2019 International Conference on Electrical and Computing Technologies and Applications (ICECTA)

Partial Discharge Spectrogram Data Augmentation

based on Generative Adversarial Networks
Lucas de Paula Santos Petri
High Voltage Laboratory
Federal University of Itajubá
Itajubá, Brazil
lucas@unifei.edu.br
Emanuel Antonio Moutinho
Engineering Corporate Management
Equatorial Energia
São Luís, Brazil
emanuel.moutinho@equatorialenergia.com.br
Rondinele Pinheiro Silva
Engineering Corporate Management
Equatorial Energia
São Luís, Brazil
rondinele.silva@equatorialenergia.com.br

Renato Massoni Capelini Rogério Salustiano Guilherme Martinez Figueiredo Ferraz

HVEX HVEX HVEX
Itajubá, Brazil Itajubá, Brazil Itajubá, Brazil
renato@hvex.com.br rogeriosalustiano@hvex.com.br ferraz@hvex.com.br

Estácio Tavares Wanderley Neto

High Voltage Laboratory
Federal University of Itajubá
Itajubá, Brazil
estacio@lat-efei.org.br

Abstract—High voltage insulators are critical elements in
power distribution and transmission systems, since their failure
may represent losses in power quality and system reliability,
leading to faults which bring problems to both consumer and
electric utilities. Insulators in operation are subjected to all
kinds of pollution which may cause the formation of dry bands
when in presence of moisture, which leads to the formation of
partial discharges which, in turn, causes degradation and aging
of the surface material. Partial discharges origin can be
identified by the pattern of their pulses. Machine learning
algorithms are one of the most useful and efficient solutions for
pattern recognition and classification tasks. In this paper, a
methodology is proposed for data augmentation of the training
set for an artificial neural network by means of generative
adversarial networks.
Keywords—artificial intelligence, artificial neural networks,
convolutional networks, generative adversarial networks,
insulators, machine learning, partial discharges
I. INTRODUCTION
When in operation, high voltage insulators undergo all
kinds of pollution deposition onto their surface. This
pollution, when in presence of moisture, may form a
conductive layer on the insulator surface, causing an increase
of the leakage current, which may lead to the formation of dry
bands which can further lead to flashover events. In coastal
cities, e.g., insulators are subjected to a heavy salt deposition
due to salt spray and, during the months of low rainfall, this
salt pollution is intensified, since rain helps to naturally wash
insulators surface. Due to the continuous air humidity, there
are areas where, even with no rain, critical events take place
over the so-called “dry season”, when pollution accumulates
and moisture is still present, mainly in the dawn.
One of the phenomena that occur in the insulators are the
partial discharges, i.e., a discharge that do not fully connect
the electrodes. Partial discharges (PD) can be measured by
means of its apparent charge, and its pulses with respect to the
This project is part of the Brazilian Electricity Regulatory Agency
(ANEEL) Research & Development (R&D) program PD-00371-0036/2018
and was financed by Equatorial Energia and in part by the Coordination for
the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel – Brazil (CAPES) –
Finance Code 001.
power frequency cycle form distinct patterns according to its
origin and magnitude. Since these signals can be acquired with
proper sensors, an algorithm of pattern recognition could be
responsible for the classification of these signals, resulting in
a diagnosis of the insulator condition, with respect to pollution
and aging.
Machine learning algorithms, especially artificial neural
networks, have been used for pattern recognition and
classification tasks. In later years, convolutional networks
have been proved to be efficient for computer vision, as
demonstrated by [1] with the application of the
backpropagation algorithm to the convolutional architecture.
This architecture has been used for speech recognition, by
convolving filters over two-dimensional data and extracting
distinctive features which can be used for classification. Two-
dimensional speech data can be obtained through the short-
time Fourier transform (STFT) of voice signals, which convert
these time domain signals to the time-frequency domain [2].
Due to the randomness of all these phenomena and to the
high number of utility poles and towers, electric utilities
cannot provide an effective inspection of the system. In
addition to that, an insulator itself is inexpensive and can be
easily replaced. However, as a whole, a great number of
failures start to represent an increase in the purchase of
repairment material and substitution routines and, even worse,
may lead to faults that could represent costly penalties due to
power supply interruption.
Here, a methodology is proposed for partial discharge data
augmentation by means of generative adversarial networks in
order to obtain a sufficiently large training dataset. Scarcity of
data is one of the factors that may result in model overfitting
during training, being data augmentation one of the solutions
proposed to tackle that. A PD dataset may be hard to obtain
due to the randomness of their occurrence. The generative
model was obtained by an adversarial process, being based on
the two-dimensional convolutional architecture and trained on
two-dimensional PD spectrograms data. The generated data
were then evaluated visually and used to train a convolutional
neural network for the classification of PD signals.

