Int.d.lmpact Engng. Vol.2,No.2, pp.179-208, 1984 0734-743X/84 $3.00 + 0.

00
Printed in Great Britain P e r g a m o n Press Ltd.

DYNAMIC AXIAL CRUSHING OF S Q U A R E

TUBES
W l o d z i m i e r z A b r a m o w i c z t and Norman Jones

Department of Mechanical Engineering, The University of Liverpool, P.O. Box

147, Liverpool L69 3BX, U.K.
(Received 18 April 1984; in revised form 8 June 1984)

S ~ - Eighty-four dynamic tests on thin-walled square steel tubes

having two different cross-sections with c/h = 30.25 and c/h = 32.18 and
various lengths were crushed axially on a drop hammer rig. Approximate
theoretical predictions were developed for the axial progressive crushing.
of square bc~ columns using a k ~ t i c a l l y admissible method of analysis.
This theoretical study predicts four deformation modes which govern the
behaviour for different ranges of the parameter c/h. New asymmetric
deformation modes were predicted theoretically and confirmed in the
experimental tests. These asymmetric modes cause an inclination of a
column which oould lead to collapse in the sense of Euler even for rela-
tively short coltumas. The effective crushing distance is considered in
the approximate theoretical analysis together with the influence of ma-
terial strain rate sensitivity, which is important for steel even when
the loadings are quasi-static. The simple equations presented herein
for the design of axially crushed square box columns give reasonable
agreement with the corresponding experimental results.

NOTAT ION

b,bf radius of toroidal shell element [15, 16]

c length of side of a square cross-section
h wall thickness
P Cowper-Symcnds exponent in equation (37)
v mean velocity of striking mass during crushing
m
x0 b/h
A 4ch
A1 , • . . ,% coefficients in equation (6)
D Cowper-Symonds coefficient in equation (37)
E I ,E2,Et internal energy absorption
2H initial distance between plastic hinges at top and bottom
of a basic folding element (Fig. 12)
11 ,I3 integrals in equation (I) [16]
K initial kinetic energy
L initial length of coltm~
M striking, mass
M0 %h 2/4
NO a0h
P theoretical prediction for mean static crushing load
m
pd average value of dynamic force in experimental tests
m
~s average value of static force in experimental tests

IAss'i--stant Professor, institute of Fundamental Technological Research, Swietokrzyska 21,

00-049 Warsaw, Poland. SERC Visitinq~ Fellow, University of Liverpool, Auttm~ 1983.
179
180 W. A b r a m o w i c z and N. Jones

theoretical prediction for mean static crushing load

m
corrected for effective crushing distance
~d theoretical predictions for mean dynamic crushing load
m
corrected for effective crushing distance and material
strain rate sensitivity
V i~pact velocity of striking mass
angle defined in Fig. 12(a)
8 defined in Fig. 14
2H(1-cos~)
61,62,6e,6A,6 B effective crushing distance
6f final experimental crushed distance
E average strain
.av
e strain rate
q Pm/AGu or % / A ~ u
o0 yield stress
gOd dynamic yield stress
Gu ultimate tensile stress
Gud dynamic ultimate tensile stress
4h/c
(-) d( )/dt

1, INTRODUCTION
The r e has been c o n s i d e r a b l e a c t i v i t y on the d y n a m i c plastic r e s p o n s e of struc-
tures d u r i n g the past d e c a d e and a s i g n i f i c a n t part of this effort has been
c o n c e r n e d w i t h the s t r u c t u r a l c r a s h w o r t h i n e s s of v e h i c l e s [I-5]. The b e h a v i o u r
of t h i n - w a l l e d tubes w i t h c i r c u l a r and r e c t a n g u l a r c r o s s - s e c t i o n s and s u b j e c t e d
to axial loads has been of p a r t i c u l a r interest since the p i o n e e r i n g work of
P u g s l e y [6] on the impact of i d e a l i z e d r a i l w a y coaches. The initial b u c k l i n g
r e s p o n s e of these m e m b e r s is less i m p o r t a n t from the v i e w p o i n t of energy
a b s o r p t i o n than the s u b s e q u e n t p o s t - b u c k l i n g b e h a v i o u r with large strains and
deflections. This b e h a v i o u r is o f t e n i d e a l i z e d as rigid plastic since the
e n e r g y a b s o r b e d e l a s t i c a l l y is u s u a l l y not significant.

T h i n - w a l l e d m e m b e r s with c l o s e d hat and r e c t a n g u l a r c r o s s - s e c t i o n s are

r e l e v a n t to the e n e r g y a b s o r p t i o n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a u t o m o b i l e body structures
[7] as well as trains [6, 8] and buses [9]. Many t h e o r e t i c a l studies on
a x i a l l y c r u s h e d tubes with r e c t a n g u l a r c r o s s - s e c t i o n s [10-18] have n e g l e c t e d
d y n a m i c (inertia) e f f e c t s and t r e a t e d the p r o b l e m as quasi-static, w h i c h is
p r o b a b l y r e a s o n a b l e for low impact v e l o c i t i e s w h i c h do not activate d y n a m i c
p l a s t i c b u c k l i n g p h e n o m e n a [19,20]. Several authors [10,11,13,21], however,
have e x a m i n e d m a t e r i a l strain rate sensitive effects which can be important
even when inertia e f f e c t s are not [22]. Optimal e n e r g y a b s o r p t i o n is a c h i e v e d
t h r o u g h p r o g r e s s i v e b u c k l i n g w h i c h avoids overall (Euler) b u c k l i n g [23,24].

E i g h t y - f o u r d y n a m i c tests on t h i n - w a l l e d square steel tubes having two

d i f f e r e n t c r o s s - s e c t i o n s and various lengths were c r u s h e d axially on a drop
h a m m e r rig and r e p o r t e d herein. New a s y m m e t r i c d e f o r m a t i o n modes were o b s e r v e d
and are d e s c r i b e d for the first time. C o m p a r i s o n s are made w i t h p r e v i o u s
studies t o g e t h e r w i t h some o b s e r v a t i o n s on m a t e r i a l strain rate effects and
t r a n s i t i o n s to o v e r a l l bending.

2, EXPERIMENTAL DETAILS
The e x p e r i m e n t a l tests r e p o r t e d h e r e i n were c o n d u c t e d on the drop hammer rig
in Fig. I w h i c h is i n s t a l l e d in the D e p a r t m e n t of M e c h a n i c a l E n g i n e e r i n g at
the U n i v e r s i t y of Liverpool. This rig has a v a r i a b l e tup mass up to 75 kg.
A flat c y l i n d r i c a l head was made from mild steel, covered with a gauge
 Dynamic axial crushing of square tubes 181

plate and a t t a c h e d to the tup. The square box section test specimens, with
the d i m e n s i o n s shown in T a b l e s I and 2, simply rested on the base of the drop
hammer rig.

Photo-cells were used to record the impact velocity (V) in Tables I and 2.

Static c o m p r e s s i v e load-axial d e f l e c t i o n curves were o b t a i n e d for th -i

square box columns listed in T a b l e 3 at a c r o s s - h e a d speed of 1.66 x i0 -~ m s
The static b e h a v i o u r of s p e c i m e n number 24 is shown in Fig. 2.

The typical static tensile curve in Fig. 3 was o b t a i n e d at a strain rate

of 2 x 10 -4 s -I, a p p r o x i m a t e l y , on a test s p e c i m e n cut from the walls of a
square box column. Table 4 c o n t a i n s a summary of the tensile test results.
A v e r a g e V i c k e r ' s h a r d n e s s numbers of 124 and 122 were o b t a i n e d for the 37.07 m m
and 49.31 mm square tubes, respectively.

3, EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS

A summary of the e x p e r i m e n t a l data from the dynamic tests on box columns is

presented in Tables I and 2. 6f is the final (permanent) reduction in axial
length of a test specimen and the average dynamic force (Pm d) is defined as
the initial kinetic energy (K) d i v i d e d by 6f. The total energy imparted to a
specimen is equal to the initial kinetic energy (K) and the additional potential
energy (Mg6f) lost by the striking mass during axial crushing of a test specimen
d
This additional potential energy was not c o n s i d e r e d when e s t i m a t i n g
P in
m
Tables I and 2 but c o u l d be taken into account if the increased accuracy was

il
[

io
~Q

FIGURE 1. Lower part of drop hammer test rig.

182 W. Abramowicz a n d N. Jones

TABLE I. Experimental data for I .5 in. square tubes.

