Reaction

Difference Between Development Length And Lap Length
Development length and lap length are two important terms in civil engineering. In this article, I will discuss the differences between
development length and lap length. Let’s get started.
What Is Development Length?
Development length is the length of bar required for transferring the stress into concrete. In simple words, the quantity of the rebar length
that is actually required to be embedded into the concrete to achieve the desired bond strength between concrete and steel by producing
required stress for the steel in that area.
• The formula for development is given below:
• Development length (Ld) = d x σs/τbd
Where
• d = Diameter of the bar.
• σs = Stress in the bar at the section considered as design load.
• τbd = Design bond stress.
What Is Lap Length?

Lap length is the overlapping length of two bars side by side which gives the required design length. In RCC structure, if the length of a
bar is not sufficiently available to make the design length, lapping is done.
Suppose we need to construct a building of 20 m in height. But there is no 20 m single bar available in the market. The maximum length
of rebar available in the market is usually 12 m, so we need to join two bars of 12 m to get a 20 m bar.
The lap length varies from member to member.
• Lap length for tension members = 40d
• Lap length for compression members = 50d.
• Where d = Diameter of bars.
In the below image, you can see some amount of rebar is left for future construction.
This extra rebar will be needed for tying bars of column. This extra length of rebar is called lap length.
Hope you all understood the difference between development length and lap length. If you have any questions, let me know in the
comments.
How To Calculate Weight Of Steel Bars:

After estimating, it is very important to know the unit weight of steel bars because we estimate them as 100 meters 20 mm ø bar, or 100
feet 16mm ø bar, etc (ø is the symbol of diameter). But steel bar suppliers will not understand this notation, and they measure the steel
bars in weight.
So we have to order them in kg or quintal or ton. This article will discuss how to calculate the unit weight of steel bars of different
diameters by using the steel weight formula.
Here is the steel weight formula W = D²L/162
Where
• W = Weight of steel bars.
• D = Diameter of steel bars in mm.
• L = Length of bars in meter.
Example 1: Calculate the weight of 60 meters long 12 mm ø bar.
Here,
• D = 12 mm.
• L= 60 m.
We know that,
• W = D²L/162
W = 12² x 60/162 = 53 kg
• Weight of 60 m 12mm ø bar is 53 kg.
Let’s look for another example.
Example 2: Calculate the weight of 100 m 16 mm ø bar.
Here,
• D = 16 mm.
• L = 100 m.
W = 16² x 100/162 = 158 kg.
If we put 1 meter length for each diameter of steel bar in the formula then we will get the unit weight.
• 6 mm ø bar = 6² x 1/162 = 0.222 kg/m
• 8 mm ø bar = 8² x 1/162 = 0.395 kg/m
• 10mm ø bar = 10² x 1/162 = 0.617 kg/m
• 12mm ø bar = 12² x 1/162 = 0.888 kg/m
• 16mm ø bar = 16² x 1/162 = 1.580 kg/m
• 20mm ø bar = 20² x 1/162 = 2.469 kg/m
If we multiply the length of bars by this unit weight, we will get the total weight of steel bars. For example, the total weight of 1000
meter long 20mm ø steel bar is,
1000 x 2.469 = 2469 kg.
Using the same method we can calculate the unit weight of different steel bars. Here I have calculated in meter but we can also calculate
in feet. To calculate in feet we have to use the following formula:
• W= D²L/533
Where
• D = Diameter of bars in mm.
• L = Length of bars in foot.
What Is Slab?
Slab is an important structural element generally constructed horizontally to provide flat surfaces such as roof, ceiling, floor, etc. Slabs
may be supported by RCC beams, columns, steel beams, etc. Basically, the depth of a slab is very small compared to its depth. There are
mainly two types of slabs, i.e one way slab and two way slab. In this article, I will discuss difference between one way slab & two way
slabs.
What Is One Way Slab?
One way slab is a slab which is supported by beams on the two opposite sides to carry the loads along one direction. In one way slab, the
ratio of longer span (l) to shorter span (b) is equal or greater than 2, i.e Longer span (l)/Shorter span (b) ≥ 2
Example:
Verandah slab is a type of one way slab, where the slab is spanning in the shorter direction with main reinforcement and the distribution
of reinforcement in the transverse direction.
One Way Slab Reinforcement Details:
In one way slab, as one side is larger than the other one, the maximum load will be conveyed by the larger side. Therefore it is important
to provide adequate support to this side.
To provide adequate support to the longer side, the main reinforcement bars are provided parallelly to the shorter side and the
distribution bars are provided on the longer side which won’t help in carrying the load.
In the above slab, Larger span/Shorter span = Lx/Ly = 4500/2000 = 2.5 Which is > 2.
So it is a one way slab. In this slab, the main reinforcement bars are provided on the shorter side and distribution bars are provided on the
longer side.
What Is Two Way Slab?
When a reinforced concrete slab is supported by beams on all the four sides and the loads are carried by the supports along with both
directions, it is known as two way slab. In two way slab, the ratio of longer span (l) to shorter span (b) is less than 2.
i.e Longer span (l)/Shorter span (b) < 2
These types of slabs are mostly used on the floor of multi-storey buildings.
Two Way Slab Reinforcement Details:
In two way slab, as the loads are carried in both directions (longer and shorter direction) main reinforcement bars are provided in both
directions.
The loads are carried by two sides are equal. Slab with reinforcement in both directions is more economical than one way reinforcement
slabs.
In the above slab, the ratio of longer span to shorter span

• i.e Lx/Ly = 4000/4000 = 1 Which is < 2
So it is a 2 way slab. You can see the main bars (Crank bars) are provided on both sides.
Now lets see the main differences between these two slabs.
Difference Between One Way Slab And Two Way Slab:
One Way Slab Two Way Slab
The slabs are supported by the beams on the two opposite sides. The slabs are supported on all the four sides.
The loads are carried along one direction. The loads are carried along with both directions.
One Way Slab Two Way Slab
The ratio of Longer span to shorter span is equal or greater than 2. The ratio of Longer span to shorter span is less than
(i.e l/b ≥ 2). 2. (i.e l/b
Main reinforcement is provided only in one direction (Shorter Main reinforcement bars are provided in both
side). directions.
The deflected shape is cylindrical. The deflected shape is like a dish or saucer.
What Is Plate Load Test?

Plate load test is a test conducted on the construction site itself, to figure out the ultimate bearing capacity of soil and the anticipated
settlement under a given load.
This test is usually carried out on the field to calculate the ultimate bearing capacity of sandy soils and clayey soils, at the desired depth.
Plate load test helps in determining the type of foundation and its design, for the structure. The plate load test is popularly used for
shallow foundations.
Plate load test is performed using a square-shaped plate made up of steel. The size of the plate usually varies from 30 cm square to 75 cm
square, respectively.
The plate should be considerably thick so that it can withstand the applied load on it without bending or deforming. The thickness of the
plate should not be less than 25 mm.
A test pit is dug out of size 5 times greater than the size of the plate. A small square hole is excavated in the centre of the pit which is
equivalent to the size of the steel plate.
The plate is then placed at some depth. The load is applied on the plate gradually and settlement for each increment of load is recorded.
There comes a point where the settlement occurs at a faster rate. So at that point, the load applied on the plate is stopped and the total
load counts up to that particular point are calculated and divided by the total area of the plate.
This calculation gives the ultimate bearing capacity of soil at that particular point of depth. Once we get the ultimate bearing capacity of
soil, it is divided by a safety factor, which is usually taken as 2 or 2.5, which gives us the safe bearing capacity of soil.
Apparatus
1. Steel test plate
2. Hydraulic jack and pump
3. Reaction beam or truss
4. Dial gauge
5. Pressure gauge
6. Excavation tools
7. Equipment for loading
8. Plumb bob, tripod, spirit level
Different Methods Of Plate Load Test
There are two different methods known for plate load tests.
1. Gravity loading platform method, and
2. Reaction truss method.
Let us learn these methods one by one in detail below.
1. Gravity Loading Platform Method
In this method, a platform is built on the top of a vertical post, resting on a platform. The load is applied on the platform with the help of
sandbags, stones, or concrete blocks.
When the load is applied on the platform, the test plate starts to settle down. That settlement is precisely measured using two sensitive
dial gauges, which are mounted on the independently supported datum bar. The total load is calculated and ultimate bearing capacity is
measured using the calculations and formulas.
2. Reaction Truss Method

In the reaction truss method, the reaction of the jack is supported by a reaction truss. The truss is clutched to the ground using soil
anchors.
Using hammer, the anchors are forcefully driven into the ground. The reaction truss is made out of mild steel sections.
The guy ropes are utilized for lateral stability of the truss. The reaction truss method is popularly used because it is a quick and simple
method.
Procedure Of Plate Load Test

A test plate made out of steel is firmly seated in the hole, present in the excavated pit. If the ground is uneven, a thin layer of sand is
spread beneath the test plate.
According to the Indian standards (1888 – 1982) a seating load of 70 g/cm^2 or 0.7 t/m^2 is applied before the actual load is applied.
A hydraulic jack is used for applying load in convenient increments, say about one-fifth of the expected safe bearing capacity or one-
tenth of the ultimate bearing capacity of soil.
Two dial gauges are fixed at the opposite ends and supported on a datum bar, which is used to record the load applied on plate.
The settlement of soil is recorded on the two dial gauges attached to the test setup, at an interval of 1, 4, 10, 20, 40, and 60 minutes
respectively,
And then at hourly intervals until the rate of the settlement comes down to less than 0.02mm per hour. The readings acquired, are noted
systematically in a table.
After this, the next increment in load is applied similarly. The maximum amount of load applied is 1.5 times the expected ultimate load
or 3 times the expected allowable bearing pressure.
Calculation Of Bearing Capacity
Once the plate load test is over, a graph is plotted based on the observations acquired from the test conducted. The load is plotted from
the x-axis and the settlement is plotted on the y-axis respectively.
The amount of ultimate load can be obtained through a graph corresponding to the settlement load of 1/5th of the width of the plate. A
factor of safety of value 2 or 2.5 on ultimate bearing capacity is used to determine the safe bearing capacity.
Some Equations Used To Calculate Bearing Capacity & Settlement Of Soil

Equation for calculating the soil bearing capacity of clayey soil
Ultimate bearing capacity = ultimate load for the plate
Equation for calculating the soil bearing capacity of sandy soil
Ultimate bearing capacity = ultimate load of plate x ( width of pit/size of the plate ) Safe bearing capacity of soil = ultimate bearing
capacity/factor of safety
Where the factor of safety varies from 2 to 3.
Equation for calculating the foundation settlement of clayey soil
Settlement of foundation = settlement of plate x ( width of pit / size of plate )
Equation for calculating the foundation settlement of sandy soil
Settlement of foundation =
Settlement of plate x width of pit x ( size of plate + 0.3) / size of plate x (width of pit + 0.3)^2
Advantages Of Plate Load Test
i) Plate load test proves out to be an economical method for determining the ultimate bearing capacity of soil and the expected settlement
of the soil under a given load.
ii) Plate load test is a simple method with a simple procedure throughout.
iii) Plate load test provides us an understanding of soil sustainability against a heavy load.
iv) The plate load test also helps in selecting the type and design of foundation for the structure, based on the outcomes and results of the
plate load test.
Disadvantages Of Plate Load Test
i) Plate load test does not prove to be feasible for cohesive soils as the plate load test is a time-consuming process and so it fails to give
the ultimate settlement for cohesive soils.
ii) If the layer of soil is not uniform, some errors can occur in the results.
iii) The groundwater may affect the test results. So before the commencement of the test, all the groundwater must be pumped out to
obtain an accurate result.
Factors Affecting Plate Load Test
There are some factors that affects the bearing capacity of soil. They are as follows:-
1. Groundwater level
2. Shear strength of soil
3. Permeability of soil
4. Soil density
5. The angle of internal friction
6. Void ratio of soil
The above stated factors may also affect the results of the plate load test. Hence it is better to check for all the factors affecting the test
before the commencement of the plate load test.
Variations or errors in results may lead to wrong selection and design of the foundation of the structure, which may sometimes be the
cause of the destruction of the structure.
What Is Slump Test?

Slump test is the most common, easy, and simple test used to measure the workability of fresh concrete. This test is performed to check
the workability or consistency of freshly mixed concrete in a specific batch.
Workability means how easily the concrete can be mixed, handled, transported, placed in position, and compacted.
There are two other tests used to measure the workability of concrete; Compaction factor test and Vee-Bee test. Slump test is also known
as slump cone test as a cone is used in the test.
This test is done at construction site before the concreting process. The slump test gives satisfactory results for the concrete mix of
medium to high workability and unfortunately, it does not give the correct indication of low workability, which may give zero slumps.
Apparatus For Slump Cone Test:
1. Mould or slump cone with a height of 300 mm, bottom diameter 200 mm, and top diameter 100 mm.
2. Standard tamping rod.
3. Non-porous base plate.
4. Measuring scale.
Procedure Of Slump Test (Step By Step):
1. First, clean the inner surface of the empty mould and then apply oil to it.
2. Set the mould on a horizontal non-porous and non-absorbent base plate.
3. Fill the mould fully by pouring freshly mixed concrete into three equal layers.
4. Stroke each layer 25 times with the standard tamping rod over the cross-section.
5. After stroking 25 times the top layer is struck off level, now lift the mould slowly in the vertical direction without disturbing the
concrete cone.
6. Use the measuring scale to measure the difference level between the height of the mould and the concrete sample.
7. The subsidence of concrete is known as the slump and the value of slump is measured in mm.
Types of Slump:
True Slump: The concrete mass after the test when slumps evenly all around without disintegration is called the true slump.
Shear Slump: When one-half of the concrete mass slide down the other is called the shear slump. This type of slump is obtained in a
lean concrete mix.
Collapse Slump: When the sample is collapsed due to adding excessive water, it is known as collapse slump.
Zero Slump: For very stiff or dry mixes it does not show any changes in the slump after removing the slump cone.
Advantages Of Slump Test:

1. The procedure of slump test is simple and easy than any other workability test.
2. It requires inexpensive and portable apparatus.
3. Slump test can be performed at the construction site as well as in the laboratory.
Limitations Of Slump Test:
1. This test is limited to concretes with the maximum size of aggregate less than 38 mm.
2. The test is suitable only for concretes of medium or high workabilities (i.e having slump values of 25 mm to 125 mm).
3. For very stiff mixes having zero slumps, the slump test does not show any difference in concretes of different workabilities.
Recommended Values Of Slumps For Different Concrete Mixes:
Types Of Concrete Slump Range In mm
1. Heavy mass construction 25-50
2. Pavements 20-30
3. Bridge deck 25-75
4. Beams and slabs 50-100
5. Columns, retaining walls and thin vertical members,

75-150
etc.
6. Vibrated concrete 12-25

Field Density Test (FDT Test) By Sand Cone Method
In this article, we will discuss how to perform field density test or fdt test of soil by sand cone method. This test is very useful and
commonly adopted at site.
The sand cone method is one of the most common methods that are used for fdt or field density test in highway construction. The dry
density test is carried out in the field to check the compaction of the layers.
Compaction is very useful for preparing the sub-base grade and other layers of pavement. Compaction is done in the construction of
embankment to increase stability as well as for decreasing the settlement.
In field compaction, the compacting moisture content should be controlled first and the adequacy of rolling should be controlled by
checking the achieved dry density and comparing it with the maximum dry density.
• Base layer – 98%
• Sub base layer – 98%
• Type 1 layer – 95 %
• ABC layer – 100%
• Field density test
Procedure Of FDT Test
The steps to perform fdt test are as follows:
1. First, take the weight of the empty sand cone and then fill it with dry sand and then weigh again.
2. Collect the excavated soil from the hole and measure the weight.
3. After weighting, collect the specimen of soil to determine the water content in it.
4. Now place the sand cone on the test hole with the help of the base plate and allow the sand to run by opening the control valve.
5. When the sand stops running, close the valve and weight the cone with the existing sand. Finally, calculate the dry density of the soil
by given the below formula. If the test fails, compact, and perform the test again.
Field density test
Calculation For FDT Test:
The volume of the hole = Mass of sand in hole/Density of used sand.
Wet density = Mass of wet excavated soil/Volume of hole
Dry density = Wet density × 100%/ Moisture content of soil + 100
Degree of compaction = Dry density × 100%/Maximum dry density.
Bar Bending Schedule For Beam:

This beam has more technical design implementation than the above simple beam. Let’s get started.
The beam has a clear span of 5 meters consisting of two bottom layers (2 no.s of 20 mm dia and 2 no.s of 16 mm dia) and one top layer
(2 no.s of 12 mm dia).
It consists of 3 zones where zone 1 and zone 3 have 8 mm dia stirrups with a spacing of 150 mm & Zone 2 has 8 mm dia stirrups with a
spacing of 200 mm.
Clear Span of Beam = 5000 mm
Development Length Ld = 50d (assumption)
Clear Cover on any ends = 25 mm
Bottom – 2 no.s 20Ø and 2 no.s of 16Ø
Top – 2 no.s of 12Ø
Stirrups
Zone 1,3 = 8Ø @ 150mm clear cover
Zone 2 = 8Ø @ 200mm clear cover
Step 1 – Calculate Cutting Length Of Top Bar
Cutting length of top bar = Clear Span of Beam + Development length – Bend
Where bend for 45deg=1d, 90deg=2d, 135deg=3d
Cutting length = L + (2 x Ld) – (2 x 2d)
= 5000 + (2 x 50 x 12) – (2 x 2 x 12)
= 5000 + (2 x 50 x 12) – 50
= 6152 mm
Step 2 – Calculate Cutting Length Of Bottom Bar
For First Layer (20Ø):
Cutting length of bottom bar = Clear Span of Beam + Development length – Bend
Where bend for 45deg=1d, 90deg=2d, 135deg=3d
= 5000 + (2 x 50 x 20) – (2 x 2 x 20)
= 6920 mm
For Second Layer (16Φ):
Cutting length of bottom bar = Clear Span of Beam + Development length – Bend
= 5000 + (2 x 50 x 16) – (2 x 2 x 16)
= 6536 mm
Step 3 – Calculate Number of Stirrups
This beam has three zones where Zone 1 & 2 consist of 8 mm dia stirrups of 150 mm spacing and Zone 3 has 8 mm dia stirrups of 200
mm spacing.
First we need to calculate the length of each zone = L/3 = 5000/3 = 1666 mm
Number of stirrups required for Zone 1 = (Clear Span of beam/ Spacing of stirrups) + 1
= (1666/150)+1 = 12.10 ♎ 12 no.s
Number of stirrups required for Zone 3 = Same as Zone 1 = 12 no.s
Number of stirrups required for Zone 2 = (Clear Span of beam/ spacing Stirrups) – 1 = (1666/200) – 1 = 7 no.s
The reason for the “minus 1 “ is already zone 1 has end stirrup so we don’t need to again start from the new one. we just continue the
stirrups already existing with extra spacing.
Cutting length of stirrups:
Cross section of stirrups is
Width = 300 mm
Height = 500 mm
a is horizontal length of stirrup
= 300 – (2 x clear cover) – (2 x half of bar dia )
= 300 – (2 x 25) – ( 2 x 4)
= 242 mm
b is vertical length of stirrup
= 500 – (2 x clear cover) – (2 x half of bar dia)
= 500 – (2 x 25) – (2 x 4)
=442
Now calculate cutting length of stirrup
Cutting length = 2 x (a+b) + hook – bend
= 2 x ( 242 + 442) + (9d x 2) – (3d x2) – (2d x 3) [For 2 no. 135 bend (3dx2) & for 3 no. 90 bend (2dx3)]
= 2 x 684 + (9 x 8 x2) – (3 x 8 x 2) – (2 x 8 x3)
= 926 + 144 – 48 – 48
= 974 mm = 0.97 m
Calculate Weight Of Stirrups:
Total no. of stirrups = 12 + 12 + 7 = 31
Total length of stirrups = 0.97 x 31 = 30.19 m
Total weight of stirrups = d2xL/162 = 8 x8 x 30.19/162 = 12 kg
BBS Of Beam:
Diameter Cutting Total

Total Weight
of Numbers Length Length
kg
Bar (mm) m m
Top
12 2 6.152 12.30 10.93
Bar
Bottom
20 2 6.920 13.84 34.6
Bar
Bottom
16 2 6.536 13.07 20.91
Bar
Stirrup 8 31 0.974 30.19 12
History Of Bar Bending Schedule:

Long years back, when there was no today’s bar bending schedule, certain recommendations given by Prof. BN Dutta were used for
estimating steel for different components of a building.
But these are now backdated (not wrong), and we don’t use them today. Because No accurate values were specified if we use more bars
in a single member. Nowadays we are constructing 150+ floors building. It is now possible with our modern techniques, equipment, etc.
The estimation of steel becomes easier because of BBS.
Civil engineers who are working on site or freshers who are going to work at construction sites must know how to prepare bar bending
schedules. In this article, I will discuss some important things used in preparing bar bending schedule.
These are just basic things. In the future, I will come up with some other articles related to BBS such as BBS for beams, columns, slabs,
footings etc.
What Is Bar Bending Schedule?
Bar bending schedule commonly known as BBS is one of the most important terms in Civil Engineering. Because it plays a vital role in
building construction.
Like other building materials estimation of steel is also required for constructing a building and here BBS comes with an easy solution.
Bar bending schedule provides the reinforcement calculation and some other important details such as bar mark, bar diameter, bar shape,
cutting length, number of bars, the weight of bar, total weight of steel, etc, so that we can order the required amount of steel in advance.
Hook Length:
The hook is the extra length left at the 4th corner of a stirrup so that the stirrup retains its shape.
Generally, hook length is taken as 9d for one side.
Where d = Diameter of the bar.
The total length of stirrups = Total length of the bar + 2 x hook length (for two hooks)
= L + 2 x 9d
= L + 18d.
Where L = length of the bar for stirrup.
Bend Length:
The bar is bent at the column end to tie with the footings. This extra length for bend is called bend length.
Bend length is generally considered as 16 d
Bend Length = 16d
Development Length:
Development length is a vital point in bar bending schedule. Development length is the length of the bar required for transferring the
stress into the concrete.
In simple words, the quantity of the rebar length that is actually required to be embedded into the concrete to create the desired bond
strength between steel and concrete and furthermore to produce required stress for the steel in that area.
The formula for development is given below:
Development length (Ld) = d x σs/τbd
Where
d = Diameter of the bar.
σs = Stress in the bar at the section considered as the design load
τbd = Design bond stress.
Lap Length:
Lap length is an important term in BBS. Lap length is the overlapping length of two bars side by side which gives required design length.
In RCC structure if the length of a bar is not sufficiently available to make design length, lapping is done.
Suppose we need to build a 20 m tall building. But is there any 20 m bar available in the market? No, the maximum length of rebar is
usually 12 m, so we need to join two bars to get 20 m bar.
Lap length for tension members = 40d
Lap length for compression members = 50d.
d = Diameter of bars.
Look at the image below. You may be seen this on the terrace (top floor) of buildings. This extra rebar is left for future construction
purpose. I hope you understand this.
Crank Length:
Generally, bars are bent near the support at an angle of 45°. The angle of bend may also be 30° in shallow beams. The purpose of bend
near the support is firstly to resist the negative bending moment which occurs in the region of the support and secondly to resist the shear
force which is greater at the support.
Crank bars are mostly provided in slabs.
Crank length = D/sin45° – D/tan45° =1.42D – D = 0.42D

So Crank Length = 0.42D
Where D = Clear height of the bar = Thickness of slab – (Top cover + Bottom cover) – Diameter of the bar
Unit Weight Of Steel:
To prepare BBS at site you need to calculate the weight of steel first.
The weight of bars is calculated by the following formula
W = d²L/162
Where W = Weight of bars.
L = Length of bars in meter.
d = Diameter of the bar.
Example: Calculate the weight of 20 meters long 16 mm ø bar
W = 16² x 20/162 = 32 kg.
So basically bar bending schedule is a very important thing in civil engineering. If you are a civil engineer you must need to prepare it at
construction site.
Bar Bending Schedule:

Bar bending schedule or BBS is a list of reinforcement bars in tabular form which provides the following important details:
1. Bar mark, which indicates the right position of the bar in a structure.
2. The diameter of the bar.
3. The shape of the bar.
4. The dimension of bending of the bar.
5. The number of same bar types.
6. The length of all bars.
7. Total length.
8. Weight .
9. Total weight.
From BBS we can know the reinforcement of different bar sizes and bars are cut and bent appropriately at the job site. It also ensures
proper checking and completion of estimates in a short time. The dimension of bends should be so given in the BBS that minimum
calculation is required for the making of bars and furtherly setting the machine and stops.
Preparation OF Bar Bending Schedule:
The shapes and proportions of hooks and bends in the reinforcement bars are shown in Fig. 1– these are standard proportions that are
conformed to:
(a) Length of one hook = (4d ) + [(4d+ d )] – where, (4d+ d ) = 9d. (Curved portion)
(b) The additional length (la) that is introduced in the simple, straight end-to-end length of a reinforcement bar due to bending at θ°
say 30o to 60o, generally, 45o is considered)
∴ la= l1 – l2
Fig 1: Hooks and bends in Reinforcement
Let θ = 30°, 45°, 60° respectively
The length of hooks and the total length of a given steel reinforcement is achieved by the following method.
Difference Between Short Column And Long Column
There are different types of columns used in structures. In our previous article, we have already discussed that topic. In this article, I will
discuss the difference between short column and long column.
What is Short Column?
When the ratio of the effective length of a column to its least lateral dimension does not exceed 12, it is called short column.
What is Long Column?

When the ratio of the effective length of a column to its least lateral dimension exceeds 12, it is called long column.
Difference Between Short Column And Long Column
Short Column Long Column
1. The ratio of the effective length to its least lateral 1. The ratio of the effective length to its least lateral dimension
dimension is less than 12. is greater than 12.
2. The slenderness of short column is less than 12. 2. The slenderness of long column is greater than 12.
3. Less radius of gyration. 3. Greater radius of gyration.
4. The load-carrying capacity of short column is 4. The load-carrying capacity is less compared to short column
greater than long column. of same cross-sectional area.
5. Stronger than long column and highly preferrable. 5. Weaker than short column and generally not preferred.
6. Short column is subjected to compressive stress. 6. Long column is subjected to buckling stress.
7. Mechanical failure mainly occurs due to shearing. 7. Long columns are liable to fail due to buckling.
Standard Sizes Of Columns In Structures

First Of all, there is no standard size of columns. The size of column depends on several factors such as the type of column, load to be
resisted and architectural utility of that column. Depending upon these factors we have to adopt or assume the column size and then need
to check for safety.
There are different types of columns, such as timber columns, RCC columns, etc. Nowadays, RCC columns are widely used in
structures, So in this article, I will discuss the sizes of RCC columns.
The minimum size of a column should not be less than 9”x9” for single-story structure with M15 (1:2:4) concrete. If 9”x9” columns are
to be used in one and half story building, always use M20 (1:1.5:3) concrete. If you use M15 concrete for one and half story structure the
column size should not be less than 12”x9”.
Distance Between Columns

Try to maintain equal distance between the centers of two columns. Always plan a column layout on a grid. The distance between two
columns of size 9”x9” should not be more than 4m centre to centre of column.
If larger barrier-free distances are required then larger size columns should be used. The size of the columns should be increased because
of two factors:
1. Increase in the distance between two columns (this increases the dimensions of the columns as well as the depth of the beam).
2. Height of the building (increase in the number of floors is directly proportional to the dimensions of the columns).
Alignment of Columns
A rectangular grid is to be made for placing the columns. This helps in avoiding mistakes and placing in columns can be done in the right
way. The columns can preferably be arranged in two different fashions:
1. In a straight line with the help of a grid.
2. In a circular fashion for circular buildings.
Zigzag arrangement of columns is an absolutely wrong way of working out in structural design. It should be remembered that when
columns are erected, beams are laid connecting the columns. The Zigzag column placement causes three major issues:
• Unbalanced load transfer.
• Problems in wall construction.
• Problems in laying beams.
The below table shows a rough estimate of column sizes for multi-story buildings.
Calculation Of Materials For Different Mix Ratio

Quantity estimation of building materials is essentially required in any construction work and the quantity of materials depends on the
mix proportions of the concrete.
In our previous article, we have already discussed how to calculate bricks in a wall. Today we will discuss how to calculate quantities of
materials for different concrete mix ratios. (Dry mix method)
We will calculate quantities of materials for 1 m3 of concrete (By volume).
Let us assume the mix proportion is 1 : 2: 4 (Cement : Sand : Stone = a:b:c)
Volume of wet concrete = 1 m3
Volume of dry concrete = 1 × 1.54 = 1.54 m3
hat Is 1.54?
Or You Can check out this article – What is 1.54 in Concrete Calculation?
Calculation For Cement
Formula, Cement = (Volume of dry concrete/a+b+c) × a
• = (1.54/a+b+c) × a = [(1.54/1+2+4)] × 1 = 0.22 cum
Now density of cement = 1440 kg/cu.m
• ∴ Volume of cement = 0.22 × 1440 =316.8 kg.
As we know, 1 bag of cement contains 50 kg of cement.
• ∴ Cement bags required = 316.8/50 = 6.33 bags.
Calculation For Sand
Formula, Sand = (Volume of dry concrete/a+b+c) × b
• = (1.54/a+b+c) × b = (1.54/1+2+4) × 2 = 0.44 cu.m.
Calculation For Aggregates
Formula, Aggregates = (Volume of dry concrete/a+b+c) × c
• = (1.54/a+b+c) ×c = (1.54/1+2+4) × 4 = 0.88 cu.m.
Calculation For Water Content
Let us assume the water-cement ratio of concrete is 0.45.
• w/c = 0.45
• Required water for 1 bag cement = 0.45 × 0.0353 = 0.0159 cu.m.
Where volume of 50 kg cement = 0.0353 cu.m
• 1 m3 water = 1000 Litre
Required water for 1 bag of cement=0.0159 × 1000 = 15.9 Litre.
∴ Required water for 6.33 bags cement = 6.33 × 15.9 = 101 Litre.
Summary
• Cement = 6.33 bags.
• Sand = 0.44 cum
• Aggregates = 0.88 cum
• Water = 101 litre.
Note: Yield of concrete is considered as 67% & Wastages of materials = 2%
You can use the same formula for different mix proportions such as 1:1.5:3 etc.
Here, we have used cubic meter unit but you can also calculate in cubic feet unit.
Procedure To Calculate Cement Bags In 1 Cubic Meter

Let us consider the nominal mix is 1:2:4
Loss of cement is considered as 2%
The output of the mix is considered to 67%
To achieve 1 cum output, we need 1/0.67 = 1.49 say 1.50 cum dry mix.
Now add the wastage of 2%, i.e (1.50 + 0.02) = 1.52 cum.
Volume of cement = (cement/cement+sand+aggregate) × Total material
=(1/1+2+4) × 1.52
=0.2171 cum
As we know, the density of cement is 1440 kg/cum and
Weight of 1 bag of cement = 50 kg.
Therefore the volume of 1 bag of cement = 50/1440
=0.0347 cum.
∴ No. of cement bags required in 1 cubic meter = 0.2171/0.0347
= 6.25 bags.
How To Calculate Cement, Sand Quantity For Plastering?

