Lectures 1 2

Chapter-2: Analytic Functions
Prof. Jajati Keshari Sahoo
Department of Mathematics
BITS Pilani K.K. Birla Goa Campus
May 16, 2023
J. K. Sahoo (BITS Goa) Complex Variables and Applications Analytic functions 1 / 35

Outline
1 Preliminaries
2 Complex functions
3 Limits and Continuity

Outline
1 Preliminaries
2 Complex functions

Definition
A complex number is a pair (x , y ) of real numbers x , y .
Observe the complex number z = (x , y ), where the real number x is called

the “real part” of the complex number written as x = Re z, and the real
number y is called the “imaginary part” of the complex number z written
in symbols as y = Im z.

Definition
A complex number is a pair (x , y ) of real numbers x , y .
Observe the complex number z = (x , y ), where the real number x is called

the “real part” of the complex number written as x = Re z, and the real
number y is called the “imaginary part” of the complex number z written
in symbols as y = Im z.
The complex numbers z1 = (x1 , y1 ), z2 = (x2 , y2 ) are “added” and

“multiplied” as follows:
z1 + z2 = (x1 , y2 ) + (x2 , y2 ) = (x1 + x2 , y1 + y2 )
z1 z2 = (x1 , y1 )(x2 , y2 ) = (x1 x2 − y1 y2 , x1 y2 + x2 y1 )

Notations
Let us identify the complex number (x , 0) with the real number x ,

Notations
Let us identify the complex number (x , 0) with the real number x , Observe
that from the definition it is clear:

Notations
(x , 0) + (0, y ) = (x , y )
it is also clear that

(0, 1)(y , 0) = (0, y )

Notations
(x , 0) + (0, y ) = (x , y )

(0, 1)(y , 0) = (0, y )
So we can write a complex number (x , y ) as a sum (x , 0) + (0, 1)(y , 0)

Notations
(x , 0) + (0, y ) = (x , y )

(0, 1)(y , 0) = (0, y )

identifying (x , 0) and (y , 0) with the real numbers x , y respectively we see
that:

Notations
(x , 0) + (0, y ) = (x , y )

(0, 1)(y , 0) = (0, y )

that: (x , y ) = x + (0, 1)y .

Notations
(x , 0) + (0, y ) = (x , y )

(0, 1)(y , 0) = (0, y )

that: (x , y ) = x + (0, 1)y .
Note that (0, 1)(0, 1) = (−1, 0) = −1, so denoting (0, 1) by the symbol i,
we can write a complex number (x , y ) = x + iy , where i 2 = −1.

Observations:
Let C = { Set of complex number}.

Note that every complex number is generated by (1, 0) and (0, 1)
since (x , y ) = x (1, 0) + y (0, 1). Hence C is a vector space with
dimension 2 and B = {(1, 0) = 1, (0, 1) = i} is the standard basis for
C.

Observations:

C.
If we define a map T : C → R2 by T (x + iy ) = (x , y ), then we can
easily show T is a bijective map and hence C ∼
= R2 .

Observations:

C.
If we define a map T : C → R2 by T (x + iy ) = (x , y ), then we can
easily show T is a bijective map and hence C ∼
= R2 .
We can relate some properties of R2 to C such as continuity,
differentiability etc.

Argand plane/ Complex Plane/z− Plane
The complex number x + iy may be visualized as a point in a plane with

coordinated (x , y ),


coordinated (x , y ), this plane is thought to be the plane where the
complex numbers reside, as a result it is called “the complex plane”.


coordinated (x , y ), this plane is thought to be the plane where the
complex numbers reside, as a result it is called “the complex plane”.
Sometime this plane is also called “the Argand plane” after the
mathematician Argand who popularized this visualization method.
Absolute value
The distance from the origin to the point (x , y ) is called the absolute value
of the complex number z = x + iy . Which is denoted by |z| and defined by
q
|z| = x2 + y2

Algebraic Properties
1 |z|n = |z n |.
2 Triangle inequality: |z1 + z2 | ≤ |z1 | + |z2 |.
3 |z1 + z2 | ≥ ||z1 | − |z2 ||.
4 Conjugate: For a complex number z = a + ib, the complex number
a − ib is called the conjugate of z and it is denoted by z.
5 Using the conjugate one can write |z|2 = zz.
6 |z| = |z|.
7 Observe that z ̸= 0 if and only if |z| =
̸ 0.
8 The conjugate satisfies z1 z2 = z1 z2 .

z1 z1
9 For z2 ̸= 0 we have z2 = z2 .
10 Parallelogram Law: |z1 + z2 |2 + |z1 − z2 |2 = 2(|z1 |2 + |z2 |2 ).