+0.14 + 0.028
c = 37.07-0.15 rmn and h = 1.152 _ 0.032 mm

Specimen L M V K ~f pd
m Mode of
Number (mm) (kg) (m/s) (kd) (mm) (kN) Deformation*

11 133,2 73.6 6.350 1.48 62.24 23.8 s

12 132.5 73.6 8.638 2.15 93.1 29.5 a
13 132.9 73.6 7.890 2,29 85.1 26,9 a
14 132.0 73.6 6.442 1.53 50.1 30.5 a
15 133,0 73.b 8.963 2,96 107.4 27,5 s
16 133. 0 53.6 10.421 2.91 108.3 26.9 a
17 177. 9 73.6 {~.302 1.46 52.1 28.0 s
18 177.9 73.6 7.839 2.26 77.8 29.1 a
19 177.9 73.6 9.806 3.54 141.56 25.0 s
I10 177.9 73.6 8.647 2.75 95.6 28.8 a
|11 178.3 73.6 6.390 1.50 56.1 26.8 a
I12 178.1 63.6 10.415 3.45 126.0 27.4 a
113 222.0 73.6 7.847 2.27 88.5 25.6 s
I14 222.0 73.6 6.239 1.43 49.9 28.7 a
115 222.3 73.6 7,883 2.29 83.4 27.4 a
116 222.1 73.6 8.558 2.70 I01.0 26.7 s
Ill 222.2 73.6 10.313 3.91 116.6 33.6 a
118 222.1 73.6 10.282 3.89 132.3 29,4 a
119 244.4 73.6 6.207 1.42 47.3 30.0 s
120 244.3 73.6 7.799 2.24 71.7 31,2 a
121 244.1 73.6 10.288 3.90 149.5 26,] s
123 244.3 73.6 8.513 2.67 I09.4 24.5 s
124 244.0 73.6 10.291 3.90 161 24.2 s
125 267.1 73.6 6.174 1.40 57.10 24.6 s
126 267.0 73.6 6.238 1.43 45.4 31.5 a
127 267.1 73.6 8.499 2.66 110.4 24.1 s
128 267.1 73.6 7.794 2.24 86.5 25.3 s
129 267.1 73.6 10.271 3,88 151.I 25.7 s
130' 267.0 73.6 9.185 3,10 111.7 27.8 a
132 289.1 73.6 6.151 1.39 48.9 28.5 a
133 289.1 73.6 8.476 2.64 109.7 24.1 s
134 289.0 73.6 9.675 3.44 140 24.6 s
135 289.0 73.6 I0.232 3.85 154.1 25.0 a~s
136 289.1 73.6 7.747 2.21 82.9 26.6 s
I37 lO0.l 63.6 8.728 2.42 83.1 29.1 a
138 100.2 73.b 4.427 0.72 25.7 28.1 a~s
140 100.0 73.6 6.420 1,52 51,8 29.3 a
143 I00.0 73.6 6.487 1.55 49.4 31,4 a
144 I00.0 43.6 9.298 1.88 58.7 32.1 a
[45 100.2 53.6 8.706 2.03 75.4 26.9 s
146 100.0 38.6 10.387 2.08 78.6 26.5 s

*a: asynunetric; s: sym~netric;+: transition mode.

considered necessary. T h e i n c r e a s e in p o t e n t i a l e n e r g y of t e s t s II a n d I24 in

T a b l e I, for e x a m p l e , is a p p r o x i m a t e l y 3 . 0 4 % a n d 2.98%, r e s p e c t i v e l y , w h i c h ,
t h e r e f o r e , i m p l i e s t h a t t h e a v e r a g e d y n a m i c f o r c e in t h e s e c a s e s w a s a b o u t 3%
l a r g e r t h a n t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g v a l u e s g i v e n in T a b l e I.

Two modes of d e f o r m a t i o n are distinguished for t h e square tubes in T a b l e s

I a n d 2.
 Dynamic axial crushing of square tubes IU3

TABLE 2. Experimental data for 2 in. square tubes.

+ 0.06
c = 49.31 _ 0.14 mm and h = 1.63 _+ 0.02 mm

d
Specimen L M V K 6f Pm Mode of
Number (mm) (kg) (m/s) (kJ) (mm) (kN) Deformation*

l 133.3 73.6 6.364 1.49 31.2 47.8 s

2 133.2 73.6 10.698 4.21 76.0 55.4 a
3 133.2 73.6 7.890 2.29 42.74 53.6 a
4 133.2 73.6 6.440 1.53 17.7 86.4
5 133.3 73.6 10.364 3.95 73.3 53.9 a
6 133.2 73.6 9.316 3.19 56.9 56.1 a
7 178.1 73.6 6.301 1.46 23.3 62.7 s
8 178.1 73.6 8.625 2.74 49.9 54.9 a
9 178.1 73.6 7.824 2.25 43.9 51.3 a
lO 178.2 73.6 9.222 3.13 55.8 56.1 a
11 178.1 73.6 10.326 3.92 72.6 54.0 a
12 178.3 73.6 10.319 3.92 69.7 56.2 a
13 222.0 73.6 6.248 1.44 21.7 66.2 s
14 221.0 73.6 8.559 2.70 51.3 52.6 a
15 222.1 73.6 7.788 2.23 47.3 47.2 a
16 222.0 73.6 10.369 3.96 80.7 49.0 s
17 222.3 73,6 10.288 3.90 70.7 55.1 a~s
18 222.2 73.6 9.155 3.08 59.20 52.1 a
19 244.1 73.6 6.207 1.42 27.9~ 50.7 a
20 244.2 73.6 8.556 2.69 44.4 60.7 a
21 244.0 73.6 7.749 2.21 38.7 57.1 s
22 244.4 73.6 10.097 3,75 82.1 45.7 s
23 244.0 73.6 10.269 3.88 75.9 5l.l a+s
25 266.9 73.6 8.511 2.67 50.6 52.7 a
26 267.1 73.6 6.183 1.41 25.9 54.4 a
27 267.1 73.6 7. 722 2.19 47.9 45.R s
28 267.2 73.6 9.136 3.07 58.5 52.5 a
29 267.2 73.6 10.262 3.88 81.9 47.3 s
30 267.1 73.6 9.697 3.46 73.30 47.2 s
31 289.1 73.6 8.488 2.65 53.5 49.6 s
32 289.0 73.6 6.142 1.39 19.85 70.0 s
33 289.0 73.6 7.711 2.19 49.7 44.0 s
35 289.1 73.6 10.230 3.85 74.8 51.5 a
36 289.1 73.6 10.255 3.87 82.7 46.80 s
37 lO0.O 73.6 6.397 1.51 28.9 52.1 s
39 100.I 56.6 10.374 3.05 60.7 50.2 a
40 lO0.1 73.6 10. 381 3.97 81.9 48.4 s
41 100.3 73.6 7.890 2.29 ~3.7 52.4 a
42 lO0.1 73.6 8.631 2.74 57.2 47.9 a
43 100,0 38.6 I0.362 2.07 40.2 51.5 a
44 100.0 56.6 9.844 2.74 50.6 54.2 a
45 I00.0 26.6 9.652 1.24 24.7 50.2 a
46 99.9 26.6 6.374 0.54 4.2 128.7

*a: asymmetric; s: symm~etric;~: transition mode.

Symmetric % deformation, d e n o t e d by 's', is i l l u s t r a t e d by a p a p e r m o d e l in

Fig. 4(a) a n d is an i d e a l i z a t i o n of the a c t u a l b e h a v i o u r s h o w n in Fig. 4(b).
The f i r s t and s u b s e q u e n t i n d i v i d u a l lobes, w h i c h d e v e l o p in this m o d e of defor-
mation, possess similar characteristics w h e t h e r a s q u a r e tube is l o a d e d dynami.
c a l l y or c r u s h e d s t a t i c a l l y as i l l u s t r a t e d in F i g s 5 and 6. It c a n be s h o w n

+The symmetric collapse mode is a quasi-inextensional mode.

184 W. Abramowicz and N. Jones

TABLE 3. Static c o m p r e s s i o n tests o n square tubes.

