Geometric Design of Highway

Er. Trilok Chandra Bist

Transportation Engineering
 Definition & Scope of Geometric Design
• The geometric design of highway deals with the dimensions and
layout of visible features of the highway such as alignment, sight
distance and intersections.

• It does not include the design of pavement, structural and

drainage components. Geometric design of highways deals with
following elements:

1. Cross section elements

2. Sight distance considerations
3. Horizontal alignment details
4. Vertical alignment details
5. Intersection elements
Cross-section elements
• 1-2 Pavement.dwg
 Elements of cross-section of road can be listed as,
– Traffic Lane
– Carriageway
– Shoulder
– Roadway
– Formation Width/width of road bed
– Side slope of cut or fill
– Right of way
– Camber
– Sidewalk
– Kerb
– Median Strip
 Cross-section of road
• Minimum required TL width = 3.75 m for single lane & 3.5 m for
multilane. By NRS 2070, min width = 3.0 m in difficult terrain.
• Carriageway width = (Tw x n)

• Shoulder is the portion of roadway on either side of carriageway

which is periodically used by the vehicles for crossing or
overtaking or parking maneuvers or used by maintenance
authority for stacking construction materials during maintenance
works.

• The strip of land on either sides of road from its center line
acquired during the road development and under the control of
road authority for future road requirement (ROW).

• NRS 2070 has the following recommendations: 50m for National

highway, 30m for feeder roads and 20m for district roads.
Camber
It is also known as cross slope or cross fall of carriageway.
Camber may be defined as the slope of the line joining the
crown (top most point) of the pavement and its edges.

It is either expressed as in % rise of level with respect to the

given horizontal distance of 100 (both in meter) or unit rise or
fall in relation to certain horizontal distance.
Kerb
• It is the Physical barrier for separating vehicular traffic and pedestrian traffic. It
is also provided to separate carriageway from traffic islands or parking space. It
is a measure to traffic safety. It height is usually kept equal or less than 15 cm in
order to avoid the striking the bumpers of low height vehicles.
Kerb

Kerb
• Median strip
• It is the central raised strip within the roadway. It is
constructed in order to separate traffic flowing in
opposite directions.
• Objectives:
• To separate traffic moving in opposite directions.
• To reduce frequency and severity of head on head
collision
• To minimize or possibly avoid head light effect.
• To grow arboriculture which act as crash barrier as
they help to dissipate the energy of out of control
vehicles
 Basic Design Controls & Criteria for
Design
The factors influencing the visible dimensions of
roads are as follows:
• Design speed
• Design vehicle
• Topography, physical and man-made features
• Traffic volume and its composition
• Traffic capacity
• Road user behavior
• Design speed
• It is the maximum permissible safe speed of a light vehicle on a given road
considered for the design of road elements. It is the speed which may be
adopted by a majority of skilled drivers when there are no secondary difficulties
on roads. It is the highest continuous speed at which individual vehicles can
travel with safety on the highway when weather conditions are favorable,
traffic volume are low and the design features of the highway are the factors of
governing safety.
• Overall geometric design of a road is a function of design speed. Design of
almost every geometric design element of a road is dependent on the design
speed. Such as:
• Pavement surface characteristics;
• Cross section elements of the road such as width and clearance requirement;
• Horizontal alignment elements such as radius of curve, super-elevation,
transition curve length; and
• Vertical alignments such as gradient, summit and valley curve length.
 Design Vehicle
• The geometric element naturally depends on the design vehicle, its characteristic, size &
shape. The vehicle that governs the design is referred as design vehicle. The design of
some elements of roads is sometimes governed by the length or some by width or some
by height and some by weight. Therefore, there could not be no one single vehicle that
can be considered as the design vehicle for a particular road.

AASHTO divides the design vehicles in four classes;

• Passenger cars
• Buses
• Trucks
• Recreation vehicles
• Topography, physical and man-made features
• Topography, in general influences the physical locations of
highway. The design elements of a highway in hilly region are
affected to a considerable degree by the physical features such as
hills, valley, steep slopes, and stream crossing etc. whereas in
plain area drainage considerations, grade separations etc. may be
the influencing factors.
Traffic volume and its composition.
• Traffic volume is the number of vehicles crossing a section of
road per unit time at any selected period. Higher the traffic
volume, higher the standard of given highway Traffic volume may
be either of average daily traffic, peak hour traffic, average
annual daily traffic etc. Fluctuations in traffic volume have
resulted into the consideration of peak hour traffic for designing
the road width.
• Traffic Capacity
• It is the total number of vehicle that can pass a given point in a unit time
period for a given traffic condition. It is the total sum of each lane. It is
required to know in order to determine the number of lanes required
which ultimately determines the total width of the road.