Polar form
A complex number z = (x + iy ) on the complex plane has a polar

coordinate description (r , θ) where r = |z|and θ, called the argument of
−1 y
the complex number z or arg(z), is tan x .
The argument of a complex number is decided up to an integer multiple of

2π. The value of the argument in the interval (−π, π] is called the
principal value of the argument. So we can write a complex number
z = |z| cos(arg (z)) + i|z| sin(arg (z))

Polar form
A complex number z = (x + iy ) on the complex plane has a polar

coordinate description (r , θ) where r = |z|and θ, called the argument of
−1 y
the complex number z or arg(z), is tan x .
The argument of a complex number is decided up to an integer multiple of

2π. The value of the argument in the interval (−π, π] is called the
principal value of the argument. So we can write a complex number
z = |z| cos(arg (z)) + i|z| sin(arg (z))
arg(z) = Arg(z) + 2nπ, n ∈ Z.
arg(z1 z2 ) = arg(z1 ) + arg(z2 ).

z1
arg z2 = arg(z1 ) − arg(z2 ).

De Moivre’s identity
Euler’s formula
The expression e iθ = cos θ + i sin θ is called Euler’s formula.
From the previous slides we can write a complex number z as

z = |z|e iθ where θ = argz.
Applications:
Roots: The distinct nth roots of z0 are obtained by the following
formula
√ θ0
+ 2πk

ck = n
r0 e i n n , k = 0, 1, 2, . . . , n − 1, r0 = |z0 |, θ0 = Arg(z0 ).
Example
1
Find all the values of (1 − i) 3 .

Quetions
1 How to define a real power of a complex number? say iπ ?

Quetions
2 How to define a complex power of a complex number? say ii ?

Quetions
2 How to define a complex power of a complex number? say ii ?
3 Is it possible to get a real number from a complex power of a complex

number?
4 We can answer these problems in Chapter 3.

Neighborhoods
1 Given z0 a complex number and ϵ a real positive number, we have a ϵ

neighborhood of z0 defined as the set {z ∈ C : |z − z0 | < ϵ}

Neighborhoods
1 Given z0 a complex number and ϵ a real positive number, we have a ϵ

neighborhood of z0 defined as the set {z ∈ C : |z − z0 | < ϵ}
2 A deleted neighborhood of z0 is the set of points

{z ∈ C : 0 < |z − z0 | < ϵ}.

1 A point z is called an interior point of a set S ⊂ C if there is an ϵ
neighborhood of z for some ϵ which is completely contained in S.
Im(z)
Re(z)

1 A point z is called an interior point of a set S ⊂ C if there is an ϵ
neighborhood of z for some ϵ which is completely contained in S.
Im(z)
Re(z)
2 It is called an exterior point if there is a neighborhood which is
completely not contained in S. Or completely contained in the
complement of the set S.

1 It is called a boundary point if it is neither an interior point nor an
exterior point of the set S.
Im(z)
Re(z)
2 The set of boundary points is called the boundary of the set.

1 A set is called open if it contains none of it’s boundary points or every
point is an interior point.

1 A set is called open if it contains none of it’s boundary points or every
point is an interior point.
2 A set is closed if it contains all it’s boundary points.

Im(z)
Re(z)

1 A set is called connected if given any two points in the set there is a
polygonal line connecting the two points.

1 A set is called connected if given any two points in the set there is a
polygonal line connecting the two points.
2 A nonempty open connected set in the complex plane is called a

domain.

1 A domain with some ( none or all ) of it’s boundary points is called a
region.

region.
2 A region is called bounded if it is contained in a circle of radius R for

some R.
H = {z ∈ C : Re(z) > 0} is an example of an unbounded region.

region.
2 A region is called bounded if it is contained in a circle of radius R for

some R.
H = {z ∈ C : Re(z) > 0} is an example of an unbounded region.
3 A point z is called an accumulation point ( or a limit point) of S if

every deleted neighborhood of the point contains a point of the set S.
1

:n∈N
n

Outline
1 Preliminaries
2 Complex functions

Complex functions
A function defined on a subset of the set of complex numbers is

called a complex function.
Mathematically: Let S ⊆ C, a mapping f : S → C is is called a
function if it is well defined and denoted by w = f (z).

