Department of Civil Engineering Indian Institute of Technology (IIT) Delhi

Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology (IIT) Delhi
CVL244 Construction Practices

2 Credits | 2-0-0
Course Co-Ordinator: Prof. Vasant A. Matsagar

Course Instructor: Dr. Kamal Kant Jain [KK]
January - April 2023
Assessments
 Course Seminar / Project / Demonstration: 30%
 Group (team) activity
 Quiz: 10%
 Maximum 02 quizzes
 In-class, quite likely to be surprise quiz, i.e., without prior announcement
 Minor: 20%
 Major: 40 %
Dr. Kamal Kant Jain | Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Delhi

Introduction and Basic Terminology
 (Construction) Practices
 (Construction) Equipment
 (Construction) Technology
 Concreting  Steel Structures
 Formwork
 Manufacturing / Fabrication
 Scaffolding
 Transportation
 Shoring
 Assembly and Erection of Structures

Construction
From Web:
 “Construction”, generally means the art and science to form objects, systems, or organizations.
 To construct is the verb: the act of building, and
 Construction is the noun: how something is built, the nature of its structure.
 Broadly, there are three sectors of construction:

 Buildings: Residential and Non-residential
 Infrastructure
 Industrial
 Practice: Usual (expected) way of doing something in a particular situation; a habit or custom

[Generalized] Construction Project Flow [Phases]
 Step 1: The Development and Planning Phase  Step 4: The Pre-Construction Phase
 Location, Budget, Contractor Selection  Approvals, Permissions, Bids
 Project Site Office
 Step 2: The Pre-Design Phase
 General Purposes and Orientation  Step 5: The Procurement Phase
 Materials and Equipment Selection (Cost)  Services and Materials
 Cost Estimates and Construction Timeline  Budget and Quality (Control)
 Step 3: The Design Phase  Step 6: The Construction Phase

 Civil and Structural Engineers  Site Preparation, Practice and Compliance
 Mechanical and Electrical Engineers  Construction, Delays and Overruns
 Drawings and Schematics; BIM
 Step 7: The Post-Construction Phase

Standards, Codes of Practice, Manuals & Handbooks
 Regional (Local) ?
 National (Indian) ??
 Global (International) ???
 Innovation(s) and Benchmarking ?
 Technology, Automation, and Digitization ??

Good [Construction] Practices (may) Ensure
Efficient use of: Leads to
 Time
 Cost Quality
 Resources

Performance [Achievement of Quality]
Performance: Generally, the measurement of achievement against intention
 Spatial Performance
 Stability and Integrity
 Visual Performance
 Thermal Performance
 Acoustic Performance
 Indoor Air Quality

National Building Code of India
 NBC 2016 | SP-7: 2016
 02 Volumes | 12 Parts | 33 Chapters
 BIS Guide for Using National Building Code of India 2016

Hosted (and available) from CPWD Website:
https://cpwd.gov.in/Publication/Booklet-Guide-for-Using-NBC-2016.pdf
 GRIHA [Green Rating for Integrated Habitat Assessment]

Website: https://www.grihaindia.org/

GRIHA Rating Framework
 GRIHA 2019 | 11 [10+1] Sections | 30 [29+1] Criterion
 Total 105 [100+5] Possible Rating Points
Percentile Threshold Achievable Star Rating

25-40 
41-55 
56-70 
71-85 
86 and more 
 Explore GRIHA website for additional useful information

and resources [Tabs on Ratings, Library, etc.]

Building Information Modeling [BIM]
 BIM is many things to many people:
 Paradigm change for the construction industry (practice)
 Integration of both Building model and Information model
 Digital representation of physical and functional characteristics of a facility
 Shared database as information (data) repository [knowledge base]
 BIM facilitates (helps with) or BIM is :

 Automation
 Digital Transformation
 Data Driven (Informed) Decision Making

Building Information Modeling [BIM]
 As per NBC 2016
[Part 12: Asset and Facility
Management, clause 2.14], BIM is
defined as:
“Shared digital representation of
physical and functional characteristics
of any built object (including buildings,
bridges, roads, etc.) which forms a
reliable basis for decisions.”
Note: A building information model may
embody, for example, building geometry,
spatial relationships, geographic information
and the quantities and properties of
building components.
Infographics Source: https://www.letsbuild.com/blog/bim-maturity-levels

BIM | Level of Definition/Development/Detail [LOD]
 In simple terms, the LOD defines the content of a BIM project in different stages of its development and
grows as the project progresses and is enriched with details, evolving from a simple initial concept to a
construction model. The LOD typically consists of 2 elements:
 Geometry or visual representation of a project – LOG (Level of Geometry);
 Data (information) attached to the objects of the BIM model – LOI (Level of Information).
The attached data creates intelligent objects and distinguishes simple modelling of shapes and
extrusions from BIM modelling
 Generally, LOD is divided into a scale LOD Scale

in which a standard nomenclature is USA: Level of Development LOD 100, LOD 200, LOD 300,
assigned to each level (which defines LOD 350, LOD 400, LOD 500
the quantity and quality of the data UK: Level of Definition
included in the model)  LOD - Level of Detail;  LOD 1, LOD 2, …, LOD 6
 LOI - Level of Information  LOI 1, LOI 2, …, LOI 6
 ISO 19650: BIM relevant international Italy: Level of Development of Objects
standard(s)  LOG – Geometrical Objects  LOG A, LOG B, …, LOG G
 LOI – Information Objects  LOI A, LOI B, …, LOI G

BIM | LOD
Image from: BIM LEAD >> BIM Service >> BIM LOD Image from: Built Information Modeling for the 3D Reconstruction of Modern Railway Stations