• Road user behavior

• Design of roads cannot be done only with the rules laid out by
mathematical models but has to give due importance to end users as
well.
• Because, one constructed the roads are used by peoples having different
level of education, awareness, knowledge and civic/traffic sense and
the parameters cannot be related with any mathematical formulae.
However, road users’ behavior always plays an important role.
• The extent of influence of road users’ behavior in determining the
geometric elements of road cannot be quantified but their effect cannot
also be ignored.
 Criteria for Geometric Design
• The geometric features of a highway with the
consideration of above mentioned governing
factors are designed to meet the following major
objectives.
• Speed
• Safety
• Comfort
• Economy
• Sight Distance: The actual distance that is
observed along the road surface which is visible
for a driver from a specified height above the
carriage way is called as the sight distance at a
point. Mainly in the geometric design of road
construction, mainly three sight distances are
taken into consideration. They are:
• SSD – Stopping Sight Distance or Absolute
Minimum Sight Distance
• ISD – Intermediate Sight Distance: This is twice
the value of SSD
• OSD – Overtaking Sight Distance
• Head light sight distance
Intermediate Sight Distance
• This is defined as twice the stopping sight distance. When
overtaking sight distance can’t be provided, ISD is provided to
give limited opportunities to fast vehicles. ISD = 2*SSD

Head Light Sight Distance

• This is the distance visible to a driver during night driving under
illumination of the vehicle head light.
HLSD = SSD
 SSD (Stopping Sight Distance or)
• SSD is defined as the sight distance that is available for the moving
the vehicle in the highway that will enable the driver to stop the
vehicle safely without collision with any other obstacle.

• In order to analyze the stopping sight distance which is required to

design a given highway we have to consider the following.

• The total reaction time of the driver

• Speed of the vehicle
• Friction between the tyre and the pavement surface
• Break efficiency
• Gradient of the road
• The total reaction time of the driver: Total reaction time of a
driver is the time from the instance the obstruction is visible to
the driver to the instance the brakes are effectively applied.

PIEVE theory is used to analyze the total reaction time. According

to this theory total reaction time of a drive is phased into four
classes: i. Perception ii. Intellection III. Emotion IV. Volition
• Perception time: It is the time for sensation received by eyes or
ears of driver to be transmitted to the brain through the nervous
system and spinal cord.
• Intellect time: It is the time required for the driver to
understand the situation. It is also the time required for
compromising the different thoughts, regrouping and registering
new sensations.
• Emotion time: time elapsed during emotional sensations and
other mental disturbances such as fear, anger etc.
• Volition time: time taken by driver for the final decision such as
brake application.
Fig. Reaction time and PIEV theory
 SSD
• Speed of the vehicle: Speed of the vehicle affects the distance traveled by the driver in the
total reaction time, more the speed more will be the distance. This is known as lag distance.
Similarly, the distance traveled by the driver after the application of the brakes. More the
speed more will the braking distance.
 Friction between the tyre and the road surface: The friction between the tyre and the
road surface depends upon the type of road surface and the condition of the tyre. Also, it
depends upon the speed of the vehicle. More the friction, less will the stopping sight
distance require but, if less is the friction, more it will be.

• Brake Efficiency: 100% brake efficiency means the rotation of the tyre is completely
locked, but it will surely result in the skidding of the vehicle. Efficiency of the brakes is
considered by reducing the original value of the friction in a range of 0.35 to 0.40.