978-1-7281-5532-6/19/$31.00
Authorized ©2019 IEEE
licensed use limited to: Centro Universitário Fei. Downloaded on September 09,2021 at 17:13:37 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
 2019 International Conference on Electrical and Computing Technologies and Applications (ICECTA)
II. PARTIAL DISCHARGES IN HIGH VOLTAGE INSULATORS
Over the dry season, electric utilities must tackle a series
of events due to the low precipitation. First, in the association
with high air humidity, fog or dew, the pollution forms a
conductive layer that may cause a flashover event, which may
only lead to a system fault or may damage the insulator so that
it needs to be replaced. Second, electric utilities observe an
increase in the purchase of new insulators during the months
of lower precipitation. And third, electric utilities have to
spend on insulators washing routines in order to prevent
events as the described above. Washing insulators during the
dry season may be a normal part of the electric utilities’
preventive maintenance schedule, however, to the case
studied in this project, it is a critical point, because there are
structures which demand washing every week, otherwise the
pollution severity will certainly cause a system fault event.
Whenever moisture accumulates on the surface of a
polluted insulator, these two components may form a
conductive layer which increases the leakage current across
the insulator surface. As electric current flows, it also heats
this layer, causing moisture to evaporate, forming dry bands
which interrupt the current path. These bands are subjected to
an electric stress due to the strong electric field across them,
which leads to the occurrence of arcing events across them.
This arcing is the surface type of partial discharges, which can
also be internal (void) and external in the air (corona effect).
The corona effect happens when the air is ionized due to a high
electric field concentration and a free electron starts a process
of an electron avalanche. Partial discharges are characterized
as a localized dielectric breakdown which only partially
bridges the insulation between conductors [3].
Partial discharges are accompanied by a series of physical
and chemical phenomena, such as ultraviolet radiation and
visible light emissions, radiofrequency interference, audible
and ultrasonic noise, heating and chemical reactions that may
result in toxic and corrosive substances that cause the aging of
insulator surface. All these phenomena described can be
detected or measured by sensors or by laboratory tests.
Ultraviolet cameras are expensive alternatives which most of
the electric utilities do not possess, thus radiofrequency
receptors with proper antennas and ultrasonic sensors are
preferred for online inspection, but these often depends on the
knowledge of experienced personnel. Electrical methods are
specified for laboratory tests by specific standards and are
based on the measurement of the apparent charge with a
coupling capacitor in parallel with the test object. It is not
possible to measure the actual charge of the discharge, but
with the help of the coupling capacitor it is possible to measure
the charge supplied by it to the test object in order to suppress
the voltage variations caused by the PD. Many types of
equipment, such as transformer and surge arresters, have a
maximum limit for the apparent charge, specified by
standards, for laboratory tests. However, these limits are not
specified for insulators and, due to its inexpensive cost, when
an insulator in operation presents a problem, it is simply
replaced.
Partial discharges present patterns which can be indicative
of their origin and magnitude. One of the most used
representations of their pattern is the phase-resolved partial
discharge (PRPD) analysis, which exhibits the discharges
pulses localization with respect to the phase angle of the
power frequency cycle and their magnitude, usually the
apparent charge in picocoulombs. The PRPD has three view
Authorized licensed use limited to: Centro Universitário Fei. Downloaded on September 09,2021 at 17:13:37 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
modes, thus PD activity can be displayed on a horizontal line,
on a sine wave and on an ellipse. These patterns can be used
in a variety of manners so that the PD can be classified. Some
statistical calculations analyze a few distributions obtained
from the PRPD pulses and use the results as features to train
an artificial neural network. However, many methods today
present the raw PRPD signal for a neural network to be trained
and the training algorithms itself can detect those features that
are distinctive and that allow the signal to be classified.
Partial discharges vary their features according to their
origin and severity of insulator degradation. If one can
correlate these features with defects in insulators, then it is