BIM | BIM Collaboration Platforms
 BIM Collaboration platform: A tool that allows  Working of BIM collaboration platform(s)
multiple users to plan, design, build and operate  BIM collaboration platforms work with cloud-
with the BIM methodology. based data repository in a shared environment,
 Using this tool architects, engineers, contractors, making it accessible anytime, anywhere.
and owners can:  Tailor-made for collaboration and information
management, with:
 View (and manage) online files in many formats
(IFC, DWG, DXF, PDF, OBJ, SKP, 3DS, RVT, etc.)  Access control tools
that reside in the common data environment  Version control tools
(CDE), even without a BIM Authoring software
 Real-time notifications (updates)
 Manage users and their permissions (Access)
 Secure shared (data) environment
 Manage/Update stage wise information (Versions)
 Being cloud-based, BIM collaboration platforms
 Work together in an effective manner (Collaborate) often have no requirement for expensive
 Trace the review/validation processes (and actions installation, maintenance, particular hardware, etc.
taken to ensure quality in BIM processes)
Salient Advantages: Faster Decision Making | Fewer Errors | Time and Cost Savings

BIM | ISO 19650
Organization and digitization of information about buildings and civil engineering works, including building
information modelling (BIM) — Information management using building information modelling […]
 ISO 19650-1:2018 … — Part 1: Concepts and principles
 ISO 19650-2:2018 … — Part 2: Delivery phase of the assets
 ISO 19650-3:2020 … — Part 3: Operational phase of the assets
 ISO 19650-4:2022 … — Part 4: Information exchange
 ISO 19650-5:2020 … — Part 5: Security-minded approach to information management
 ISO/CD 19650-6 [Under development] … — Part 6: Health and Safety
Source: International Organization for Standardization [ISO]
 Relevant source for (introductory) information on BIM Education, Research, Scope, and Practice
 India Building Information Modelling Association [IBIMA] >> Archieve

Some Useful Learning Resources (Courses)
 Coursera >> BIM
 BIM Fundamentals for Engineers | https://www.coursera.org/learn/bim-fundamentals#syllabus
 BIM Application for Engineers | https://www.coursera.org/learn/bim-application
 edX >> Building Information Modeling

 Fundamentals of Building Information Modeling | https://learning.edx.org/course/course-v1:PurdueX+CE522001+1T2022/home
 NPTEL | Construction >> Management, Economics, Practice, Equipment

 Construction Methods and Equipment Management | Dr. G. Indu Siva Ranjani, IITG | https://nptel.ac.in/courses/105103206
 Construction Planning and Management | Dr. Arbind Kumar Singh, IITG| https://nptel.ac.in/courses/105103093
 Construction Economics & Finance | Dr. Bulu Pradhan, IITG| https://nptel.ac.in/courses/105103023
 LinkedIn Learning
 Reading/Learning Material Available on Web / Other EdTech Platforms

Future of Construction (Practices)
 Inevitable (Evolving)
 (Information) Digitization
 (Analytics) Automation
 (Simulation) Immersive Experiences# [# Check: Learning Pyramid]
 However, in the context of “Present” Construction (Practices), we may also need (like)
to learn (at least hear/read/ be aware) about the following:
 MTO (Material Take-Off); BOM/BOQ (Bill of Material/Quantity);
 Measurements (Quantity), Characteristics (Quality), and Estimates
 Specifications >> Analysis of Rates >> Schedule of Rates [From: CPWD ??]
 Other relevant (conventional) terms, concepts, and practices

Discussion
 What will be the cost of construction ??
 Plinth Area Rates
 Example Case(s) : Pahal - Compendium of Rural Housing Typologies

General Practice(s) in Construction
 Site clearance
 Foundation/Subgrade (Site)
 Superstructure (Structure)
 Marking or setting site
 Exterior Envelope (Skin)
 Interior Partitions (Space Plan)

 Earthwork >> Foundation
 Electrical and Mechanical Systems (Services)
 Furnishings (Stuff)
 Concreting >> Masonry >> Steel

Earthwork
 Movement of earth (soil) by means of excavation, transportation, and filling
 Earthwork primarily involves:

 Excavation of soil or shifting of the soil
 Loading, transportation and unloading of soil
 Placing and compacting of the soil
 Depending upon the quantity of work, site conditions, availability of resources these works are carried
out by various method and equipment.

Earthwork | Excavation
 Bulldozers  Backhoe
A dozer (bulldozer) is a tractor power unit with a Backhoe is hydraulic excavator with a bucket
blade attached to its front. They are used for attached to hydraulic controlled boom and stick.
pushing material, clearing, striping, towing other In backhoe, bucket moves in downward and
pieces of constructions, assisting in loading, side backward direction during excavation (more
hill cutting , backfilling & spreading, etc. suitable for excavation below the ground)

 Power shovels  Scrapers
Shovels (power shovels) are hydraulic excavators. Scrapers is a large steel bowel attached with the
In a shovel, an excavation bucket is attached to cutter at the bottom , which is mounted on the
the hydraulically controlled broom & stick. The wheel. It is a multipurpose equipment which is
bucket moves in a forward and upward direction. used for soil excavation, transportation, and
The bucket can be swung around depending spreading it (soil) at the other place.
upon the type of the shovel and can load the soil
in the truck.

