - is also called a round, packages the bullet, propellant (usually smokeless powder or gun
powder) and primer into a single unit within a containing metallic case that is precisely made to fit
within the firing chamber of the firearm.
47. Cartridge Case – refers to the tubular casing or shell of an ammunition that holds the bullet and
contains the gunpowder.
48. CARTRIDGE, CENTERFIRE - any cartridge that has its primer central to the axis in the head of the
case.
49. CARTRIDGE, RIMFIRE - a flange-headed cartridge containing the priming mixture inside the rim
cavity.
50. Center of impact - the points of impact of the projectiles being dispersed about a single point.
51. CENTERFIRE - is a cartridge with a primer located in the center of the cartridge case head. Unlike
rimfire cartridges, the primer is a separate and replaceable component.
52. CHAMBER MARK - individual microscopic marks placed upon a cartridge case by the chamber wall
as a result of any or all of the following 1. chambering 2. expansion during firing 3. extraction.
53. CHAMBER - is that portion of the barrel or firing cylinder in which the cartridge is inserted prior to
being fired.
54. Choke - (shotgun) the constriction of the barrel of a shotgun to reduce the spread of shot as it leaves
the gun to increase its effective range.
55. Class Characteristics – these were set even before the manufacture of FAs. These are factory
specifications.
56. CLAY PIGEON SHOOTING - (clay target shooting) formally known as inanimate bird shooting is
the art of shooting at special flying targets known as clay pigeons or clay targets with a shotgun or
any type of firearm.
57. CLIP - a separate cartridge container used to rapidly reload the magazine of a firearm. Also called
stripper.
58. Concentric fractures - patterns of cracks in glass pierced by a missile like a bullet which runs
between the radial fractures and which originate on the side of the glass from which the impact came.
59. Copper-clad steel - a composite structure of copper and steel used for the manufacture of certain
bullet jackets.Metallic element with the chemical symbol Cu and atomic number 29 that commonly
comprises "cartridge brass" that is typically 70% copper and 30% zinc (Zn)
60. Crimp – is used secure the bullet in the shell to avoid being moved or loosened from its gripped.

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61. CYLINDER - rotating chambered breech of a revolver. Damascus barrel - an obsolete barrel-making
process. The barrel is formed by twisting or braiding together steel and iron wires or bars. The
resulting cable is then wound around a mandrel and forged into a barrel tube. This type of barrel is
also called a laminated barrel.
62. Decant - the process of pouring off the supernatant during separation from a pellet after a mixture has
been centrifuged or left to settle.
63. Derringer - the generic term applied to many variations of pocket size pistols either percussion or
cartridge made by manufacturers other that Henry Derringer up to present time.
64. Direct motion – the forward movement of projectile with the action of expansive force of gases.
65. Discharge - to cause a firearm to fire.
66. Disconnector - a device to prevent a semi-automatic firearm from firing full automatic.Some pump
action shotguns also have disconnectors.
67. DISTANCE DETERMINATION - the process of determining the distance from the firearm, usually
the muzzle, to the target based upon pattern of gunpowder or gunshot residues deposited upon that
target. Where multiple projectiles such as shot have been fired, the spread of those projectiles is also
indicative of distance.
68. Double action – a FA in which pressure upon the trigger automatically releases the hammer. This
cycle is done every time the trigger is depressed.
69. Drawback effect - the presence of blood in the barrel of a firearm that has been drawn awkward due
to the effect created by discharged gasses.This is seen frequently in close-range contact gunshot
injuries.
70. EJECTION - the act of expelling a cartridge or cartridge cases from a firearm.
71. Ejector - a portion of a firearms mechanism that ejects or expels cartridges or cartridge cases from a
firearm.
72. Extracting groove - the circular groove near the base of the shell designed for the automatic
withdrawal of the case after firing.
73. EXTRACTION MARK - tool mark produced upon a cartridge or cartridge case from
74. EXTRACTOR - a mechanism for withdrawing a cartridge or cartridge case from the chamber of a
firearm.
75. Firearm - an assembly of a barrel and action from which a projectile is propelled by products of
combustion.
76. FIREARM IDENTIFICATION - a discipline of forensic science that has as its primarily concern
determining whether a bullet, cartridge case or other ammunition component was fired by a particular
firearm.