Complex functions

The set S is called the domain (you should not confuse with earlier
definition of domain) of the function. Sometime if the domain is not
mentioned then the largest possible set where f is well defined is
taken to be the domain.

Complex functions

The set S is called the domain (you should not confuse with earlier
definition of domain) of the function. Sometime if the domain is not
mentioned then the largest possible set where f is well defined is
taken to be the domain.
Example

1 z
f (z) = Arg z , f (z) = z+z .

Complex functions
We visualise the function in w − plane and represent the function as

f (z) = u(x , y ) + iv (x , y ), where u and v are respectively called real
and imaginary part of f .

Complex functions

Polar form: Replace z as re iθ or x = r cos θ and y = r sin θ. So
w := f (r , θ) = u(r , θ) + iv (r , θ).

Complex functions

Polar form: Replace z as re iθ or x = r cos θ and y = r sin θ. So
w := f (r , θ) = u(r , θ) + iv (r , θ).
Example: Let f (z) = z + z1 . We can easily find u(x , y ) = x + x
x 2 +y 2
and
y
v (x , y ) = y − x 2 +y 2 . Also its polar form is
1 1

f (r , θ) = r + cos θ + i r − sin θ.
r r

Outline
1 Preliminaries
2 Complex functions

Limit
Definition
Let the function f be defined on a deleted neighborhood of a point z0 then
we say
lim f (z) = w0
z→zo
, if for each positive real number ϵ there is a positive real number δ such
that |f (z) − w0 | < ϵ whenever |z − z0 | < δ

Limit
Definition
Let the function f be defined on a deleted neighborhood of a point z0 then
we say
lim f (z) = w0
z→zo
, if for each positive real number ϵ there is a positive real number δ such
that |f (z) − w0 | < ϵ whenever |z − z0 | < δ
As we “move” closer to the point z0 the value of the function moves closer
to the value wo . Note that a limit may or may not exist. But if it exists
then one can show as in the next theorem that it is unique.

Examples
Let f (z) = z + iz. Show that lim f (z) = 1 + i.

z→1
Solution:

Examples

z→1
Solution:
|f (z) − (1 + i)| = |z + iz − 1 − i|
= |z − 1 + i(z − 1)|

Examples

z→1
Solution:
|f (z) − (1 + i)| = |z + iz − 1 − i|
= |z − 1 + i(z − 1)|
≤ |z − 1| + |z − 1| using triangle inequality and |i| = 1

Examples

z→1
Solution:
|f (z) − (1 + i)| = |z + iz − 1 − i|
= |z − 1 + i(z − 1)|
= 2|z − 1| since |z − 1| = |z − 1|
< 2δ

Examples

z→1
Solution:
|f (z) − (1 + i)| = |z + iz − 1 − i|
= |z − 1 + i(z − 1)|
= 2|z − 1| since |z − 1| = |z − 1|
< 2δ
Therefore
|f (z) − (1 + i)| < ϵ if we chose δ ≤ 2ϵ .
Hence lim f (z) = 1 + i.
z→1

Examples
z→i
Solution:

Examples
z→i
Solution:
|f (z) − (1 + i)| = |z + iz − 1 − i|
= |z − i + iz − 1|

Examples
z→i
Solution:
|f (z) − (1 + i)| = |z + iz − 1 − i|
= |z − i + iz − 1|
= |z − i + i(z + i)|
= |z − i + i(z − i)|

Examples
z→i
Solution:
|f (z) − (1 + i)| = |z + iz − 1 − i|
= |z − i + iz − 1|
= |z − i + i(z + i)|
= |z − i + i(z − i)|
≤ |z − i| + |z − i| using triangle inequality and |z| = |z|
= 2|z − i| < 2δ

Examples
z→i
Solution:
|f (z) − (1 + i)| = |z + iz − 1 − i|
= |z − i + iz − 1|
= |z − i + i(z + i)|
= |z − i + i(z − i)|
≤ |z − i| + |z − i| using triangle inequality and |z| = |z|
= 2|z − i| < 2δ
Therefore
|f (z) − (1 + i)| < ϵ if we chose δ ≤ 2ϵ .
Hence lim f (z) = 1 + i.
z→i

Examples
Example
z
Let f (z) = Re(z) . What about lim f (z) ?
z→0

Uniqueness
Theorem 1
If a limit lim f (z) exists then it is unique.
z→z0

Uniqueness
Theorem 1
z→z0
To prove the assertion, let us assume there are two limits, say w1 , w2 are
two limits.