 Dragline  Clamshell
In a dragline , a bucket is connected to a cable , Clamshell bucket is also designed to excavate the
which is attached to a long crane . The soil is soil in vertical direction The bucked is like an
excavated by dragging this bucket against the inverted jaw, having a biting motion. The bucket
soil to be excavated. In dragline, bucket falls can be opened and closed with the help of a
under the gravity load which loosens the soil . It cable or by hydraulic control. It is designed in
is used for excavation as well as loading the such away that it is half opened when dropped
material in the truck. and gets closed when the bucket is filled.
It can also be used for underwater excavation. It is often used in mining industry .

Earthwork | Transportation
Some equipment used for (soil) excavation are also used for transporting soil over a distance. However, many
a time, soil needs to be transported to places (sites) which are not adjacent to the excavation site. The
equipment used for soil transportation are generally called haulers.
Equipment used for transportation include: Trucks | Tippers | Dumpers | Belt Conveyers, etc.

Earthwork | Compaction
Excavated soil is transported and spread at the desired Some widely used compaction equipment are:
places, it is then compacted to obtain the desired Rollers: Smooth Wheel, Pneumatic Tired, Sheep Foot
(optimum) density (with suitable moisture content).
Vibratory: Dropping Weight, Pulsating Hydraulic (Plate)
Generally, required water is mixed before soil compaction.
For different types of soil, different compaction equipment are used (a single equipment may not be effective for
all types of soil). These equipment provide: Pressure | Kneading | Vibration | Impact

Earthwork | Costing [Excavation]
Quantity (Length/Area/Volume)
 Section method | Average End Area (Trapezoidal) Method, The Prismoidal Rule, Simpsons 1/3rd Rule
 (Elevation) Average Method
 Division by Square (Block) Method
 Contour Method
Transportation (Distance)
Specifications: Site (Location / Terrain), Depth (On Surface / In Trench), Type (Mud / Soft Soil / Rock), etc.
Refer: CPWD Documents [Specification, DSR, DAR, Works Manual (with relevant SOPs), etc.]

Dewatering
In some situations, construction needs to be carried out below the
ground water table. In such situations, excavation becomes difficult.
So, water must either be pumped or water table must be lowered.

Process of lowering the water table is called Dewatering. Sometimes,
both the terms, i.e., pumping and dewatering are used together.
Commonly practiced methods of dewatering can be classified as:

 By pumping the collected water in the sump
 By pumping water from suitably arranged well points
 By pumping water from suitable arranged bored wells

Some Important Indian Standards and Sp. Publications
 IS 456: Plain and Reinforced Concrete - Code of Practice
 IS 800: General Construction In Steel - Code of Practice
 IS 1893: Criteria for Earthquake Resistant Design of Structures
 IS 875: Code of Practice for Design Loads (Other than Earthquake) for Buildings and Structures
 IS 13920: Ductile Design and Detailing of RC Structures Subjected to Seismic Forces - Code of Practice
 SP 7: National Building Code of India
 SP 16: Design Aids for Reinforced Concrete to IS 456 [Withdrawn]

Reinforcement Placement
 Drawing
 Design
 Detailing
 Positioning
 Supports: Chairs & Bolsters
 Cover Blocks
 Spacer Bars
 Ties
 Cover

Formwork [According to IS: 6461 (Part 5)]
“Complete system of temporary structure built to contain fresh concrete so as to form it to the required
shape and dimensions and to support it until it hardens sufficiently to become self supporting. Formwork
includes the surface in contact with the concrete and all necessary supporting structure.”
Some terms commonly used in the context of formwork:

 Sheeting (sheathing): Part of formwork which is in contact with the concrete
 Form (shutter)
 Part of formwork which consists of the sheeting and its immediate supporting or stiffening members.
 A temporary structure or mould for the support of concrete while it is setting and gaining sufficient
strength to be self-supporting.
 Falsework
 Temporary structure erected to support the work in the process of construction. It is composed of
shores, formwork for beams and/or slabs and lateral bracing.
 Part of formwork which supports the forms, usually for a long structure, such as a bridge.

Formwork [According to IS: 6461 (Part 5)]
Some terms commonly used in the context of formwork [Contd…]

 Centering (Centring)
 The temporary supporting structure to a soffit.
 It is the specialized formwork used in the construction of arches, shells, space structure or any
continuous structure where the entire falsework is lowered (struck or decentered) as a unit, to avoid
introducing injurious stress in any part of the structure.
 Mould: A frame for casting precast concrete units.
 Scaffold (Scaffolding): A temporary structure for gaining access to higher levels of the permanent
structure during construction.

Formwork Essentials
The selection of material to be used for formwork (and shoring) shall take into account its strength, rigidity,
durability, workability, finished quality of concreted surface, effect on the fresh concrete placed, and the
economy.
 Form Coatings and Mould Linings
 For ease in striking off the form, enhancing mould life (protection)
 Form Anchors
 Embedded in previously poured concrete, for securing the formwork for the subsequent lifts
 Tie System
 To secure the formwork position against the lateral pressure exerted by the wet concrete
 Spreaders, Spacers
 For proper positioning of forms, to maintain correct spacing between vertical forms and the rebars
 Form Lining Material
 As an attachment to the sheathing materials, to provide various designs and textures to the concrete

Formwork - Basics

Formwork Materials
The selection of materials to be used for formwork (and shoring) shall consider their strength, rigidity,
durability, workability, finished quality of concreted surface, effect on the freshly placed concrete, and the
economy.
 Timber
 Plywood
 Steel
 Aluminum
 Plastic
 Other Materials
 Plaster of Paris Forms | Hard Boards
 Lost Forms | Fiber Forms | Wire Mesh | Insulating Concrete Forms
 Inflated Membranes | Fabric Formwork

Classification of Formwork
 Traditional Classification
 Conventional system
 Proprietary or patented system
 Modular formwork system
 Classification based on Hanna (1999)

 Horizontal formwork systems
 Vertical formwork systems
 Classification based on Formwork items as used in DSR
 In addition, formworks can also be classified according to the size, materials of construction, nature of
operation, and sometimes according to the brand name of the product.