possible to obtain a neural network capable of diagnosing the
current condition of insulators under operation, making it
possible to prevent failures and system faults.
III. MACHINE LEARNING AND THE DATASET SIZE ISSUE
Artificial neural networks (ANN) evolved as computers
became more powerful and new network architectures were
being created. The convolutional networks, e.g., allowed
computer vision to develop [4], since it employs filters that
convolve over two-dimensional input data in order to create
feature maps, allowing the classification of images. One of the
most recent advances in ANN is the generative adversarial
network (GAN), composed of two models, a discriminator and
a generator, which compete in a classification game and, in the
end, the generator becomes capable of generating fake but
convincing data with features from real data [5]. With the
power of today computers, the concept of deep learning
became widespread, but deep neural networks are not only
deep in the sense of many layers stacked sequentially, but also
in their capability of interpreting raw data.
Deep neural networks eliminate the need for a previous
handmade feature extraction step. Convolutional networks
can learn to detect features in input data by updating the
weights in its filters, so that each filter becomes responsible
for detecting a specific feature. The deeper the layer, the
higher the complexity of features detected by filters.
Traditionally, convolutional networks are used for
classification tasks, thus, even though they are composed of
convolutional and pooling layers in its majority, the last few
layers are composed of the traditional fully connected layers.
That is because the convolutional layers make the feature
extraction step, hence the features found to be relevant by the
backpropagation algorithm are the input to a classification
step. This idea leads to the conclusion that the last few
convolutional layers before the classification section can
present relevant features extracted from the training data set.
That is the main idea behind GANs, because, in the end,
generators models are creating data which synthesize the main
features present in the real samples from the training data set.
Convolutional networks architecture implements filters
which convolve over a subsection of the input data called
receptive field, performing the dot product, and create feature
maps from it. One of the benefits of this architecture is the
weight sharing, which reduces the number of trainable
parameters, i.e., the same weights in each filter kernel will be
used in the convolution process over all receptive fields of the
input data, in other words, a single weight can be connected to
several elements of the input data [1]. The exact position of a
feature in the input data is, therefore, irrelevant, since one
filter detects the same feature at different locations [1].
However, the relative position to other features in the input
 2019 International Conference on Electrical and Computing Technologies and Applications (ICECTA)
data is preserved, making convolutional networks translation
(or shift) invariant. Therefore, convolutional layers perform
the process of feature extraction, allowing raw data to be
presented directly to the network with little preprocessing. In
addition to this, convolutional networks also employ pooling
layers, which reduces the dimensions of the data through the
network by computing the maximum or the average of a
receptive field, since position information can be lost, but
features need to be detected with high resolution [1].
Generative adversarial networks were first proposed in
2014 by [5] as a means of estimating generative models via an
adversarial process. The framework is composed of two
models: a generator , whose function is to generate
convincing data, and a discriminator , whose function is to
judge whether the input data are real training data samples or
generated synthetic samples. Both models are adversaries and
compete in a zero-sum game until an equilibrium is reached
and none of the models can improve its performance. The
generator samples elements from a latent space, i.e., a
vector of random values from a normal distribution with
mean 0 and standard deviation 1, and generates elements
organized in the same structure of the real data elements . If
the architecture used for the generator is a multilayer
perceptron (MLP), the generated data will be a vector of same
dimension of the real data. If the architecture used is a
convolutional neural network, the generated data may be a
matrix or a volume of same dimensions of the real data. The
discriminator is then trained to assign 1 to real samples and 0
to generated samples.
In binary classification, is the sample target (label),
which can assume a value of either 0 or 1, and ( ) is the