(Cross-head speed = 1.66 x I0 -s m s -l)

Specimen c h L ps Mode of
m
Number (mm) (mm) (mm) (kN) Deformation

24 49.30 1.625 244.1 35.28 S

34 49.34 1.635 289.1 36.71 S

122 37.li 1.145 244.1 20.75 a

13l 37.11 l .145 289.0 17.90 S

139 37.10 1.155 lO0.1 19.75 S

141 37.06 1.175 100.2 18.50 S

100

80
P
(kN)

~0

ii0

F I G U R E 2.
6'0 8{mm)
8b
Static axial c r u s h i n g load v e r s u s axial d i s p l a c e m e n t for square
b o x c o l u m n n u m b e r 24 (c = 49.30 ran, h = I .625 ram, L = 244.1 ram).
 Dynamic axial crushing of square tubes 185

that the c r u s h i n g load and e n e r g y d i s s i p a t i o n for a square tube with the

s y m m e t r i c mode in Fig. 4(a) remains u n c h a n g e d if the o u t w a r d lobes move inwards
instead of outwards, a l t h o u g h this d e f o r m a t i o n mode was not o b s e r v e d in the
e x p e r i m e n t a l tests. All four i n d i v i d u a l lobes in one layer w o u l d then move
inwards and the b e h a v i o u r is termed s y m m e t r i c since it is r e m i n i s c e n t of the

P
(kN)

I I L i

0 4 8 12 16 20
6 (mm)

FI~JRE 3. Static tensile load-axial displacement curve for specimen number

4 (1.637 mm thick x 10.283 mm wide) cut from the walls of a 49.31 mm square
box column.

T~BLE 4. Tensile test results

Specimen c Elongation Proof ou ou

Number mm % Stress (0.2%) (Average)
MN/m2 MN/m2 MN/m~

1 37.07 31.9 280 331

330.5
2 37.07 33.9 275 330

3 49.31 39.8 261 325

328.5
4 49.31 37.8 268 332
]86 W. A b r a m o w i c z and N. Jones

(a) Paper model.

(b) Specimen No. I31.

FIGL~E 4. Symmetric collapse mode of square box colunns.

 Dynamic axial crushing of square tubes 187

FIGURE 5. Comparison of dynamic and static symmetric collapse modes of

37.07 m m square box columns. Left-hand specimen (I5) was subjected to
an impact velocity of V = 8.963 m s -I . Right-hand specimen (I31) was
loaded statically.

FIGURE 6. Comparison of static and dynamic symmetric collapse modes of

49.31 mm square box columns. Left-hand specimen (38) was loaded stati-
cally. Right-hand specimen (16) was subjected to an impact velocity of
10.369 m s -I.
 188 W. Abramowicz and N. J o n e s

a x i s y m m e t r i c m o d e of b e h a v i o u r a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the a x i a l c r u s h i n g of c i r c u l a r
t u b e s [12,25]. H o w e v e r , for c o n v e n i e n c e , the t e r m s y m m e t r i c m o d e is u s e d a l s o
to d e s c r i b e t h e d e f o r m a t i o n m o d e in Fig. 4(a) (one l a y e r w i t h two o p p o s i t e
l o b e s w h i c h m o v e o u t w a r d s w h i l e the r e m a i n i n g two l o b e s m o v e inwards) as w e l l
as the c a s e w h e n t h r e e l o b e s m o v e i n w a r d s and o n e o u t w a r d s . Thus, the t e r m
s y m m e t r i c d e s c r i b e s t h r e e d i f f e r e n t m o d e s of d e f o r m a t i o n w h i c h , h o w e v e r , h a v e
i d e n t i c a l c r u s h i n g l o a d s and e n e r g y a b s o r p t i o n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .

T h e o t h e r m o d e o f d e f o r m a t i o n i d e n t i f i e d in T a b l e s I a n d 2 is l a b e l l e d 'a'
to d e n o t e asymmetricJ' b e h a v i o u r . In fact, it t r a n s p i r e s t h a t t h e r e are two
d i f f e r e n t a s y m m e t r i c m i x e d m o d e s w h i c h are i d e n t i f i e d as t y p e s A and B in
F i g s 7 and 8, r e s p e c t i v e l y . If the f i r s t l a y e r of l o b e s to f o r m in this type
of d e f o r m a t i o n is a s y m m e t r i c o n e (i.e. l o w e r l o b e s in F i g s 7a and 8a) t h e n an
a s y m m e t r i c l a y e r d e v e l o p s n e x t as i n d i c a t e d bv the u p p e r l o b e s in F i g s 7(a) and
8(a) . T h i s s e q u e n c e of lobe f o r m a t i o n is r e p e a t e d w i t h the s a m e p a t t e r n for
f u r t h e r d e f o r m a t i o n s , a l t h o u g h o c c a s i o n a l l y the i n d i v i d u a l l o b e s in the a s y m -
metric mode change position.

FIGURE 7. Asymmetric mixed collapse mode A. (a) Paper model. (b) S p e c i m e n No. 6.

T h e s y m m e t r i c m o d e s of d e f o r m a t i o n for s q u a r e t u b e s h a v e a l a y e r w i t h four
i n d i v i d u a l l o b e s d e f o r m i n g i n w a r d s , t h r e e l o b e s i n w a r d s and o n e o u t w a r d s , or
two o p p o s i t e l o b e s d e f o r m i n g i n w a r d s w i t h the o t h e r t w o o p p o s i t e l o b e s d e f o r m i n g
outwards. T h i s s h o u l d b e c o n t r a s t e d w i t h an a s y m m e t r i c m o d e of d e f o r m a t i o n
w h i c h has a l a y e r w i t h t h r e e i n d i v i d u a l l o b e s d e f o r m i n g o u t w a r d s and one in-
w a r d s ( a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a s y m m e t r i c m i x e d m o d e A) , or t w o a d j a c e n t l o b e s d e f o r m i n g
o u t w a r d s w i t h the o t h e r two a d j a c e n t l o b e s d e f o r m i n g i n w a r d s ( a s s o c i a t e d w i t h
a s y m m e t r i c m i x e d m o d e B) .

T h e a s y m m e t r y of the d e f o r m a t i o n m o d e s in F i g s 7 and 8 g l v e s r i s e to an
i n c l i n a t i o n of t h e u n d e f o r m e d p a r t of the c o l u m n r e l a t i v e to t h e v e r t i c a l axis.
An i n c l i n a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e u p p e r a n d l o w e r e d g e s of a lobe is e v i d e n t in the
h i g h - s p e e d f i l m in Fig. 9. A t r a n s i t i o n f r o m p r o g r e s s i v e a x i a l c r u s h i n g to
o v e r a l l b e n d i n g t h e r e f o r e c o u l d o c c u r in a c o l u m n if s u f f i c i e n t a s y m m e t r i c
l o b e s d e v e l o p e d to p r o d u c e i n s t a b i l i t y in t h e s e n s e of E u l e r . Overall bending
as a r e s u l t of t h i s p h e n o m e n o n is s h o w n in Fig. 10 f o r s q u a r e t u b e s h a v i n g
various lengths. It a p p e a r s t h a t t h i s f a i l u r e m o d e d o e s n o t d e p e n d on the
i n i t i a l l e n g t h of a s q u a r e t u b e but, p o s s i b l y , is r e l a t e d to the p r e s e n c e of
initial imperfections.

%The asy~netric mixed collapse modes are quasi-extensional modes.

 Dynamic axial c r u s h i n g of square tubes 189

FIGURE 8. Asyll~etric m i x e d c o l l a p s e mode B. (a) PaFer model.(b) SFecimen No. 122

A t r a n s i t i o n to overall b e n d i n g of a square tube may also develop following

s y m m e t r i c c r u s h i n g (Fig. 4) as i l l u s t r a t e d in Fig. 11. The symmetric crushing
i n t r o d u c e s deflections, or d i s t u r b a n c e s , into the u n c r u s h e d part of a column,
which act as i m p e r f e c t i o n s and p r o d u c e overall bending and e v e n t u a l l y failure.

FIGURE 9. Frame from a high-speed film taken during response of specimen

No. 2 showing inclination of initially horizontal plastic hinges at top
and bottom of an asymmetric lobe.
190 W. A b r a m o w i c z and N. Jones

FIGURE I0. Overall bending initiated by asymmetric deformation mode for

specimens I18, I17, I40 and 42.