Some Salient Types of Formwork
Formwork for Special Structures
 Shells, Domes, Folded Plate, Natural Draft Cooling Towers, Nuclear Reactors, Tunnels, Lifts shafts, etc.
Formwork for Bridge Structures

 Caissons, Piers and Pier Caps, Superstructures [Girder, Deck Slab, Railings/Parapets/Edge Beams, etc.]
Formwork [Mould] for Precast Concrete
Climbing Formwork [Jump Form]
Flying Formwork, Table Forms
Slipform (Sliding Form)

Requirements for Formwork Systems
Threefold objectives of the forms (in addition to the right size/shape):
 Quality
 Safety
 Economy

Selection of Formwork
Governed by several factors
 Quantitative | Cost, Construction Time, etc.
 Qualitative | Expected Familiarity, Flexibility, Quality, and Safety Considerations, etc.
Factors affecting the selection of the formwork system can be characterized into following 4 classes:
 Building Design
 Type of Slabs, Floor-to-Floor Height, Building Shape
 Job Specification
 Concrete Finish, Speed of Construction, Rate of Placement of Concrete, Sequence of Construction
 Local Conditions
 Locally Prevalent Practice, Local Weather Conditions, Other Site Characteristics (Space availability)
 Supporting Organization

Formwork Design Concepts
The formwork design should:
 Meet requirements of permanent structure for selected formwork material(s)
 Consider conditions of formwork material(s) to be used, as well as environmental and site conditions
 Address the requirements of:
 Safety | Overturning | Overall stability | Prevention of Collapse
Design of the formwork basically involves four steps: For formwork designing, one must consider
various details such as:
 Estimating the loads
 Site investigation report
 Forming the design basis
 Loads likely to be exerted on the formwork
 Estimating the permissible stresses
 Expected loading schemes
 Analyzing and designing each of the formwork components
 Method and sequence of concreting
 Total time of pouring the concrete
 Formwork erection & dismantling sequence

Formwork Loads and Design Concepts
Formwork design should consider expected dead, imposed, construction, and environmental loads. It should
address various load combinations of dead loads, imposed loads, environmental loads, lateral pressure, and
incidental loads arising on account of erection and dismantling of formwork.

Formwork Design Basis [Assumptions]
Until and unless the concrete structure is of major importance, very accurate design is unnecessary
as too much refinement wastes time without giving results commensurate with the efforts.
Absolute precision is unwarranted when so many assumptions must be made for both analysis and
design purposes. Hence, following simplifications can be done for computations of bending moment,
shear force, and deflection:
 All loads are assumed as uniformly distributed.
 Beams supported over three or more spans are regarded as continuous beams
 Stresses (bending, shear, bearing, etc.) induced in every formwork member should be within the permissible
working stress for that formwork member material
 Forms must be so designed that various parts will not deflect beyond the prescribed limits. The permissible
deflection depends on the desired finish as well as the location.

Formwork Design Basis
Estimating Permissible Stresses (in formwork members)
 Permissible stresses should not exceed the values specified in the relevant (Indian) standards.
 For reusable components of steel, timber, etc., the values of permissible stresses shall be suitably reduced
depending upon the number of uses and the extent of deterioration.
Maximum Bending Moment, Shear Force, and Deflection (in formwork members) shall be obtained as
required based on the established structural analysis procedure(s).
To translate the (formwork) design into implementation at site, formwork drawings should
necessarily be produced with required information (and assumptions)

Formwork Supports
Shore or Props
 Single-leg vertical supports
 Tubular and telescopic type
 Provisions for height adjustment
 Available in different sizes and different
load capacities.
 Shores/props made up of steel are very

common these days.
 (Early) Mild steel tubes >> (Modern) High
tensile strength (light weight) steel tubes.
Usually used for support in low clearance construction. Though, may also be used for
clearance (floor-to-floor heights) ≥≈ 5 m. In such cases, shores/props to be used in tiers and
need to be properly tied and braced to form a rigid structure.

Formwork Supports
Dropheads
 Devices fitted on the top of props or (supports to underside of
beam/slab surfaces) while the remaining form for the decking could
be struck for reuse.
 The dropheads remain in contact with the underside of beam/slab
surfaces for the full curing period, while most of the formwork
materials, including plywood, can be removed as early as 3-4 days
after pouring of the concrete. ↑ Raised Position ↑
 Suited primarily for flat slabs and multi-story construction.
↓ Struck Position ↓
 Results in better economy in the context of formwork cost.

Formwork Supports
Multi-legged Shoring Towers
 Commonly used multi-legged shoring systems for high clearance construction (considerable floor to floor
heights) are “frame-based systems”, “tube and coupler systems”, and “trestle systems”.
 Commonly used in form of “multi-tier” shoring towers, also known as “load towers” or “support towers”.
 Alternative systems such as the “drawer” or “column mounted” system have also been developed.
Trestle (Crib) Shoring

 The trestle (crib) is also used to act as a shoring tower for heavy construction such as the bridge girders,
slabs and culverts. The trestle is usually made up of angle sections (ISA) and is braced appropriately.
 Angle sections (in varying numbers) are arranged (laced with each other) in different patterns (to form a
box sections) to suit different requirements of carrying various loads.
 The trestle is made with these box shaped members (of some standard height) connected to each other
with the help of bolting. Independent trestles are also braced with each other as per the requirement.