probability of the estimated output belonging to the class .
Taking the binary cross-entropy loss as in (1), for a sample
pertaining to class 1, the loss is calculated as − log ( ),
which means that, for output values close to 1, loss will be
close to 0, and for a sample pertaining to class 0, the loss is
calculated as − log 1 − ( ) , which means that, for output
values close to 0, loss will also be close to 0.
1 the classification of PD signals after a feature extraction
=− log ( ) + (1 − ) log 1 − ( )
According to the original paper [5], the discriminator
model is trained to maximize the probability of assigning the
correct label to real and fake generated data, i.e., it performs a
gradient ascent. The generator, in turn, is trained to minimize
the probability of assigning 0 to fake generated data. However,
in practice, the generator would tend to saturate, since in
earlier steps the discriminator would assign 0 to the generated
data with a high level of confidence. Therefore, in practice,
the generator is trained to maximize the probability of
assigning 1 to fake generated data.
The maximization process can be regarded as being
similar to the maximum log-likelihood estimation, which can
be obtained by the gradient ascent algorithm. The function of
probability to be maximized by the discriminator is described
by (2) and the function to be minimized by the generator is
described by (3). However, as explained before, the logarithm
tends to saturate in earlier steps of the algorithm, hence the
function of probability is maximized by the generator as
described by (4).
Authorized licensed use limited to: Centro Universitário Fei. Downloaded on September 09,2021 at 17:13:37 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
1
= log ( ) + log 1 − ( ) (2)
1
= log 1 − ( ) (3)
1
= log ( ) (4)
As it can be seen, the difference between the above
equations and (1) is the minus sign. Hence the gradient descent
can be used to minimize (1) with the same effect on training,
rather than maximizing the respective probabilities, since
arg max( ) = arg min(− ). Therefore, both discriminator
and generator can be trained by the conventional gradient-
based backpropagation algorithm. Convergence happens
when neither model can improve its performance and the
discriminator is unable to distinguish fake from real data,
therefore, ( ) = 0.5.
It is worth noting that data are the central point of machine
learning algorithms. The lack of data can be frustrating and
make complex models prone to overfitting. Overfitting
happens when the model memorizes noise and other irrelevant
features in input data during training and fails to assign correct
labels to never-seen-before data. Techniques of data
augmentation and transfer learning are often employed in
order to avoid overfitting and obtaining a model capable of
generalizing well on new samples. In this sense, GANs have
been used in a series of applications, especially with images
generation, and have demonstrated the ability to generate
convincing photos of people who do not exist or landscapes
and animals, including turning horses into zebras and vice-
versa and turning photos into paintings and vice-versa. In
addition to that, GANs have already been used for data
augmentation of PD signals, as described in [6, 7]. These
references describe the application of fully connected layers
GANs for the generation of time domain signals of PD. In
addition to that, convolutional networks have been used for
the classification of PD signals, as described in [8, 9, 10]. In
[8] a one-dimensional convolutional network is employed in
(1) algorithm is applied. In [9, 10] a two-dimensional
convolutional network is employed with time-frequency
domain PD data converted by means of the STFT.
IV. PROPOSED METHODOLOGY
The most feasible manners of detecting PD in high voltage
insulators under operation are by high-frequency current
transformers (HFCT), ultra high frequency (UHF) antennas
and ultrasound sensors. The measurements were conducted in
a region served by 69 kV transmission lines with composite
insulators whose structures are concrete towers with no access
to the ground wire, which makes the use of the HFCT
impossible. Ultrasound sensors are extremely sensible, being
used to detect the exact source of PD. Then, the detection
method used in this work was by means of a UHF antenna and
a PicoScope 2206B oscilloscope for data acquisition. The
signals were acquired from different towers in different parts
of the city.
In order to test the proposed methodology, among the
acquired signals, some of them were selected as examples of
different patterns of PD. Four patterns were selected and the
lower frequencies content (power frequency and lower order
harmonics) of the signals was removed. By means of the
 2019 International Conference on Electrical and Computing Technologies and Applications (ICECTA)