FIC4JRE 11. InitiatiGn of transition to an Euler type of instability after

the development of symmetric lobes.

q, THEORETICAL DETAILS
4.1. Introduction

TO the authors' k n o w l e d g e , the a s y m m e t r i c m i x e d d e f o r m a t i o n m o d e s A and B

i d e n t i f i e d in Figs 7 and 8, r e s p e c t i v e l y , for the axial c r u s h i n g of some square
tubes e x a m i n e d in this study, have not been r e p o r t e d p r e v i o u s l y . A theoretical
study of the c o l l a p s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e s e d e f o r m a t i o n modes is developed
in this s e c t i o n t o g e t h e r w i t h some remarks on the e f f e c t i v e c r u s h i n g distance
and m a t e r i a l strain rate sensitivity.
 Dynamic axial crushing of square tubes 191

4.2. Basic collapse elements

A s i m p l i f i e d k i n e m a t i c a l m e t h o d of a n a l y s i s w h i c h is capable of e s t i m a t i n g the
c r u s h i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h i n - w a l l e d metal structures has been d e v e l o p e d
r e c e n t l y in Refs [14-16,18]. The p a r t i c u l a r studies in Refs [15] and [16]
focus on the b e h a v i o u r of two b a s i c folding or collapse e l e m e n t s w h i c h are
i d e n t i f i e d as types I and II in Fig. 12. The importance of the t h e o r e t i c a l

, & %..." ,
P" ....... 2 . "

(Q)

(b)
FIGUI~F. 12. Basic collapse elements. (a) Type I. (b) Type II.

p r o c e d u r e r e p o r t e d in Refs [14-16,18] lies in its r i g o r o u s k i n e m a t i c a l a p p r o a c h

and the r e t e n t i o n of e x t e n s i o n a l as well as b e n d i n g c o n t r i b u t i o n s to the e n e r g y
dissipation. The b a s i c e l e m e n t s in Fig. 12 were used to p r e d i c t the axial
c o l l a p s e b e h a v i o u r of a c r u c i f o r m m e m b e r in Ref. [15] and one kind of c o l l a p s e
(symmetric) of r e c t a n g u l a r and square box c o l u m n s in Ref. [16]. It t r a n s p i r e s
that the e x t e n s i o n a l d e f o r m a t i o n s , t h o u g h h i g h l y l o c a l i z e d in both cases,
d i s s i p a t e at least o n e - t h i r d of the total energy.
192 W. Abramowicz and N. Jones

it was shown in Ref. [16] that the e n e r g y a b s o r b e d in the type I b a s i c

f o l d i n g e l e m e n t s h o w n in Fig. 12(a) w i t h c l a m p e d u p p e r and lower edges is

E I = M0(16HI1b/h * 2~c + 413H2/b), (1)

where 11 = 0.555 and 13 = 1.148. H is d e f i n e d in Fig. 12 a n d b is the r a d i u s

of the t o r o i d a l shell element in the k i n e m a t i c a l l y admissible velocity field
[15,16] .

S i m i l a r l y , the i n t e r n a l energy absorption of the type II b a s i c folding

e l e m e n t s h o w n in Fig. 12(b) is [15]

E 2 = M0(8H2/h + 2~c + 4H) . (2)

4.3. Sym~letric collapse mode

The i d e a l i z e d s y m m e t r i c c o l l a p s e m o d e in Fig. 4 for a s q u a r e tube w i t h wall

t h i c k n e s s h c o n s i s t s of four type I e l e m e n t s each of w h i c h a b s o r b s the e n e r g y
p r e d i c t e d by e q u a t i o n (I). T h i s p a r t i c u l a r c a s e was e x a m i n e d in R e f e r e n c e
[16]. The e x t e r n a l w o r k was e q u a t e d to i n t e r n a l work, then m i n i m i z e d with
r e s p e c t to b and H to p r e d i c t the m e a n s t a t i c c r u s h i n g load (Pm)

Pm/M0 = 38.12 (c/h) I/3 (3)

with
H/h = 0.99 (c/h) 2/3 (4a)
and
b/h = 0.72 (c/h) I/3, (4b)

where M 0 = d0h2/4. 2H is s h o w n in Fig. 12a and is the initial axial separation

b e t w e e n the l o c a t i o n s of the plastic hinges at the top and bottom edges of a
basic folding element.

4.4. Asymmetric mixed collapse mode A

It w a s o b s e r v e d in s e c t i o n 3 t h a t some of the s q u a r e tubes l i s t e d in T a b l e s I

and 2 d e v e l o p e d the a s y m m e t r i c m i x e d d e f o r m a t i o n m o d e A w h i c h is i n d i c a t e d in
Fig. 7. R e p e a t e d p a t t e r n s of p a i r s of lobes d e v e l o p e d in this case and, as
far as the a u t h o r s are aware, this type of b e h a v i o u r has b e e n n e i t h e r r e p o r t e d
p r e v i o u s l y nor s t u d i e d t h e o r e t i c a l l y . H o w e v e r , the p a t t e r n of d e f o r m a t i o n
i n d i c a t e d by the p a p e r m o d e l in Fig. 7(a) m a y be c o n s t r u c t e d from two layers
h a v i n g c o m b i n a t i o n s of the two b a s i c f o l d i n g e l e m e n t s I and II s t u d i e d in Refs
[15] and [16] and s h o w n in Fig. 12.

It is e v i d e n t t h a t the a s y m m e t r i c m i x e d d e f o r m a t i o n m o d e A in Fig. 7 con-

s i s t s of two l a y e r s w i t h a total i n i t i a l h e i g h t 4H and six type I and two type
II b a s i c f o l d i n g e l e m e n t s s h o w n in Fig. 12. Thus, e q u a t i n g the i n t e r n a l e n e r g y
absorption (6E I + 2E 2) to the e x t e r n a l w o r k (Pm4H) g i v e s the m e a n s t a t i c c r u s h i n g
load ( P )
m
Pm/M0 = 2411b/h + 4~c/H + 613H/b + 4H/h + 2 (5)

w h e n a s s u m i n g that H and b are the same for the symmetric and asymmetric layers
p r e s e n t in the d e f o r m a t i o n m o d e A.

Equation (5) can be e x p r e s s e d in the form

Pm/M 0 = A1b/h + A2c/H + A3H/b + A4H/h + A5 (6)

 Dynamic axial crushing of s q u a r e tubes 193

which, when minimized with respect to the parameters b and H, g i v e s

H/h = (AI/A3) (b/h)2 (7)

and
2 -I}I/3
b/h = { ( A 2 A 3 / A I ) (c/h) (I + x 0 A 4 / A 3) (8)

where x 0 = b/h. Thus, equation (6) b e c o m e s

-1}1/3
Pm/M0 = 3(1 + x0A4/3A3){A1A2A3(c/h)(1 + x0A4/A3)

+ A4{(A22/A1A3)(c/h)2(1 + x 0 A 4 / A 3 ) - 2 } 1/3 + A 5. (9)

The form of e q u a t i o n (9) w a s first r e p o r t e d by H a y d u k and W i e r z b i c k i in

Reference [15]. H o w e v e r , it was d e v e l o p e d in Ref. [15] for an a x i a l l y c r u s h e d
c r u c i f o r m s e c t i o n , w h e r e a s e q u a t i o n (9) h e r e is d e v e l o p e d for the type A m o d e
of d e f o r m a t i o n for a s q u a r e tube w h i c h is i n d i c a t e d in Fig. 7(a) . The n u m e r i c a l
v a l u e s of the c o e f f i c i e n t s A2, A 4 and A 5 are the same but A I and A 3 are d i f f e r e n t

Equation (8) can be s o l v e d u s i n g the m e t h o d of s u c c e s s i v e a p p r o x i m a t i o n s

a l t h o u g h the f i r s t i t e r a t i o n is a d e q u a t e for the test s p e c i m e n s e x a m i n e d in
this study. It is s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d to s h o w that x 0 ~ 1.9 w h e n c/h = 31 w h i c h
is an a v e r a g e v a l u e for the s p e c i m e n s in T a b l e s I and 2. In this case, equa-
t i o n s (9), (7) and (8) r e s p e c t i v e l y p r e d i c t

Pm/M0 = 3 3 . 5 8 ( c / h ) I/3 + 2.92(c/h) 2/3 + 2, (10)

2/3
H/h = 0.73(c/h) (11)
and
b/h = 0.61(c/h) 1/3 (12)

4.5. Asymmetric mixed collapse mode B

A s far as the a u t h o r s are aware, the a s y m m e t r i c m i x e d d e f o r m a t i o n m o d e B s h o w n

in Fig. 8 has not b e e n s t u d i e d p r e v i o u s l y . H o w e v e r , it is e v i d e n t t h a t it
c o n s i s t s of two l a y e r s w i t h a t o t a l i n i t i a l h e i g h t 4H and s e v e n type I and one
t y p e II b a s i c f o l d i n g e l e m e n t s in Fig. 12. Thus, e q u a t i n g the i n t e r n a l e n e r g y
absorption (7E I ÷ E 2) to the e x t e r n a l work (Pm4H) g i v e s the m e a n c r u s h i n g load

Pm/M0 = 2811b/h + 4~c/H + 713H/b ÷ 2H/h ÷ I. (13)

Equation (13) m a y be r e c a s t into the f o r m of e q u a t i o n (6) f r o m w h i c h e q u a t i o n s

(7) - (9) f o l l o w e x c e p t n o w the c o e f f i c i e n t s A I to A 5 c o r r e s p o n d to t h o s e in
equation (13).