Formwork Supports
Horizontal Supports
 Like vertical formwork supports or shores, there are many types of horizontal formwork supports also
available. These are usually light weight latticed or boxed beams. which also telescope one into the
other and cater for a range of spans.
 Horizontal supports (capable of) spanning across beams or wide spans, rest either on beam forms or
other shores at the ends. These supports eliminate the need for intermediate supports thereby providing
free access and working space during construction.

Scaffolds
Scaffolds are temporary structures (part
of formwork) for gaining (temporary)
access to higher levels of the permanent
structure during construction.
 Practically needed in all the stages of
construction, for carrying out various
works which cannot be conveniently and  Besides providing access, scaffold(ing)s are also used for:
easily carried out either from the ground  Centering for the formwork
level or any other floor of the building or  Supporting heavy loads at great heights
using a ladder.
 Convenient, versatile, and economical.

Scaffolds - Putlog (Single Pole) Scaffolds
Consist of single row of uprights connected by ledgers. Putlogs are fixed to the ledgers and built into the
wall of the building (structure).

Scaffolds - Independent (Double Pole) Scaffolds
Consists of two rows of uprights connected longitudinally by ledgers and transversely by putlogs [transoms].

Scaffolds
 Outrigger (Cantilever) Scaffolds
 Independent scaffold, doesn’t rest on the ground, is cantilevered from the face of the building [structure]
 Platform scaffolds
 Consists of two or more rows of uprights connected by ledgers and transoms, usually a working platform
is placed on top of the scaffold.
 Used normally for supporting heavy loads at the top level and for providing access platform at one level
 Tower scaffolding
 Consists of uprights connected by ledgers and transoms, may be made mobile by mounting it on castors
 Suspended scaffolds or cradles

 Independent scaffold, hung from a building (structure) and not supported on the ground

Metal Scaffolds Miscellaneous Scaffolds
 Tube and fitting type scaffolds  Proprietary scaffolds
 Prefabricated unit-frame type scaffolds  Galvanized scaffolds

 Unit-frame or three-piece frames
 Welded frame type  Scaffolds for high clearance structures
 Wedge lock type
Remarks
 Door type tubular steel scaffolds
 Finishing scaffolds  Scaffold boards
 Support or shoring scaffolds
 Design issues | Check list
 Possible causes for collapse of scaffold systems

Pre-cast Concrete
 Precast [concrete] elements refer to structural elements that are made (produced) using moulds at a
centralized facility and then transported to the site to be assembled in the facility being constructed.
 Pre-casting is adopted (preferred) for production (construction) when several similar concrete elements
are required. Pre-casting is typically suited for mass scale production of concrete elements such as: floor
elements, door and window frames, railway sleepers, hollow blocks, wall panels, columns, lintels, etc.
 Countries with large public housing program(s) have increasingly turned to the use of precast structural
elements and site automation to increase site productivity.
 In case of multi-span bridge construction, particularly where site conditions makes the provision of
falsework difficult or expensive, bridge elements are usually pre-cast in (nearby) casting yard, and then
the elements are hoisted or launched into position. This method, apart from speeding up the work, also
ensures good quality of concrete (strength; finish).
 Also Explore (Discuss): Advantages, Limitations and Reasons for Less (Limited) Share of Pre-casting

Formwork [Moulds] for Pre-cast Concrete
Mould Features
 Sturdy [maintain shape and dimensions | large number of repetitions, vibrations]
 Hard [internal] surface [to avoid damage during repeated use]
 Dimensional accuracy [stricter size tolerance(s)]
 Enabled for external vibration with the mould vibrators [Mounted on the rubber pads]
 Incorporation of special arrangements within the moulds for accelerated curing, such as steam jackets
 Supported on firm foundations [to avoid support settlements due to vibrations and moist ground soil]
 Simple assembly and stripping devices to ensure high turnover of moulds and reduced handling costs
Horizontal and Vertical Castings [based on: Nature of the element and Storage space availability]
 The horizontal casting method is favored for ribbed or curved elements, multilayered elements, which
require a particular surface finish
 Vertical castings are favored for single layer panels, which require no special finish on their surface, such
as in the case of internal wall panels, which also have no protruding reinforcement from their edges

Formwork [Moulds] for Pre-cast Concrete
Horizontal and Vertical Moulds [Casting based on: Element and Storage space]
 Horizontal Moulds: Fixed type | Tilted type
 Vertical Moulds : Individual Mould | Battery of Moulds
Brick/Masonry Moulds | Wooden Moulds | Steel Moulds | Plastic (GFRP) Moulds
Stationary and Mobile (Mould) Systems
Vibratory Moulds | Stressing Moulds

Pre-casting Process
 Study of Drawings
 Precast Yard Development , Casting Bed Preparation, Formwork/Mould Preparation
 Reinforcement Tying/Strand Laying
 Procurement of Concreting Materials, Concreting
 Compaction, Handling, Curing
 Stacking/Transporting Arrangement
 Erection and Grouting

Shores and Related Terminology
Shores
 Vertical or inclined support members designed to carry formwork and concrete weights, const. loads.
Reshores
 Reshores are the shores placed snugly under a stripped concrete slab or structural member after
removal of original forms and shores from a large area [thus requiring slab or structural member to
(deflect or) support self weight and existing construction loads applied before installation of reshores]
Backshores
 Backshores are the shores placed snugly under a stripped concrete “…” after removal of “…” from a
small area without allowing “…” member to (deflect or) support self weight and existing const. loads
Preshores
 (Refined) technique of scheduled reshoring whereby the unsupported slab is reduced and controlled