77. Firing pin - that part of a firearm mechanism that strikes the primer of a cartridge to initiate ignition.
Sometimes called hammer nose or striker.
78. FIRING PIN DRAG MARKS - the tool mark produced when a projecting firing pin comes into
contact with a cartridge case or shot-shell during the extraction and ejection cycle.
79. FIRING PIN IMPRESSION - the indentation in the primer of a centerfire cartridge case or in the rim
of a rimfire cartridge case caused when it struck by the firing pin.
80. Flash hole - vent leading from the primer pocket to the body of the cartridge case.
81. FLASH SUPPRESSOR - also known as a flash guard, flash eliminator, flash hider, or flash cone, is a
device attached to the muzzle of a rifle or other gun that reduces the chances that the shooter will be
blinded in dark conditions.
82. Forensic Ballistics – is the science of firearms identification by means of the ammunition fired
through them.
83. Fouling - the residual deposits remaining in the bore of a firearm after firing.Fouling can change the
character of the identifiable striations imparted to the projectile from
84. FRAGMENT - a piece of solid metal resulting from an exploding or exploded bomb or a piece of
projectile from a firearm.
85. FRAME OR STOCK - The frame is the basic structure of the gun to which the other major parts are
attached. The stock is for rifles and shotguns. Handguns do not have a stock but rather what is called
a grip.
86. GAS CUTTING - an erosive effect in a firearm caused by the high velocity, high temperature
propellant gases.
87. GAUGE - the interior diameter of the barrel of a shotgun expressed by the number or spherical lead
bullets fitting it that are required to make a pound. Thus a 12 gauge in the diameter of a round lead
ball using 1/12 of a pound.

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88. GENERAL RIFLING CHARACTERISTICS - the number, width and direction of twist of the rifling
grooves in a barrel of a given caliber firearm.
89. GRANULES - the individual particles of propellant powder.
90. Griess test - a chemical test for the detection of nitrates. It is used by firearms examiners to develop
patterns of gunpowder residues (nitrates) around bullet holes.
91. GRIPS - a pair of pieces designed to fit the frame of a weapon providing a form fit gripping, usually
plastic or wood.
92. GROOVE DIAMETER - the major diameter in a barrel that is the diameter of a circle
circumscribed by the bottom of the grooves in a rifled barrel.
93. GROOVES - spiral cuts along the bore of a firearm that cause a projectile to spin as it travels
through the barrel providing stability in flight.
94. GUN COTTON (NITROCELLULOSE) - the principal ingredient of a single base and double base
gunpowder’s. Also known as cellulose hexanitrate.
95. Gunpowder - any various powder used in firearms as a propellant charge. An explosive consisting of
a powdered mixture of saltpeter, sulfur, and charcoal
96. GUNPOWDER PATTERNS - the spatial distribution of gunpowder residues deposited upon a
surface.
97. GUNPOWDER RESIDUE - unburned gunpowder, partially burned gunpowder, and smoke from
completely burned gunpowder. Gunpowder residues are the largest part  of gunshot residues.
98. GYROSCOPIC STABILITY - the ability of a fired bullet to remain stable in flight due to its spin.
99. HALF-COCK - the position of the hammer of a firearm when about half retracted and held by the
sear so that it cannot be operated by a normal pull of the trigger.
100. HAMMER - a component part of the firing mechanism that gives impulse to the firing pin or
primer.
101. HANDGUARD - a wooden, plastic, or metal type of forend/forearm that generally encircles the
forward portion of the barrel to protect the hands from heat when firing.
102. HANDGUN - a firearm designed to be held and fired with one hand.
103. HEAD, (CARTRIDGE CASE HEAD) - the base of the cartridge case that contains the primer.
104. Headspace - the distance from the face of the closed breech of a firearm to the surface in the
chamber on which the cartridge case bears.
105. HEADSTAMP - numeral, letters, and symbols or combinations thereof stamped into the head of
a cartridge case or shot-shell to identify the manufacturer, caliber, gauge, or give additional
information.
106. HEEL - the part of a rifle or shotgun stock at the top of the butt end.
       - The rear portion of the bullet or its base.
107. Hinge frame - any of a large array of pistols,revolvers,shotguns,and rifles whose frames are
hinge to facilitate loading and ejection.Generally the barrel pivots downward.
108. Holster stock - a holster,usually made of wood that attaches to the rear of the pistol grip of
certain handguns and serves as a shoulder stock.