The m e t h o d of s u c c e s s i v e approximations a g a i n m a y be u s e d to s h o w t h a t
equation (8) g i v e s x 0 ~ 2.01 w h e n c/h = 31 for the test s p e c i m e n s in T a b l e s I
and 2. In this circumstance, equations (9), (7) and (8) p r e d i c t

Pm/M0 = 3 5 . 5 4 ( c / h ) I/3 + 1.65(c/h) 2/3 + I, (14)

H/h = 0 . 8 3 ( c / h ) 2/3 (15)

and
b/h = 0 . 6 5 ( c / h ) I/3, (16)

respectively.
194 W. A b r a m o w i c z and N. Jones

4.6. Extensional collapse mode

This p a r t i c u l a r c o l l a p s e mode was not o b s e r v e d in any of the tests in Tables I

and 2, but it is r e p o r t e d here for c o m p l e t e n e s s . It c o n s i s t s of one layer
with four type II e l e m e n t s shown in Fig. 12. Thus, e q u a t i n g the internal
e n e r g y a b s o r p t i o n (4E 2) to the e x t e r n a l work (Pm2H) gives

Pm/M0 : 16H/h + 4zc/H + 8 (17

whi c h when m i n i m i z e d with respect to H gives

H/h : (~c/4h) I/2 (18

Finally,
Pm/M0 = 16/n(c/h) I/2 + 8 (19

and
H/h = 0.886(c/h) I/2 (20)

4.7. Effective crushin 9 distance

Recently, it was shown in Ref. [17] that the e f f e c t i v e c r u s h i n g d i s t a n c e is

70% of the initial l e n g t h for a x i a l l y c r u s h e d box columns with the symmetric
d e f o r m a t i o n mode i l l u s t r a t e d in Fig. 4. This value was o b t a i n e d by idealizing
the c o r n e r c o l l a p s e of a box c o l u m n and a s s u m i n g that the d e f o r m a t i o n s shown in
Fig. 4(b) are the result of b e n d i n g about two o r t h o g o n a l axes.

A flat metal sheet is first folded about an axis which lies in the sheet
and p a s s e s t h r o u g h the centre p a r a l l e l to an edge. This folded sheet is then
bent a b o u t an o r t h o g o n a l axis which lies in the sheet and passes through the
centre.

A flat sheet at a c o r n e r of an actual box c o l u m n is not c o m p l e t e l y flattened.

The initial flat surfaces, when made from a linear strain h a r d e n i n g material,
bow, and a t o r o i d a l surface d e v e l o p s as i n d i c a t e d in Fig. 4(b) for an actual
square column. As m e n t i o n e d earlier, it was found in Ref. [17] that this
b e h a v i o u r gives rise to an e f f e c t i v e c r u s h i n g d i s t a n c e 61 = 0.70 x 2H for the
s y m m e t r i c d e f o r m a t i o n mode in Figs 4 and 12(a).

It is e v i d e n t from an e x a m i n a t i o n of the test specimens in this study that

the d i m e n s i o n s of the initial flat metal sheet from which a c o r n e r d e v e l o p s is
H//2 x 2/2H r a t h e r than 2/2H x 2/2H w h i c h was assumed in Ref. [17] .t In this
c i r c u m s t a n c e , the e f f e c t i v e axial c r u s h i n g d i s t a n c e of a box column with a
s y m m e t r i c d e f o r m a t i o n mode (Fig. 4), or type I basic c o l l a p s e element in Fig.
12, is

61/2H = 0.73 (21)

w h e n using the t h e o r e t i c a l procedure developed in Ref. [17]. A similar procedure

leads to

62/2H =0.77 (22)

for the type II basic collapse element in Fig. 12(b) .

E q u a t i o n (21) for s y m m e t r i c c r u s h i n g is in fair a g r e e m e n t with the average

of 0.75 o b s e r v e d d u r i n g static tests on the four 37 m m square box c o l u m n s in
T a b l e 3, one of w h i c h is shown in Fig. 13.

%An exami~ticn of the lobes in test specimen nuraber I31 in Table 3 gives an average width
of 8.72 mm which is nearly 7% larger than H///22 = 8.16 mm according to equation (4a) .
 Dynamic axial c r u s h i n g of square tubes 195

FIGURE 13. Specimen I31 before and after crushing statically.

The type A and type B a s y m m e t r i c mixed d e f o r m a t i o n modes in Figs 7 and 8,

r e s p e c t i v e l y , involve both type I and type II basic c o l l a p s e e l e m e n t s shown in
Fig. 12. However, these two basic e l e m e n t s have d i f f e r e n t axial c r u s h i n g
d i s t a n c e s a c c o r d i n g to e q u a t i o n s (21) and (22). Thus, a column may tilt during
axial c r u s h i n g as i l l u s t r a t e d in Fig. 14 for type A and type B asymmetric m i x e d
c o l l a p s e modes. This p h e n o m e n o n leads to a m o d i f i e d e f f e c t i v e c r u s h i n g distance
as well as an i n c r e a s e d l i k e l i h o o d of overall instability.

Now, the e f f e c t i v e c r u s h i n g d i s t a n c e for the idealized column in Fig. 14 is

6 e = 61 + A, (23)

where
A = L + 62-61-Lcos8 (24)
and
sin8 = (62-6 I) /c (25)
190 k. A b r d m o w i c z and N. J o n e s

for a type A a s y m m e t r i c m i x e d c o l l a p s e mode. E q u a t i o n s (23) and (24) are also

v a l i d for a type B a s y m m e t r i c mixed collapse mode e x c e p t n o w

sin8 : /2 (~%2-61) /c (26)

and ~ lies in a v e r t i c a l p l a n e w h i c h p a s s e d t h r o u g h the d i a g o n a l of the square

cross-section. It may be s h o w n w h e n a s s u m i n g sin~ ~ ~ and cos~ ]-ig~/2 that

($A,/2H : 0.77 + (0.04) 2 (L/c) (H/c) (27)

and
6B/2H = 0.77 + (0.057) 2 (L/c) (H/c) (28)

for the d e v e l o p m e n t of the first lobe in the type A and type B a s y m m e t r i c m i x e d

d e f o r m a t i o n mo d e s , r e s p e c t i v e l y . F i n a l l y , e q u a t i o n s (27) and (28) with H from
e q u a t i o n s (11) and (15) g i v e

6A/2H = 0.77 + 0.0016(L/c){0.73(h/c) I/3}n 2 (29)

and
6B/2H = 0.77 ÷ 0.0032(L/c){0.83(h/c)I/3}n 2 (30)

for a s q u a r e c o l u m n w i t h type A and type B m i x e d c o l l a p s e modes, respectively,

and h a v i n g n a s y m m e t r i c lobes (type II).

l-- K _j
q

I
(Q) (b)

FIGURE 14. Idealized column with asymmetric mixed collapse mode. (a)
Initial position. (b) Deformed position after the development of one
asymmetric lobe (K = c and K = c//2 for type A and type B asymmetric
mixed collapse modes, respectively).
 Dynamic axial c r u s h i n g of square tubes 197

Equations (27) and (28) may be r e p l a c e d by

6A/2H ~ 0.77 and 6B/2H ~ 0.77 (31a,b)

when c/h > 6 and L/c < 8.

The mean c r u s h i n g forces (Pm) e v a l u a t e d in Refs [14-16] and [18] and in

sections 4.3 - 4.6 were o b t a i n e d by a s s u m i n g that the collapse m e c h a n i s m s shown
in Figs 4, 7, 8 and 12 were c r u s h e d an axial d i s t a n c e 2H. However, e q u a t i o n s
(21), (22), (27) and (28) show that the axial crushing is less than 2H. Thus,
it is a s s u m e d that the mean c r u s h i n g force is

P m = Et/~e' (32)

approximately, w h e r e E t is the total energy a b s o r b e d during the development of

one lobe and 6e < 2H is the e f f e c t i v e axial c r u s h i n g distance.