Plastering is done to protect the surface of wall. Learn how to calculate cement and sand quantity for plastering in this article.
Following points should be remembered while calculating the quantity of cement, sand for plastering work.
1. For wall plastering, Cement : Sand = 1 : 6
2. For ceiling plastering, Cement : Sand = 1 : 4
3. Thickness of the plaster should be between 12-15 mm. If an additional coat is required, then do not do it in one go.
4. Use good quality cement & Sand.
5. Use a measuring box (not a head pan) for the site mix.
We will calculate cement and sand for 100 m2 plastering area in 1:6 ratio and thickness of 12 mm.
Cement Mortar Required:
Plastering thickness = 12 mm
= 12/1000 = 0.012m
Volume of cement mortar required = ( Plastering Area x thickness )
= 100 m2 x 0.012m = 1.2 m3
(This is wet volume of cement mortar (after mixing water), but we need dry volume. To get dry volume, consider 35% bulking of sand
and 20% wastage
= 1.2 m3 x (1+0.2+0.35) (Rather than 35% sand bulkage and 20% wastage, you can add 1.54 as constant)
= 1.86 m3
Cement : Sand = 1 : 6
Sum of ratio = (1+6) = 7
Cement Required
= 1.86 x 1/7 = 0.265 m3
= 0.265/0.0347 (0.0347 m3 = 1 bag = 50 kg cement)
= 7.66 bags = 8 bags
Sand required:
1.86 x 6/7
= 1.59 m3
Here we have calculated in Sq.m but you can also use Sq. ft.
Here we have calculated in Sq.m, but you can also calculate it in Sq.ft.
Calculation Of Bricks In A Wall

Estimation of building materials is essentially required before starting a new construction project. In our previous article, we have
already discussed how to calculate cement, sand, and aggregates. Today we will discuss how to calculate number of bricks in a wall.
This is a manual brick calculator that will help you to calculate no. of bricks for your project.
Brick Calculator In Metric System
For calculating the number of bricks, the thickness of plaster should be deducted from the thickness of the brick masonry wall. For
example, for a standard brick wall (With load-bearing columns) of 9 inches or 230 mm thick, the actual thickness without plaster would
be 200mm, i.e. one brick thick.
To use the brick calculator manually we need some data for calculating no. of bricks.
Required Data:
• Volume of the wall.
• Volume of a standard brick.
• Details of openings in the wall.
Let’s assume
Length of the wall = l = 4 m
Height of the wall = h = 3 m
Thickness of the wall = b = 200 mm = 0.2 m
Assuming that the wall has no openings.
Brick size = 190 mm x 90 mm x 90 mm (without mortar)
Volume of brick masonry in wall = lxhxb = 4 x 3 x 0.2 = 2.4 m 3
Volume of one brick with mortar = 0.2 x 0.1 x 0.1 = 0.002 m 3
Number of bricks = [Volume of brick masonry/volume of one brick]
= 2.4 / 0.002 = 1200 bricks.
Consider 5% wastage of bricks.
Thus, the number of bricks required for 1 cubic meter = 500
Example 2 (Brick Calculator In Feet Unit):
You can use the same brick calculator for different units. In this example, We will use the feet unit.
1. First, calculate the volume of the wall to be built:
Let us assume,
The length of the wall (l) = 10 feet.
The height of the wall (h) = 10 feet.
The thickness of the wall (b) = 200 mm = 0.656 feet.
Calculate the volume of the wall by multiplying the length, height, and thickness.
∴ Volume of the wall = l×h×b = 10×10×0.656 =65 Cu.F
2. Calculate the volume of one brick
We will use standard Indian bricks for the calculator.
The standard size of a brick (IS Standard) is 190 mm ×90 mm ×90 mm and
with the mortar joints, it becomes 200mm × 100 mm× 100 mm.
l = 200 mm= 0.656168 ft.
b = 100 mm =0.328084 ft.
h = 100 mm = 0.328084 ft.
∴ Volume of the brick = l× b×h = 0.656168× 0.328084× 0.328084 = 0.0706 Cu.F
3. To find out the total nos of brick divide the volume of the wall by the volume of the brick.
∴ No. of bricks required = 65.6/0.0706 = 929 no. of bricks.
Note:
1. Consider 5% wastage of bricks.
2. If the wall has any openings such as doors, windows, etc subtract the volume of the openings from the volume of the wall and then
divide it by the volume of brick.
I hope you have now learned how to calculate bricks using our manual brick calculator. Good luck.
Important Notes On Slab:

There are two types of bars present in the slab.
⇒ Main bars.
⇒ Distribution bars (bars provided against shrinkage and temperature).
Maximum spacing Between Individual Bars:
1) The maximum diameter of bar used in slab should not exceed 1/8 of the total thickness of slab.
2) For main bars, maximum spacing is restricted to 3 times effective depth or 300 mm whichever is smaller.
3) For distribution bars, the maximum spacing is specified as 5 times the effective depth or 450 mm whichever is smaller.
Hence, diameter of bar, thickness of slab, effective depth and spacing are co-related.
Effective depth = depth of slab – clear cover- half of diameter of bar
Minimum Distance Between Individual Bars:
Minimum Distance Between Individual Bars & main reinforcing bars shall usually be not less than the greatest of the following:
The following shall apply for spacing of bars:
1) The diameter of the bar if the diameters are equal,
2) The diameter of the larger bar if the diameters are unequal and
3) 5 mm more than the nominal maximum size of coarse aggregate.
Clear cover (Nominal Cover) shall be kept in mind while calculating the above parameters.
Source: IS-456 (2000)
What Is WBM Road?

The water bound macadam, commonly abbreviated as WBM, is a type of road, named after John Macadam. It consists of raw materials
like clean and crushed aggregates, screening and binding materials.
The aggregates are mechanically interlocked by rolling and the screenings and binding materials, are used to fill the voids in the
aggregates. All the materials are mixed with water.
The mixture of such materials is laid on a well prepared subgrade, sub-base, or on existing road pavement. Water bound macadam can be
used as a sub-base, base course, or surface course. The thickness of each layer in WBM road ranges between 7.5 cm to 10 cm.
According to IRC – 19-1997, a camber of 1 in 48 is provided at the formation level of the subgrade as well as the finished surface if the
rainfall in that area is not heavy, and if the rainfall is heavy, a camber of 1 in 36 is suggested.
Materials Used In WBM Road

The materials used for the preparation of water bound macadam are as follows:
1. Coarse aggregates,
2. Screenings,
3. Binding materials, and
4. Water.
1. Coarse aggregates
The coarse aggregates used for water bound macadam are as follows:
• Crushed aggregates
• Over burnt bricks
• Crushed slag
• Kankar
• Broken stones
• Laterite
The table given below shows the maximum permissible values of tests for aggregates, required for various layers of pavement.
Sr. No. Test Sub base Base course Surfacing course
1 Los Angeles abrasion test 60 50 40
2 Aggregate impact value test 50 40 30
3 Flakiness index test 15 15

Indian Road Congress (IRC) recommended values for size and grading requirements of coarse aggregates used in water bound macadam
are as given in the table below:
Grading number Aggregate size range in mm Sieve size in mm % passing by weight
1 90 to 40 100 100
80 65 – 85
63 25 – 60
40 0 -15
20 0–5
2 63 to 40 80 100
63 90 – 100
50 30 – 70
40 0 – 15
20 0–5
3 50 to 20 63 100
50 95 – 100
40 35 – 70
20 0 – 10
10 0–5
2. Screenings
The screenings are basically used for filling up the voids in the layer of coarse aggregates. Screenings include aggregates of smaller
sizes. The screenings are generally the same material as coarse aggregates used in water bound macadam.
The table below states the grading requirements of screenings for water bound macadam.
Grading Size of screenings Sieve size % By weight passing
A 12.5 mm 12.5 mm 100
10 mm 90 – 100
4.75 mm 10 – 30
150 micron 0–8
B 10 mm 10 mm 100
4.75 mm 85 – 100
150 micron 10 – 30
3. Binding Materials
To avoid raveling of aggregates, fine grained materials such as kankar nodules or lime stone dust are used as binding materials for the
construction of water bound macadam.
When WBM is used as a surface course, the binding materials used in it should have a plasticity index between 4 to 9.
When and where crushable materials such as moorum or soft gravel are used as screenings, binding materials are not required.
WBM Road Construction Procedure
The following steps are adopted for the construction of WBM roads:
1. Preparing the foundation for receiving the WBM course
The foundation supporting the layer of WBM is either the subgrade or sub-base course. It is prepared to the required grade and camber.
It is cleaned of all the dust particles and loose materials present on it. The foundation, supporting the WBM, should be dried.
When the existing road is topped black, furrows are cut at an interval of 1m at an angle of 45 degrees to the centre line of carriageway.
2. Lateral confinement of aggregates
The aggregates in WBM are confined because if they are placed on the subgrade, there are possibilities that the aggregates may come out
due to the load of traffic. It is done by construction of shoulders of thickness similar to the thickness of the compacted layer of WBM
(7.5 cm).
3. Spreading coarse aggregates
The aggregates should be evenly and uniformly spread on the prepared base in the required amount. They may be spread manually or
mechanically. The thickness of the layers (compacted) of WBM constructed should not be more than 75 mm.
4. Rolling
Once the aggregates are spread evenly, the rollers are deployed to carry out the process of compaction. The rollers used shall be of 6 to
10 tonnes capacity. The compaction of aggregates should start from the edge of the surface. The aggregates are compacted partially then
the compaction is paused to permit the application of screenings
5. Application of screenings
After partial compaction of aggregates, screenings are applied so that the voids in the aggregates are filled completely. They are applied
gradually over the surface in three or more applications. Again after applying screenings, dry rolling is resumed so that they are
completely filled in the voids.
6. Sprinkling and grouting
The surface is sprinkled with water after applying the screenings. The surface is then swept and rolled so that the voids are completely
filled. If any voids are left empty, additional screenings may be applied.
7. Application of binding materials
After applying the screenings, binding materials are applied in thin layers. Two or more thin layers of binders are applied. After the
application of each layer of binding materials, water is sprinkled followed by compaction of layers by rollers of 6 to 10 tonnes capacity.
8. Setting and drying
After all the above mentioned processes, the layer of WBM is allowed to set overnight. Next day the road is inspected and if any voids
are empty, they are filled and compacted.
Advantages Of WBM Road
The advantages of WBM roads are as follows:
1. Initially, the construction of WBM road is cheaper.
2. Locally available materials are used.
3. No specially trained labours required.
4. If it is maintained properly, it can take up to 900 tonnes of traffic per day.
Disadvantages Of WBM Road
The disadvantages of WBM roads are as follows:
1. Higher maintenance cost.
2. It is permeable. So it causes softening of subsoil and may get damaged during the rainy season.
3. The life span of WBM roads is less.
4. It is not able to bear heavy traffic loads.
What Is Dowel Bar?

Dowel bar is a short round, smooth steel rod used to provide a mechanical connection between slabs without restricting horizontal joint
movement. These bars are mainly used in jointed plain concrete pavement (JPCP) to carry the additional stress and load induced due to
the moving vehicle.
Purpose:
Dowel bars are used
1. To transfer the load from one slab to its adjacent slab such that two consecutive slabs move together and reduce impact loading
developed by the slabs by their independent movement.
2. To reduce joint faulting and corner cracking.
3. To improve the performance of pavement joints.
The size of dowel bars depends on the thickness of the pavement. Usually, these bars are 18 inches (460mm) long, 1.25 to 1.5 inches (32
to 38 mm) in diameter, and spaced 12 inches (305mm) apart. To protect the rods from corrosion they are either stainless steel or epoxy
coated.
Epoxy Coated Dowel Bar

Dowel bars are placed across transverse joints in concrete pavement to allow movement. They are inserted at the mid-depth of the slab
and coated with a bond-breaking material to restrict bonding to the PCC. Thus dowels help to transfer loads allowing expansion and
contraction of adjacent slabs independently.
Dowels must be placed parallel to the centerline. New channels must be cut so that at least one-half dowel can be on each side of the
joint or crack.
Advantages Of Dowel Bars:

1. Reduces deflection and stresses.
2. It increases the load-carrying capacity of slabs.
3. It increases the initial pavement life.
Installation:
1. Dowel Baskets.
2. Dowel bar inserter (DBI).
3. A bond breaker (usually grease) must be applied prior to placement.
Installation Problems:
1. Bars are missing or misplaced due to poorly adjusted equipment, damaged dowel baskets, or improper basket anchoring.
2. Concrete around the bars is poorly compacted or too stiff mix is used.
Note:
Dowel bars are also used in RCC walls for slabs and columns. They are placed in two ways:
Method 1: Short-length bar is placed before pouring concrete into position. It is the most common and successful method in terms of
bonding, cost-effective as it doesn’t require chemicals for bonding purposes.
Method 2: Drilling holes in the concrete, and putting Hilti chemical for strong bonding. It is expensive as Hilti chemical is used which is
costly. This method is adopted when we forgot to place extension bars before concreting.
How To Calculate Asphalt Quantity For Road:
There are many who get confused between asphalt and bitumen. They think that asphalt and bitumen are the same, but technically they
are not.
Asphalt is a composite material mixture of aggregates, binder (bitumen), and sand. Aggregates used for asphalt mix could be crushed
rock, sand, gravel, or slags.
Whereas Bitumen is actually the liquid binder that holds asphalt together. The term bitumen is often mistakenly used to describe asphalt.
Asphalt is widely used for constructing and maintaining all types of roads be it for highways, inner-city and inter-city roads, local roads,
car parks, or paving driveways and pavements. I will briefly discuss the difference between asphalt and bitumen in another article.
Here, I will discuss how to calculate the quantity of asphalt and its cost for road construction. The calculation is very easy, you only need
some data.
Assume,
Length of road = L = 5 km = 5000 m
Width of road = W = 6 m
Thickness of asphalt = H = 15 cm = 0.15 m
Quantity Of Asphalt Calculation:
The volume of asphalt = L x W x H
= 5000 x 6 x 0.15 = 4500 m3
Here, the density of asphalt is taken as 2330 kg/m3
Therefore, quantity of asphalt = Volume of asphalt x Density of asphalt
= 4500 x 2330 = 10485000 kg = 10485 tons
Cost of asphalt:
Suppose the cost of 1 ton asphalt is 6000 rs.
Cost of asphalt = 10485 x 6000 = 62910000 rs
Quantity Of Asphalt In Curved Road
Assume,
• Width of road = W = 6 m
• Thickness of asphalt = H = 15 cm = 0.15 m
Length of curved road = (π x R x θ)/180 = (3.14 x 10 x 100)/180 = 17.44 m
Volume of asphalt for curved road = Length x Width x Thickness
= L x W x H = 17.44 x 6 x 0.15 = 15.696 m 3
∴ Quantity of asphalt for curved road = Volume of asphalt x Density of asphalt
= 15.69 x 2330 = 36558 kg = 36.55 tons
Cost of asphalt:
Suppose the cost of 1 ton asphalt is 6000 rs.
Cost of asphalt = 36.55 x 6000 = 219300 rs
Note:
In case the area you are calculating has an irregular shape, divide it into several regularly-shaped sections, then calculate each of their
volume and asphalt requirements using the above method. Finally, sum them up together.
CONCRETE
Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Test

The ultrasonic pulse velocity test is a non-destructive test used to determine the quality of concrete on site. This test basically involves
the assessment of the velocity of electronic pulse passing through the concrete from a transmitting transducer to a receiver transducer.
The principle of the ultrasonic pulse velocity test is that the velocity sound in a solid material is a function of the square root of the ratio
of its modulus of elasticity E to its density P. The density and the elastic properties of the material are related to its quality and strength,
respectively.
The velocity of electronic pulses ranges from 3 km/h to 5 km/h, on average. The frequency of the electronic pulse generated varies from
15 kHz to 175 kHz.
The apparatus used for the ultrasonic pulse velocity test consists of a transmitter and a receiver which are held against two faces of
concrete. The electronic pulse of ultrasonic frequency is generated by the apparatus which is transmitted through concrete using the
transmitter. The transmitted pulses are received by the receiver, which is on the other face of the concrete. When the electronic pulses are
received, they are also recorded by the apparatus.
The travel time of electronic pulses is measured when they travel from the transmitter to the receiver. The length of the path traveled by
pulses is divided by the travel time of pulses which gives the average velocity of wave propagation. The pulse velocity is correlated to
the strength of concrete. The higher the pulse velocity, the greater is the strength of concrete.
Ultra Sonic Pulse Velocity Km/s Quality Of Concrete
Below 3.0 Doubtful
3.0 to 3.5 Medium
3.5 to 4.5 Good
Above 4.5 Excellent