• Gradient of the road: Gradient may be positive or negative and accordingly the required
stopping sight distance will be less and more respectively. In case of upward (positive)
gradient, a component of the gravity force will help in stopping the vehicle.
 stopping sight distance
The stopping sight distance is the sum of lag
distance and the braking distance.
• Lag distance
Lag distance is the distance the vehicle traveled
during the reaction time t and lag distance is given
by v*t, where v is the velocity in m/sec.
If the design speed is in km/hr., lag distance = V t*
(1000/60*60)
= (0.278 V*t) = (0.28 V* t) m
IRC has recommended the value of reaction time t
as 2.5 sec for the calculation of stopping distance.
Braking distance on level surface
• Braking distance is the distance traveled by the vehicle during braking
operation. For a level road this is obtained by equating the work done in
stopping the vehicle and the kinetic energy of the vehicle.
• If F is the maximum frictional force developed and the braking distance
is l, then work done against friction in stopping the vehicle is F*l
= f*W*l where W is the total weight of the vehicle. The kinetic energy at
the design speed is
1 1 𝑤𝑣 2 𝑤𝑣 2
• 𝑚𝑣 2 (𝑘. 𝐸) = ∗ or, f*w*l =
2 2 𝑔 2𝑔
𝑣2
l=
2𝑔𝑓
𝑣2
Therefore, SSD= Lag distance + braking distance = (V*t + ) m
2𝑔𝑓
Where, l= braking distance
V= speed of vehicle, m/sec
f= design coefficient of friction (0.35-0.40 depending upon speed, for
higher speed lower the coefficient of friction)
• Stopping distance at slopes
• When there is an ascending gradient of say, + n % the component of
gravity adds to the braking action and hence the braking distance is
decreased. The component of gravity action parallel to the surface
which adds to the braking force is equal to W sin α = W tan α=
(W*n/100)
• Equating kinetic energy and work done,
𝑊𝑛 1 𝑊𝑣 2
• (f *W+ ) l= *
100 2 𝑔
𝑣2
l= 𝑛
2𝑔 𝑓:100
Similarly, in descending gradient of –n% the braking distance increases, as
the component of gravity now opposes the braking force. Hence the
equation is given by,
𝑊𝑛 1 𝑊𝑣 2 𝑣2
(f *W- ) l= * , l= 𝑛
100 2 𝑔 2𝑔 𝑓;100
Hence the equation for stopping distance may be modified for n% gradient
and may be written as
𝑣2
SD, m = ( 𝑉𝑡 + 𝑛 ) Where, v is in m/sec.
2𝑔 𝑓±100
 For Numerical on SSD
• Khanna and Justo book page 96, 97, 98
• Stopping sight distance, SSD when two lane two
way traffic = (v*t +v2/2gf)
• SSD when two way traffic on a single lane road =
(2 *SSD)= 2*(v*t +v2/2gf)
• Head light sight distance = SSD
• Intermediate sight distance = 2*SSD
𝑣2
• SSD on descending gradient = v*t + ( )
2𝑔(𝑓;𝑛%
𝑣2
• SSD on ascending gradient = v*t + ( )
2𝑔(𝑓:𝑛%
 Overtaking Sight Distance (OSD)
• The overtaking sight distance is the minimum distance
open to the vision of the driver of a vehicle intending to
overtake the slow vehicle ahead safely against the traffic
in the opposite direction. The overtaking sight distance
or passing sight distance is measured along the center
line of the road over which a driver with his eye level 1.2
m above the road surface can see the top of an object
1.2 m above the road surface. The factors that affect the
OSD are:
– Velocities of the overtaking vehicle, overtaken vehicle and
of the vehicle coming in the opposite direction.
– Spacing between vehicles, which in-turn depends on the
speed
– Skill and reaction time of the driver
– Rate of acceleration of overtaking vehicle
– Gradient of the road
A=overtaking vehicle
B=overtaken vehicle (slow moving vehicle)
C=vehicle coming from opposite direction
d1=distance traveled by the overtaking vehicle during reaction time, to decide whether we
should overtake or not. (t=2sec)
d2= distance traveled by the overtaking vehicle during actual overtaking operation.
d3=distance travelled by the vehicle coming from opposite directing during overtaking
operation.
Vb=speed of the slow moving vehicle if not given adopt (design speed (v)-4.5)m/sec or
(V-16) kmph
S= distance of centre of one vehicle to centre of another vehicle
 OSD
• From A1 to A2, the distance ‘d1’ (m) travelled by
overtaking vehicle A at reduced speed ‘vb’ (m/s)
during reaction time ‘t’ (sec), d1= (vb X t)

• IRC suggest reaction time t of driver as 2 sec ,

d1= 2*Vb

• From A2 to A3, vehicle A starts accelerating, shift to

adjoining lane, overtakes vehicle B, and shift back to its
original lane during overtaking time ‘T’ (sec) and travel
distance ‘d2’ (m).
 OSD
• From A2 to A3, the distance ‘d2’ (m) is further split
into three parts viz;
d2= (s+b+s), d2= (b+2s)

• The minimum spacing ‘s’ (m)between vehicles

depends on their speed and is given by empirical
formula, s=(0.7Vb + 6)

• The distance covered by the slow vehicle B travelling

at a speed of ‘vb’ (m/s) in time ‘T’ (sec) is,
b= Vb X T
 OSD
• The overtaking time ‘T’ (sec) is calculated as;
• Now time T depends upon speed of overtaken vehicle B and the average acceleration ‘a’
m/sec2 of overtaking vehicle A.2
The overtaking time T may be calculated by equating the
1𝑎𝑇
distance d2 to (Vb* T + 2 ), using the general formula by the distance travelled by
uniformly accelerating body with initial speed Vb m/sec and ‘a’ is the acceleration during
overtaking in m/sec.
• d2=(b+2s)=(vbT+aT2/2)
𝑎𝑇 2
b=vb T and therefore 2s= 2
4𝑠
T= 𝑎
• From C1 to C2, distance travelled by vehicle C moving at design speed ‘v’ (m/s) during time
‘T’ (sec) is given by, d3=v X T
Thus overtaking sight distance (OSD) is, OSD=(d1+d2+d3)