Equations (3), (21) and (32) predict a d i m e n s i o n l e s s mean crushing load

Pm/S0 = 52.22(c/h) I/3 (33)

for a square c o l u m n w i t h the symmetric mode of d e f o r m a t i o n in Fig. 4. Similarly,

e q u a t i o n s (10), (14), (31) and (32) predict mean c r u s h i n g loads

Pro/M0 = 43.61(c/h) I/3 + 3.79(c/h) 2/3 + 2.6 (34)

and
Pro/M0 = 46.16(c/h) I/3 + 2.14(c/h) 2/3 + 1.3 (35)

for a s y m m e t r i c mixed c o l l a p s e modes A and B, respectively. Finally, equations

(19), (22) and (32) predict that

Pro/M0 = 36.83(c/h) 1/2 + 10.39 (36)

for a square c o l u m n with an e x t e n s i o n a l c o l l a p s e mode.

4.8. Material strain rate effects

The empirical C o w p e r - S y m o n d s u n i a x i a l c o n s t i t u t i v e equation

~od/~0 = I + (~/D) I/p (37)

is w i d e l y used to assess m a t e r i a l strain rate effects in structures. Equation

(37), w i t h the c u s t o m a r y c o e f f i c i e n t s D = 40.4 s -I and p = 5 for mild steel,
is o b t a i n e d from e x p e r i m e n t a l tests on specimens having r e l a t i v e l y small
strains in the n e i g h b o u r h o o d of the yield stress [22].

It is shown in Ref. [26] that the average strain during rolling d e f o r m a t i o n s

is £ = h/4b, approximately. This e x p r e s s i o n t o g e t h e r with equations (4b) ,
av
(12) and (16), which give b for the symmetric and asymmetric m i x e d collapse
modes A and B, respectively, predict strains lying between 11.2% and 13.0% for
the square tubes listed in Tables I and 2. An i n s p e c t i o n of the static tensile
c u r v e for the tube m a t e r i a l in Fig. 3 reveals that the stresses a s s o c i a t e d with
strains of this m a g n i t u d e are similar to the c o r r e s p o n d i n g ultimate tensile
stresses (Ou) . However, the results in Fig. 15 show that the following form
of e q u a t i o n (37)

a u d/°u = 1 + (E/6844) I/3"91 (38)

198 ½. A b r a m o w i c z and N. J o n e s

fits the e x p e r i m e n t a l d a t a for the u l t i m a t e stresses of the steel specimens

examined by C a m p b e l l and C o o p e r [27].

It is a s s u m e d that e q u a t i o n s (33) - (36) are v a l i d for the q u a s i - s t a t i c

b e h a v i o u r of box c o l u m n s w i t h 00 r e p l a c e d bv o for a s t r a i n rate i n s e n s i t i v e
d - u
m a t e r i a l , w h i l e d u is r e p l a c e d by 0u f r o m e q u a t i o n (38) w h e n the m a t e r i a l is
strain rate sensitive. Thus, the d y n a m i c crushing load (Pm d) is r e l a t e d to the
mean static crushing load (%) by the equation

Pmd/Pm = 1 + (~/6844) I/3"91 (39)

where Pm is g i v e n by e q u a t i o n s (33) - (36) with the y i e l d stress (o 0) replaced

by the ultimate tensile stress (@u) obtained from a tensile test conducted at
a strain rate of 2 x 10 -4 s -I.

An e s t i m a t e for the a y e r a g e s t r a i n rate in an a x i a l l y c r u s h e d s q u a r e tube

is g i v e n in Ref. [21] as c ~ h V m / 4 b H . This e x p r e s s i o n may be r e p l a c e d by

~ = hVm/2b6 (40)

in o r d e r to c o m p e n s a t e for the e f f e c t i v e crushing distance ~ being smaller than

2H as d i s c u s s e d in s e c t i o n 4.7.

The rolling radius b associated w i t h the t o r o i d a l d e f o r m a t i o n s u r f a c e

varies during progressive crushing. Equations (4b) , (12) and (16) give m e a n
v a l u e s for b, w h i l e the final v a l u e of b (bf) s h o u l d be used in e q u a t i o n (40)
for e s t i m a t i n g the a v e r a g e strain rate. The theoretical analysis in A p p e n d i x
I predicts

6O

d
%
( kg/mm 2)
~0
A

2O

oi I I I
-2 .0 2
log e

FIGURE 15. Variation of ultimate tensile stress (o d) with strain rate

u
(~). • Experimental data [27] . - - Equation (38).
 Dynamic axial crushing of square tubes 199

bf/h = 0.53(c/h) I/3 (41)

bf/h = 0.45(c/h) I/3 (42)

and
bf/h = 0.48(c/h) I/3 (43)

for the s y m m e t r i c mode, a s y m m e t r i c m i xe d c o l l a p s e mode A and a s y m m e t r i c mixed

c o l l a p s e mode B, r e s p e c t i v e l y . Equation (40) may now be written

e = hVm/2bf6. (44)

v m in e q u a t i o n s (40) and (44) is the mean velocity of the striking mass during
crushing. The v a r i a t i o n of the s t r i k i n g mass v e l o c i t y after i m p a c t is shown
in Fig. 16 for one specimen. The mean v e l o c i t y in this case is V/2.051, w h e r e

V is the initial v e l o c i t y at impact. Five similar records, some of w h i c h were

o b t a i n e d using a high speed camera and o t h e r s with the aid of a laser d o p p l e r
system, gave a mean v a l u e v = V/2.02, or
m

v ~ V/2. (45)
m

However, it should be r e m a r k e d that the e x p e r i m e n t a l data e x h i b i t e d a fair

a m o u n t of scatter and the a v e r a g e factor 2.02 was o b t a i n e d from six factors
wh i c h r a n g e d from 1.65 to 2.43. A linear v a r i a t i o n in v e l o c i t y from the impact
v e l o c i t y V to zero v e l o c i t y when m o t i o n c e a s e s w o u l d give e q u a t i o n (45). In
this case, the d e c e l e r a t i o n and dynamic c r u s h i n g force w o u l d remain c o n s t a n t
t h r o u g h o u t crushing.

Equations (44) and (45) give

V
(ms)

0
0 7 14 21 28 35
t(ms)

FIGURE 16. Variation of velocity of mass after striking specimen number

I21 (velocities are found from a high speed film). -4-- Experimental data.
.... Best curve fit.
200 W. A b r a m o w i c z and N. Jones

a ~ hV/4bf~, (46)

which t o g e t h e r with e q u a t i o n s (4a), (11), (15), (21), (31), (41) - (43) predicts

= 0.33 V/c, (47)

= 0.49 V/c (48)

and
E = 0.41 V/c (49)

for a s y m m e t r i c mode, a s y m m e t r i c mixed collapse mode A and a s y m m e t r i c mixed

c o l l a p s e mode B, respectively.

Finally, e q u a t i o n s (33) - (35), (39) and (47) - (49) give the m e a n dynamic
c r u s h i n g loads

Pmd/M0 = 52.22 {I + (0.33V/cD)I/P} (c/h) I/3 50)

Pmd/M0 = {I + (0.49V/cD) I/P}{43.61(c/h) I/3

+ 3.79(c/h) 2/3 + 2.6} 51)

and
Pmd/M0 = {I + (0.41V/cD) 1/P}{46.16(c/h) I/3

+ 2.14(c/h) 2/3 + 1.30} 52)

for the symmetric, a s y m m e t r i c mixed c o l l a p s e mode A and ' a s y m m e t r i c mixed

c o l l a p s e mode B, respectively, and where D = 6844 s -I and p = 3.91 for the
present tests a c c o r d i n g to e q u a t i o n s (37) and (38).

5, DISCUSSION

The a p p r o x i m a t e t h e o r e t i c a l p r e d i c t i o n s of equations (33) - (36) for axially

c r u s h e d square box columns are shown in Fig. 17 for the symmetric, asymmetric
m i x e d c o l l a p s e mode A, a s y m m e t r i c mixed c o l l a p s e mode B and e x t e n s i o n a l modes,
respectively• E x t e n s i o n a l c o l l a p s e modes govern the static p r o g r e s s i v e behav-
iour of thick square columns w i t h c/h < 2.2, approximately, except for c/h ~ 0.
However, the m e a n c o l l a p s e modes for e x t e n s i o n a l b e h a v i o u r are c o n s i d e r a b l y
larger than those a s s o c i a t e d with the other three collapse modes when c/h > 10,
approximately. This e x p l a i n s why no e x t e n s i o n a l collapse modes were observed
in the current test series on square tubes with c/h ~ 31.