Formwork in Multi-story Building Construction
Growth rate and economic(s) // Fast(er) Construction [Reduced cycle time]
The decrease in cycle time requires a newly placed concrete slab to be temporarily supported on
the supporting systems comprising of several previously cast slabs and shoring systems.
 Depending on various factors, different number of levels (one, two, three, or four) of shores may be used
to safely support the loads during construction. However, increasing the number of levels of shores
during construction is not recommended, as it:
 Increases the number of sets of formworks required thereby increasing the cost.
 Also increases ultimate shore loads on lower floor(s) and interferes in other works (on a floor).
In order to overcome the problem of large number of shore levels, different construction techniques /
procedures / sequences are utilized which can ensure safety

Techniques in Multi-story RC Construction
Shoring
Construction Sequence and Activities involved with
Three Levels of Shores

Shoring and Reshoring
Construction Sequence and Activities Involved with
Two Levels of Shores and One Level of Reshores

Shoring and Backshoring
 Unlike reshoring, backshoring keeps the slab from supporting its own weight or the weight of the
existing loads above it until the slab attains full strength.
 Using backshores, stripping of forms may be accomplished at an early age because large areas of
concrete are not required to carry their own weight. Backshoring requires knowledgeable supervision
and extreme caution. Must be ensured that individual shores are not overloaded during stripping.
Shoring, Preshoring, and Reshoring
 In preshoring construction, specified
shores are removed leaving other
shores in place (removal)
 Now, reshores are installed (placed)
for removed shores (replacement).
 Remaining shores are then removed
and replaced by reshores.
Column mounted Shoring System

Misc. Formwork Considerations
Related [Costs] Effects of Formwork Plan
 Cranes and Hoists
 Crew Efficiency Code also gives recommendations
 Bar Setting (as guidance) for cases where no
computations are made about
 Concreting
actual stresses while de-shuttering
Striking (stripping ) Time: The time specified for the earliest

removal of forms and other support from the concrete
 Decides number of repetitions available within a specified period
 As per IS 456, clause 11.3, forms can be struck when the concrete
attains the strength at least twice the stress to which the concrete
may be subjected at the time of removal of formwork.
 Sequence of dismantling of the various components should match ↑ For normal circumstances ↑
with the specified striking time Where, ambient temp. ≥ 15°C, and
where OPC is used, and adequate
Dr. Kamal Kant Jain | Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Delhi curing is done.
Formwork Failure - Salient (Leading) Causes
 Improper stripping and shore removal  Common (design) deficiencies
 Lack of allowance in design for certain load
 Inadequate lateral bracing [Wind, Const. loads] considerations
 Inadequate anchorage against uplift
 Vibration due to concrete placing equipment  Failure to investigate bearing stresses in
members in contact with shores and struts
 Failure to investigate slenderness ratio (L/k)
 Unstable Soils under Mudsills, Shoring not Plumb
of compression members
 Failure to provide proper lateral bracing or
 Concrete placing techniques - Overloading in one lacing of shoring
area / Inadequate control of concrete
 Inadequate provisions to tie the corners of
intersecting cantilevered forms together
 Lack of attention to formwork details  Inadequate and Overstressed reshoring

Formwork Failure
Hadipriono and Wang (1986) identified three types of failure causes [From 85 major failures over 23 years]:
 Triggering
 Enabling
 Procedural
Most failures occurred due to interaction of triggering & enabling events that were, in many cases, produced
by inadequacies in the procedural methods.
Period of concrete placement seems to be the most critical, as ≈ 72% failures occurred during this period.
Learnings from Case Studies [Refer: Table 17.3, from Prof. KN Jha’s textbook]
 [NOT] Learning from the past experiences [MISTAKES / ACCIDENTS]
 Seemingly independent of project’s: Size | Location | Importance | Management | Construction Stage
 Lack of Communication, Post event awareness

Avoiding Formwork Failure
 Proper design and system  Some suggested checklists (observations)
 Appropriate personal protective equipment
 Qualified staff [and Training] (PPE) for workers and supervisors
 Suitable arrangement for access/approach
 Reporting  Properly installed safety nets
 Use of shuttering plates as:
Ramp for access, Working platforms
Pedestals to support scaffolding pipes
Some Recommendation on Safe Practices
 Proper design and installation of bracings
 Supervise, Inspect, Control
 Shoring towers level on concrete pedestal
 Improve, Good Practices, Check
 Properly barricaded work zones
 Specification, Coordination, Maintenance
 Proper working platforms
 Deliberate !!
 Properly compacted soil (ground)

Concreting Air
 Cement and Water

[Typical] IS 10262 : 2019
Components  Mineral and Chemical Admixtures
Concrete Mix
of Concrete
Proportioning
 Fine Aggregates (Sand) and Coarse Aggregates (Stone)
— Guidelines
Concreting
Batching Mixing Transport Placement Compaction Curing
Process
Quality Control (QC) is important [at every stage] !!