OSD= (vb X t) + (vb X T +2s) +(v X T)

If speed is in km/hr.
OSD= (0.28Vb X t)+(0.28Vb X T+2s)+(0.28V X T)

• In case speed of overtaken vehicle is not given it is assumed 16 km/hr. less than design
speed of the highway.
 OSD
• where,
s=spacing of vehicles
t=reaction time of driver = 2sec
v =design speed in m/sec
V= design speed in km/hr.
vb=initial speed of overtaking vehicle in m/sec
 Overtaking Zone
• In stretches of roads where sufficient overtaking sight distance
cannot be provided or on single lane roads where overtaking
or crossing opportunity is not available, overtaking or passing
zones shall be provided.
• The width of the overtaking zone shall be the same as that of a
minimum two lane road.
• Length of the overtaking zone shall be at least 3 times the
overtaking distance on two and more lane roads.
• On single lane roads length of passing zones shall be at least 2
times the overtaking sight distance.
• On single lane roads overtaking/passing lanes should be
provided at not more than 1 km interval.
• The start and end of overtaking zone shall be well informed by
placing appropriate signs at least stopping distance before the start
and end of the zone
 Overtaking Zone
• OSD= (d1 + d2) for one way traffic
• OSD= (d1 + d2+d3) for two way traffic
• Sp1- Sign post overtaking zone ahead
• Sp2- sign post ‘End of overtaking Zone’
• Minimum length of overtaking Zone = 3 (OSD)
• Desirable overtaking Zone = 5 (OSD)
 Numerical
Q. the speed of overtaking and overtaken vehicles are 70 kmph and 40kmph
respectively on a two-way road. If the acceleration of overtaking vehicle is 0.99
m/sec2
i. Calculate safe overtaking sight distance.
ii. What is the minimum length of overtaking zone?
ii. Draw a neat sketch of overtaking zone showing the position of a sign post.
Soln:
Given: V =Speed of overtaking vehicle =70 kmph= V= 70/3.6 = 19.4
m/sec.
Vb = Speed of overtaken vehicle =40 kmph= 40/3.6 =11.1 m/sec.
Average acceleration during overtaking (a) =0.99 m/sec2
i. To calculate safe overtaking sight distance (OSD)
OSD = Overtaking sight distance for two way traffic
= (d1+d2+d3)= (Vb*t)+(VbT+2s)+V*T) m ….. (i)
Consider reaction time for overtaking, t=2 sec
Therefore d1=Vb*t=11.1∗2=22.2m

d2=(VbT+2s) = (11.1*T+2S)
 Solution
Where, S=(0.7Vb+6)=(0.7∗11.1+6)=13.8m
4𝑠 4∗13.8
T= = = 7.47 sec
𝑎 0.99
Therefore, d2= (11.1∗7.47+2∗13.85)=110.5 m
d3=(V*T)=19.4∗7.47=144.9
Substituting the values of d1, d2 and d3 in equation (i), we get
OSD=(d1+d2+d3)=(22.2+110.5+144.9)
OSD= 277.6m = 278 m
ii. Minimum length of overtaking Zone = 3(OSD) = 3 *278=
834m
Desirable length of overtaking zone = 5 * (OSD) = 5*378=
1390m
iii. To draw a neat sketch of overtaking zone showing portion
of sign post
Let SP1 = Sign post “Overtaking sign ahead”
SP2 = Sign post “end of overtaking zone”
 Design of Horizontal Alignment:
Various design elements to be considered in the
horizontal alignment are :
a. Horizontal curve
b. Super elevation
c. Type and length of transition curves
d. Widening of pavement on curves
e. Set-back distance
 Horizontal curves
• Simple: Curve with single constant radius. The radius of the
circle determines the sharpness or flatness of the curve.
• Compound: Frequently, the terrain will require the use of
the compound curve. This curve normally consists of two
simple curves joined together and curving in the same
direction.
• Reverse: Reverse curve consists of two simple curves joined
together, but curving in opposite direction. For safety
reasons, the use of these curves should be avoided when
possible.
• Transition (Spiral): The spiral is a curve that has a varying
radius. It is used on railroads and most modern highways. Its
purpose is to provide a transition from the tangent to a
simple curve or between simple curves in a compound
curve.
Horizontal Curves
 Elements of a horizontal circular curve
• Point of intersection (PI): The point of intersection is the point where the back
and forward tangents intersect.
• Intersecting angle (I): The intersecting angle is the deflection angle at the PI.
• Central angle (∆): The central angle is the angle formed by two radii drawn from
the center of the circle (O) to the PC and PT. ∆ = I
• Point of curvature (PC): The point of curvature is the point on the back tangent
where the curve begins.
• Point of tangency (PT): The point of tangency is the point on the forward
tangent where the curve ends.
• Length of curve (L): The length of curve is the distance from the PC to the PT,
measured along the curve.
• Tangent distance (T): The tangent distance is the distance along the tangents
from the PI to the PC or the PT.
• Long chord (LC): The long chord is the straight-line distance from the PC to the
PT.
• External distance (E): The external distance (also called the external secant) is
the distance from the PI to the midpoint of the curve.
• Middle ordinate (M): The middle ordinate is the distance from the midpoint of
the curve to the midpoint of the long chord.
 Design of Horizontal Curve
• The design of horizontal curves involves calculation of
minimum permissible radius so that desired level of safety
can be obtained. During design, many things need to be
considered to ensure comfort, safety, economy, etc.
• When a vehicle moves a horizontal curve, the centrifugal
force acts horizontally outwards through the center of gravity
of the vehicle. The centrifugal force acting on a vehicle
negotiating a horizontal curve has following two effects:

• i. Tendency to overturn the vehicle outwards

about the outer wheels

• ii. Tendency to skid the vehicle laterally, outwards

 Tendency of vehicle to overturn
• The presence of horizontal curve develops the centrifugal force which is the reactive force acting
outward on a vehicle. When restoring moment available is less than the overturning moment, the vehicle
overturns. The centrifugal force is counteracted to a certain extent by transverse friction between the tire
and pavement surface.
• The centrifugal force (P) acts outward, weight downwards and reactions of tires (RA and RB) upward.
The centrifugal force and weight are assumed to be acting from the center of gravity which is assumed to
be h units above the pavement. Let the width of wheel base be b units.
• Centrifugal force (P) = mv2/R = (Wv2) / (g*R)
Where, W = weight of vehicle in kg
v = velocity of vehicle in m/s
g = acceleration due to gravity in m/s2
R = radius of curve in m
The centrifugal ratio or the impact factor is given by:
(P/W) = v2 / (g*R)…………………..(1)
From figure,

• Overturning moment = P*h

• Restoring moment = W*b/2
At equilibrium, P*h = W*b/2
p/w = (b/2h)

𝑣2
This means that there is danger of overturning when the centrifugal ratio P/W or attains a value of b/2h.
𝑔𝑅
Since, all other values are almost constant so the velocity (v) is the only influencing factor in overturning
moment
Transverse Skidding Effect
 Transverse Skidding Effect
• The centrifugal force developed has also tendency to push the
vehicle outward in the transverse direction. The equilibrium
condition for the transverse skid resistance developed is given
by
P = FA+ FB= f*(RA+RB) =f*W
• Since P = (f *W), the centrifugal ratio P/W is equal to ‘f ‘. Where,
f= coefficient of friction between tire and pavement surface.
• RA and RB are normal reactions at A and B, RA+RB= W.

• In other words when the centrifugal ratio(P/W) attains a value

equal to the coefficient of lateral friction there is a danger of
lateral skidding. If centrifugal ratio P/w is less than ‘b/2h’, the
vehicle would skid and not overturn.
• Thus to avoid both overturning and lateral skidding on a
horizontal curve the centrifugal ratio P/W should always be less
than b/2h.
 Super elevation (e)
• In order to counteract the effect of centrifugal force and to
reduce the tendency of the vehicle to overturn or skid, the outer
edge of the pavement is raised with respect to the inner edge,
thus providing a transverse slope throughout the length of the
horizontal curve.