STFT the signals were then converted to the time-frequency

domain, becoming two-dimensional matrices, so-called
spectrograms, i.e., the frequency spectrum variation over time.
From this point, a two-dimensional convolutional network
could be trained in the same manner it would be trained for
images classification, though considering color images are
actually volumes, due to the color channels that compose (a) (b)
them, and the PD spectrograms could be seen as one-channel
images. However, as explained above, data scarcity should be
tackled in order to obtain a model with good generalization
capability.
The data augmentation methodology proposed consists in
training a GAN model on the PD spectrograms in order to (c) (d)
obtain a generative model capable of generating training data Fig. 1. Four partial discharge signals with distinct patterns with a sampling
for a convolutional network to be trained for PD classification. window of three power frequency cycles.
In this manner, the scarce original data can be used for the
evaluation of the model performance, rather than for the
training process.
The generator model is composed of a dense layer,
followed by three two-dimensional convolutional layers with
30 filters of 5×5 dimensions kernel and leaky rectified linear
unit (LeakyReLU) activation function. The last layer is (a) (b)
convolutional but with a single filter of 5×5 dimensions kernel
and sigmoid (logistic) activation function. The discriminator
model is composed of three two-dimensional convolutional
layers with 30 filters of 3×3 dimensions kernel and
LeakyReLU activation function. The last layer is flattened and
fully connected to the output layer, which has a single neuron
with a sigmoid (logistic) activation function. Both models use (c) (d)
the binary cross-entropy loss and are trained by the Adam Fig. 2. Respective spectrograms of the partial discharge signals obtained by
optimization algorithm [11]. the short-time Fourier transform.
The latent space vector has 100 elements randomly
The models were then used to generate data in order to
sampled from a normal distribution of mean 0 and standard
create a training set for a convolutional network to be trained.
deviation 1. The generator model generates a matrix of
A classification model was created with the same architecture
dimensions 224×432, the same dimensions of the original
of the discriminator used in the GAN, except for the output
spectrogram data. The discriminator is then trained to be able
layer which now has four neurons, each one for a class into
to determine whether the data presented is sampled from the
which the patterns will be classified. For this reason, the
real data set or from the generator model. The adversarial
activation function of the last layer neuron is changed to
game happens when the discriminator is first trained by
softmax, which is used for multiclass models, and the loss is
updating only its own weights on a batch of real and fake
changed to categorical cross-entropy for the same reason.
labeled samples. This is done so that the discriminator can
differentiate real data from fake generated data. The generator V. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
is then trained by updating only its own weights on a batch of
data from latent variables labeled as if they were real samples. The four generator models were extracted from the
Thus, the generator model can learn to synthesize real data. respective GANs, each one being able to generate synthesized
For every training epoch one model is trained at a time, data with features from the original data. The algorithm used
successively, until an equilibrium is reached. For each training was based on the one proposed in [12, 13], which saves the
of the GAN, only one PD pattern was used. The four patterns generator model every ten epochs. Even though there was
are shown in Fig. 1. After removing the lower frequencies some clue of the model performance based on the losses and
content and normalizing the signals, their spectrograms were on the accuracy of the discriminator, the generated data had to
obtained by the STFT, as shown in Fig. 2. be inspected and evaluated visually. It was observed that the
generator performance would increase as randomly as it
For patterns (a), (b) and (d), there were four signals decreases, then one could not expect that training the GAN for
available, and, for pattern (c), there were three signals many epochs would result in a perfect generator model. In
available. Thus, there was a total of fifteen spectrograms. In fact, the four GAN models were trained for 400 epochs each,
order to train the GAN, from each spectrogram another 25 but not necessarily the best model was the last one.
were obtained by shifting it horizontally by a random number.
After the training process, the GAN model was split, and the Using the generator models, 100 synthetic data samples
generator model was extracted and evaluated visually by were obtained from each model, creating a training data set
inspecting some generated samples and comparing them to the with 400 samples. The training converged in 16 epochs and
original spectrograms. Thus, four generator models were the 15 original signals used during the GAN training were
obtained. presented to the trained convolutional model, which could
assign the correct label to all samples, demonstrating that,
even though GAN-generated spectrograms might not look