109. Imperfection – caused by the drill blade and is beyond the control of a man.
110. Individual Characteristics – are determined after the manufacture of FA.
111. Irregularities – created during manufacture such as spiral cutting of the grooves.
112. Jacketed Bullets – made of lead core covered with jacket of harder material, such as gilding
metal, copper alloy approximately 90% and zinc 10%.
113. Land - the raised portion between the grooves in a rifled bore.
114. LAND AND GROOVE IMPRESSIONS (RIGHT AND LEFT TURN) - the negative impressions
on the surface of a bullet caused by the rifling in the barrel from which it was fired.
115. LEAD - element with the chemical symbol (Pb) and atomic number 82. Used in the fabrication of
bullet and shot for its formability and lubrication properties.
116. LEVER ACTION - is a type of firearm action which uses a lever located around the trigger guard
area (often including the trigger guard itself) to load fresh cartridges into the chamber of the barrel
when the lever is worked.
117. MACHINE GUN - Bipod or tripod mounted or handheld automatic weapon whose ammunition is
fed from a magazine or a belt.
118. Magazine - is an ammunition storage and feeding device within or attached to a repeating
firearm.
119. MAGAZINE CLIP - a container for cartridges that has a spring and follower to feed the
cartridges into the chamber of a firearm.

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120. Metal fowl – refers to the metal strips left by bullet inside. These could be removed with the use
of steel brush.
121. MISFIRE - failure of the primer mixture to ignite.
122. Motion - movement of projectile inside and outside barrel.
123. MUSHROOM - used to describe the expansion of a projectile upon impacting a target.
124. MUSKET - is a muzzle-loading, smooth-bore long gun fired from the shoulder.
125. Muzzle imprint – appears with smudges of gunpowder with cherry-red discoloration.
126. MUZZLE - is the end of the barrel from which the projectile will exit
127. OBLITERATION/OBLITERATED - most often used to refer to serial numbers of firearms
that are no longer readable.
128. ORIENT - the aligning of two bullets that were fired from the same barrel on the comparison
microscope so that the land and groove impressions on those bullets which were produced by the
same lands and grooves in the barrel are opposite each other. Sometimes called phasing or indexing.
129. PATTERN - the distribution of a series of shots fired from one gun or a battery of guns under
conditions as nearly identical as possible to that which occurred at the crime scene.
130. PELLET - common name for the smooth, spherical projectiles loaded into shot-shells, also
referred to as shot. Also, a non-spherical projectile used in air guns.
131. Percussion cap - a small metal cap with a priming mix that is placed on the nipple of a
percussion lock.
132. Philadelphia derringer - is a small percussion handgun designed by Henry Derringer and a a
popular concealed carry handgun of the era.
133. PINFIRE - is an obsolete type of metallic cartridge in which the priming compound is ignited by
striking a small pin which protrudes radially from huts above the base of the cartridge.
134. PISTOL - (automatic, semi-automatic, single-shot) a small firearm having a stock that fits in the
hand and contains a short barrel. A firearm designed to be fired with one hand and with a chamber
that is integral to the barrel.
135. Primer cratering - the extrusion of the primer into the firing pin hole,this phenomenon can
produce identifiable marks.Also known as primer flowback.
136. PRIMER - the ignition component of the cartridge; any igniter that is used to initiate the burning
of a propellant.
137. Projectile- refers to the bullet/slug/ball/pellet/flechette that passes through the barrel of FA.
138. Proof mark - a stamp applied at or near the breech of a firearm after it has passed a proof test.
139. Propellant - the chemical composition which when ignited by a primer,generates gas.The gas
propels the projectile.Also called powder,gunpowder,powder,or smokeless.
140. Recoil is the rearward movement of the gun caused by equal and opposite reaction of the gun
against the forward movement of the bullet after the explosion.
141. Revolver – a handgun with rotating cyclinder. Kinds are Solid Frame (S.Colt), Swing-out (US),
and Breaktop (UK). As to firing mechanism, it could be single or double action.
142. Ricochet – the bouncing of a projectile after hitting a surface.
143. Rifle – designed to be fired from the shoulder
144. Rotary motion – the turning of bullet inside and outside barrel with the action of the rifling.
145. Scratches – caused by tools used in the manufacture of the chamber.
146. Shot Ballistics – focused with the study of shots/pellets from smoothbore firearms like shotguns
and muskets.