Uniqueness
Theorem 1
z→z0
two limits. So for each positive ϵ there are δ1 , δ1 positive

Uniqueness
Theorem 1
z→z0
two limits. So for each positive ϵ there are δ1 , δ1 positive such that
|f (z) − w1 | < ϵ whenever |z − z0 | < δ1 and |f (z) − w2 | < ϵ whenever
|z − z0 | < δ2 .

Uniqueness
Theorem 1
z→z0
|z − z0 | < δ2 . So whenever we have |z − z0 | < δ = min{δ1 , δ1 }

Uniqueness
Theorem 1
z→z0
|z − z0 | < δ2 . So whenever we have |z − z0 | < δ = min{δ1 , δ1 } we have
|w1 − w2 | = |(f (z) − w2 ) − (f (z) − w1 )| ≤ |f (z) − w1 | + |f (z) − w2 |
< 2ϵ

Uniqueness
Theorem 1
z→z0
|w1 − w2 | = |(f (z) − w2 ) − (f (z) − w1 )| ≤ |f (z) − w1 | + |f (z) − w2 |
< 2ϵ
Note that the above inequality is available to us for arbitrary positive real
number ϵ.

Uniqueness
Theorem 1
z→z0
|w1 − w2 | = |(f (z) − w2 ) − (f (z) − w1 )| ≤ |f (z) − w1 | + |f (z) − w2 |
< 2ϵ
Note that the above inequality is available to us for arbitrary positive real
number ϵ.
We choose an ϵ smaller than |w1 − w2 |/2 we arrive at a contradiction
|w1 − w2 | < |w1 − w2 |.

Examples
Example
z 2 −z 2
Let f (z) = z . Find lim f (z).
z→0

Examples
Example
z 2 −z 2
Let f (z) = z . Find lim f (z).
z→0
Example
1−z
Let f (z) = 1−z . Find lim f (z) if exists ?
z→1
Solution:
x (1,0)

Examples
Solution:
Along horizontal line y = 0, the limit is:

1−z 1−x
lim = lim = 1.
z→1 1 − z x →1 1 − x

Examples
Solution:

1−z 1−x
lim = lim = 1.
z→1 1 − z x →1 1 − x
Along vertical line x = 1, the limit is:

1−z 1 − (1 − iy ) −iy
lim = lim = lim = −1.
z→1 1 − z y →0 1 − (1 + iy ) y →0 iy

Examples
Solution:

1−z 1−x
lim = lim = 1.
z→1 1 − z x →1 1 − x

1−z 1 − (1 − iy ) −iy
z→1 1 − z y →0 1 − (1 + iy ) y →0 iy
Therefore, the limit does not exist.

Examples
Solution:

1−z 1−x
lim = lim = 1.
z→1 1 − z x →1 1 − x

1−z 1 − (1 − iy ) −iy
z→1 1 − z y →0 1 − (1 + iy ) y →0 iy

z
Example: Show that lim does not exist.
z→0 z

Examples
Solution:

1−z 1−x
lim = lim = 1.
z→1 1 − z x →1 1 − x

1−z 1 − (1 − iy ) −iy
z→1 1 − z y →0 1 − (1 + iy ) y →0 iy

z
Example: Show that lim does not exist.
z→0 z
Example: Show that lim z = 0.

z→0

Theorem
Let f (z) = u(x , y ) + iv (x , y ) where z = x + iy . Also let z0 = x0 + iy0 and
w0 = u0 + iv0 then
lim f (z) = w0
z→z0
if and only if
lim u(x , y ) = u0
(x ,y )→(x0 ,y0 )
and
lim v (x , y ) = v0
(x ,y )→(x0 ,y0 )
Note:

Theorem
Let f (z) = u(x , y ) + iv (x , y ) where z = x + iy . Also let z0 = x0 + iy0 and
w0 = u0 + iv0 then
lim f (z) = w0
z→z0
if and only if
lim u(x , y ) = u0
(x ,y )→(x0 ,y0 )
and
lim v (x , y ) = v0
(x ,y )→(x0 ,y0 )
Note:
This theorem will help disproving existence of limits.