Authorized licensed use limited to: Centro Universitário Fei. Downloaded on September 09,2021 at 17:13:37 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
 2019 International Conference on Electrical and Computing Technologies and Applications (ICECTA)

exactly as the original data, it does contain their main features. urements of a same structure, which were not used in the
The results for each sample are shown in Table I. GANs training, were assigned the same label, proving that the
trained classification model is able to learn features from
Then, as expected, the signals used to train the generator different data sets and to identify their presence in totally new
models were successfully assigned the correct labels. But the data. The model trained on synthetic data did not overfit and,
performance of the convolutional model trained for above all, attained a consistent generalization performance.
classification should also be evaluated for other signals,
containing or not the features of the original data set. Thus, The GAN architecture can be used to generate synthetic
picking two sets of distinct patterns signals with four samples but consistent data containing the main features of real data,
each which were used neither for the GANs training nor for thus providing the augmentation of the training set and allow-
the convolutional classifier and presenting them to the ing the original data to be spared for the evaluation of the
classifier, it resulted in the classification shown in Table II. trained model. Therefore, this work sought to investigate the
The two patterns are shown in Fig. 3. GANs potential and to help partial discharge classification
studies. Future work involves fine tuning the GAN model in
It is noticeable that the classifier found relevant features in order to obtain even better results. In addition to that, data aug-
these signals, which caused high activations in some classes, mentation using the proposed framework can be applied to
and assigned these signals the respective labels. It is important
other areas, improving the results of data-based frameworks.
to call attention to the neuron which was activated by a set of
samples containing the same patterns, which, in this case, was ACKNOWLEDGMENT
the same neuron for all samples in the set, showing that it was
properly classified according to the logic and the knowledge The authors would like to thank Equatorial Energia,
learned by the classification convolutional network. ANEEL, CAPES, the High Voltage Laboratory of the Federal
University of Itajubá and every staff member of HVEX.
VI. CONCLUSION
REFERENCES
Data scarcity affects directly the performance of a model;
[1] Y. LeCun et al. “Backpropagation Applied to Handwritten Zip Code
therefore, the proposed framework can be employed to Recognition”, Neural Computation, 1(4), pp. 541-551, Winter 1989.
generate more data whose features are extracted directly from [2] Y. Hoshen, R. J. Weiss, K. W. Wilson. “Speech acoustic modeling
real acquired data. From the tests described in this work, it was from raw multichannel waveforms” Proceedings of 2015 IEEE
possible to notice that the trained model assigned the original International Conference on Acoustics, Speech and Signal Processing
data to the right classes, based on a training made only on syn- (ICASSP). Brisbane: IEEE, 2015.