147. Shotguns - discharge single but usually multiple shots/pellets in single fire.
148. Single action – a FA that requires manually cocking the hammer before pressure upon the trigger
when firing
149. Small Arms – include FA with one inch or less bore diameter. Examples: Shoulder arms,
Handguns & Machine Guns.
150. Translational motion - the movement of projectile after hitting the target.

FORENSIC CHEMISTRY AND TOXICOLOGY

DEFINITION OF TERMS

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1. ABO Blood Grouping – First blood group system and the only blood Group system that can be
determined using serum.
2. Acetone - The simplest ketone. A solvent for gunpowder. A highly flammable, water-soluble solvent.
3. Acid phosphatase test - One of the most published and most widely employed techniques for semen
identification. This enzyme can be found in the male prostate gland and is sometimes abbreviated as
AP.
Acid phosphatase in human seminal fluid originates from the prostate gland (often referred to as
prostatic acid phosphatase ).
4. Agglutination - The clumping together of living cells as a result of a reaction between the cells and
an appropriate immune serum.
5. Albert Schneider- became the first to collect physical evidence with a vacuum.
6. Albumin - One of a group of heat-coagulable, water-soluble proteins occurring in egg-white, blood
serum, milk, and many animal and vegetable tissues.
7. ALCOHOL DEHYDROGENASE (ADH) - The main enzyme that catalyzes the conversion of
ethanol to acetaldehyde.
8. ALCOHOL - An organic compound having a hydroxyl (-OH) group attached. The lower molecular
weight alcohols, methanol (CH3OH), ethanol (C2H5OH), and propanol (C3H7OH), are water
soluble.
9. Algorithm - A set of well-defined rules for the solution of a problem in a finite number of steps.
10. Aliquot - A measured amount of liquid taken from the main portion.
11. ALKALI - A basic substance (pH greater than 7) that has the capacity to neutralize an acid and form
a salt.
12. ALKALINE PHOSPHATASE - A phosphatase active in alkaline media.
13. ALKALOID - One of a group of nitrogenous organic bases, especially one of vegetable origin,
having a powerful toxic effect on animals and man, such as nicotine, cocaine, strychnine, or
morphine.
14. ALKANES - An aliphatic hydrocarbon having the chemical formula C6H2n+2. Also known as
paraffin.
15. ALKYD RESIN - A class of adhesive resins made from unsaturated acids and glycerol; used as a
bonding agent in paint and lacquers.
16. Allometry - The growth of part of the body in relation to the growth of the whole.The adjective form
is allometric.
17. Alloy -A solid form of the liquid mixture of two or more metals, or of one or more met als with
certain nonmetallic elements, as in brass, bronze, or carbon steel.
18. AMINO ACID - The building blocks of proteins coded by triplets of bases in DNA blueprint. Any
one of a class of organic compounds containing the amino (NH2) group and the carboxyl (COOH)
group.
19. AMMONIA - A colorless gaseous alkaline compound that is very soluble in water, has a
characteristic pungent odor, is lighter than air, and is formed as a result of the decomposition of most
nitrogenous organic material, such as tissue from dead bodies.
20. Anagen Phase - Actively growing Materials deposited in hair shaft.
21. Atomic Absorption – Detect trace metals
22. Azlon - Any textile fiber derived from protein, such as casein.
23. Backspatter - Blood that is directed back toward its source of energy. Backspatter is often associated
with gunshot wounds of entrance.
24. Band - A radioactive signal on an autorad usually caused by a fragment of human or bacterial DNA
that combines with a radiolabeled DNA probe.
25. Band-shifting - The phenomenon where DNA fragments in one lane of an electrophoresis gel
migrate across the gel more rapidly than identical fragments in a second lane.
26. Base sequence - The order of bases in a DNA molecule, example ATCGGACT.
27. Baselining - Adjusting the baselines of detected dye colors to the same level for a better comparison
of relative signal intensity.
28. BASES - Chemical units (adenine, thymine, guanine, and cytosine) whose order in DNA molecules
governs the genetic code.
29. BENZENE - A hexagonal organic molecule having a carbon atom at each point of the hexagon, and a
hydrogen atom attached to each carbon atom. Molecules that contain a benzene ring, are known as
aromatic.