It is e v i d e n t that the a s y m m e t r i c mixed c o l l a p s e mode A does not control

the p r o g r e s s i v e c r u s h i n g of square tubes within the range of c/h in Fig. 17.
The a s y m m e t r i c mixed c o l l a p s e mode B has the smallest a s s o c i a t e d mean c r u s h i n g
load when 2.2 < c/h < 17.5, a p p r o x i m a t e l y , while the symmetric mode governs
the b e h a v i o u r for t h i n n e r square tubes with c/h > 17.5, approximately. However,
the mean static c r u s h i n g loads a s s o c i a t e d with the symmetric mode and the two
a s y m m e t r i c mixed modes are similar over the entire range of c/h in Fig. 17.
Indeed, the mean static c r u s h i n g loads a s s o c i a t e d with the symmetric mode and
the a s y m m e t r i c m i x e d mode B are v i r t u a l l y i n d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e , from a p r a c t i c a l
viewpoint, when c/h ~ 31.

E x p e r i m e n t a l data on the statlc axial c r u s h i n g of box columns is c o l l e c t e d

in Fig. 3.8 of Ref. [18] and Fig. 4.4 of Ref. [24]. This data is plotted in
Fig. 18 t o g e t h e r with the r e l a t i o n s

= 1.42 (o0/Ou)~ 2/3 (53)

and
= 1.4~ 0"8 (54)
 D y n a m i c axial c r u s h i n g of square tubes 201

a c c o r d i n g to Refs [18] and [24], respectively, where a 0 is the average flow

stress, ~ = Pm/4Chau, or n = P m / 4 C h a u, is known as structural e f f e c t i v e n e s s and
= 4hc/c 2 is the r e l a t i v e d e n s i t y or s o l i d i t y ratio. Equation (53) was d e r i v e d
theoretically, while E q u a t i o n (54) is an e m p i r i c a l fit to the e x p e r i m e n t a l data.

E q u a t i o n (33) for the static symmetric c r u s h i n g of square box columns may

be cast into the d i m e n s i o n l e s s form

= 1.30 (a0/au)~ 2/3 (55)

and gives good a g r e e m e n t w i t h the e x p e r i m e n t a l results in Fig. 18. The assoc-

iated value of H a c c o r d i n g to e q u a t i o n (4a) is identical to equation (7.2) in
Ref. [16] and, therefore, gives e x c e l l e n t a g r e e m e n t w i t h the e x p e r i m e n t a l
results in Fig. 9 of Ref. [16].

Meng ~t al. [28] have r e c e n t l y e x a m i n e d the static axial crushing of square

box c o l u m n s and d e v e l o p e d an i n e x t e n s i o n a l a n a l y s i s which predicts that

Pm/M0 ~ 32/3, (56a)

or
n = (o0/au)¢. (56b)

Equation (56a) is i n d e p e n d e n t of the ratio c/h, unlike e q u a t i o n s (33) - (36),

I I
I i

I
I
I
I
I

20( i
i
I
i

I
I

Mo

10(

/
I

o 1o 2a
c_
h

FIGURE 17. Variation of dimensionless mean static crushing loads of

square box columns with c/h.
: Equaticn (33) (symmetric).
..... : Equation (34) (asymmetric mixed mode A).
........ : Equation (35) (asymmetric mixed mode B).
.... : Equation (36) (extensional).
202 ~. A b r a m o w i c z and N. Jones

while equation (56b) is linear in c o n t r a d i s t i n c t i o n to e q u a t i o n s (53) - (55).

The a p p r o x i m a t e t h e o r e t i c a l p r e d i c t i o n s a s s o c i a t e d with the symmetric mode

(equation 50) and a s y m m e t r i c m i x e d mode B (equation 52) are p r e s e n t e d in Fig.
19 for the 37.07 m m square tubes in Table I. These t h e o r e t i c a l results are
c o r r e c t e d for both the e f f e c t i v e c r u s h i n g d i s t a n c e and material strain rate
s e n s i t i v i t y as d i s c u s s e d in sections 4.7 and 4.8, respectively. However, the
c o r r e c t i o n for m a t e r i a l strain rate s e n s i t i v i t y a c c o r d i n g to e q u a t i o n (39) is
very crude and r e q u i r e s further development. The c o r r e c t i o n for e f f e c t i v e
c r u s h i n g d i s t a n c e also r e q u i r e s further study. Similar c o m p a r i s o n s are made
in Fig. 20 for the 49.31 mm square tube results r e p o r t e d in Table 2.

It is evident from the trend of the e x p e r i m e n t a l data in Figs 19 and 20

that the mean d y n a m i c c r u s h i n g loads for square columns u n d e r g o i n g symmetric
d e f o r m a t i o n s are s m a l l e r than those having a s y m m e t r i c c o l l a p s e modes which
agrees with the t h e o r e t i c a l p r e d i c t i o n s in Fig. 17.

The e x p e r i m e n t a l results in Tables 1 and 2 are n o r m a l i z e d with respect to

the c o r r e s p o n d i n g e x p e r i m e n t a l static c o l l a p s e loads in Table 3 and c o m p a r e d
in Figs 21 and 22 with the t h e o r e t i c a l p r e d i c t i o n s of e q u a t i o n s (50) and (52).

O h k u b o ct aZ. [11] studied the d y n a m i c axial c r u s h i n g of c o l u m n s with

c l o s e d hat box sections, of w h i c h square tubes are a special case, and found
the e m p i r i c a l r e l a t i o n

Pmd/Pm = 1 + 0.0668 V, (57)

wh e r e V is m e a s u r e d in metres per second.

10

08
/
f

06

04

02

0 "~'3"'5 '" , J I
0 0-I 02 0"3 0"4

FIGURE 18. Static axial crushing of square box oolumns. 0, A, FI:

experimental data from three test programmes taken from Fig. 3.8 in
Reference [18].
+: Experimental results from Table 3.
...... : Equation (53) with o0/o u = I.
Equation (54).
Equation (55) with o0/Ou = I.
......... : Equation (56b) with o0/o u = I.
 Dynamic axial crushing of square tubes 203

30 o,'X

c:~ 000 A A
cP
m,
. . . . . . . . . . o~ - - 8- - - -d~"~ "2~ 2
(kN)
201

10

0 I I I I
0 2.5 5.0 7,5 10.0
V (m/s)
FIGURE 19. Variation of mean dynamic crushing loads with impact velocity
for 37.07 mm square tubes.
0: experimental results with symmetric collapse mode.
A: experimental results with .asymmetric collapse mode.
I: equation (33) or (50) for a strain rate insensitive material.
- - 2: equation (50).
.... 3: equation (35) or (52) for a strain rate insensitive material.
.... 4: equation (52).
o
0
0
60
p d -d 0 ~A A A
~,, P,~
~Xo /, & A
(kN) -- ~ - - - -~- % .... o_ ~-o~ - - 42

40

2C

0 I
o 2.s slo 71s I0.
V (mls)
FI~JRE 20. Variation of mean dynamic crushing loads with impact velocity
for 49.31 mm square tubes.
0: experimental results with symmetric collapse mode.
A: experimental results with asymmetric collapse mode.
I: equation (33) or (50) for strain rate insensitive material.
L . 2: equation (50).
..... 3: equation (35) or (52) for a strain rate insensitive material.
4: equation (52).
204 VV. Abramowicz and N. J o n e s

o A
~5
1-5
~sd d
m%

1.0

0.5

i I i
0 2-5 5"0 7'5 10"0
V (m/s)
FIGURE 21. Variation of dynamic to static mean crushing load ratio with
impact velocity for 37.07 mm squaz~ tubes.
0: experimental results with symmetric collapse mode.
A: experimental results with asymmetric collapse mode.
X: experimental results from Ref. [29].
.... I: equations (33) or (60) and (35) or (62) for a strain rate
insensitive material.
- - 2: equation (60).
3: equaticm (62 ) .

Equation (57) is c o m p a r e d in Fig. 23 w i t h the e m p i r i c a l equation

Pmd/Pm = I + 0.07 V 0 . 8 2 (58)

d u e to W i m m e r [10] for s q u a r e b o x c o l u m n s w i t h 50 x 50 m m c r o s s - s e c t i o n s and

1.5 mm t h i c k and w i t h V in m s -I. W i e r z b i c k i et al. [29] d e v e l o p e d a l i n e a r
v i s c o p l a s t i c a n a l y s i s and p r e d i c t e d that

Pmd/Pm = I + 0 . 1 V 0"714 (59)

for steel box c o l u m n s impacted axially (V in m s-l).