Arrangement Of Transducer
The measurement of electronic pulse velocity through concrete can be done in three different ways. They are as follows:
1. Direct Transmission – Opposite Faces
The direct method of transmission is the most reliable method of measuring pulse velocity through concrete since the maximum pulse
energy is transmitted at right angles to the face of the transmitter. Also, the path of travel of the pulse can be clearly and accurately
measured as it can be easily defined.
2. Semi–Direct Transmission – Adjacent Faces
The semi-direct method of transmission is used relatively less than the direct method as the results of this method are not accurate, but
satisfactory. It is because the angle between the transducers and the path length is not that large.
3. Indirect Transmission – Same Face
The indirect method of transmission is the least used method as the results from it are least satisfactory and inaccurate. Due to this, the
indirect method is rarely used.
Factors Affecting The Measurement Of Pulse Velocity.
The factors affecting the measurement of pulse velocity are as follows:
1. Smoothness Of Contact Surface.
The surface of contact of concrete, where the transducer is to be placed, should be even and smooth enough. If the contact surface is
rough or uneven, it can be made smooth using a tool. In addition to that, the use of coupling medium such as jelly, oil, or a thin film of
soap is recommended.
2. Length of path
To avoid inaccuracy or any errors due to heterogeneity of concrete, the path length should be sufficiently long. The length of path may
be anywhere between 300mm in the case of concrete columns to 23m in mass concrete dams.
The length of path is directly related to the accuracy of results and errors. Longer the length of path, the more accurate results you get
with minimum or no errors.
In some cases, when the concrete samples are to be evaluated in the laboratory, it usually has a smaller length of path, which affects the
pulse velocity readings.
3. Moisture Content Of Concrete
The pulse velocity through concrete increases, when the moisture content of concrete increases. The pulse velocity of saturated concrete
is said to be higher than that of relatively dry concrete approximately by 2% to 3%.
4. Temperature Of Concrete
The optimum temperature range for accurate readings of pulse velocity is 5 degree Celsius to 30 degree Celsius. In this range, the pulse
velocity readings are not affected much.
The pulse velocity increases when the temperature of concrete goes below 5 degree Celsius. As the temperature goes below 5 degree
Celsius, the water content present in concrete starts freezing, resulting in an increase in pulse velocity.
On the other hand, when the temperature of concrete rises above 30 degree Celsius, the pulse velocity decreases by up to 5%.
5. Presence Of Steel Reinforcement In Concrete
The pulse velocity of Reinforced Cement Concrete (RCC) is approximately 1.2 to 2 times the pulse velocity of plain cement concrete
(PCC). When the path of pulse is parallel to the steel bars, the pulse velocity will be higher.
Applications
The applications of ultrasonic pulse velocity test are as follows:
1. To measure the uniformity of concrete.
2. To discover the development of cracks in various concrete structures and also to check deterioration due to frost action or chemical
action.
3. To find out the voids or honeycomb in concrete structure.
4. To determine the strength of concrete.
5. To measure the thickness of concrete slabs and concrete roads.
6. To measure elastic modulus.
7. It is useful for studies conducted on the durability of concrete.
8. It is used for strength development monitoring.
9. It is also useful in pre-casting and also in deciding the removal of formwork.
Advantages Of UPV Test:
The advantages of the ultrasonic pulse velocity test are as follows:
1. The electronic pulses have high penetrating power.
2. It is highly sensitive.
3. It is highly accurate.
4. It has a wide variety of applications.
5.The apparatus of ultrasonic pulse velocity test is portable. Hence it is easy to carry from one site to another.
Disadvantages Of UPV Test:
The disadvantages of ultrasonic pulse velocity test are as follows:
1.This test is done manually and requires careful attention from experienced technicians.
2. It is difficult to inspect the irregular parts of the apparatus.
3. Couplants like soap, oil, and jelly are required at the contact surface.
4. The elements which are going to be tested should be water resistance.
Rebound Hammer Test

Rebound hammer test is a non – destructive test, used to evaluate the compressive strength or the hardness of any concrete element,
without destruction of that particular element or the structure. The rebound hammer provides a quick indication regarding
the compressive strength of concrete.
This test is a simple and rapid test, providing the results immediately without any problematic and complex calculations. The rebound
hammer test is a widely used method for non-destructive testing of any concrete element.
The apparatus used for rebound hammer test, popularly known as the Schmidt rebound hammer or a Swiss hammer, was developed by a
Swiss engineer Ernst Schmidt, in the year 1984.
Objective
The objectives of rebound hammer test are as follows:-
1. To find out the compressive strength of concrete with suitable correlations between the compressive strength and rebound index.
2. To evaluate the uniformity of concrete.
3. To evaluate the quality of concrete on the basis of standard requirements.
4. To compare the quality of one element of concrete with the other element.
Principle Of Test
This test is based on the principle that the rebound of an elastic mass depends on the hardness of the concrete surface against which the
mass collides.
The rebound hammer comprises a plunger which is attached to a spring-driven metal mass. The plunger is held to a smooth concrete
surface. It is held at an angle of 90 degrees and firmly pressed at the concrete surface.
The metal mass controlled by a spring in the hammer rebounds when strikes concrete surface. The amount of rebound of the metal mass
is noted on a graduated scale which gives an indication of the compressive strength of concrete.
The strength of concrete is directly proportional to the hardness of the surface of the concrete. So the quality of concrete, in terms of its
compressive strength, is said to be better if the rebound is higher and vice versa.
Procedure
Before the commencement of the rebound hammer test, the rebound hammer which is to be used is calibrated against a steel test anvil
having a Brinell hardness number of 5000 MPa. Once the rebound hammer is calibrated and ready for use, the test is conducted.
To start with, the Swiss hammer is held at a right angle against the concrete structure. The Swiss hammer is then stroked against the
structure.
The hammer stroked at the structure bounces back with some amount of force which the reading is shown on the graduated scale given
on the rebound hammer itself and recorded.
On average 10 to 12 readings are taken to get better accuracy of results. Because sometimes the rebound number could be abnormally
high due to the presence of large aggregates immediately underneath the plunge or it may be too low due to some voids present beneath
the plunge of the hammer. So, it is advised to take at least 8 readings for more accurate results.
This test can be conducted on an element placed vertically or horizontally, keeping in mind that the rebound hammers should be placed
at 90 degrees to it.
The rebound value obtained from the test defines the quality of the concrete element or its compressive strength of it. Different rebound
values indicate the different quality of structure, as mentioned in the table below.
REBOUND NUMBER VALUE QUALITY OF CONCRETE ELEMENT
Greater than 40 Very good hard layer
30 to 40 Good layer
20 to 30 Fair layer
Less than 20 Poor layer
0 Very poor layer
Points To Remember Before Test

1. The surface of concrete on which the test is to be performed should be clean, smooth, and dry.
2. Loose particles or any unwanted particles on the surface of the concrete should be chipped off using a grinder or other equipment.
3. This test should not be conducted on a rough surface as that would not give the required results.
4. The rebound hammer should be calibrated and tested before the commencement of the actual test.
Advantages Of Rebound Hammer Test
1. Rebound hammer is easy to use. No special skills are required to use a rebound hammer.
2. Rebound hammer is inexpensive equipment.
3. This test is used for repairs and rehabilitation of old structures.
4. It gives instant results.
5. The process of rebound hammer test is also easier and speedy.
Disadvantages Of Rebound Hammer Test
1. The results acquired from the rebound hammer test are accurate up to a certain limit. So they are sometimes not considered as a final
call for any kind of decision regarding the structure.
2. The rebound hammer requires maintenance on a regular basis.
3. If the rebound hammer is not pushed at a right angle, a variety of results can be acquired for a single point. So it is not considered a
highly accurate method.
Factors Affecting The Result Of Rebound Hammer Test
There are some factors that affect the test result. They are as follows:-
• Types of cement and the content of cement.
• Types of coarse aggregates in concrete.
• The smoothness of the concrete surface.
• The age of concrete.
• The water content of the concrete.
• Size and shape of the concrete element.
What Is Concrete Mix Ratio?

Concrete Mix Ratio is the process of finding out the exact proportion of each ingredient of concrete to achieve the desired quality &
property of concrete.
As we all know, concrete is a mixture of basic materials like cement, sand, aggregates, and water. Besides these materials,
chemical admixtures are also added when there is a requirement for special properties in concrete.
Additional admixtures are always optional, but they do play an important role in enhancing the properties of concrete as per the
requirements.
All of the above mention ingredients are mixed in a definite proportion to form the final product, which is fresh concrete. Basically,
these proportions are selected in such a way that each set of proportions of materials in concrete determines a specific grade of concrete.
A specific grade of concrete represents a numeric value, which denotes the compressive strength of concrete, achieved after 28 days of
construction of a structure from that concrete.
Let us be clearer with an example of an M25 grade concrete mix ratio.

The proportions of M25 grade concrete are as follows:-
• 1:1:2
1 part of cement, 1 part of sand or fine aggregates, 2 parts of coarse aggregates, and the Required quantity of water. Mixing the cement,
sand & aggregates in the following proportions will result in M25 grade concrete. But what do you mean by M25?
• M25 represents the grade of concrete where M = mix
• 25 = compressive strength of concrete, achieved after 28 days, which is measured in MPa.
• MPa= Mega Pascal, which is a unit of measurement of compressive strength of concrete in SI units.
Types Of Concrete Mix Ratio
As per IS code 456 – 2000, there are three different types of concrete mix ratios. They are as follows:-
• Nominal concrete mix ratio.
• Standard concrete mix ratio, and
• Design mix ratio.
Let’s discuss each one of them in detail below.
1. Nominal Concrete Mix Ratio
Nominal concrete mix ratios are the proportions of lower-grade concrete. These mixtures are generally used for small & unimportant
works which do not require very high strength.
In nominal concrete mix ratios, the quantity of fine aggregates, i.e. the sand, is fixed and the quantities of other materials like cement &
coarse aggregate are not fixed.
Due to this reason, the quantity of concrete is not fixed as well as required strength may or may not be acquired. Also, the water-cement
ratio is not specified. The grades below M20 are prepared by the nominal mix design method.
Type of concrete Grade of concrete Mix ratio Compressive strength of concrete after 28 days, in MPa.
Ordinary concrete M5 1:5:10 5 MPa
Ordinary concrete M7.5 1:4:8 7.5 MPa
Ordinary concrete M20 1:1.5:3 20 MPa

2. Standard Concrete Mix Ratio
The nominal concrete mix ratios do not have a fixed proportion of materials. So due to that the quality & performance have a variation
every time.
For this reason, the minimum compressive strength has been included in many of the specifications. So these types of mixes are known
as standard mixes.
Standard concrete M25 1:1:2 25 MPa
Standard concrete M30 Design mix 30 MPa

3. Design Mix Ratio For Concrete
Designed mix ratios for concrete do not have a fixed proportion of quantity for any of the materials. The materials are taken in a ratio
according to the requirements of the quality & and strength of concrete. Any desirable strength of concrete can be achieved using this
method.
Also, it is possible to achieve the properties like setting time, workability & desired compressive strength of concrete by adding various
additives & admixtures as per the requirements.
Usually, the concrete grades above M45 are prepared using the designed mix & they are also known as high-strength concrete mixes.
The high-strength concrete is used for heavy & important works like the construction of large slabs, piers in bridges, etc. The design mix
ratio for concrete is given in the below table.
High strength concrete M50 Design mix 50 MPa

Importance Of A Good Concrete Mix Design

A good mix design creates the formation of a sound structure. So, designing the concrete mix design plays are vital role in defining the
quality of concrete manufactured. The strength & the properties are based on the concrete mix design.
So, if the concrete mix is not designed properly, it may lead to the failure of the structure. A good mix design assures that the structure
built will be strong enough & will prevent failure.
Factors Affecting The Concrete Mix Design
There are a few factors that affect the strength & durability of the concrete mix design ratio. They are as follows:-
1. Selection Of Cement
There are various types and brands of cement available in the market. It is important to select a quality of cement that best suits for the
required grade of concrete; hence does not affect the quality of concrete.
2. Selection Of Aggregates
Different mix does have different properties. These properties are due to the types of materials used in it. So the selection of aggregates
of different types depends upon the physical property required for the concrete mix design.
3. Types Of Water Used
The types of water used for mixing the material to form concrete should not be contaminated. It should be clean & free from all the
impurities that harm the concrete.
4. Water–Cement Ratio
The water-cement ratio is specified for a particular grade of concrete. If that ratio is not maintained accordingly, then the quality of
concrete may get affected in terms of workability, slump & compaction factor.
5. Workability Of Concrete
The workability of concrete defines the consistency of concrete. The workability of concrete is due to the amount of water added to it.
Approximately 2-3% of the variation in water quantity can cause a variation of 20mm in a slump, which would affect the strength of
concrete by 2n/mm^2.
6. Durability Of Concrete
Durability is defined as the ability to resist deterioration due to an aggressive environment. The proportion of each material is
responsible for the durability of concrete.
Advantages Of Concrete Mix Design
i) Good Quality: The quality of concrete obtained is better than the nominal mix as the ratio of the quantity of materials is accurate &
hence the required strength of concrete can be achieved.
ii) Economical: The nominal mix having no fixed amount of ratio for material may sometimes suggest more cement. On the other hand,
the design mix gives a fixed quantity of cement & other materials. So that difference. So that difference helps to save as much as 15 to
20% of the cost.
iii) Using the mix design, one can achieve the desirable properties of concrete, such as workability, strength, durability, and setting time.
Disadvantages Of Concrete Mix Design
i) It requires a set of skilled workers for its manufacturing as accuracy is needed while the concrete is made.
ii) It needs specific attention while it is being prepared. If the desired properties are not achieved, then it may result in the adversity of
the structure.
iii) The initial cost of mix design is higher.
What Are Concrete Joints?
Except in small jobs, it is not possible to place concrete in one continuous operation. Joints in concrete are also required for functional
consideration of the structure. These joints are known as concrete joints. In this article, different types of concrete joints are discussed.
Types Of Concrete Joints:
1. Construction Joints.
2. Expansion Joints.
3. Contraction Joints.
4. Warping Joints.
1. Construction Joints:
These joints are provided where there is a break in construction program. The concreting operation should be so planned that the work is
completed in one operation. If, however, it has to be stopped before completion of the entire work, construction joints are provided. The
location of construction joints should be such that it interferes minimum with the functional characteristics of the structure. The best
locations for construction joints are as following:
i) Beam: Joint may be located at mid-span or over the center of the column in direction at right angles to the length of the beam.
ii) Columns: Joints should be located a few cm below its junction with the beam.
iii) Slab: Joints may be placed at mid-span or directly over the center of the beams, at right angles to the slab.
Formwork for construction joint should be placed at the end of each day’s work.
Before new concreting is started, the concrete surface of hardened concrete should be cleaned, roughened, saturated with water, and
applied cement grout. This will ensure proper bond between old and new concrete works. New concreting is started before the applied
grout on old surface attains initial set.
2. Expansion Joints:
These joints are provided to allow for expansion of the concrete, due to rise in temperature above the temperature during
construction. Expansion joints also permit the contraction of the element. Expansion joints in India are provided at an interval of 18 to
21 m. The open gap of this joint varies between 2 cm and 2.5 cm. Sometimes, to transfer load from one slab to the adjacent slab, dowel
bars are also used at suitable intervals at these joints.
3. Contraction Joints:
These types of concrete joints are provided to allow contraction of the concrete. Contraction joints are spaced closer than expansion
joints. These joints do not require any load transfer device as it can be achieved by the interlocking of aggregates. However, some
agencies recommend use to dowel bars fully bonded in concrete.
4. Warping:
Warping joints are provided to relieve stresses induced due to warping effect. These joints are also known as hinged joints.
Minimum Cover For Reinforcement in Cast-In-Place Concrete:
The clear cover is the distance between the outer surface of concrete to the nearest surface of reinforcing bar.
Clear cover varies in different conditions. The clear cover for cast-in-place concrete is given in the below table.
Minimum
Sl. No. Conditions cover
(inches)
1 Concrete cast against and permanently exposed to earth 3
No. 6 to no. 18 bar 2

Concrete exposed to weather or
2
earth No. 5 bar, W31 or D31 wire
1½
and smaller
No. 14 and no. 18 bar 1½

Slabs, Walls, and Joist
No. 11 bar and smaller ¾
Concrete unexposed to weather Primary reinforcement, ties,

3 Beams and columns 1½
or in contact with the ground. stirrups, and spirals
No. 6 bar and large bars. ¾

Shells and folded plate
members.
No. 5 bar, W31 or D31 wire
½
and smaller.
Concrete tilt-up panels cast No. 8 bar and smaller. 1

4 against a rigid horizontal surface,
like concrete slab. No. 9 to no. 18 bar. 2
What Is Water Cement Ratio?