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30. BENZIDINE - A grayish-yellow, white or reddish gray crystalline powder. It is used in organic
synthesis and the manufacture of dyes, especially of Congo red. Also used for the detection of
bloodstains and as a stiffening agent in rubber compounding.
31. Binder - The actual film-former that binds the pigments particles to one
another and to the substrate.
32. BIOHAZARD BAG - A container for materials that have been exposed to blood or other biological
fluids, and have the potential to be contaminated with various diseases such as hepatitis, AIDS, or
other viruses. The bag is a heavy plastic red color with the biohazard symbol printed on the outside.
33. BIOLOGIC HAZARDS - Blood, urine, spinal fluid and all other body fluids present biologic safety
hazards because they may contain highly infectious and potentially lethal organisms or viruses.
34. BIOLOGICAL FLUIDS - Fluids that have human or animal origin, most commonly encountered at
crime scenes (e.g., blood, mucus, perspiration, saliva, semen, vaginal fluid, and urine).
35. BIOMECHANICS - The science that concerns itself with the structure and mechanical movements of
parts of the body, such as the foot.
36. BLOOD GROUP - an immunologically distinct, genetically determined class of human erythrocyte
antigens, identified as A, B, AB, and O. A classification of red blood cell surface antigens, ABO is
the best known of the blood group systems.
37. Blood type - A way of saying which blood group antigens are present on the person’s red cells.
38. BLOOD - a specialized body fluid that circulates in the arteries and veins of vertebrate animals,
carrying oxygen to and carbon dioxide from the tissues.
39. BLOODBORNE PATHOGEN - Infectious, disease-causing microorganism that may be found or
transported in biological fluids.
40. BOVINE ALBUMIN - Any one of a class of protein substances found in the blood of a bovine
animal. Also known as bovine albumin serum (BSA).
41. CAPILLARY (GAS CHROMATOGRAPHY) - A narrow-bore glass tube. Gas chromatography
employs glass tube capillary columns having an inside diameter of approximately 0.2 to 0.5 mL and a
length of 3 to 300 m. The walls of a capillary column are coated with an adsorbent or adsorbent
medium (a liquid phase in which the sample dissolves)
42. Carbon dioxide - a molecule consisting of one atom of carbon and two atoms of oxygen, which is a
major combustion product of the burning of organic materials. Carbon dioxide (CO2) is the result of
complete combustion of carbon
43. Carbon - The element upon which all organic molecules are based
44. Carboxyhemoglobin (HbCO) – Due an excessive inhalation of gas from defective stoves and from
automobiles and imparts cherry red color of blood.
45. Cast-off pattern - Blood that has been projected onto a surface from other than an impact site. This
pattern is produced when blood is thrown from a bloody object in motion.
46. Casual shoe - A shoe designed for easy, informal wear, normally having a leather upper and either a
leather or a soft synthetic shoe.
47. Catagen Phase - Transition period between the anagen and telogen phases.
48. Catalyst - A substance that increases the rate of chemical reaction without undergoing a permanent
change in its structure
49. Cathode - The electrode at which reduction takes place in an electrochemical cell.
50. CENTRIFUGE - rotating device for separating liquids of different specific gravities or for separating
suspended colloidal particles, such as clay particles in an aqueous suspension, according to particle-
size fractions by centrifugal force.
51. CHEMICAL CHANGE - Rearrangement of the atoms, ions, or radicals of one or more substances,
resulting in the formation of new substances, often having entirely different properties. Also known
as a chemical reaction
52. Chemical enhancement - The use of chemicals that react with specific types of evidence (e.g.,
blood, semen, lead, fingerprints) in order to aid in the detection or documentation of evidence that
may be difficult to see.
53. Chemical etching - A form of texturing a mold utilizing an acid bath that erodes selective portion of
the metal, leaving a resulting texture or pattern.
54. Chemical formula - The collection of atomic symbols and numbers that indicates the chemical
composition of a pure substance.
55. CHEMICAL HAZARDS Solid, liquid or gaseous chemicals may be hazardous if transported,
handled, stored or dispensed inappropriately. Chemicals may have toxic, flammable, or carcinogenic
properties.

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56. Chloroform -  An early use of chloroform was that of an anesthetic in some types of surgeries.
Chloroform undergoes considerable biotransformation in man, with the formation of carbon dioxide
and hydrochloric acid.