Examples
Example
z
Find lim if exists.
z→0 z

Examples
Example
z
Find lim if exists.
z→0 z
Solution:
x 2 −y 2
Since f (z) = z
z = x 2 +y 2
+ i x 22xy
+y 2
.

Examples
Example
z
Find lim if exists.
z→0 z
Solution:
x 2 −y 2
Since f (z) = z
z = x 2 +y 2
+ i x 22xy
+y 2
.
So the non existence of the limit lim v (x , y ) implies the non

(x ,y )→(0,0)
z
existence of lim .
z→0 z

Basic Properties
Theorem
Let us assume
lim f (z) = w0
z→z0
lim g(z) = p0
z→z0

Basic Properties
Theorem
Let us assume
lim f (z) = w0
z→z0
lim g(z) = p0
z→z0
Then:
1 lim (f (z) + g(z)) = w0 + p0
z→z0

Basic Properties
Theorem
Let us assume
lim f (z) = w0
z→z0
lim g(z) = p0
z→z0
Then:
1 lim (f (z) + g(z)) = w0 + p0
z→z0
2 lim f (z)g(z) = w0 p0
z→z0

Basic Properties
Theorem
Let us assume
lim f (z) = w0
z→z0
lim g(z) = p0
z→z0
Then:
1 lim (f (z) + g(z)) = w0 + p0
z→z0
2 lim f (z)g(z) = w0 p0
z→z0
f (z) w0
3 If p0 ̸= 0 then lim =
z→z0 g(z) p0
The proof is follows from definition and properties of limits.

Limit at ∞ and Infinite Limit
Extended Complex Plane: C∞ = C ∪ {∞}.

Note: There is no −∞ in complex place. One single point
compactification.
Theorem
1
1 lim f (z) = ∞ if and only if lim =0
z→z0 z→z0 f (z)


compactification.
Theorem
1
z→z0 z→z0 f (z)
1

2 lim f (z) = w0 if and only if lim f = w0 .
z→∞ z→0 z


compactification.
Theorem
1
z→z0 z→z0 f (z)
1

2 lim f (z) = w0 if and only if lim f = w0 .
z→∞ z→0 z
1
3 lim f (z) = ∞ if and only if =0
z→∞ lim f (1/z)
z→0

Examples
Example
1
Show that lim = ∞.
z→1 (z − 1)3
Solution:

Examples
Example
1
z→1 (z − 1)3
Solution:
1
lim = lim (z − 1)3
z→1 f (z) z→1
= 0.
1
So by part (1), of the above theorem, we get lim = ∞.
z→1 (z − 1)3

Examples
Example
4z 2
Show that lim = 4.
z→∞ (z − 1)2
Solution:

Examples
Example
4z 2
Show that lim = 4.
z→∞ (z − 1)2
Solution:
 
4
1

z2
lim f = lim 
 
2 
z→0 z z→0 1
−1
z

Examples
Example
4z 2
Show that lim = 4.
z→∞ (z − 1)2
Solution:
 
4
1

z2
lim f = lim 
 
2 
z→0 z z→0 1
−1
z
lim 4
z→0
= 2
lim (z − 2z + 1)
z→0
4
= = 4.
1

Examples
Example
4z 2
Show that lim = 4.
z→∞ (z − 1)2
Solution:
 
4
1

z2
lim f = lim 
 
2 
z→0 z z→0 1
−1
z
lim 4
z→0
= 2
lim (z − 2z + 1)
z→0
4
= = 4.
1
4z 2
So by part (2), of the above theorem, we get lim = 4.
z→∞ (z − 1)2
Examples
Example
z2 + 1
z→∞ z − 1
Solution:

Examples
Example
z2 + 1
z→∞ z − 1
Solution:
1 1/z − 1
lim = lim
z→0 f (1/z) z→0 (1/z)2 + 1

Examples
Example
z2 + 1
z→∞ z − 1
Solution:
1 1/z − 1
lim = lim
z→0 f (1/z) z→0 (1/z)2 + 1
1−z

= lim z
z→0 1 + z2
= 0 × 1 = 0.
z2 + 1
So by part (3), of the above theorem, we get lim = ∞.
z→∞ z 2 − 1