Equations (33) and (50) for the s y m m e t r i c collapse mode p r e d i c t

Pmd/Pm = 1 + 0 . 1 8 3 V 0"256 (60)

and
Pmd/Pm = I + 0.170 V 0°256 (61)

for s q u a r e t u b e s w i t h c = 37.07 m m a n d c = 49.31 n~n, r e s p e c t i v e l y and V in m s-~

Similarly, e q u a t i o n s (35) a n d (52) for the a s y m m e t r i c c o l l a p s e m o d e B p r e d i c t
that
 Dynamic axial crushing of square tubes 205

0
Q

1"5 ®
0
0 0 3
2
0

f
'0 -~

0"5

0 I I

0 2'5 5"0 7"5 1010

V ( mls )
FIGURE 22. Variation of dynamic to static mean crushing load ratio with
impact velocity for 49.31 mm square tubes.
0: experimental results with symmetric collapse mode
- - - I: equations (33) or (61) and (35) or (63) for a strain rate
insensitive material.
2. equation (61).
3: equation (63). ~ ~ 1 2
I

1"5 ~ 4
7

%
10

05

0
0 2.'s 7.'s lo'.o
V (mls)
FIGURE 23. Co~oarison of theoretical predictions with previous empirical
equations.
...... 1 : equations (33) and (35) for a strain rate insensitive material.
2: equation (57) due to Ohkubo et al. [11].
3: equation (58) due to W ~ [10].
4: equation (59) due to Wierzbicki et al. [29].
5-8: equations (60) - ( 6 3 ) , respectively.
206 W. A b r a m o w i c z and N. Jones

Pmd/Pm = I + 0.193 V 0"256 (62)

and
md/Pm = I + 0.180 V 0"256 (63)

for square tubes with c = 37.07 mm and c = 49.31 mm, respectively and V in m s-~

The axial impact tests by W i e r z b i c k i et al. [29] in Fig. 21 were c o n d u c t e d

on 40 x 40 mm square steel c o l u m n s h a v i n g a 2 mm wall thickness. Thus, c/h =
19 and, therefore, the t h e o r e t i c a l p r e d i c t i o n s in Fig. 17 indicate that the
c r u s h i n g b e h a v i o u r is g o v e r n e d by the s y m m e t r i c c o l l a p s e mode w h i c h is e x a m i n e d
in s e c t i o n s 4.3, 4.7 and 4.8. E q u a t i o n (33) with o 0 = 48 K p / m m 2 p r e d i c t s a
static crushing load P = 6688 Kp which is 4.5% larger than the c o r r e s p o n d i n g
m
e x p e r i m e n t a l v a l u e of 6400 Kp. E q u a t i o n (50) p r e d i c t s mean dynamic c r u s h i n g
loads of 8537 Kp and 8564 Kp for s p e c i m e n numbers 7 and 8 in Ref. [29], re-
spectively. The c o r r e s p o n d i n g e x p e r i m e n t a l values are 8420 Kp and 8490 Kp.

This a r t i c l e has focused only on the p r o g r e s s i v e b u c k l i n g b e h a v i o u r of

c o l u m n s w h i c h are loaded e i t h e r s t a t i c a l l y or dynamically. However, it is
e v i d e n t from Fig. 2 that the axial load to p r o d u c e the first lobe is larger
than that r e q u i r e d for the d e v e l o p m e n t of s u b s e q u e n t lobes. M u r a s e et al.
[30] have i n v e s t i g a t e d this p h e n o m e n o n and p r e d i c t e d the i n c r e a s e of this peak
load in the d y n a m i c case with the aid of an i n e x t e n s i o n a l f i n i t e - e l e m e n t method.

6, CONCLUSIONS
The s i m p l i f i e d k i n e m a t i c a l m e t h o d of a n a l y s i s r e p o r t e d in Refs [15] and [16]
on the c r u s h i n g b e h a v i o u r of t h i n - w a l l e d s e c t i o n s has been used in this article
to d e r i v e v a r i o u s p r o g r e s s i v e c r u s h i n g m o d e s for square tubes loaded axially.
In addition, the a p p r o x i m a t e t h e o r e t i c a l p r o c e d u r e in Ref. [17] is e m p l o y e d
and m o d i f i e d in o r d e r to take a c c o u n t of the e f f e c t i v e c r u s h i n g d i s t a n c e when
c a l c u l a t i n g the mean c r u s h i n g loads. It is shown h o w the new a s y m m e t r i c
c r u s h i n g modes, which are also o b s e r v e d e x p e r i m e n t a l l y , cause i n c l i n a t i o n of
a square box c o l u m n and can lead to a E u l e r - t y p e c o l l a p s e even for r e l a t i v e l y
short columns.

The a p p r o x i m a t e q u a s i - s t a t i c t h e o r e t i c a l p r e d i c t i o n s (equations 50 and 52

or e q u a t i o n s 60 - 63) for the m e a n axial c r u s h i n g loads of square box columns
agree r e a s o n a b l y well with the c o r r e s p o n d i n g d y n a m i c test results in Figs 21
and 22, but further studies are r e q u i r e d in o r d e r to justify, or modify, the
c o n s i d e r a t i o n of m a t e r i a l strain rate s e n s i t i v i t y and the e f f e c t i v e c r u s h i n g
distance. It is e v i d e n t from Fig. 18 that e q u a t i o n s (33) or (55) predict
r e a s o n a b l e a g r e e m e n t w i t h the mean of the e x p e r i m e n t a l results on the static
c r u s h i n g of square tubes.

Acknowledgements - The authors wish to acknowledge the Science and Engineering Research Council
for their support of this study through grant number GR/B/89737. One author (W. A.) obtained
an SERC Visiting Fellowship (grant number GR/C/40930) tenable for 2½ months in the Department
of Mechanical Engineering at Liverpool University during Autumn 1983. The authors are indebted
to Mr R. S. Birch and Mr W. S. Jouri for their assistance with the experimental equipment, Mrs
M. W h i t e for her typing and Mr F. C. Cummins and Mxs A. Green for their preparation of the
drawings. The authors also wish to acknowledge the valuable remarks of Professor W. Johnson,
Professor S. R. Reid and Professor T. Wierzbicki who oDmmemted on an earlier version of this
manuscript.

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20~ W. AL, rLHHowicz ond N. Jones

APPENDIX 1
Final Value of Rolling Radius b

E q u a t i o n (4b) for b was found by minimizing, with respect to b, an e x p r e s s i o n

w h i c h is o b t a i n e d by e q u a t i n g internal to external work. This p r o c e d u r e pre-
dicts an average value for b d u r i n g crushing. In order to find the final value
of b, the internal e n e r g y d i s s i p a t i o n is equated to the external work rate
before m i n i m i z a t i o n w i t h respect to b.

Thus, an e n e r g y b a l a n c e for the type I r i g h t - a n g l e d element i l l u s t r a t e d in

Fig. 12(a) can be w r i t t e n [16]

4M0c~ + 4MoH2 cose (I ÷ sin2~) I/2~/b

+ 4 N 0 b H c o s ~ ~(0.80@) = P~, (i)

where tan@ = /2 tans. (ii)

0.808 has been used instead of an integral which appears in the third term on
the l e f t - h a n d side of e q u a t i o n (i) since it is a good a p p r o x i m a t i o n when 0 <
e ~ z/2. R e c o g n i s i n g that ~ = 2H(1-cos~) and M 0 = N0h/4 [16] gives

P = M 0 {12.8 b H e c o s e / h + 4c + 4H2cose(1 + sin2~)I/2/b}~/~ (iii)

w h i c h when a s s u m i n g H remains c o n s t a n t and m i n i m i z i n g with respect to b predict

b = 0.56 {Hh(1 + sin2e) I/2/0} I/2 (iv)

Equation (iv) finally reduces to

bf/h = 0.53 (c/h) I/3 (v)

w h e n using e q u a t i o n (4a) and e q u a t i o n (ii) with @ ÷ ~/2.

Similarly,
I/3
bf/h = 0.45 (c/h) (vi)
and
bf/h = 0.48 (c/h) I/3 (vii)

for the a s y m m e t r i c m i x e d c o l l a p s e modes A and B, respectively.