57. Chromatin - A darkly staining substance located in the nucleus of the cell that contains the genetic
material composed of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) attached to a protein structure.
58. CHROMATOGRAM - The complete array of distinctively colored bands produced by
chromatography. A series of peaks and valleys printed or written on a paper chart where each peak
represents a component or mixture of two or more unresolved components in a mixture separated by
gas or liquid chromatography.
59. Chromatography - Separation of the constituents of a solution or colloidal dispersion
60. Chromogen - Any organic coloring matter or substance capable of yielding a dye.
61. Chromosome - A nuclear structure in eukaryotes that carries a portion of the genome. The human
has 46 chromosomes per nucleus, 22 homologous pairs of autosomes, and 2 sex chromosomes.
62. Compound - A chemical combination of two or more elements, or two or more different atoms
arranged in the same proportions and in the same structure throughout the substance. A compound is
different from a mixture in that the components of a mixture are not chemically bonded together.
63. Confirmatory test - Second test by an alternative chemical method for unambiguous identification of
a drug or metabolite. In serology, a chemical reaction that confirms the presence of a blood stain as
human or nonhuman in origin.
64. Cordage (rope and string) can be made from many different fibers including (Bast) Dogbane,
Milkweed, Nettles, Hemp, Flax; (Leaves) Cattail, Yucca, Agave, Douglas Iris; (Bark) Willow, Maple,
Basswood, Cedar; (Root) Leather Root, Beach Lupine; (Whole stem) Tule, straw, Juncus.
65. Core - A fiber or fibers running lengthwise through the center of a cordage.
66. Corrosion The degradation of metals or alloys due to reaction with the environment.The corrosive
action on the metals or alloys is accelerated by acids, bases, or heat.
67. Corrosive - Having the ability to destroy the texture or substance of a tissue.
68. Cortex – This is the thickest layer of the hair shaft which can be either straight or crosswise.
69. Cyanide (CN) - A highly toxic chemical especially in the form of gas (hydrogen cyanide).
70. Cytochrome - P450 A detoxifying enzyme found in liver cells.
71. Cytosine (C) - One of the four nucleotide bases in DNA.
72. Degradation - The process of decomposition. When applied to protective clothing, a molecular
breakdown of material because of chemical contact; degradation is evidenced by visible signs such as
charring, shrinking, or dissolving.
73. DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID (DNA) - The molecule of heredity, a nucleic acid of complex
molecular structure forming a principal constituent of the genes; known to play an important role in
the genetic action of the chromosomes.DNA is composed of deoxyribonucleic building blocks, each
containing a base adenine (A), thymine (T), cytosine (C), or guanine (G); a deoxyribose sugar (S);
and a phosphate group (P).
74. Desiccate - To dry out thoroughly; to remove all moisture.
75. Diatoms - Microscopic organisms found in lake and river water that reveal by their presence whether
a victim found in these surroundings died by drowning, or were already dead upon entering the water.
76. DIETHYLAMINE - Water-soluble, colorless liquid with ammonia aroma, used in rubber chemicals
and pharmaceuticals, and as a solvent and flotation agent.
77. DIPHENYLAMINE - Chemical reagent used in solution with sulfuric acid and acetic acid in the
dermal nitrate test. Diphenylamine is also used in smokeless powder as a stabilizer to inhibit
decomposition.
78. DISTILLATION - A separation process in which a liquid is converted to a vapor and the vapor is
then condensed back to a liquid. The usual purpose of distillation is separation of the compounds of a
mixture. Steam distillation separates all water-insoluble liquids from solids and water-soluble
compounds in a mixture.
79. DNA PROFILE - A DNA profile consists of a set of DNA identification characteristics, i.e., the
particular chemical form at the various DNA locations (loci) that permit the DNA of one person to be
distinguishable from that of another person.
80. DNA typing" is a catch-all term for a wide range of methods for studying genetic variations.
81. Dr. Paul Kirk works on new ways to improve the use of hair in forensic investigation.
82. Drugs - are any substance that produces physiological or psychological change within a short period
of time after ingestion of a specified dose.
83. Ejaculate - The semen released by one ejaculation.
84. ELECTRICAL HAZARDS Electrical hazards are caused by inappropriate use or maintenance of
electrical instruments or equipment that can cause electrical shock, burns or a fire or explosion.

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85. Electron - A negatively charged subatomic particle that circles the nucleus of the atom in a cloud.