Concreting | Batching
[Concrete] Batching Concrete Batching Plant
 Process of measurement of specified  Silos for cement and cementitious materials (mineral admix.)
quantities of ingredients of concrete  Aggregate bins (for various types of aggregates)
[cement, aggregate, water, admixture,
 Water storage tanks and measuring system
etc.] in correct proportion.
 Dispenser for chemical (liquid) admixtures
 Feeding mechanisms for material transfer [e.g., Scrappers,
 Volumetric Batching
Conveyors, Hoists, etc.]
 Balance and measuring Systems
 Weight (Mass Based) Batching
 (Concrete) Mixers
Concrete • Cyclic or Continuous
Batching Plants • Automatic or Manual

Concreting | Mixing
For uniform quality concrete.
Most of the concrete mixers have three basic units:

 Feeding unit
 Mixing unit
 Discharge unit
Various (some) types of concrete mixers

 Drum or Pan Mixers
 Tilting or Non-tilting (Rotary) or Reversing [drum mixers]
 Cyclic or Batch mixers, Continuous mixers, Travelling mixers
 Gravity mixers (Self-Propelled) or Mixers with forced movements

Concreting | Ready Mixed Concrete [RMC]
Ready mixed concrete [RMC] is often defined as: “Concrete delivered at site or into the
purchaser’s vehicle in a fresh (plastic) condition and requiring no further treatment before being
placed in position in which it is to set and harden (i.e., in formwork)”. [Refer: IS-4926 ]
Major Issues: Loss of Uniformity [Segregation] and Loss of Slump [Setting initiation]
Transit [Mixer] Truck vs. Agitator Truck [No mixing, only transportation with agitation, to avoid
setting and/or segregation]
In-class discussions:
 Time of Haul [Typically restricted to 1-2 Hrs., typically ↓ with ambient temperature ↑]
 Transportation (handling) of concrete for placement
 Use of Retarders and Accelerators [Careful]

Concreting | Methods of Transporting
Some common methods/equipment for transporting and placing concrete:
 Direct discharge in formwork (mould) through short chute or manually in containers (for very small lead)
 Free fall of concrete over a height of 2m shall be avoided
 Barrows [Wheelbarrows and handcarts], Power barrows or power buggies
 Dumpers and trucks (agitating or non agitating), Mixer and Agitator Trucks, Monorail system
 Elevating towers and hoists, Skips operated by cranes or overhead cable ways
 Belt conveyers, Boom conveyers, Tremie, Concrete pumps and Pneumatic placers
 Suitable combinations of the above mentioned

Concreting | Pumping
Used for both transporting and placing of concrete
 Combines both vertical and horizontal transport in one
 Can place concrete in congested sites with little access otherwise
 Small or large quantities of concrete can be placed in the form,
continuously at a very fast rate
Requires use of mix with special properties suited to pumping

 Pumping rates typically range from 10-75 m3/hr
 Pumping is typically done for horizontal distances of 90-300 m and
for vertical distances of 30-90 m
Different types of pumps may be used

 Piston Pumps: Mechanical, Hydraulic Pumps
 Peristaltic (roller) Pumps/ Squeeze-crete Pumps
 Mobile boom Pumps, Trailer Pumps, Pneumatic Placers
Images from: https://theconstructor.org/concrete/pumped-concrete-pump-
Dr. Kamal Kant Jain | Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Delhi types-selection/6081/
Concreting | Compaction
Need for compaction of concrete Type of Concrete
 Placed concrete contains air voids (30%) and seldom Vibrators
confirms intimately to the shape of the form
 Compaction is required to drive entrapped air out to
Internal (immersion) External
densify concrete and to increase homogeneity and Vibrators Vibrators
uniformity of concrete. This compaction is usually
achieved through vibration
Flexible Form vibrators
 Self compacting concrete does not need vibration (Eccentric or Pendulum)
shaft type
Concrete Vibration Vibration table
(Electric or pneumatic)
 Energy for compaction is supplied through oscillatory Motor in head (hand)
motion of vibration (nearly SHM) type
Surface vibrators
 Vibration is usually generated through rotating eccentric - Screeds
having a frequency and amplitude of vibration - Plates
Air vibrators
- Rollers

Concreting | Curing
Needs for curing of concrete Methods of curing
 To aid hydration reaction of cement, which:  Moist (water) Curing
 Consumes time | Occurs at 90% -100% R.H.  Ponding
 To reduce (and replenish) water lost due to:  Spraying
 Evaporation | Self-desiccation  Covering with wet sand, wetted Hessian
 Maintain conducive temperature or absorbent covering
 Needed for capillary segmentation  Form retention and covering concrete before
setting
Affects of poor curing  Membrane curing (spray/hand applied resins
and waxes)
 Poor strength development
 Water-proof plastic sheeting
 Poorly segmented capillaries resulting in lower
durability of concrete  Steam curing
 Drying shrinkage (resultant cracks; may aggravate
due to high ambient temperature and low RH)

Concreting | Salient Cases
Hot & Cold Weather Concreting
 Hot weather >> Rapid hydration (initially)
 Accelerated setting, Shrinkage (and Thermal) cracks, Lower (inadequate) strength development
 Rapid evaporation >> Increased curing need
 Lower temperature of: Water, Cement, and Aggregated (Storage), Shading, Use of ice and retarders
 Cold weather >> Water may convert to ice in (yet to set) plastic concrete
 Delayed setting (hardening)
 Freeze Thaw induced scaling and cracks, Increased pore volume
Underwater concreting
 Concrete cannot be compacted and may get mixed (washed) with water
 Requirement of self-compacting concrete, Concrete placement requires (careful) attention

Composite [Steel-Concrete] Construction
Notably, concrete has good compression resistance and steel has good tension resistance.
Therefore, steel-concrete composite structures provide efficient and lightweight design that can
effectively resist both axial and flexural stresses (forces).
Composite construction is extensively used in bridges, multistorey buildings, warehouses, marine
structures, and more. Many applications in the mentioned structures are categorized as:
[1] Beams & girders, [2] Floor systems, and [3] Column systems