Water cement ratio can be defined as the ratio of the volume of water to the volume of cement used in a concrete mix.
Water has a great role on the strength and workability of concrete. After lots of experiments it has been found that for a specific
proportion of materials in a concrete mix, there is a certain amount of water that gives maximum strength.
A slight change in the amount of water causes much more differences in the strength of concrete.
If less water is used, the resultant concrete will be nearly dry, hard to place in the form and may create difficulties in compaction.
Besides this, with less water proper setting will not be guaranteed and thus the strength of concrete get reduced considerably.
On the other hand, if water is used more, it may develop larger voids and honey-combing in the set concrete, in this way decreasing its
density, durability, and strength.
Hence, water cement ratio attends an important role in producing concrete of required strength. The lower the ratio, the greater is the
strength of concrete.
Required Water-Cement Ratio ( British Standard Specifications):
Proportion Water-Cement Ratio
1:2:4 0.58
1 : 1.5 : 3 0.51
1 : 1: 2 0.43
What Is Initial Setting Time Of Cement?
The time elapsed between when water is introduced to the cement and when the cement paste begins to lose its fluidity is known as the
initial setting time of cement.
Alternatively, it may be described as the period between adding water to the cement and the Vicat square needle penetrating a depth of
33-35 mm from the top (5 to 7 mm from the bottom) of the Vicat Apparatus’s mould.
What Is Final Setting Time Of Cement?
The interval between when water is introduced to the cement and when the cement paste has totally lost its fluidity is known as the final
setting time of cement.
The amount of time after the water has been added to the cement and the square needle has made an impression on the paste, while the
annular collar has failed to do so.
Apparatus Required
• Vicat’s apparatus: IS5513-1976 should be followed while using Vicat apparatus. It comprises a system to hold a 10 mm
diameter plunger and two additional needles that are free to fall into a mould filled with cement paste. The three needles’
penetration can be monitored using vertical graduations ranging from 0 mm to 50 mm.
• Balance: At a load of 1000 g, the allowed deviation in balance in use is 1.0 g. On a fresh balance, the permitted variance is
one-half of this figure. The reciprocal of the sensitivity must not be more than twice the permissible variation.
• Measuring cylinder stopwatch
• Glass plate
• Enamel tray
• Trowel
Procedure Of Initial Setting Time Test

1. Mix water and 0.85 percent cement by weight to make a cement paste.
2. The time it takes to mix should be between 3 and 5 minutes.
3. Pour the paste into the vicat mould properly and level the top surface.
4. Put the mould beneath a square needle, which is gradually lowered until it touches the paste’s surface.
5. Now release the square needle abruptly and allow it to sink into the cement mixture independently.
6. Measure the square needle’s penetration depth in the paste and record it.
7. Repeat the experiment with increasing time intervals until the square needle is pierced to a depth of 33 to 35 mm from the mold’s top.
8. The Initial Setting Period of cement is the time between adding water to the cement and the square needle penetrating a depth of 33 to
35 mm from the top of the mould.
8. In the case of Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC), the first setting time should be at least 30 minutes.
Procedure Of Final Setting Time Test
1. Add water 0.85 percent by weight of cement to make a cement paste.
2. The time it takes to mix should be between 3 and 5 minutes.
3. Now pour the paste into the Vicat mould and level its top surface.
4. Put the mould beneath a square needle with an annular collar lowering it to the paste’s surface.
5. Release the square needle with the annular collar abruptly, allowing it to produce an impression on the cement paste by its own
weight.
6. This square needle with an annular collar leaves a mark that you can see.
7. Repeat the experiment with increasing time intervals until the square needle, but not the annular collar, makes an impression on the
paste.
8. The Final Setting Period of the cement is the time between adding water to the cement and the square needle making an impression on
the paste while the annular collar fails to do so.
9. For Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC), the ultimate setting time should not exceed 600 minutes.
Test Results
Initial setting time: Note the time when the needle fails to penetrate 5–7 mm from the bottom of the test block during the initial setting
time of the cement. The initial setting time of cement is defined by this time.
Final setting time: Note the period when the needle fails to produce an impression on the test block’s surface. The final setting time of
cement is defined by this time.
Criteria for Acceptance: The following are the results recommended by standard recommendations for various types of cement and
their setting times:
Suppose your test value differs from the recommended result. In that case, there could be many causes for this, including a change in
chemical composition during production (manufacturing defect), a problem in the testing device, or a testing error.
In that situation, you’ll have to be careful about the timing of your task. If the first setting time is shorter than this figure, the entire
operation, including mixing, transporting, and placing, will complete within the time limit; otherwise, the cement paste/concrete/mortar
will begin to set.
If the ultimate setting time exceeds this figure, scaffolding and form sides must be retained until the cement paste/concrete/mortar is
entirely stiff, and the curing must be started carefully.
Importance Of Initial & Final Setting Time Of Cement
The cement mustn’t lose its fluidity too soon or too late. There is inadequate time for transportation and placement of concrete if cement
sets too early.
If the cement sets too late, the construction work will delay. Additionally, the concrete will not achieve adequate strength quickly
enough, causing the formwork removal operation to be delayed.
The amount of time it takes for cement paste to harden to a particular consistency.
It is linked to the aluminum–silicate combination formed by the chemical reaction of cement with water.
The initial setting time is crucial for concrete transportation, placement, and curing.
The initial setting time is also used to prolong the hydration or hardening process.
The final setting time is used for the safe dismantling of scaffolding or forms.
Factor Affecting Initial And Final Setting Time Of Cement
Cement composition, water-cementitious material ratio (w/cm), temperature, and admixtures are the main elements influencing the time
it takes for concrete to be set.
Setting time is lowered when cement hydrates more quickly. As the w/cm ratio rises, the time it takes to set rises as well.
As the temperature rises, the time it takes to set drops. Additives can speed up or slow down the setting process depending on the kind.
Useful Civil Engineering Tips For Site Engineers:

Following are the basic civil engineering tips you should be remembered while working on a construction site.
1. Grade Of Concrete:
M5 – 1 : 4 : 8
M10 – 1 : 3 : 6
M15 – 1 : 2 : 4
M20 – 1 : 1.5 : 3
M25 – 1 : 1 : 2
2. Clear Cover To Main Reinforcement:

Footings: 50 mm
Raft Foundation (Top) : 50 mm
Raft Foundation (Bottom): 75 mm
Raft Foundation (Side) : 75 mm
Beam: 25 mm
Strap Beam: 50 mm
Column :40 mm
Slab: 15 mm
flat Slab: 20 mm
Staircase: 15 mm
Retaining Wall: 20 – 25 mm
Water Retaining Structures: 2 0- 30 mm.
Maximum water absorption by bricks – 15%

Compressive strength of bricks – 3.5 N/mm2
Density Of Bricks- 1600-1920 Kg/m3
Minimum thickness of slab – 125 mm
Dimension tolerance for cubes – +2
Maximum free fall of concrete – 1.50 m
Lapping should not be used for the bars having larger dia than 36 mm.
Binding wire required for steel reinforcement – 8 kg per MT
3 samples should be taken for every 100 m2 in core cutting test.
Maximum chair spacing – 1 m.
Minimum dia should be used in dowels rod – 12 mm.
Hook for strriups (one side) – 9D
No. of strriups = (clear span/spanning) + 1
Length of main steel in cantilever anchorage – 69D.
Minimum no. of bars in square column – 4
Minimum no. of bars in circular column – 6
Minimum dia of main bars and distributors in the slab – 8 mm.
Maximum dia of main bars and distributors in the slab – 1/8 of slab thickness.
All reinforcement should be free from mill scales, loose rust, and coats of paints, oil or any other substances.
3. Setting Time:
Initial setting time should not be less than 30 minutes.
Final setting time should not be greater than 10 hours.
4. Required Curing Days:
Super sulfate cement – 7 days
Ordinary portland cement – 10 days
Cement with minerals and admixtures – 14 days.
5. Slump Value (IS-456):
Lightly reinforced concrete: 25 – 75 mm.
Heavily reinforced concrete: 75 – 100 mm.
Trench fill : 100 – 150 mm ( for in-situ & tremie).
6. Cube Samples:
1 – 5 m3 : 1 No.
6 – 15 m3 : 2 No..
16 – 30 m3 :3 No.
31 -50 m3 : 4 No.
Above 50 m3 : 4 + 1 no. of addition for each 50 m3.
The Formula D²L/162 Fully Derived:
To calculate the weight of steel bars you must use the formula D²L/162, but do you know where the formula D²L/162 came from? Okay,
no problem if you don’t know. In this article, I will share how to derive the formula D²L/162. So let’s start from the beginning.
The formula is D²L/162
Where,
D = Diameter of steel bar in millimeter
L = Length of steel bars in meter
Calculation Of The Formula D²L/162:
We know that,
Weight= Cross sectional area x Length x Density
For steel bar, this also remains same.
The weight of steel bars= Cross sectional area of steel bar x Length of steel bar x Density of steel bar.
That means,
W=AxLxρ
Where,
W = Weight of steel bars
A = Area = πD²/4
π (pi) = 3.14
D = Diameter of steel bar in millimeter
L = Length of steel bar in meter
ρ (Rho) = Density of steel bar = 7850 kg/m³
Therefore,
W = 3.14 x D²/4 x L x 7850
But there is two conflicting unit in the formula. Which is millimeter for D and meter for ρ (Rho).
So we need to convert either D or ρ to the same unit.
Let’s change the unit of D from millimeter to meter.
1 millimeter = 0.001 meter
Let’s put this into the formula,
W= 3.14 x {(D² x 0.001 x 0.001)/4} x L x 7850
= D²L/162
How To Calculate Cement, Sand Quantity For Plastering?

Plastering is done to protect the surface of wall. Learn how to calculate cement and sand quantity for plastering in this article.
Following points should be remembered while calculating the quantity of cement, sand for plastering work.
1. For wall plastering, Cement : Sand = 1 : 6
2. For ceiling plastering, Cement : Sand = 1 : 4
3. Thickness of the plaster should be between 12-15 mm. If an additional coat is required, then do not do it in one go.
4. Use good quality cement & Sand.
5. Use a measuring box (not a head pan) for the site mix.
We will calculate cement and sand for 100 m2 plastering area in 1:6 ratio and thickness of 12 mm.
Cement Mortar Required:
Plastering thickness = 12 mm
= 12/1000 = 0.012m
Volume of cement mortar required = ( Plastering Area x thickness )
= 100 m2 x 0.012m = 1.2 m3
(This is wet volume of cement mortar (after mixing water), but we need dry volume. To get dry volume, consider 35% bulking of sand
and 20% wastage
= 1.2 m3 x (1+0.2+0.35) (Rather than 35% sand bulkage and 20% wastage, you can add 1.54 as constant)
= 1.86 m3
Cement : Sand = 1 : 6
Sum of ratio = (1+6) = 7
Cement Required
= 1.86 x 1/7 = 0.265 m3
= 0.265/0.0347 (0.0347 m3 = 1 bag = 50 kg cement)
= 7.66 bags = 8 bags
Sand required:
1.86 x 6/7
= 1.59 m3
Here we have calculated in Sq.m but you can also use Sq. ft.
Here we have calculated in Sq.m, but you can also calculate it in Sq.ft.
Types Of Brick Bonds:

The general types Of brick bonds used in brick masonry are as following: 1. English Bond, 2. Flemish Bond, 3. Stretcher Bond, 4.
Header Bond, 5. Facing Bond, 6. Raking Bond, 7.Garden Wall Bond, 8. Dutch Bond, 9. English Cross Bond, 10. Zig-zag Bond, 11.
Silverlock’s Bond. 12. Rat Trap Bond.
English Bond:
English bond is considered as the strongest and most widely used brick bond in construction work. It consists of an alternate course of
headers and stretchers.
In this arrangement, vertical joints in the header and stretcher courses come over each other. To break the vertical joints in the
consecutive courses queen closer should be placed after the first header in every header course.
The features of these types of brick bonds are as following:

1. In this brick bond, every alternate course demonstrates headers and stretchers.
2. A course will show either just headers or just stretchers when seen along the side.
3. To break the vertical joints in progressive courses, it is important to provide a queen closer after the first header in every header
course.
4. Queen closer is required just in header course. Stretcher course does not need any closer.
5. Every header of the header course is centrally supported over the stretchers of the stretcher courses.
6. Bricks in the similar course don’t break joints with each other.
7. When the thickness of the wall is even multiple of half brick, a specific course will demonstrate only headers or stretchers on both the
confronted of the wall.
8. When the thickness of the wall is odd multiple of half brick, a course showing stretchers on one face will demonstrate headers on the
other face and vice versa. Be that as it may, the wall of half brick thick will demonstrate stretchers on both appearances.
9. The quantity of joints in the header course is about twice that in stretcher course. So, header joints ought to be kept as thin as possible
to maintain appropriate lapping over joints. (immediately below the course)
Flemish Bond:
In these types of brick bond, each course consists of alternate headers and stretchers. Every header is centrally supported over the
stretchers below it.
To break the vertical joints in the successive courses queen closers are placed in alternate courses next to the queen header.
Bats are essentially required for the walls having their thickness equal to odd numbers of half bricks. Flemish bond gives a better
appearance than English bond.
The primary elements of Flemish bond are as following:
1. Each course comprises of headers and stretchers.

2. To break the vertical joints in progressive courses it is necessary to provide queen closers in interchanging courses besides the quoin
header.
3. Each header is centrally upheld over a stretcher beneath it.
4. Flemish bond gives a preferable appearance over the english bond.
5. Bats are essentially required for the walls having their thickness equivalent to odd number half bricks.
Flemish bond can be sub-divided into two different categories.
1. Single flemish bond and
2. Double Flemish bond.
a) Single Flemish Bond:
It is a combination of english bond and flemish bond. Facing of the wall is developed by using flemish bond and backing is developed by
using english bond. This type of bond can not be used in walls less than one and a half brick thickness. However, this bond gives better
and attractive looks.
b) Double Flemish Bond:
In this type of brick bonds, each course demonstrates the same appearance both in the front as well as back elevations (headers and
stretchers are laid in every course alternatively). Alternate headers and stretchers are used in every course.
This bond enables one brick wall to have flush and uniform faces on both sides. It gives a better appearance but comparatively weaker
than english bond.
Difference Between English Bond And Flemish Bond:
The difference between English bond and Flemish bond are as follows:
English bond is much stronger than flemish bond for the walls thicker more than 1½ brick.
Flemish bond shows more attractive and pleasing appearance of masonry work.
Flemish bond is economical as it uses broken brickbats, although it requires some extra mortar for additional joints.
Uses of flemish bond is a bit difficult than english bond. Flemish bond requires more skilled labour and supervision.
Stretcher Bond:
Stretcher bond is the simplest type of brick bond used for construction works. Sometimes it is also known as running bond.
In the arrangement of stretcher bond, all the bricks are laid as stretchers (as shown in fig).
No header is present in this bond, hence suitable reinforcement should always be provided for the construction of structural bondS.
Header Bond:
In this type of brick bond, all the bricks are placed as headers on the faces (as shown in fig). This bond is also known as the heading
bond.
The overlap is half the width of the brick and can be achieved by providing a three-quarter bat in each alternate course at quoins.
Header bond can be used in the construction of a curved structure, brick foundation,s etc.
Unit Weight Of Building Materials Used in Construction:

There are many building materials used in construction. In the below table we have tried to cover the unit weight of building materials
which are most commonly used at the construction site.
Material Unit Weight
Water 1000 Kg/ m3
Bricks (broken) 1420 Kg/ m3
Bricks(common) 1600 Kg/ m3
Cement(ordinary) 1440 Kg/ m3
Cement (rapid hardening) 1250 Kg/ m3
Cement Mortar 2000 Kg/ m3
Cement Concrete (Plain) 2400 Kg/ m3
Cement Concrete (Reinforced) 2500 Kg/ m3
Glass 2500 Kg/ m3
Lime Concrete 1900 Kg/ m3
Cement Plaster 2000 Kg/ m3