Most chemical reactions involve the making and breaking of bonds held together by the sharing
electrons.
86. Electrophoresis - Migration of particles to opposite electrode
87. ENZYME - A recycling protein molecule that catalyzes a specific chemical reaction.Any of a group
of catalytic proteins that are produced by living cells and that mediate and promote the chemical
processes of life without themselves being altered or destroyed.
88. Eukaryote - A multicellular organism having true membrane-bound nuclei containing chromosomes
that undergo mitosis.
89. FIBERS - A common class of microscopic evidence. They are classified as animal, vegetable,
mineral, or natural, manufactured, or synthetic. Some types of ropes are composed of numerous of
fibers woven together to form the rope.
90. FIRE HAZARDS Fire or thermal hazards may result from the improper use, storage of either
cryogenic substances or substances capable of combustion.
91. Fluorescence microscope - A variation of the compound laboratory light microscope that is arranged
to admit ultraviolet, violet, and sometimes blue radiations to a specimen that then fluoresces.
92. FORENSIC CHEMISTRY - is the application of chemistry to criminal investigation. Focuses on the
chemical analysis of substances connected to a crime.
93. Forensic drug analysis - deals with the identification and quantification of illegal drugs. Forensic
drug tests are generally carried out in two steps: screening and confirmation.
94. Forensic Entomology – Study of different insects
95. FORENSIC SCIENCE - is the use of science and technology to enforce civil and criminal laws.
96. forensic toxicologist - is interested largely with exposure and evaluation of poisons in tissues and
body fluid acquired at autopsy or a living person in blood, urine or gastric material.
97. Forensic toxicology - is an examination of all areas of toxicity to aid medico-legal enquiries.
Toxicology is the study of poisons.
98. Forward spatter - Blood that travels in the same direction as the source of energy or force causing
the spatter. Forward spatter is often associated with gunshot wound of exit.
99. Fraction - One of the portions of a volatile liquid within certain boiling point ranges, such as
petroleum naphtha fractions or gas–oil fractions.
100. Fragment - (DNA analysis) A piece of DNA cut by a restriction enzyme, also known as a band
on an autorad.
101. GAS CHROMATOGRAPHY (GC) - A separation technique involving passage of a gas,as the
mobile phase, moving through a column containing a fixed absorbent material; it is used principally
as a quantitative analytical technique for volatile compounds or simple gases.
102. Gas - A physical state of matter that has low density and viscosity, can expand and contract
greatly in response to changes in temperature and pressure,and readily and uniformly distributes itself
throughout any container.
103. GC/MS (GAS CHROMATOGRAPH/MASS SPECTROMETER) - A quantitative and qualitative
method for the separation and identification of organic materials in complex mixtures or solutions.
This method has applications in the examinations of drugs, explosive residues, paints, plastics and
inks and can be used to analyze material to determine if a substance contains gunpowder.
104. Gene The fundamental physical and functional unit of heredity that carries information from one
generation to the next; a segment of DNA composed of a transcribed region and a regulatory
sequence that makes transcription possible.
105. Glass is an important physical evidence because it breaks and pieces are scattered at the crime
scene and on a suspect.
106. Gunpowder: A black powder composed on 75% potassium nitrate, 15% sulfur and 10%
charcoal.
107. HAIR - (1) An appendage of the skin that grows out of an organ known as the hair follicle. (2) A
thread-like outgrowth of the epidermis of animals,especially a keratinized structure in mammalian
skin.
108. Han Gross - published the first description of the uses of physical evidence to help solve crimes.
109. Hard Fibers - Obtained from the structural system of the leaf of monocotyledon plants.
110. Hugo Marx wrote a paper on the use of hair in forensic investigations to determine identity.
111. IMMISCIBLE - Describes substances of the same phase or state of matter (usually liquid) that
cannot be uniformly mixed or blended.
112. Inclusion - A crime suspect’s DNA identity profile matching that of a crime evidence sample, or
a putative father’s DNA identity profile matching offspring paternally derived alleles.

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113. Indirect or Reverse Blood Typing - Blood type of the serum is the opposite of the antigen
where agglutination occurs.
114. INFRARED SPECTROMETER - Device used to identify and measure the concentration of
heteroatomic compounds in gases, in many nonaqueous liquids, and in some solids.