Top-Down Construction Method
In general, buildings with underground parts are built by Bottom-Up method where sub-structure and super-
structure are constructed sequentially from the lowest level of basement to the top of the building.
However, for projects with limited construction time or with site constraints (size, location, legal issues, etc.)
Bottom-Up method of construction may not be feasible. In such cases, Top-Down construction method may
be adopted, it is mainly used for two types of urban structures:
[1] Tall buildings with deep basements; and
[2] Underground structures such as car parks, underpasses and subway stations.
Typical load-bearing components:

 [Concrete] Piles
 Diaphragm Wall (D-Wall)

Salient Bridge Construction Techniques
Segmental (bridge) Construction Technique
 Construction (of a bridge) in short sections (segments), i.e., one piece at a time, as opposed to
traditional methods of (bridge) construction (in very large sections). In segmental construction primary
load-carrying members are composed of individual segments which are post-tensioned together.
 Segmental construction can be done using either cast-in-place or precast segments.
 In cast-in-place, falsework is connected to the previously installed concrete and
allowed to cantilever freely. Permanent reinforcing steel and supports are
installed next, and then concrete is placed and cured, freeing the falsework to be
moved (for next segment).
 In precast, concrete segment is constructed on the ground, and then transported
and hoisted into place. Each segment is designed for connections from both
preceding and succeeding segments.
 Segmental construction allows for repetitive construction procedures, has a minimum
impact on traffic (environment) during construction, and is economical.
 Check: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RFMazS96wXY]

Salient Bridge Construction Techniques
Incremental (launching) Construction Technique [Push Launching Technique]
 Typically suited for construction of bridge decks greater than 250 m in length.
 Particularly suited for construction of continuous post-tensioned multi-span bridges. It involves casting
long (5 - 30 m) sections of the bridge superstructure in a stationary formwork behind an abutment and
pushing a completed section forward with jacks or friction launching system along the bridge axis.
 With this method of construction, the bridge deck is built in sections by pushing the structure outwards
from an abutment towards the pier. The construction sequence begins behind one abutment where a
highly mechanized prefabrication deck mold is set up removing the need for temporary supports with
this method. A rigid framework is then attached enabling the production of cast-in-situ segments.
 When each segment is complete it is placed on sliding bearings and pushed through into the span

Some Salient Construction Methods
 Precast [Concrete] Construction
 Precast concrete is produced by molding this material in an often-reusable mold
 Prefabricated Construction
 Building (or components) manufactured in a factory prior to its final assembly at the construction site
 Modular Construction
 Built or organized (constructed) using self-contained units, such as: Building Blocks

Thank You !!
I, thank you
 For your Time, Efforts, Patience, and Support
I, hope that you enjoyed

 The (Teaching) Learning Experience
 Anecdotes, Stories (Personal/News/Reports), and the Discussions (Awareness Sessions)
I, look forward to
 Teaching (Course and Instructor) Feedback
 Suggestions for Improvement (In context of this Course).
Thank you 

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Department of Civil Engineering

Indian Institute of Technology (IIT) Delhi

CVL244 Construction Practices

Course Co-Ordinator: Prof. Vasant A. Matsagar

Dr. Kamal Kant Jain | Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Delhi

 Concreting  Steel Structures

Dr. Kamal Kant Jain | Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Delhi

 Broadly, there are three sectors of construction:

Dr. Kamal Kant Jain | Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Delhi

 Step 3: The Design Phase  Step 6: The Construction Phase

Dr. Kamal Kant Jain | Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Delhi

 Global (International) ???

 Innovation(s) and Benchmarking ?

 Technology, Automation, and Digitization ??

Dr. Kamal Kant Jain | Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Delhi

Dr. Kamal Kant Jain | Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Delhi

 Stability and Integrity

 Indoor Air Quality

Dr. Kamal Kant Jain | Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Delhi

 02 Volumes | 12 Parts | 33 Chapters

 BIS Guide for Using National Building Code of India 2016

 GRIHA [Green Rating for Integrated Habitat Assessment]

Dr. Kamal Kant Jain | Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Delhi

 Total 105 [100+5] Possible Rating Points

Percentile Threshold Achievable Star Rating

 Explore GRIHA website for additional useful information

Dr. Kamal Kant Jain | Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Delhi

 BIM facilitates (helps with) or BIM is :

Dr. Kamal Kant Jain | Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Delhi

Infographics Source: https://www.letsbuild.com/blog/bim-maturity-levels

Dr. Kamal Kant Jain | Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Delhi

 Generally, LOD is divided into a scale LOD Scale

Dr. Kamal Kant Jain | Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Delhi

Dr. Kamal Kant Jain | Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Delhi

Dr. Kamal Kant Jain | Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Delhi

Dr. Kamal Kant Jain | Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Delhi

 edX >> Building Information Modeling

 NPTEL | Construction >> Management, Economics, Practice, Equipment

Dr. Kamal Kant Jain | Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Delhi

Dr. Kamal Kant Jain | Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Delhi

 Plinth Area Rates

 Example Case(s) : Pahal - Compendium of Rural Housing Typologies

Dr. Kamal Kant Jain | Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Delhi

 Interior Partitions (Space Plan)

Dr. Kamal Kant Jain | Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Delhi

 Earthwork primarily involves:

Dr. Kamal Kant Jain | Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Delhi

Dr. Kamal Kant Jain | Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Delhi

Dr. Kamal Kant Jain | Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Delhi

Dr. Kamal Kant Jain | Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Delhi

Dr. Kamal Kant Jain | Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Delhi

Dr. Kamal Kant Jain | Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Delhi

Dr. Kamal Kant Jain | Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Delhi

So, water must either be pumped or water table must be lowered.

Commonly practiced methods of dewatering can be classified as:

 By pumping water from suitably arranged well points

 By pumping water from suitable arranged bored wells