Lime Plaster 1700 Kg/ m3
Stones (Ballast) 1720 Kg/ m3
Stones (Aggregates) 1750 Kg/ m3
Stones (Basalt) 2850 Kg/ m3
Stones (Granite) 2450 Kg/ m3
Stones (Marble) 2650 Kg/ m3
Timber (Oak, Sal) 510 Kg/ m3
Timber (Mango) 650 Kg/ m3
Timber (Teak) 625 Kg/ m3
Coal 600 Kg/ m3
Plastics 1250 Kg/ m3
Oils 800 Kg/ m3
Ashes 650 Kg/ m3
Clinker 750 Kg/ m3
Rubber 1300 Kg/ m3
Slag 1500 Kg/ m3
Clay Soil 1900 Kg/ m3
Sand (dry) 1540 to 1600 Kg/ m3
Sand (wet) 1760 to 2000 Kg/ m3
Steel 7850 Kg/ m3
Chalk 2100 Kg/ m3
Bitumen 1040 Kg/ m3
What Is Formwork?
Formwork or shuttering is a temporary mold like arrangement of plates of different shapes, sizes, and materials used for the construction
of different concrete elements like columns, beams, walls, culverts, etc. In this article, we will discuss correct methods and period of
formwork removal i.e deshuttering.
Method And Period Of Removing Formwork:
The formwork should be constructed in such a manner that it is possible to remove the different components in the following order of
sequence:
1. Shuttering forming vertical faces of walls, beams, and columns sides (which bear no loads but are used only to retain the concrete)
should be removed first.
2. Shuttering forming soffit to slabs should be removed next.
3. Shuttering forming soffit of beams, girders or other heavily loaded shuttering should be removed in the end.
Duration of time up to which the formwork should be kept in place depends upon many factors such as type of cement used, shape and
position of the member (whether the member is vertical, horizontal, or inclined) loads to be carried by the members and the temperature
of the air.
In general, rapid hardening cement, warm weather, and light loading conditions allow early removal of formwork.
Early release of formwork permits its reuse in other areas and this results in the economy by way of optimum utilization of material and
fast construction. At the same time, premature removal of formwork may prove to be dangerous and should not be allowed.
The formwork should, under no circumstances, be allowed to be removed until the concrete reaches a strength of at least twice the stress
to which the concrete may be subjected to the time of removal of formwork.
In normal conditions (where the air temperature is above 20°C and where ordinary Portland cement is used) the formwork may be struck
or removed after the expiry of the period indicated against respective members in the below table.
Steel Requirements For RCC Beam, Column, Slab, Foundation, &

Lintel:
The quantity of steel depends on the type of structure, not on concrete volume. The quantity of steel varies from member to member such
as beam, column, slab, footings etc. Because the load carrying capacity of different members is different. In this article, I will discuss
steel requirements for different RCC elements.
Let’s take an example:
A column is to build with 4% concrete volume. So the steel required for that column is
= (4/100)x1 x 7850 [ Density of 1m³ steel = 7850 kg]
We can follow the following thumb rules for different RCC members.
1. Steel requirement for RCC beam = 1 to 2% or 78.5 kg to 157 kg/m³
2. Steel requirement for RCC column = 0.8 to 6 % or 62.8 kg to 471 kg/m³
3. Steel requirement for RCC Slab = 0.7 to 1% or 55 kg to 78.5 kg/m³
4. Steel requirement for RCC Lintel = 0.7 to 1% or 55 kg to 78.5 kg/m³
5. Steel requirement for Foundation = 0.5 to 0.8% or 34.25 to 62.8 kg/m³
How To Calculate Concrete Volume For Trapezoidal Footing:

A trapezoid is a combination of a cuboid and a truncated pyramid.
Trapezoidal footing = Cuboid + trancated pyramid.
So to calculate the volume of trapezoidal footing we need to calculate the volume of a cuboid and a truncated pyramid.
1. Volume of Rectangular Cuboid = length x Breadth x Height = 3 x 2 x 0.3 = 1.8 m³

2. Volume of Truncated pyramid = 1/3 (A1 + A2 + √A1A2) x h
Where A1 = Area of the top base.
A2 = Area of bottom base.
A1 = 0.6 x 0.5 = 0.3 m²
A2 = 3 x 2 = 6 m²
Volume of truncated pyramid = 1/3(0.3 + 6 + √0.3×6) x 0.3 = 0.81 m³
∴ Total volume of trapezoidal footing = Volume of Cuboid + Volume of Truncated pyramid
= 1.8 + 0.81 = 2.61 m³.
So total concrete volume for trapezoidal footing is 2.61 m³.
Composition and Structure of Flexible Pavement
Fig 1: Layers of Flexible Pavement

1. Surface Course
Surface course or wearing course is the top most layer of flexible pavement which has direct contact with the vehicular loads. Since it is
directly in contact with traffic, good quality aggregates and high dense bitumen or asphalt is recommended for the construction of
surface course. The main function of surface course is to provide skid-resistance surface, friction and drainage for the pavement. It
should be water tight against surface water infiltration. The thickness of surface course generally provided is 25 to 50 mm.
Fig 2: Surface Course

2. Binder Course
Binder course is also constructed using aggregates and bitumen but with less quality than materials used for surface course. In general,
its thickness is about 50 to 100 mm. If economy is not a problem, binder course and surface course can be constructed monotonically
using good quality materials with 100 to 150 mm thickness. The function of binder course is to transfer the loads coming from surface
course to the base course.
Fig 3: Binder Course

3. Base Course
The base course is important layer of pavement structure and it distributes the loads from top layers to the underneath Subbase and sub-
grade layers. It provides structural support for the pavement surface. It is constructed with hard and durable aggregates which may either
stabilized or granular or both. The thickness of base course must be great enough to reduce the load capacity on sub-grade and Subbase
courses. The minimum base course thickness recommended is 100 mm. sub surface drainage system can be provided with in the base
course.
Fig 4: Laying Base Course

4. Subbase Course
The Sub-base course is provided beneath the base course and it also functions as same as base course. If the sub-grade soil is strong and
stiff, then there is no need to sub-base course. Granular aggregates are used to construct sub-base course. If sub-grade is weak minimum
100 mm thick sub-base course should be provided.
Fig 5: Laying Sub-base Course

5. Frost Protection Layer
Frost protection layer is provided for the pavements in colder regions where temperatures are very low. It is generally provided between
Subbase and sub-grade soil. The function of frost protection layer is to prevent damage of pavement from frost heaves, which are formed
by freezing of groundwater. A good quality base course and Sub-base courses provided can also serves frost protection layer.
6. Subgrade
Subgrade is the bottom most layer which is nothing but natural soil layer compacted up to required depth generally about 150 to 300 mm
to receive the loads coming from top layers. This layer is termed as foundation for the pavement system. The sub-grade should be strong
enough to take the stresses and also it is important to keep the stresses coming from top layers should be within the limit of sub-grade
capacity. To reduce the amount of stress on soil sub-grade, provide thick layers of base course, Sub-base course and surface course.
Fig 6: Compacting Sub-grade

Apart from the above layers, three types of coats or finishes are provided in flexible pavement system which are as follows
• Seal Coat
• Tack Coat
• Prime Coat
a. Seal Coat
Seal coat is provided directly on the top of surface course to make it watertight and to provide skid resistance to the surface. Mixture of
Emulsified asphalt, mineral fillers and water is used as seal coat material.
Fig 7: Seal Coat
b. Tack Coat
Tack coat is provided on the top of binder course to develop strong bond between the binder course and surface course. Asphalt
emulsion diluted with water is used as tack coat material.
c. Prime Coat
Prime coat is provided between base course and binder course to develop strong and water tight bong between them. Low viscous
cutback bitumen is sprayed on the top of base course as prime coat material.
Different Layers in a Bituminous Pavement

1. Bituminous Base Course
Base course layer in a bituminous pavement consists of mineral aggregates such as gravel, stones and sands bonded together with
bituminous materials. This layer is used as the foundation on which surface course or binder is placed.
2. Bituminous Binder Course

Binder course layer is an intermediate layer between base course and surface layer. It is the first layer in case of two-layer bituminous
resurfacing. Bituminous binder course is made of bituminous-aggregate mixture, also called as levelling course.
3. Bituminous Concrete Layer
Bituminous concrete layer is a mixture of aggregates continuously graded from maximum size to minimum sizes (typically less than
25mm to 0.075mm aggregates). Sufficient bitumen is added to the mix so that the compacted concrete mix effectively impervious and
has acceptable dissipative and elastic properties.
Types of Bitumen Mixes for Pavement Construction and their Applications

Based on the nature of gradation selected for the bitumen mixes, they can be classified into:
• Dense Graded Bitumen Mixes

• Semi-Dense Graded Bitumen Mixes
• Open Graded Bitumen Mixes
• Gap Graded Bitumen Mixes
Fig.1: Gradation Chart for Dense, Open Graded and Gap Graded Bitumen Mixes Density
The bitumen mix that is densely graded has continuous gradation, say in the proximity of maximum density line. The bitumen mix with
a large amount of fine aggregate i.e. sand will form open graded bitumen mix. When the mix lack materials of two or more sizes, it will
form gap graded bitumen mix. The semi-graded mix will have a gradation lying in between the open graded and the gap graded. All the
gradation variations are represented in figure-1.

Dense Graded Bitumen Mixes for Pavements
These mixes possess continuous gradation of all primary aggregates. These particles are packed together. Here inter-particle surface
friction is the reason behind their property of strength gain. All most all possible flexible pavements constructed in the world employ
dense graded bitumen mixes. There are two main types of dense graded mix used. They are:
• Dense Bitumen Macadam (DBM)

• Bituminous Concrete(BC)
Dense Bitumen Mixes
This mix is mainly employed for base course and the binder course. This itself consist of two gradations; Grading-1 and Grading-2.
Grading-1 has 37.5mm as the nominal maximum aggregate size (NMAS). While Grading-2 have NMAS of 25mm. The fine aggregate
percentages in both the grading are same in a range of 28 to 42%. The main criteria that differ both the grading are that the grading 1
consist of large size particles i.e. 25mm to 45mm. The grading-1 with NMAS of 37.5mm has many disadvantages like segregation. This
segregation will later result in honeycombing. At lower air-void levels, these mixes become permeable compared to the grading 2, with
NMAS of 25mm. Hence, the grading-1 causes problems related to water exposure. With the increase of NMAS, the permeability will
increase the multi-fold at a present void level condition.

Fig.2: Dense Bitumen Mixes Grade-1, NMAS mix of 37.5mm -Honeycombing Defect due to Segregation
The effect of the nominal maximum aggregate size on the permeability of the flexible pavement is represented in the graph shown in
figure-3. The grade-1, have the advantage of rutting resistance compared to the grading-2. During the rainy season, the pavement made
of NMAS 37.5MM, Grade 1 must be sealed or overlaid. This will avoid penetration of the water into the pavement and reach the Wet
mix macadam. This is the WMM course also called as crushed stone base source.
Fig.3: Effect of Nominal Maximum Aggregate Size on Permeability of Flexible Pavement

Bituminous Concrete Mixes (BC)
The bituminous concrete mix is used in two forms: Grade-1 and Grade-2. Grade-1 with NMAS of 19mm. The Grade-2 of 13mm as the
NMAS. From the above description about dense bitumen mixes, it was clear that dense bitumen mix grade-2 have larger use as the base
course due to its fewer disadvantages compared to dense bitumen mix Grade-1. This hence was necessary to determine a grade for the
binder and the surface course. The bituminous concrete grading-1 with nominal maximum aggregate size 19mm as the binder course
binds the base course (dense bitumen mix Grade-1) as well as the wearing course bituminous concrete grade-2 of nominal maximum
aggregate size 13mm, with NMAS 19 mm employed as a transition. The bituminous concrete grading-2 is good to be used as a wearing
course. To facilitate medium and low traffic, a bituminous concrete grade of nominal maximum aggregate size 9.5 mm was necessary to
considered for the construction of smooth and impermeable pavement in urban areas. To facilitate thin asphalt lifts, bituminous concrete
grading-3 is more suitable than grade-2. The bituminous concrete grade-2 of NMAS 9.5mm has been efficiently used in the highway
construction for the US. For higher traffic BC grade-2 are recommended.
Table-1: Recommended Bitumen Concrete(BC) Gradations
Semi-Dense Bitumen Mixes

The two types of semi-bituminous mixes used in the pavement construction in India are;
• Semi-Dense Bituminous Concrete (SDBC)

• Mixed Sealed Surfacing (MSS)
Semi-Dense Bituminous Concrete (SDBC)
The semi-dense bituminous concrete mixes have neither dense or open graded characteristics. It consists of the so called pessimum voids
when they are fully constructed. The word is an anonym of optimum. So, it is advised to make the mix get rid of pessimum voids. These
tend to capture moisture or water that will later cause stripping. When the semi dense bituminous concrete is employed above the
bitumen macadam (BM) layer, there is chances for the penetration of rainwater through the SDBC and reach the BM. This will create the
separation of aggregate and the bitumen in the BM layer. This will cause stripping and the scaling of SDBC. The scaling later with time
will result in the potholes on the road.

Fig.4: Semi-Dense Bituminous Concrete Highways with Shallow Potholes
Mixed Seal Surfacing (MSS)
The Mixed Seal Surfacing design mix is based on the IRC: SP:78-2008. This is an alternative used for the premix carpet (PMC). Both
the PMC and the MSS are employed in 20mm thickness. There are two gradations that are specified for the mixed seal surfacing
mix. They are
• Type A - Closed Gradation with an NMAS value of 9.5mm

• Type B- Open Gradation with an NMAS value of 9.5mm or 12mm
The aggregate grading for the MSS mix is mentioned in table-2.
Table-2: Aggregate Grading for Mixed Seal Surfacing Mix
Open Graded Bitumen Mixes

The open graded Bitumen Mixes have fine aggregates in a minimum amount, hence they are very permeable to water. They are
employed based on specific functions in the base and for surface mixes.
Open Graded Bitumen Base Mixes
Three open graded mix types are employed as the base mixes. They are the
• Asphalt Treated Permeable Base (ATPB)

• Bituminous Macadam(BM)
• Built up Spray Grout (BUSG)
Asphalt Treated Permeable Base (ATPB) Permeable asphalt treated base (PATB) is used extensively on major highway construction
in the US. This system will help to have sub surface drainage. The PATB is also called as the Asphalt Treated Permeable Base (ATPB).
The system consists of separate course for the subsurface drainage. The thickness of the PATB ranges from 75mm to 100mm. The
PATB is given between the granular sub-base (GSB) and the bituminous course. The granular sub-base in flexible pavement too have the
intention to provide subsurface drainage. The GSB consist of large quantity of fines that are passing through 0.075mm sieve, which will
let in providing excellent drainage system. A two-layer drainage system is implemented by this system. Bituminous Macadam
(BM) The BM mix is open graded and highly permeable in nature. This is a recipe type mix produced that gain no kind of quality in
terms of strength and volumetric. The void content is 20 to 25% higher than the dense graded bitumen (DBM). The DBM have a void
content of 3 to 5%. The BM have high potential to attract water and moisture. Built-up spray Grout (BUSG) For flexible pavements,
BUSG has been recommended as a base course. It is a two-layer composite construction with single size aggregates, which are nicely
compacted. This has a hot bitumen layer applied after each layer. At the top, single sized key aggregate is applied. As the sprayed
bitumen does not help in filling the voids that are created by the coarse aggregate, these pavements behave to be highly permeable in
nature. This does have a property to attract moisture and water. The application of BUSG as a remedy for the removal of potholes is
stopped.
Open Graded Bitumen Surface Mixes
Three open graded mix types are employed as the surface mixes. They are:
• Open graded Friction course (OGFC)

• Premix Carpet (PMC)
• Surface Dressing
Open Graded Friction Course (OGFC) The OGFC system consists of interconnected voids that help to improve the surface drainage
property. Here the rainwater will drain through the OGFC and reach the bituminous concrete grade 2 (BC), that will later flow laterally
within the OGFC. Which is later ended at the shoulder. The last OGFC layer will have a thickness of 20mm. This system will have no
trace of water on the surface. The OGFC system was developed in 2002, by the US nationals. The safety and the environmental features
of OGFC are mentioned below:
• Improvement of frictional resistance of wet pavement