• This transverse inclination to the pavement surface is known as

Super elevation or cant or banking. The Super elevation ‘e’ is
expressed as the ratio of the height of outer edge with respect to
the horizontal width.
 super elevation
• Considering the equilibrium of the components of forces acting
parallel to the plane, the component of centrifugal force(P cosө ) is
opposed by the component of gravity, (wsinө) and frictional forces
FA and FB.
For equilibrium condition, P cosө=W sinө+𝐹𝐴 +𝐹𝐵
Or, P cosө=W sinө+ f*𝑅𝐴 + f.𝑅𝐵
Or, P cosө=W sinө+f(RA+RB)
Or, P cosө=W sinө+f(W cos ө+P sin ө)
Or, P(cosө–f sinө)=W sinө+f Wcosө
Dividing by Wcosө,
P/W(1- f tanө)=tanө+f
Centrifugal ratio =P/W= tanө+f /(1-f tanө)
The value of tanөor transverse slope due to super elevation seldom(
rarely) exceed 0.07 or 1/15. hence the value of (f*tanө) is about 0.01.
Thus, the value of (1-ftanө) is equal to 0.99 and may be approximately
to 1
 Super elevation (e)
The value of coefficient of lateral friction ‘f’ is taken as 0.15 and
tanөi.e. super elevation seldom exceeds 7-10%. Therefore, Centrifugal
ratio =P/W = tanө+f
P/W = e + f ……i
but P/W = v²∕gR ……ii
Therefore, the general equation for the design of super elevation is
given by, e + f = v²∕gR
If ‘V’ speed of the vehicle is in kmph,
e + f = V²∕ 127R
Where,
• e=rate of Superelevation= tanӨ
• f = design value of lateral friction coefficient = 0.15
• v = speed of the vehicle, m/sec
• R = radius of the horizontal curve, m
• g = acceleration due to gravity = 9.81 m/sec²
 Steps for Super-elevation Design
Step-I: The super elevation for 75 percent of design speed is calculated, neglecting the friction.
• e =(0.75v)²∕ gR …..if ‘v’ is in m/sec
• e =(V)²∕ 225R …..if ‘V’ is in km/hr.
Step-II: If the calculated value of ‘e’ is less than 7% or 0.07 the value so obtained is provided.
• If the value of ‘e’ exceeds 7% or 0.07 then provides maximum super elevation equal to 7% or 0.07
and proceed with step-III or IV.
Step-III: Check the coefficient of friction developed for the maximum value of e =0.07 at the full value
of design speed.
• f =(v²∕ gR)- 0.07 …..if ‘v’ is in m/sec
• f =(V²∕ 127R)- 0.07 …..if ‘V’ is in km/hr.
If the value of ‘f’ thus calculated is less than 0.15, the super elevation of 0.07 is safe for the design
speed. If not, calculate the restricted speed as given in Step -IV.
Step-IV: The allowable speed at the curve is calculated by considering the design coefficient of lateral
friction and the maximum super elevation.
• e + f =0.07+0.15=va²∕ gR= (Va²∕ 127R), e + f =0.22=va²∕ gR = Va²∕ 127R
• Safe allowable speed (Va) is calculated as: Va= 𝟎. 𝟐𝟐𝒈𝑹 m/sec
• If the allowed speed, as calculated above is higher than the design speed, then the design is
adequate and provides a super elevation of ‘e’ equal to 0.07. If the allowable speed is less than the
design speed, the speed is limited to the allowed speed calculated above and appropriate warning
sign and speed limit regulation sign are installed to restrict and regulate the speed.
 Attainment of super-elevation in the field
Introduction of super elevation in the field on a horizontal curve in
the field is an important feature in the construction. The road cross
section at the straight portion is cambered with the crown at the
center of the pavement and sloping down towards the edge.
The attainment of super-elevation may
be split up into two parts:
a. Elimination of crown of the cambered section
b. Rotation of pavement to attain full super-elevation
a. Elimination of crown of the cambered section: This may be
done by two methods
1stMethod: Outer edge rotated about the crown: In the first
method, the outer half of the cross slope is rotated about the
crown at a desired rate such that the surface falls on the same
plane as the inner half and the elevation of the center line is not
altered as shown in fig. below.
• 2ndMethod: Crown shifted outwards: In the second method
of eliminating the crown, known as diagonal crown method,
the crown position is progressively shifted outwards thus
increasing the width of inner half of cross section.
• b. Rotation of pavement to attain full super-
elevation
• 1st Method: Rotation about the Centre line: By rotating the
pavement cross section about the center line, depressing the
inner edge and raising outer edge each by half. The total amount
of super elevation i.e. E/2 w. r to center.
• 2nd method Rotation about inner edge: By rotating the cross
section about inner edge of the pavement section raising both
the center as well as outer edge of the pavement such that
outer edge of the pavement raised by full amount of super
elevation, E with respect to inner edge.
 Numerical( calculation of E)
• Q. two lane road with design speed 80 km/hr has horizontal curve of radius
480m Design the rate of super elevation for mixed traffic. By how much
should the outer edge of the pavement be raised with respect to the inner edge,
if width of pavement at the horizontal curve is 7.5m.
• Solution: V= 80km/hr
• Neglecting friction and mixed traffic condition the super elevation should be
fully counteract the centrifugal force for 75% design speed. Therefore,
2 2 2
𝑉2 (0.75∗V) (0.75∗V) 0.56 𝑉 2 (V)
e = (if in km)( i.e. (𝑉 2 /gR) = = = = )=