thetic data from different generators. Spectrograms of meas- [3] International Electrotechnical Commission. “IEC 60270:2000 High-
voltage test techniques - Partial discharge measurements”.
International Standard. Dec. 2000.
TABLE I. CLASSIFICATION RESULTS FOR THE ORIGINAL DATA
[4] Y. LeCun and Y. Bengio. “Convolutional Networks for Images,
Sample Label Output Speech, and Time-Series”, in Arbib, M. A. (Eds), The Handbook of
1 0 [0.995 0.000 0.004 0.000] Brain Theory and Neural Networks, MIT Press, 1995.
2 0 [0.998 0.000 0.002 0.000] [5] I. J. Goodfellow et al. (2014, June 10). “Generative Adversarial
3 0 [0.964 0.000 0.034 0.003] Networks” [On-line]. Available: https://arxiv.org/abs/1406.2661 [July
4 0 [0.990 0.000 0.010 0.000] 27, 2019]
5 1 [0.000 0.925 0.001 0.074] [6] W. Yijiang et al. “Partial Discharge Data Augmentation of High
6 1 [0.000 0.667 0.012 0.321] Voltage Cables based on the Variable Noise Superposition and
7 1 [0.000 0.934 0.001 0.065] Generative Adversarial Network” Proceedings of 2018 International
8 1 [0.000 0.890 0.001 0.109] Conference on Power System Technology (POWERCON).
9 2 [0.044 0.001 0.824 0.132] Guangzhou: IEEE, 2018, pp. 3855-3859.
10 2 [0.023 0.001 0.752 0.224]
[7] X. Wang, H. Huang, Y. Hu, Y. Yang. “Partial Discharge Pattern
11 2 [0.046 0.001 0.808 0.146] Recognition with Data Augmentation based on Generative Adversarial
12 3 [0.000 0.086 0.210 0.704] Networks” Proceedings of 2018 Condition Monitoring and Diagnosis
13 3 [0.000 0.162 0.121 0.718] (CMD). Perth: IEEE, 2018.
14 3 [0.000 0.126 0.110 0.764]
[8] X. Peng et al. “A Convolutional Neural Network-Based Deep Learning
15 3 [0.000 0.255 0.047 0.698]
Methodology for Recognition of Partial Discharge Patterns from High-
Voltage Cables” IEEE Transactions on Power Deliver. vol. 34. n. 4. pp.
1460-1469. Mar. 2019.
[9] G. Li, M. Rong, X. Wang, X. Li, Y. Li. “Partial discharge patterns
recognition with deep Convolutional Neural Networks.” Proceedings
of the Condition Monitoring and Diagnosis, Xi’an, China, 25–28
September 2016. pp. 324–327
[10] G. Li, X. Wang, X. Li, A. Yang, M. Rong. “Partial Discharge
Recognition with a Multi-Resolution Convolutional Neural Network”
Fig. 3. Two signals presented as new data to the trained network.
Sensors 2018, 18(10), 3512.
[11] D. P. Kingma, J. Ba. (2014, Dec. 22). “Adam: A Method for Stochastic
TABLE II. CLASSIFICATION RESULTS FOR NEW DATA
Optimization” [On-line]. Available: https://arxiv.org/abs/1412.6980
Set Output Predicted Class [Dec. 22, 2014].
[0.000 0.340 0.010 0.650] [12] TensorFlow. “Deep Convolutional Generative Adversarial Network”
[0.000 0.167 0.025 0.808] Internet: https://www.tensorflow.org/tutorials/generative/dcgan [Sep.
1 3
[0.000 0.169 0.019 0.811] 23, 2019].
[0.000 0.075 0.063 0.863] [13] J. Brownlee. “How to Develop a GAN for Generating MNIST
[0.000 0.996 0.000 0.004] Handwritten Digits” Internet: https://machinelearningmastery.com/
[0.000 0.998 0.000 0.002] how-to-develop-a-generative-adversarial-network-for-an-mnist-hand
2 1
[0.000 1.000 0.000 0.000] written-digits-from-scratch-in-keras/ June 28, 2019 [Sep. 23, 2019].
[0.000 1.000 0.000 0.000]

Authorized licensed use limited to: Centro Universitário Fei. Downloaded on September 09,2021 at 17:13:37 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.