• Hydroplaning: Hydroplaning is the effect of skidding on ice and the loss of control problems of the vehicles. This is due to the
presence of water during and after rain. The OGFC lets removal of water from the surface, letting no water trace on the
pavement.
• The splash and the spray are reduced: The high-speed movement of vehicles will cause splashing and spraying of water to the
nearby vehicles, which will cause problems to the visibility. The OGFC results in no water flooding in the road hence no
splashing or spraying.
• Glare: The OGFC results in the reduction of glare from the headlights in the wet conditions. This will help in better visibility
and have reduced driver fatigue.
• Noise Reduction
Premix Carpet (PC) Here the PC is laid as a wearing course with a thickness of 20mm. The mix will compose two single size
aggregates. One is the aggregate that is passing through 22.5mm and that will retain in 11.2mm. The second aggregate type will pass
through 13.2mm and retain on 5.6mm sieve. Here with respect to the climate and the traffic intensities, the viscosity grade bitumen are
employed. It can be either VG-10 or VG-30. Based on the aggregate and aggregate application rates that are specified in IRC: 14-2004,
in "Recommended Practice for Open Graded Premix Carpet", the bitumen content by weight of mix is 3.3%. Surface Dressing As per
IRC:110 -2005, " Specification and Code of Practice for Design AND Construction of Surface Dressing", the surface dressing has the
following significances and objectives:
• The surface dressing will provide a dust free wearing course over a granular base course that act similar to a water bound
macadam (WBM) or a wet mixed Macadam (WMM).
• The surface Dressing will help in providing impermeability for water percolation for the road surface
• Surface Dressing provide high friction for the riding surface
• This will provide a renewal coat for periodic maintenance of bituminous wearing surfaces.
• The surface dressing work involves the process of spraying of proper grade paving bitumen mainly VG-10 or the rapid setting
cationic emulsion. This is applied over an aggregate layer of appropriate size and gradation.
Surface dressing does not increase the structural strength and the riding quality of the pavement constructed.
Gap Graded Bitumen Mixes
The Stone Matrix Asphalt (SMA) is the most commonly used gap graded bituminous mixes. With the increasing traffic and the high
pressure of tires of the vehicles will give large stresses to the road pavement. The roads are subjected to overloading conditions in certain
cases. The stone matrix asphalt mix is tough, highly stable in structure and rut resistant asphalt mix. These systems rely on the stone to
stone contact that will facilitate in strength. The rich mortar used in the system will provide better durability.
The advantages of stone matrix asphalt mix are:
• Surface Frictional Resistance are improved

• The noise is reduced
• Compared to the conventional dense graded asphalt mix, the night visibility is reduced.
The following steps are involved in the stone matrix asphalt mix design:
1. The selection of the materials i.e. aggregates, binder and the cellulose fiber.
2. Three trial gradations are involved to ensure stone to stone contact.
3. Optimum binder content is used for the all the gradation chosen
4. The binder drains down as well as the moisture susceptibility is evaluated.
The performance of the stone matrix asphalt mix pavement as studied by the US, based on the rutting effect seen in the road pavement.
The figure-5 below shows the rut depth caused for different ranges of the project conducted.
Fig.5: As per NCAT, the rutting performance of the stone matrix asphalt mix pavement constructed in the US
The performance of the SMA pavements that are constructed in India has performed well. Compared to bitumen concrete, the cost for
stone matrix asphalt mix has been found to be 25 to 30% higher. The increased cost of the SMA material is due to its composing
materials like cellulose fiber, modified binder, and the binder content. In the US, the life cycle study conducted showed that the stone
matrix asphalt mix is more cost effective in terms of performance and lesser maintenance.
The compressive strength of the concrete cube test provides an idea

about all the characteristics of concrete. By this single test one judge that whether Concreting has been done properly or not. Concrete
compressive strength for general construction varies from 15 MPa (2200 psi) to 30 MPa (4400 psi) and higher in commercial and
industrial structures.
Compressive strength of concrete depends on many factors such as water-cement ratio, cement strength, quality of concrete material,
quality control during the production of concrete, etc.
Test for compressive strength is carried out either on a cube or cylinder. Various standard codes recommend a concrete cylinder or
concrete cube as the standard specimen for the test. American Society for Testing Materials ASTM C39/C39M provides Standard Test
Method for Compressive Strength of Cylindrical Concrete Specimens.
Contents: [show]
Compressive Strength Definition
Compressive strength is the ability of material or structure to carry the loads on its surface without any crack or deflection. A material
under compression tends to reduce the size, while in tension, size elongates.
Compressive Strength Formula
Compressive strength formula for any material is the load applied at the point of failure to the cross-section area of the face on which
load was applied.
Compressive Strength = Load / Cross-sectional Area
Procedure: Compressive Strength Test of Concrete Cubes
For cube test two types of specimens either cubes of 15cm X 15cm X 15cm or 10cm X 10cm x 10cm depending upon the size of
aggregate are used. For most of the works cubical molds of size 15cm x 15cm x 15cm are commonly used.
This concrete is poured in the mold and appropriately tempered so as not to have any voids. After 24 hours, molds are removed, and test
specimens are put in water for curing. The top surface of these specimen should be made even and smooth. This is done by placing
cement paste and spreading smoothly on the whole area of the specimen.
These specimens are tested by compression testing machine after seven days curing or 28 days curing. Load should be applied gradually
at the rate of 140 kg/cm2 per minute till the Specimens fails. Load at the failure divided by area of specimen gives the compressive
strength of concrete.
Following are the procedure for testing the Compressive strength of Concrete Cubes
Apparatus for Concrete Cube Test
Compression testing machine
Preparation of Concrete Cube Specimen
The proportion and material for making these test specimens are from the same concrete used in the field.
Specimen
6 cubes of 15 cm size Mix. M15 or above
Mixing of Concrete for Cube Test
Mix the concrete either by hand or in a laboratory batch mixer
Hand Mixing
1. Mix the cement and fine aggregate on a watertight none-absorbent platform until the mixture is thoroughly blended and is of
uniform color.
2. Add the coarse aggregate and mix with cement and fine aggregate until the coarse aggregate is uniformly distributed throughout
the batch.
3. Add water and mix it until the concrete appears to be homogeneous and of the desired consistency.
Sampling of Cubes for Test
1. Clean the mounds and apply oil.
2. Fill the concrete in the molds in layers approximately 5 cm thick.
3. Compact each layer with not less than 35 strokes per layer using a tamping rod (steel bar 16mm diameter and 60cm long, bullet-
pointed at lower end).
4. Level the top surface and smoothen it with a trowel.
Curing of Cubes
The test specimens are stored in moist air for 24 hours and after this period the specimens are marked and removed from the molds and
kept submerged in clear freshwater until taken out prior to the test.
Precautions for Tests
The water for curing should be tested every 7 days and the temperature of the water must be at 27+-2oC.
Procedure for Concrete Cube Test
1. Remove the specimen from the water after specified curing time and wipe out excess water from the surface.
2. Take the dimension of the specimen to the nearest 0.2m
3. Clean the bearing surface of the testing machine
4. Place the specimen in the machine in such a manner that the load shall be applied to the opposite sides of the cube cast.
5. Align the specimen centrally on the base plate of the machine.
6. Rotate the movable portion gently by hand so that it touches the top surface of the specimen.
7. Apply the load gradually without shock and continuously at the rate of 140 kg/cm 2/minute till the specimen fails
8. Record the maximum load and note any unusual features in the type of failure.
Note:
Minimum three specimens should be tested at each selected age. If the strength of any specimen varies by more than 15 percent of
average strength, the results of such specimens should be rejected. The average of three specimens gives the crushing strength of
concrete. The strength requirements of concrete.
Calculations of Compressive Strength
Size of the cube =15cmx15cmx15cm
Area of the specimen (calculated from the mean size of the specimen )=225 cm 2
Characteristic compressive strength(f ck)at 7 days =
Expected maximum load =fck x area x f.s
Range to be selected is .......................
Similar calculation should be done for 28 day compressive strength
Maximum load applied =..........tones = .............N
Compressive strength = (Load in N/ Area in mm 2)=...............N/mm2
=............................N/mm2
Reports of Cube Test
1. Identification mark
2. Date of test
3. Age of specimen
4. Curing conditions, including date of manufacture of specimen
5. Appearance of fractured faces of concrete and the type of fracture if they are unusual
Results of Concrete Cube Test
Average compressive strength of the concrete cube = .............N/ mm 2 (at 7 days)
Average compressive strength of the concrete cube =.......... N/mm 2 (at 28 days)
Compressive Strength of Concrete at Various Ages
The strength of concrete increases with age. The table shows the strength of concrete at different ages in comparison with the strength at
28 days after casting.
Age Strength percent
1 day 16%
3 days 40%
7 days 65%
14 days 90%
28 days 99%
Compressive Strength of Different Grades of Concrete at 7 and 28 Days
Grade of Minimum compressive strength Specified characteristic compressive strength
Concrete N/mm2 at 7 days (N/mm2) at 28 days
M15 10 15
M20 13.5 20
M25 17 25
M30 20 30
M35 23.5 35
M40 27 40
M45 30 45
Some Facts on Concrete Strength Test
Why Compressive Strength Test of Concrete is Important?
The compressive strength of the concrete cube test provides an idea about all the characteristics of concrete. By this single test one judge
that whether Concreting has been done properly or not.
What is compressive strength of commonly used concrete?
Concrete compressive strength for general construction varies from 15 MPa (2200 psi) to 30 MPa (4400 psi) and higher in commercial
and industrial structures.
What is compressive strength after 7 days and 14 days?
Compressive strength achieved by concrete at 7 days is about 65% and at 14 days is about 90% of the target strength.
Which test is most suitable for concrete strength?
A concrete cube test or concrete cylinder test is generally carried out to assess the strength of concrete after 7 days, 14 days or 28 days of
casting.
What is the size of concrete cubes used for testing?
For cube test two types of specimens either cubes of 15cm X 15cm X 15cm or 10cm X 10cm x 10cm depending upon the size of
aggregate are used. For most of the works cubical molds of size 15cm x 15cm x 15cm are commonly used.
What Is Fineness Modulus of Sand?

Fineness modulus of sand (fine aggregate) is an index number which represents the mean size of the particles in sand. It is calculated by
performing sieve analysis with standard sieves. The cumulative percentage retained on each sieve is added and subtracted by 100 gives
the value of fineness modulus. Fine aggregate means the aggregate which passes through 4.75mm sieve. To find the fineness modulus of
fine aggregate we need sieve sizes of 4.75mm, 2.36mm, 1.18mm, 0.6mm, 0.3mm and 0.15mm. Fineness modulus of finer aggregate is
lower than fineness modulus of coarse aggregate.
Determination of Fineness Modulus of Sand
To determine the fineness modulus, we need standard sieves, mechanical sieve shaker (optional), dry oven and digital weight scale.
Sample preparation
Take a sample of fine aggregate in pan and placed it in dry oven at a temperature of 100 – 110oC. After drying take the sample and note
down its weight.
Test Procedure - Fineness Modulus of Sand
Take the sieves and arrange them in descending order with the largest sieve on top. If mechanical shaker is using then put the ordered
sieves in position and pour the sample in the top sieve and then close it with sieve plate. Then switch on the machine and shaking of
sieves should be done at least 5 minutes. If shaking is done by the hands then pour the sample in the top sieve and close it then hold the
top two sieves and shake it inwards and outwards, vertically and horizontally. After some time shake the 3rd and 4th sieves and finally last
sieves. After sieving, record the sample weights retained on each sieve. Then find the cumulative weight retained. Finally determine the
cumulative percentage retained on each sieves. Add the all cumulative percentage values and divide with 100 then we will get the value
of fineness modulus.
Calculation of Fineness Modulus of Sand
Let us say the dry weight of sample = 1000gm After sieve analysis the values appeared are tabulated below.
Sieve size Weight retained (g) Cumulative weight retained(g) Cumulative percentage weight Retained (%)
4.75mm 0 0 0
2.36mm 100 100 10
1.18mm 250 350 35
0.6mm 350 700 70
0.3mm 200 900 90
0.15mm 100 1000 100
Total 275
Therefore, fineness modulus of aggregate = (cumulative % retained) / 100 = (275/100) = 2.75 Fineness modulus of fine aggregate is
2.75. It means the average value of aggregate is in between the 2 nd sieve and 3rd sieve. It means the average aggregate size is in between
0.3mm to 0.6mm as shown in below figure.
Values of Fineness Modulus of Sand

Fineness modulus of fine aggregate varies from 2.0 to 3.5mm. Fine aggregate having fineness modulus more than 3.2 should not
considered as fine aggregate. Various values of fineness modulus for different sands are detailed below.
Type of sand Fineness modulus range
Fine sand 2.2 – 2.6
Medium sand 2.6 – 2.9
Coarse sand 2.9 – 3.2
Fineness modulus limits for various zones of sand according to IS 383-1970 are tabulated below.
Sieve size Zone-1 Zone-2 Zone-3 Zone-4
10mm 100 100 100 100
4.75mm 90-100 90-100 90-100 95-100
2.36mm 60-95 75-100 85-100 95-100
1.18mm 30-70 55-90 75-100 90-100

0.6mm 15-34 35-59 60-79 80-100
0.3mm 5-20 8-30 12-40 15-50
0.15mm 0-10 0-10 0-10 0-15
Fineness modulus 4.0-2.71 3.37-2.1 2.78-1.71 2.25-1.35
What is Fineness Modulus of Coarse Aggregates?

Fineness modulus of coarse aggregates represents the average size of the particles in the coarse aggregate by an index number. It is
calculated by performing sieve analysis with standard sieves. The cumulative percentage retained on each sieve is added and subtracted
by 100 gives the value of fine aggregate. Higher the aggregate size higher the Fineness modulus hence fineness modulus of coarse
aggregate is higher than fine aggregate. Coarse aggregate means the aggregate which is retained on 4.75mm sieve when it is sieved
through 4.75mm. To find fineness modulus of coarse aggregate we need sieve sizes of 80mm, 40mm, 20mm, 10mm, 4.75mm, 2.36mm,
1.18mm, 0.6mm, 0.3mm and 0.15mm. Fineness modulus is the number at which the average size of particle is known when we counted
from lower-order sieve size to higher-order sieve. So, in the calculation of coarse aggregate we need all sizes of sieves.
Determination of Fineness Modulus of Coarse Aggregates
To find fineness modulus we need to perform sieve analysis and for that above mentioned sieve sizes, mechanical shaker and digital
weigh scale are required.
Sample preparation
Take a sample of coarse aggregate in pan and placed it in dry oven at a temperature of 100 – 110oC. After drying take the sample weight
to nearest gram.
Test Procedure for Fineness Modulus of Coarse Aggregates
Arrange the sieves in descending order and put the arrangement on mechanical shaker. It is suggested that, to know the exact value of
fineness modulus for coarse aggregate, mechanical shaker will give better value than hand shaking because of more no. of sieves and
heavy size particles. After proper sieving, record the sample weights retained on each sieve and find out the cumulative weight of
retained particles as well as cumulative % retained on each sieve. Finally add all cumulative percentage values and divide the result with
100. Then we get the value of fineness modulus.
Example for Fineness Modulus Calculation
Let us say dry weight of coarse aggregate = 5000g Values after sieve analysis are
Sieve size Weight retained(g) Cumulative weight retained (g) Cumulative % retained (g)
80mm 0 0 0
40mm 250 250 5
20mm 1750 2000 40
10mm 1600 3600 72
4.75mm 1400 5000 100
2.36mm 0 5000 100
1.18mm 0 5000 100

0.6mm 0 5000 100
0.3mm 0 5000 100
0.15mm 0 5000 100
Sum = 717
Therefore, fineness modulus of coarse aggregates = sum (cumulative % retained) / 100 = (717/100) = 7.17 Fineness modulus of 7.17
means, the average size of particle of given coarse aggregate sample is in between 7 th and 8th sieves, that is between 10mm to 20mm.
Limits of Fineness Modulus

Fineness modulus of coarse aggregate varies from 5.5 to 8.0. And for all in aggregates or combined aggregates fineness modulus varies
from 3.5 to 6.5. Range of fineness modulus for aggregate of different maximum sized aggregates is given below.
Maximum size of coarse aggregate Fineness modulus range
20mm 6.0 – 6.9
40mm 6.9 – 7.5
75mm 7.5 – 8.0
150mm 8.0 – 8.5
What is Rebound Hammer Test?

Rebound Hammer test is a Non-destructive testing method of concrete which provide a convenient and rapid indication of the
compressive strength of the concrete. The rebound hammer is also called as Schmidt hammer that consist of a spring controlled mass that
slides on a plunger within a tubular housing. The operation of rebound hammer is shown in the fig.1. When the plunger of rebound
hammer is pressed against the surface of concrete, a spring controlled mass with a constant energy is made to hit concrete surface to
rebound back. The extent of rebound, which is a measure of surface hardness, is measured on a graduated scale. This measured value is
designated as Rebound Number (rebound index). A concrete with low strength and low stiffness will absorb more energy to yield in a
lower rebound value.