225𝑅 𝑔𝑅 3.6∗3.6∗9.8𝑅 127𝑅 225𝑅
802
= 0.059< 0.07 , therefore super elevation e = 0.059 may be adopted.
225∗480
Raising of the outer edge of the pavement with respect to inner edge = B*e
=7.5*0.059 = 0.44m
 Design of super elevation(check e and f)
Design of super elevation for a horizontal highway curve of radius
500m and speed 100km/hr.
• Solution:
• Given v = 100km/hr. And R = 500 m
• For mixed traffic condition, super elevation is designed for 75% of
design speed
• Therefore
𝑉2 1002
• e = = = 0.089 > 0.07 so super elevation provided
225𝑅 225∗500
restricted to 0.07.
• Now, check for lateral friction developed for full speed, V = 100
km/hr
𝑉2 1002
• f= - 0.07 = - 0.07 = 0.087 , As the value is less than
127𝑅 127∗500
0.15, the design is safe with super elevation 0.07
 Maximum allowable velocity
The design speed of a highway is 80km/hr. There is a horizontal curve of radius 200m on
a certain locality. Safe limit of transverse coefficient of friction is 0.15.
a. Calculate the super elevation required to maintain the speed.
b. If the max super elevation of 0.07 is not to be exceeded, calculate the maximum
allowable speed on this horizontal curve as it is not possible to increase the radius.
Solution:
a. Check super elevation
𝑉2 802
e= == = 0.142 >0.07 so limited to 0.07
225𝑅 225∗200
b. Check for the coefficient of friction
𝑉2 802
f= - 0.07 = = -0.07 = 0.18 , As this value is greater than safe limit value
127𝑅 127∗200
i.e. 0.15 so adopt f = 0.15 . Given that radius can not be increased, the speed has to be
restricted.
Maximum allowable speed Va = 0.22𝑔𝑅 m/sec = 2.156𝑅 m/sec = 27.94𝑅 km/hr.
Therefore Va = 27.94 ∗ 200 km/hr. = 74.75 km/hr.
Hence, the speed may be restricted to less than 74 or say 70 km/hr at this curve.
 Widening of pavement on horizontal curves (Extra widening)
On horizontal curves, especially when they are less than 300m radii, it is
common to widen the pavement slightly more than the normal width.
Widening is needed for the following reasons:
a. An automobile has a rigid wheel base and only the front wheels can be
turned, when this vehicle takes a turn to negotiate a horizontal curve, the
rear wheel do not follow the same path as that of the front wheels. This
phenomenon is called off tracking.
b. While two vehicles cross or overtake at horizontal curve there is
psychological tendency to maintain a greater clearance between the
vehicles for safety.
c. For greater visibility at curve, the driver have tendency not to follow the
central path of the lane, but to use the outer side at the beginning of the
curve.
d. At higher speed super elevation and lateral friction cannot counteract
centrifugal force and skidding may occur. Widening of the pavement on the
horizontal curves is governed by the following factors:
(a) Length of the wheel base
(b) Radius of the curve negotiated, R
(c) Psychological factor which depends upon the velocity of the vehicle and
the Radius of the curve.
 Analysis of extra widening on horizontal curves
The extra widening of pavement on horizontal curves is divided into two parts:
a. Mechanical widening/Off tracking
b. Psychological widening
a. Mechanical widening/Off tracking
• The reason for mechanical widening are: when a vehicle negotiates a horizontal
curve, the rear wheels follow a path of shorter radius than the front wheels. This
phenomenon is called off tracking, and has the effect of increasing the
effective width of a road space required by the vehicle.
• Therefore, to provide the same clearance between vehicles travelling in
opposite direction on curved roads as is provided on straight sections, there
must be extra width of carriageway available.
 Extra Widening
Consider
OA=R1=radius of the path traversed by the outer rear wheel, m
OB=R2=radius of the path traversed by the outer front wheel, m
Wm =mechanical widening due to off-tracking, m
l=length of wheel base, m
R=mean radius of the horizontal curve, m
OB-OA= R2 - R1 = Wm
From triangle, OAB, OA2= OB2 - BA2
• R12= R22 -l2
But, R1= (R2-Wm)= (R2-Wm)2 = R22 -l2
R22= 2R2 -Wm = R22 -l2
• Wm= l2/ (2R2 -Wm)
• Wm = l2/2R
Wm = l2/2R
If road having 'n' traffic lanes, mechanical widening required is given by,
Wm = nl2/2R
 Extra Widening
• Widening of pavements has been done for some psychological reasons also. There is a
tendency for the drivers to drive close to the edges of the pavement on the curves. Some extra
space is to be provided for more clearance for the crossing and overtaking operations on
curves. IRC proposed an empirical relation for the psychological widening at horizontal curves.
Psychological Widening
• At horizontal curves drivers have a tendency to maintain a greater clearance between the
vehicles than on straight stretches of road. Therefore an extra width of pavement is provided
for psychological reasons for greater maneuverability of steering at higher speeds and to allow
for the extra space requirements for the overhangs of vehicles. Psychological widening is
therefore important in pavements with more than one lane. An empirical formula has been
recommended by IRC for deciding the additional psychological widening Wps which is
dependent on the design speed V of the vehicle and the radius R of the curve.