115. INFRARED SPECTROPHOTOMETRY (IR) - An analytical technique that utilizes an
instrument that passes infrared radiation through a sample, or that bounces infrared radiation off the
surface of a sample.A very sensitive heat detecting device measures the amount of infrared radiation
absorbed as the wavelength of the radiation reaching the detector is changed. 
116. INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - The study of chemical reactions and properties of all the elements
and their compounds, with the exception of hydrocarbons, and usually including carbides, oxides of
carbon, metallic carbonates, carbon–sulfur compounds, and carbon–nitrogen compounds.
117. Invisible Rays – Use of UV, IR and X-Ray
118. Lase Technique – An innovation of spectrographs
119. Locard becomes known for the exchange principle – the fact that “every contact leaves a trace.”
120. Mass Spectrometry – Analysis of sample in the Molecular weight
121. MECHANICAL HAZARDS Mechanical hazards may result from improper use, storage or
disposal of glassware, sharp instruments, compressed gases or equipment.
122. Medulla – The central canal that contains the pigmented cells and absent in fuzz hair. • The
medulla may be: Continuous, Fragmented or interrupted.
123. Methemoglobin (HbM) – Found in NO3 and NO2 poisoning with a chocolate brown color
124. Microscopy - Magnify and resolve fine details
125. Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) – passed only from mother to offspring.
126. Morphine - is the primary active drug in opium that came from the dried sap of the opium poppy
plant.
127. Moulage is a representation of an impression made on a soil surface. A cast in Plaster of Paris or
other similar material of an object or its impressed outlines on a surface.
128. Nuclear DNA (nDNA) – Comes from both patients and lead to individualization
129. Opium - can be smoked directly or chemically processed to isolate pure morphine.
130. Oxyhemoglobin (HbO2) – Hemoglobin combined with oxygen and which gives the color to the
arterial blood.
131. Paraffin test or Lunges Diphenylalanine test - The test is conducted by applying melted
paraffin wax to the back of a suspect's hands.
132. PARAFFIN - A translucent, waxy, solid mixture of hydrocarbons, indifferent to most chemical
reagents; it is a constituent of peat, soft coal, and shale but is derived principally from the distillation
of petroleum. Can come in rolls that are 2 or 4 in. wide and used to cover the top of glass test tubes or
small plastic tubes.
133. PHENOLPHTHALEIN - Pale yellow powder; forms an almost colorless solution in neutral or
acid solution in presence of alkali, but colorless in the presence of a large amount of alkali. Used in
dyes, acid-base indicator, and in medicine as a laxative.
134. Phlebotomy - is the practice of using a needle to withdraw a sample of blood from a designated
vein.
135. Plasma – Straw liquid portion of unclotted blood.
136. Poison - is any substance which produces deleterious effects of the living tissues and once
introduced into the blood stream even in a small dose, is likely to cause injurious effect to health and
even cause death.
137. Rudolph Virchow became the first person to do an in-depth study of hair.
138. SEMEN - the male reproductive fluid containing spermatozoa in suspension.
139. Serum – Straw-yellowish liquid that separates when blood is allowed to clot,
140. Shabu - is an amphetamine derivative (trade name Methedrine) used in the form of a crystalline
hydrochloride; used as a stimulant to the nervous system and as an appetite suppressant.
141. Shaft – Present above the surface of the root and the most distinct part
142. Smokeless Powder: Can be single based made up of Nitrocellulose or Double base made up of
Mitrpcellulose and Nitroglycerine.
143. Soft Fibers - - obtained from the last layer of the plant stem of dicotyledon plants
144. spectrograph – Elemental Analysis
145. SPECTROMETER - Photometric device for the measurement of spectral transmittance, spectral
reflectance, or relative spectral emittance. An instrument used to measure the intensity of a specific
wavelength of light entering and leaving a solution.

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146. Spectrophotometry – measures concentration of various elements or compounds
147. Sulfhemoglobin (HbS) – Found in the presence of bacteria, severe constipation, enterogenous
cyanosis and the blood color is lavender.
148. Telogen Phase - Follicle is dormant or resting Hairs are routinely lost primary source of
evidentiary material.
149. Thin Layer Chromatography - use solid phase support medium and liquid mobile phase
separation system.
150. Toxicology - is branch of science which treats poisons, their origin, physical and chemical
properties, physiological action, treatment of their noxious effect, and their methods of detection.

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