Fig.1.Operation of the rebound hammer
Objective of Rebound Hammer Test
As per the Indian code IS: 13311(2)-1992, the rebound hammer test have the following objectives:
1. To determine the compressive strength of the concrete by relating the rebound index and the compressive strength
2. To assess the uniformity of the concrete
3. To assess the quality of the concrete based on the standard specifications
4. To relate one concrete element with other in terms of quality
Rebound hammer test method can be used to differentiate the acceptable and questionable parts of the structure or to compare two
different structures based on strength.
Principle of Rebound Hammer Test
Rebound hammer test method is based on the principle that the rebound of an elastic mass depends on the hardness of the concrete
surface against which the mass strikes. The operation of the rebound hammer is shown in figure-1. When the plunger of rebound
hammer is pressed against the concrete surface, the spring controlled mass in the hammer rebounds. The amount of rebound of the mass
depends on the hardness of concrete surface. Thus, the hardness of concrete and rebound hammer reading can be correlated with
compressive strength of concrete. The rebound value is read off along a graduated scale and is designated as the
rebound number or rebound index. The compressive strength can be read directly from the graph provided on the body of the
hammer.
Procedure for Rebound Hammer Test
Procedure for rebound hammer test on concrete structure starts with calibration of the rebound hammer. For this, the rebound hammer is
tested against the test anvil made of steel having Brinell hardness number of about 5000 N/mm2. After the rebound hammer is tested for
accuracy on the test anvil, the rebound hammer is held at right angles to the surface of the concrete structure for taking the readings. The
test thus can be conducted horizontally on vertical surface and vertically upwards or downwards on horizontal surfaces as shown in
figure below If the rebound hammer is held at intermediate angle, the rebound number will be different for the same concrete.
Fig.2.Rebound Hammer Positions for Testing Concrete Structure
The impact energy required for the rebound hammer is different for different applications. Approximate Impact energy levels are
mentioned in the table-1 below for different applications.
Table-1: Impact Energy for Rebound Hammers for Different Applications As per IS: 13311(2)-1992
Approximate Impact Energy for Rebound
Sl.No Applications
Hammer in Nm
1 For Normal Weight Concrete 2.25
For light weight concrete / For small and

2 0.75
impact resistive concrete parts
For mass concrete testing Eg: In roads,

3 30.00
hydraulic structures and pavements
Points to Remember in Rebound Hammer Test
1. The concrete surface should be smooth, clean and dry.

2. Ant loose particles should be rubbed off from the concrete surface with a grinding wheel or stone, before hammer testing.
3. Rebound hammer test should not be conducted on rough surfaces as a result of incomplete compaction, loss of grout, spalled or
tooled concrete surface.
4. The point of impact of rebound hammer on concrete surface should be at least 20mm away from edge or shape discontinuity.
5. Six readings of rebound number is taken at each point of testing and an average of value of the readings is taken as rebound
index for the corresponding point of observation on concrete surface.
Correlation between compressive strength of concrete and rebound number
The most suitable method of obtaining the correlation between compressive strength of concrete and rebound number is to test the
concrete cubes using compression testing machine as well as using rebound hammer simultaneously. First the rebound number of
concrete cube is taken and then the compressive strength is tested on compression testing machine. The fixed load required is of the
order of 7 N/ mm2 when the impact energy of the hammer is about 2.2 Nm. The load should be increased for calibrating rebound
hammers of greater impact energy and decreased for calibrating rebound hammers of lesser impact energy. The test specimens should be
as large a mass as possible in order to minimize the size effect on the test result of a full scale structure. 150mm cube specimens are
preferred for calibrating rebound hammers of lower impact energy (2.2Nm), whereas for rebound hammers of higher impact energy, for
example 30 Nm, the test cubes should not be smaller than 300mm. The concrete cube specimens should be kept at room temperature for
about 24 hours after taking it out from the curing pond, before testing it with the rebound hammer. To obtain a correlation between
rebound numbers and strength of wet cured and wet tested cubes, it is necessary to establish a correlation between the strength of wet
tested cubes and the strength of dry tested cubes on which rebound readings are taken. A direct correlation between rebound numbers on
wet cubes and the strength of wet cubes is not recommended. Only the vertical faces of the cubes as cast should be tested. At least nine
readings should be taken on each of the two vertical faces accessible in the compression testing machine when using the rebound
hammers. The points of impact on the specimen must not be nearer an edge than 20mm and should be not less than 20mm from each
other. The same points must not be impacted more than once.
Interpretation of Rebound Hammer Test Results
After obtaining the correlation between compressive strength and rebound number, the strength of structure can be assessed. In general,
the rebound number increases as the strength increases and is also affected by a number of parameters i.e. type of cement, type of
aggregate, surface condition and moisture content of the concrete, curing and age of concrete, carbonation of concrete surface etc.
Fig.3.Relationship Between Cube Strength and the Rebound Number

Moreover the rebound index is indicative of compressive strength of concrete up to a limited depth from the surface. The internal cracks,
flaws etc. or heterogeneity across the cross section will not be indicated by rebound numbers. Table-2 below shows the quality of
concrete for respective average rebound number.
Table.2. Quality of Concrete for different values of rebound number
As such the estimation of strength of concrete by

rebound hammer method cannot be held to be very accurate and probable accuracy of prediction of concrete strength in a structure is ±
25 percent. If the relationship between rebound index and compressive strength can be found by tests on core samples obtained from the
structure or standard specimens made with the same concrete materials and mix proportion, then the accuracy of results and confidence
thereon gets greatly increased.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Rebound Hammer Test
The advantages of Rebound hammer tests are:
1. Apparatus is easy to use

2. Determines uniformity properties of the surface
3. The equipment used is inexpensive
4. Used for the rehabilitation of old monuments
The disadvantages of Rebound Hammer Test
1. The results obtained is based on a local point

2. The test results are not directly related to the strength and the deformation property of the surface
3. The probe and spring arrangement will require regular cleaning and maintenance
4. Flaws cannot be detected with accuracy
Factors Influencing Rebound Hammer Test
Below mentioned are the important factors that influence rebound hammer test:
1. Type of Aggregate
2. Type of Cement
3. Surface and moisture condition of the concrete
4. Curing and Age of concrete
5. Carbonation of concrete surface
Type of Aggregate
The correlation between compressive strength of concrete and the rebound number will vary with the use of different aggregates.
Normal correlations in the results are obtained by the use of normal aggregates like gravels and crushed aggregates. The use of
lightweight aggregates in concrete will require special calibration to undergo the test.
Type of Cement
The concrete made of high alumina cement ought to have higher compressive strength compared to Ordinary portland cement. The use
of supersulphated cement in concrete decrease the compressive strength by 50% compared to that of OPC.
Type of Surface and Moisture Condition
The rebound hammer test work best for close texture concrete compared with open texture concrete. Concrete with high honeycombs
and no-fines concrete is not suitable to be tested by rebound hammer. The strength is overestimated by the test when testing floated or
trowelled surfaces when compared with moulded surfaces. Wet concrete surface if tested will give a lower strength value. This
underestimation of strength can go lower to 20% that of dry concrete.
Type of curing and age of concrete
As time passes, the relation between the strength and hardness of concrete will change. Curing conditions of concrete and their moisture
exposure conditions also affects this relationship. For concrete with an age between 3days to 90 days is exempted from the effect of age.
For greater aged concrete special calibrated curves is necessary.
Carbonation on Concrete Surface
A higher strength is estimated by the rebound hammer on a concrete that is subjected to carbonation. It is estimated to be 50% higher. So
the test have to be conducted by removing the carbonated layer and testing by rebound hammer over non-carbonated layer of
concrete.
Reinforced Concrete Slab Design Guidelines

a) Effective span of slab:
Effective span of slab shall be lesser of the two
1. L = clear span + d (effective depth)

2. L = Center to center distance between the support
b) Depth of slab:
The depth of slab depends on bending moment and deflection criterion. the trail depth can be obtained using:
• Effective depth d= Span /((L/d)Basic x modification factor)

• For obtaining modification factor, the percentage of steel for slab can be assumed from 0.2 to 0.5%.
• The effective depth d of two way slabs can also be assumed using cl.24.1,IS 456 provided short span is <3.5m and loading
class is <3.5KN/m2
Type of support Fe-250 Fe-415
Simply supported L/35 L/28
Continuous support L/40 L/32

Or, the following thumb rules can be used:
• One way slab d=(L/22) to (L/28).

• Two way simply supported slab d=(L/20) to (L/30)
• Two way restrained slab d=(L/30) to (L/32)
c) Load on slab:
The load on slab comprises of Dead load, floor finish and live load. The loads are calculated per unit area (load/m 2). Dead load = D x 25
kN/m2 ( Where D is thickness of slab in m) Floor finish (Assumed as)= 1 to 2 kN/m 2 Live load (Assumed as) = 3 to 5 kN/m2 (depending
on the occupancy of the building)
Detailing Requirements of Reinforced Concrete Slab as per IS456: 2000

a) Nominal Cover:
For Mild exposure – 20 mm For Moderate exposure – 30 mm However, if the diameter of bar do not exceed 12 mm, or cover may be
reduced by 5 mm. Thus for main reinforcement up to 12 mm diameter bar and for mild exposure, the nominal cover is 15 mm.
b) Minimum reinforcement:
The reinforcement in either direction in slab shall not be less than
• 0.15% of the total cross sectional area for Fe-250 steel

• 0.12% of the total cross-sectional area for Fe-415 & Fe-500 steel.
c) Spacing of bars:
The maximum spacing of bars shall not exceed
• Main Steel – 3d or 300 mm whichever is smaller

• Distribution steel –5d or 450 mm whichever is smaller Where, ‘d’ is the effective depth of slab. Note: The minimum clear
spacing of bars is not kept less than 75 mm (Preferably 100 mm) though code do not recommend any value.
d) Maximum diameter of bar:
The maximum diameter of bar in slab, shall not exceed D/8, where D is the total thickness of slab.
Reinforcement detailing in beams

• Beam carries transverse external loads that cause bending moment, shear forces and in some cases torsion
• Concrete is strong in compression and very weak in tension.
• Steel reinforcement counter act tensile stresses in reinforced concrete beams.
• Mild steel bars or Deformed or High yield strength deformed bars (HYSD) used.
• HYSD bars have ribs on the surface and this increases the bond strength at least by 40%
Types of beams
The beams classes are as follows:
Based on beam shape
• Rectangular beam
• L-shape beam
• Circular shape beam
• T-shape beam
When a beam is designed with slab, called slab beam or Tee-beam, reinforcements are provided as shown in figure below. The beam is
generally designed as simple beam but additional reinforcement provided on top with slab to make it behave like a Tee-beam.
Fig.1: Mid-span Details of Tee-Beam.

Fig.2: Slab-Beam Details
According to supporting conditions
Simply supported, fixed, continuous and cantilever beams
Based on embedded reinforcement

Singly reinforced
Reinforcement are provided to resist tensile stresses due to bending and shear in beams for singly reinforced sections.
In practice, for singly reinforced beams, two additional bars are provided in compression face of the beam so that stirrups can be tied
with bars. These additional reinforcement are of nominal diameter of 8mm or 10mm.
Doubly reinforced
when depth of section is restricted due to reasons such as architectural reasons, or basement floors, the beam section is designed as
doubly reinforced concrete beam.
These bars shall withstand compressive stresses and are provided with reinforcement in compression face.
Beams when subjected to torsion are provided additional longitudinal and shear reinforcement to resist bending and shear stresses
developed due to torsion.
Types of Reinforcement in Beams

Generally a beam consists of following steel reinforcements:
• Longitudinal reinforcement at tension and compression face.

• Shear reinforcements in the form of vertical stirrups and or bent up longitudinal bars.
o Side face reinforcement in the web of the beam provided when the depth of the web in a beam exceeds 750 mm.
o Distribute minimum 0.1% of the web area equally on two faces at a spacing not exceeding 300 mm or web thickness,
whichever is less.
Reinforcement Cover in Beam
• Minimum cover in beams must be 25 mm or shall not be less than the larger diameter of bar for all steel reinforcement
including links.
• Nominal cover specified in Table 16 and 16A of IS456-2000 should be used to satisfy the durability criteria.
Stirrups
this type of reinforcement act against shear force. Following are the types of stirrups provided in beams:
Fig.3: Types of stirrups in beams
Standard hooks and bends
Commonly, the provision of steel bar anchorage is in form of bends and hooks provided that straight length insufficient to develop bars.
Moreover, the anchorage value of bend of bar is taken as 4 times the diameter of bar for every 45 0 bend subjected to maximum of 16
times the diameter of bar.
Added to that, The specification for detailing of reinforcement in beams are given in cl.26.5.1 of IS 456 – 2000. Lastly, standard bends
and hooks required for reinforcing bars are shown in figure below.
Fig.4: Standard bends and hooks in beams

Curtailment of Reinforcement in Beams
Generally, curtailment of reinforcements performed along beam span based on the bending moment at the section. Moreover, anchorage
or development length required at support is provided during curtailment of reinforcement.
Furthermore, cl.26.2 of IS 456 – 2000 gives the anchorage length required for main reinforcement in tension and compression.
Lastly, figure 5 shows typical details of curtailment of reinforcement in cantilever and continuous beams.
Fig.5: Typical Details of Reinforcement curtailment in beams
Development length (Ld)
Figure 6 provides details of necessary anchorage length for main reinforcement in tension and compression:
Fig.6: Typical Details of anchorage

length of reinforcement in beams
Figure 7 illustrates specifications for reinforcements of beams in accordance with SP34:
Fig.7:Reinforcement detailing based on IS 456-2000
Bar Bending Schedule

• Drawings generally include a bar bending schedule
• bending schedule shall specify bar length and number, position and the shape of the bar

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Difference Between Development Length And Lap Length

What Is Lap Length?

How To Calculate Weight Of Steel Bars:

In the above slab, the ratio of longer span to shorter span

What Is Plate Load Test?

2. Reaction Truss Method

Procedure Of Plate Load Test

Some Equations Used To Calculate Bearing Capacity & Settlement Of Soil

What Is Slump Test?

Advantages Of Slump Test:

Types Of Concrete Slump Range In mm

1. Heavy mass construction 25-50

3. Bridge deck 25-75

4. Beams and slabs 50-100

5. Columns, retaining walls and thin vertical members,

6. Vibrated concrete 12-25

Bar Bending Schedule For Beam:

Diameter Cutting Total

Stirrup 8 31 0.974 30.19 12

History Of Bar Bending Schedule:

Crank length = D/sin45° – D/tan45° =1.42D – D = 0.42D

Bar Bending Schedule:

What is Long Column?

Difference Between Short Column And Long Column

Short Column Long Column

3. Less radius of gyration. 3. Greater radius of gyration.

Standard Sizes Of Columns In Structures

Distance Between Columns

Calculation Of Materials For Different Mix Ratio

Procedure To Calculate Cement Bags In 1 Cubic Meter

How To Calculate Cement, Sand Quantity For Plastering?

Calculation Of Bricks In A Wall

Important Notes On Slab:

What Is WBM Road?

Materials Used In WBM Road

1 Los Angeles abrasion test 60 50 40

2 Aggregate impact value test 50 40 30

3 Flakiness index test 15 15

A 12.5 mm 12.5 mm 100

150 micron 0–8

What Is Dowel Bar?

Epoxy Coated Dowel Bar

Advantages Of Dowel Bars:

Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Test

Ultra Sonic Pulse Velocity Km/s Quality Of Concrete

Below 3.0 Doubtful

3.0 to 3.5 Medium

3.5 to 4.5 Good

Above 4.5 Excellent

Rebound Hammer Test

Greater than 40 Very good hard layer

Less than 20 Poor layer

0 Very poor layer

Points To Remember Before Test

What Is Concrete Mix Ratio?

Let us be clearer with an example of an M25 grade concrete mix ratio.

Ordinary concrete M5 1:5:10 5 MPa

Ordinary concrete M7.5 1:4:8 7.5 MPa

Ordinary concrete M10 1:3:6 10 MPa

Ordinary concrete M15 1:2:4 15 MPa

Ordinary concrete M20 1:1.5:3 20 MPa

Standard concrete M25 1:1:2 25 MPa