𝑉
Wps = ( 9.5𝑅
)
Where, Wps = psychological widening, m
𝑛𝑙 2 𝑉
• The total extra widening is given by, We=Wm + Wps = ( + )
2𝑅 9.5𝑅
Where,
n=no. of traffic lanes
l = length of wheel base =6.1 or 6 m
V=design speed km/hr.
R = radius of the horizontal curve, m
 Extra widening
Calculate the extra widening required for a pavement of width 7.0 m
on a horizontal curve of radius 200m if the longest wheel base of
vehicle expected on the road is 6.5m. Design speed is 65km/hr.
Solution:
Given:
Pavement width = 7 m therefore no of lane = n = 2
Radius of horizontal curve, R = 200m, Design speed V = 65km/hr
Wheel base of vehicle, l = 6.5 m
Extra widening required = We = (mechanical widening + Psychological widening )
𝒏𝒍𝟐 𝑽 𝟐∗𝟔.𝟓𝟐 𝟔𝟓
= Wm + Wps = + = + = 0.21+0.48 = 0.69m
𝟐𝑹 𝟗.𝟓 𝑹 𝟐∗𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝟗.𝟓 𝟐𝟎𝟎
Therefore provide extra widening of 0.69m.
𝑽𝟐
Note : use formula R rulling = m , if R
𝟏𝟐𝟕∗(𝒆:𝒇)
R is not given.
 Horizontal Transition Curve
Transition curve is provided to change the horizontal alignment from
straight to circular curve gradually and has a radius which decreases
from infinity at the straight end (tangent point) to the desired radius of
the circular curve at the other end (curve point)
There are five objectives for providing transition curve and are given
below:
• To introduce gradually the centrifugal force between the tangent
point and the beginning of the circular curve, avoiding sudden jerk
on the vehicle. This increases the comfort of passengers.
• To enable the driver turn the steering gradually for his own comfort
and security,
• To provide gradual introduction of super elevation, and
• To provide gradual introduction of extra widening.
• To enhance the aesthetic appearance of the road
The following are main types:
• Ideal curve or Cubic spiral
• Cubic parabola
• Lamiscate curve
Types of TC
 Length of transition curve
The length of transition curve is designed to fulfill three 2. Rate of introduction of super elevation
conditions and adopt higher one.
1. Rate of change of centrifugal acceleration to be If the pavement is rotated about the center
developed gradually line
2. Rate of introduction of designed super elevation EN e (w :We) N
3. Minimum length by IRC empirical formula
Ls = 2 = 2
If the pavement is rotated about the inner
1. Rate of change of centrifugal edge
acceleration Ls = EN = e (w + We) N
The length of transition curve is calculated Where,
as W= width of pavement
𝑉3 We = extra widening
Ls = 𝐶𝑅 if v is in m/sec.
E = total raised pavement = e *B
0.0215𝑉 3
Ls = 𝐶𝑅 if v is in km/hr. B= Total width of pavement = (W+We)
80
Where, C= 75:𝑉 (0.5 <C< 0.8)
3. Minimum Length by IRC empirical
Where, formula
Ls =length of transition curve, m • According to IRC standard:
C=allowable rate of change of centrifugal 2.7𝑉 2
acceleration • Ls = 𝑅 ( for plain and rolling terrain)
V = design speed in kmph 𝑉2
• Ls = 𝑅 ( For mountainous and steep
v = design speed in m/sec terrain)
R = radius of the circular curve, m
 Numerical
• Q. The radius of circular curve of the two lane highway with a design speed of 70 km/hr is 220m. Assume
extra widening is not necessary. Calculate the length of the transition curve and shift of the curve.
Assume other necessary data approximately if require.
• Solution
Speed, v = 70 km/hr
Radius, R = 220 m
Width of pavement, w = 7 m
80
a. Rate of change of centrifugal acceleration, c = = 0.55
75+70

𝑉3 (0.278∗70)3
∴ Length of transition curve, LS = = = 60.96 ≈ 61m
R∗C 220∗0.55

b. let rate of introduction of super elevation be 1 in 100

Length of transition curve according to the rate of introduction of super elevation (inner edge rotation)
LS= N*E = N*e*w
𝑉2 702
Design of super elevation, e = = = 0.1 > 0.07
225∗R 225∗220
i.e. e = 0.07
𝑉2 702
Check for coefficient of lateral friction f = -e= --0.07 = 0.105 <0.15 OK
127𝑅 225∗220

∴ LS=N*e*w = 0.07*100*7 = 49 m

c. Minimum length recommended by IRC for plain terrain

2.7∗702
LS = 2.7∗𝑉2/ 𝑅 = = 60.14 m
220

Hence the designed length of transition curve = 61 m

𝐿𝑠 2 612
Again shift, S = = = 0.705m
24𝑅 24∗220