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Chapter-2: Analytic Functions

Prof. Jajati Keshari Sahoo

May 16, 2023

J. K. Sahoo (BITS Goa) Complex Variables and Applications Analytic functions 1 / 35

3 Limits and Continuity

J. K. Sahoo (BITS Goa) Complex Variables and Applications Analytic functions 2 / 35

3 Limits and Continuity

J. K. Sahoo (BITS Goa) Complex Variables and Applications Analytic functions 3 / 35

Observe the complex number z = (x , y ), where the real number x is called

J. K. Sahoo (BITS Goa) Complex Variables and Applications Analytic functions 4 / 35

Observe the complex number z = (x , y ), where the real number x is called

The complex numbers z1 = (x1 , y1 ), z2 = (x2 , y2 ) are “added” and

z1 + z2 = (x1 , y2 ) + (x2 , y2 ) = (x1 + x2 , y1 + y2 )

z1 z2 = (x1 , y1 )(x2 , y2 ) = (x1 x2 − y1 y2 , x1 y2 + x2 y1 )

J. K. Sahoo (BITS Goa) Complex Variables and Applications Analytic functions 4 / 35

Let us identify the complex number (x , 0) with the real number x ,

J. K. Sahoo (BITS Goa) Complex Variables and Applications Analytic functions 5 / 35

J. K. Sahoo (BITS Goa) Complex Variables and Applications Analytic functions 5 / 35

it is also clear that

J. K. Sahoo (BITS Goa) Complex Variables and Applications Analytic functions 5 / 35

it is also clear that

So we can write a complex number (x , y ) as a sum (x , 0) + (0, 1)(y , 0)

J. K. Sahoo (BITS Goa) Complex Variables and Applications Analytic functions 5 / 35

it is also clear that

So we can write a complex number (x , y ) as a sum (x , 0) + (0, 1)(y , 0)

J. K. Sahoo (BITS Goa) Complex Variables and Applications Analytic functions 5 / 35

it is also clear that

So we can write a complex number (x , y ) as a sum (x , 0) + (0, 1)(y , 0)

J. K. Sahoo (BITS Goa) Complex Variables and Applications Analytic functions 5 / 35

it is also clear that

So we can write a complex number (x , y ) as a sum (x , 0) + (0, 1)(y , 0)

J. K. Sahoo (BITS Goa) Complex Variables and Applications Analytic functions 5 / 35

Let C = { Set of complex number}.

J. K. Sahoo (BITS Goa) Complex Variables and Applications Analytic functions 6 / 35

Let C = { Set of complex number}.

J. K. Sahoo (BITS Goa) Complex Variables and Applications Analytic functions 6 / 35

Let C = { Set of complex number}.

J. K. Sahoo (BITS Goa) Complex Variables and Applications Analytic functions 6 / 35

The complex number x + iy may be visualized as a point in a plane with

J. K. Sahoo (BITS Goa) Complex Variables and Applications Analytic functions 7 / 35

The complex number x + iy may be visualized as a point in a plane with

J. K. Sahoo (BITS Goa) Complex Variables and Applications Analytic functions 7 / 35

The complex number x + iy may be visualized as a point in a plane with

J. K. Sahoo (BITS Goa) Complex Variables and Applications Analytic functions 7 / 35

J. K. Sahoo (BITS Goa) Complex Variables and Applications Analytic functions 8 / 35

A complex number z = (x + iy ) on the complex plane has a polar

The argument of a complex number is decided up to an integer multiple of

J. K. Sahoo (BITS Goa) Complex Variables and Applications Analytic functions 9 / 35

A complex number z = (x + iy ) on the complex plane has a polar

The argument of a complex number is decided up to an integer multiple of

J. K. Sahoo (BITS Goa) Complex Variables and Applications Analytic functions 9 / 35

From the previous slides we can write a complex number z as

J. K. Sahoo (BITS Goa) Complex Variables and Applications Analytic functions 10 / 35

1 How to define a real power of a complex number? say iπ ?

J. K. Sahoo (BITS Goa) Complex Variables and Applications Analytic functions 11 / 35

1 How to define a real power of a complex number? say iπ ?

2 How to define a complex power of a complex number? say ii ?

J. K. Sahoo (BITS Goa) Complex Variables and Applications Analytic functions 11 / 35